SPECIFICATION OF WATER WELLS

Kevin Rafferty
Geo-Heat Center

ABSTRACT the geology, no casing or screen is necessary to stabilize and

The water well or wells serving a Ground-Water Heat filter the aquifer materials adjacent to the well bore. Casing
Pump (GWHP) system are as pivotal part of the mechanical is normally placed in the upper portion of the well for a short
design as the boiler and cooling tower would be in a water distance to accommodate the installation of a surface seal.
loop system. As such they should warrant the same degree of
attention with respect to specification as the more
conventional components would receive. Unfortunately, this
is rarely the case and the HVAC design engineers lack of
familiarity with the topic is sometimes at fault. This paper is
intended to identify the key sections of water well
specifications and briefly discuss their contents.

INTRODUCTION
Design and construction of water wells is a topic
unfamiliar to many, if not most mechanical engineers. As a
result, the task is often poorly handled or worse, ignored. This
rarely results in a well completed in the best interests of the
owner. Although the HVAC engineer may not always be
directly responsible for the design of the well, it’s
specification or construction management, it is, in the context
of a ground-source heat pump system, a critical part of the
mechanical design. Consequently, it is in the interest of the
HVAC design engineer to become familiar with the
terminology of water wells and the key specification issues
relating to their construction. The goal of this paper is not to
provide suggested specification text but to briefly discuss the
key sections found in a well specification document and Figure 1. Open-hole well completion.
comment on the contents of each.
Surface Casing
Grout Surface
WATER WELL TYPES Seal
The design of a water well and the preparation of the
construction documents related to it is a function of several Casing
Shoe
issues including the purpose (domestic, municipal, irrigation,
injection, etc.), capacity (low <10 gpm [0.6 L/s], medium 10 - Pump Housing
100 gpm [0.6 - 6.0 L/s], high >100 gpm [>6.0 L/s]), geology Gravel Envelope
Casing
penetrated (consolidated, unconsolidated, combination) and
construction method (mud rotary, air rotary, reverse
circulation, cable tool) (NWWA, 1975). Since this paper is
limited to wells serving commercial GWHP systems (normally
medium to high capacity, rotary constructed), the primary
influence on design and specification is the nature of the
geology penetrated in the process of construction. Packer
Although, there are an infinite number of well
construction designs for a substantial part of the country, the Production Zone
alternatives can be reduced to some variation on one of the (unconsolidated materials
two basic designs as shown in Figures 1 and 2. Special
modifications to these basic designs can be made to Screen
accommodate conditions such as artesian aquifers, injection
rather than production, corrosive water etc. The simplest well
is one completed in rock formations in which the water is
produced from fractures in the rock. In these wells,
sometimes called open-hole completions due to the nature of Figure 2. Gravel envelope well.

GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001 25

 The second type of well, completed in
Motor
unconsolidated materials (sand, gravel, clay, soil and mixtures
thereof) is more complex. In these applications the well is
completely lined with casing, screen and sometimes an
artificial filter or “gravel pack.” In unconsolidated settings, Ground Level

the variation in the size of the aquifer materials results in the

need to adequately filter the water entering the well to control
the content of sand in the water produced. In some cases, a
screen alone, attached to the bottom of the casing, will provide Static Water Level
(non-pumping conditions)
the necessary filtering of the water. In other cases, the screen
must be accompanied by an artificial filter or gravel pack
located between the screen and the borehole wall. This gravel Cone of Depression
develops around well
Drawdown (changes with
pumping rate
is sometimes only a formation stabilizer of relatively during pumping

uncomplicated description. For other situations, a more Pumping Water Level

carefully specified filter gravel must be used. The need for (changes with
pumping rate)
accurate description of these components and their installation Pump Bowl Assembly
(lineshaft type pump
Pumping and static levels
measured from ground surface
results in a more voluminous specification document for these shown)

wells compared to an open-hole well. Pump Housing

Casing

WATER WELL TERMINOLOGY

Prior to discussing the details of individual well Grout
Seal
specifications sections, it is useful to review a few of the key
terms relating to water wells and their operation. Figure 3
includes many of these terms. In any well, under non- Production
Casing
pumping conditions, the level at which the water resides in the
well is known as the static water level. When the pump is
started, the water level will drop to a new level known as the
pumping level and this level is a function of the pumping rate. Screen
Perforated
Groundwater
Production
The difference between the static water level and the pumping Casing
Or Open Hole
Zone

level is referred to as the drawdown. Dividing the pumping (Well Intake)

rate by the drawdown yields a value known as the specific

capacity with units of gpm/ft (lps/m). This value provides a
rough indication of the aquifer/well capacity to produce water. Figure 3. Water well terminology.
The drawdown is the manifestation, at the well, of the “cone
of depression” which forms around the well in response to Table 1 presents the most important of these. Some issues
pumping. relate only to certain types of wells or conditions, but this
The lower portion of the well in the production zone table is a useful checklist for the specification process. There
may be completed with only a borehole (in rock formations), are two approaches to the design and specification of a water
a screen or with a screen and artificial filter (gravel pack) well. If there are other wells nearby producing from the same
depending on the nature of the aquifer materials. Casing is formation and of approximately the same yield, the design of
placed in the well to support the borehole and prevent a new well can be based upon the existing wells. This is an
collapse, to accommodate the installation of a pump, or to acceptable practice assuming the existing wells operate
facilitate the placement of a seal. The diameter of the without problems. In other cases, the well design is
innermost well casing (known as the pump housing casing)is determined to a large extent by the geology and aquifers it
primarily a function of the size pump to be installed. penetrates. A preliminary design can be developed, but it may
Submersible pumps, the type most often used in GWHP be necessary to modify this in the course of construction.
systems due to their operation at 3600 rpm, often require one
size smaller casing than line shaft driven pumps which Table 1. Key Water Well Specification Sections
normally operate at 1800 rpm or less. Other well casing is (gravel pack well)
sometimes installed in the upper portion of the well to ________________________________________________
accommodate the installation of the surface seal. The surface
seal, often a cement grout, prevents surface water from Scope of Work Logs/Records Flow testing
draining down between the casing and borehole into the Non-Technical Plumbness/Alignment Sterilization
Well Issues
subsurface.
Equipment Casing Abandonment
Requirements
WELL SPECIFICATION ISSUES Drilling Fluid Screen
There are several areas which should be addressed in Drilling Program Gravel
the course of preparing a specification for a water well and Formation Sampling Development
________________________________________________
26 GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001
 For a well completed in a consolidated formation wall and the drill pipe. It serves to lubricate and cool the bit,
(rock), the sections on screen, gravel and sometimes carry away the cuttings and form a “cake” stabilizing the
development can be eliminated. borehole walls. Included are such characteristics as weight
(11 lbs/gal maximum), marsh funnel viscosity (32-38 seconds
SCOPE OF WORK maximum), 30-minute water loss (15 cc maximum), filter cake
This is the section in which a general description of formation (2/32" [1.6 mm] maximum) and sand content (2%
the work is provided. The scope at a minimum, includes the maximum). It should be understood that fluid parameters are
type of drilling rig to be used, approximate depth and number regularly adjusted in the course of drilling to accommodate
of wells along with the expected yield for production wells. situations encountered in the construction process. In some
When available, the scope may also provide additional detail fluid specifications, reference is made to a requirement for a
on the general construction of the well in terms of casing size, drilling mud engineer’s involvement in the project. On small
depth, screen type diameter, location and development projects, these services are usually available to the drilling
method. If a performance guarantee with respect to yield, or contractor from the mud vendor and the specification of a mud
specific capacity is required, this is also included in the scope engineer’s availability to the contractor rather than his on site
section (Roscoe Moss, 1985). presence is appropriate.

NON-TECHNICAL WELL ISSUES DRILLING PROGRAM SUBMITTAL

Non-technical well issues (a phrase used in this paper This section provides the requirements for
and not in the specification document) include items not submission, by the contractor, of a schedule of tasks to be
directly related to the technical details of construction. completed in the process of completing the well. Included are
Contractor qualifications, site description, noise control, personnel, schedule of tasks (drilling, casing, screen gravel
archeological discovery and facilities provided by owner are installation, development), and details of the drilling fluid
normally covered as individual sections, but are grouped make-up (additives) (Roscoe Moss Company, 1985)
together here for simplicity.
The contractor qualifications paragraph normally FORMATION SAMPLING
includes a minimum experience requirement (number of wells Formation sampling, described in this section is a
similar to the current project, and years in business) and a pivotal part of the well drilling process. It is the samples
licensing requirement. Details for a list of reference projects from the production zone of the well from which decisions are
may also be spelled out. The site description is especially made as to the screen slot size and gravel pack gradation
important, particularly if potential drillers are from outside the necessary for completion. In rotary drilled wells, if a pilot
area. A physical description of the site is provided along with bore is used, the samples are taken as the pilot hole
background on the geology/hydrogeology. If available, well progresses. If the approximate depth of the producing zone
completion reports from nearby wells are a key part of this is known, it is normal practice to specify a regular interval
information. Noise is normally addressed through the over which samples will be taken, the handling, appropriate
specification of acceptable operating hours for drilling containers and labeling of the samples along with the
operations. Facilities provided by the owner is one of the few individual (or organization) to whom they should be delivered.
specification issues actually requested by Sieve analysis of these samples provides the data upon which
contractors–particularly in the case of site access and water screen slot size and gravel pack size distribution are based.
availability. Sufficient water supply for the drilling operation This consists of passing the samples through a set of
is a critical issue. progressively finer sieves or screens to determine the size
distribution of the sampled material.
EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
In this section, either a specification is made with LOGS/RECORDS
respect to the drilling rig capabilities required and/or a form is Depending on the depth, drilling method and purpose
provided on which the contractor must submit a description for the well, a variety of logs and reports may be specified in
the equipment to be used in the construction of the well. In this section. For wells of the type used for GSHP systems, it
cases of shallow wells, such issues as mast, hook and draw- is normally sufficient to specify that the driller report on the
works load limits are not often approached even for small rigs. depth and physical description of strata penetrated, depth of
As a result, it is possible to omit this section in some small water producing intervals, and associated static water levels
projects. and penetration rates accomplished. If well completion
reports are required by regulatory agencies, copies should be
DRILLING FLUID provided to the owner/engineer as well. Reporting require-
This is a section that relates primarily to conventional ments for flow testing, development and plumbness/alignment
(direct) rotary drilling operations. In this section, an are covered in those respective sections.
acceptable value (or range of values) for key drilling fluid
(sometimes called “mud”) parameters is provided. The PLUMBNESS/ALIGNMENT
drilling fluid or mud is circulated down the rotating drill pipe, Plumbness (deviation from the vertical) and
out the bit and back up the annular space between the borehole alignment (“straightness”) of the well are issues of importance

GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001 27

with respect to the installation of a pump in the well. In diameter and seal placement. In general for sizes up to 14"
particular, lineshaft type pumps are much more sensitive to the (350 mm) and depths to 600 ft (180 m), 0.250"(6 mm) wall
alignment issue than are submersible pumps. With a rotating thickness is acceptable (AWWA, 1997). Most wells serving
shaft extending from the surface to the pump (sometimes commercial applications use carbon steel well casing. Plastic
hundreds of feet down in the well), wells in which lineshaft materials can be used in very shallow applications permit.
pumps are to be installed must be held to tighter tolerances Detailed specifications are available on the placement of the
than submersible installations. Two approaches can be taken casing; however, drilling method (rig type) largely determines
to this specification. For small projects using a submersible the techniques used and in many cases, this issue simply adds
pump, the required test often involves a 40 ft (12 m) section needless detail to the well specification.
of pipe ½"(12 mm) smaller in diameter than the inside of the
casing, which must be capable of passing freely through to the SCREEN
bottom of the pump housing casing. For larger wells or those The screen plays a critical role in the performance of
using lineshaft pumps, a more sophisticated test involving a the well since it provides the filtering of the water entering the
device for measuring deviation of the bore is necessary. well. In this section, the type of screen, aperture size,
diameter, length, entrance velocity, and material of the screen
CASING is described along with the installation method. The
Casing is a term that refers to tubular material determination of aperture (slot) size is made based on the
extending from the surface to some depth in the well. It is results of a sieve analysis of the drill cutting samples from the
installed to accommodate the sealing of the well, to stabilize production interval of the well. On occasion, when sufficient
the walls of the borehole or to allow the installation of screen information is available, the screen can be specified based on
or liner (tubular products not extending to the surface). In the performance of existing wells in the same aquifer. For this
shallow wells of the type serving GWHP systems, at least two to be an effective strategy, detailed knowledge of the geology
types of casing are often found. Surface casing is installed a must be available. In applications where no gravel pack will
short distance (to the first impermeable strata or minimum of be used, the screen slot size is specified as that which will
18 ft [6 m] by many codes) from the surface to a depth retain 30 to 50% of the aquifer materials depending on the
sufficient to allow the installation of the surface seal (usually corrosiveness of the water and the uniformity coefficient of
cement grout) between the surface casing and the wellbore. the aquifer materials. In applications where a gravel pack will
The surface casing also helps to support near surface be used, the slot size is selected for retainage of 70 to 100% of
unconsolidated materials during the drilling operation. the gravel pack materials (AWWA, 1997). All slot size
Sometimes, this surface casing is removed as the grout is selections are based on the aquifer materials sieve analysis
placed. distribution curve. The specification can allow the contractor
The second casing type is the pump housing casing to have a lab do the analysis with the results delivered to the
which as the name implies is the casing in which the pump is owner/engineer for approval or the samples can be delivered
installed. This casing is installed inside the surface casing, directly to the owner/engineer for analysis.
from the surface to the top of the screen in gravel pack wells There are several types of screens available and two
or to the top of the producing interval in shallow open hole of the most common are wire wound and louvered. Wire
wells. If used, the screen would be attached to the bottom of wound screens (continuous slot) provide a higher degree of
the pump housing casing. open area, through which the water can pass (a critical issue
In the casing portion of the specification, information in fine sand aquifers), are generally more expensive than other
is provided on the size, wall thickness, material, and types and in larger diameters are lower in collapse strength.
installation method of the casing along with the location Louvered screens are generally less expensive, have higher
(depth), in some cases. Surface casing is normally at least two collapse strength, lower open area and provide for more
inches larger than the pump housing casing in order to effective development using swabbing. Entrance velocity
accommodate the placement of the grout to an adequate specification influences the type of screen. In many
thickness. Diameter of the pump housing casing is a function references (some written by a major manufacturer of wire
of the pump to be paced in the well. Generally, it is desirable wound screen), an entrance velocity limit of 0.1 ft/sec (0.03
to have a pump housing casing of two nominal sizes larger m/s) is cited. This low velocity tends to require the use of
than the pump to be installed. Pump bowl (impeller housing) screens with high open area ratios (wire wound). Other
diameter is related to pump type and flow rate. Submersible research suggests that entrance velocities of as much as an
pumps, which typically operate at 3600 rpm, produce more order of magnitude greater than this do not significantly
flow per unit diameter than lineshaft pumps which operate at reduce well performance in many applications. Wire wound
1800 rpm or less. In most commercial applications, a screens are normally constructed of 304 stainless steel to
minimum of 6"(150 mm) casing would be used with 8" (200 reduce corrosion problems. Louvered screens can be of
mm) for flows >100 gpm (6 L/s) and 10"(250 mm) for flows carbon steel in many applications due to their higher strength.
>300 gpm (18 L/s)(Kavanaugh and Rafferty, 1997). Casing Placement of the screen, like the placement of the
wall thickness is normally specified in this section. Wall casing is best left to the contractor; since, it is determined to
thickness requirements vary with drilling method, depth, a large extent by drilling method.

28 GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001

GRAVEL screen/gravel pack. Air lift pumping and sand pumping (used
Gravel is sometimes placed outside the screen to in naturally developed wells) are other methods of
support the aquifer materials (called formation stabilizer) or to development.
increase near bore permeability and to assist in filtering Preliminary development is carried on until all of the
aquifer materials (called artificial filter). Regardless of fines and sediment have been removed from the gravel pack
function, the common term for the practice is gravel pack. and the pack ceases to settle. Final development is carried on
The importance of the selection of the size distribution of the until the specified sand content of the production water is
gravel material is much greater when it is intended to serve as reached. This limit is typically expressed as a sand content in
an artificial filter. Issues to be addressed are size, gradation ppm after some period of pumping. Water samples for
(uniformity coefficient), geology, thickness and placement. chemical analysis can be taken toward the end of the
As in the case of the screen slot size selection, the preliminary development or during final development
determination of the gravel pack parameters is based on the pumping.
cuttings sieve analysis results. One common criteria for the
gravel pack specifies that it have a 70% retained grain size of WATER SAMPLES
4 to 6 times the 70% grain size of the cuttings sample and a Water samples for the purpose of analysis for system
uniformity coefficient (40% size divided by 90% size) of not design (corrosion and scaling) should be taken during the
greater than 2.5 (NWWA, 1975). Gravel material should be development pumping. The specification describes the size of
clean and well rounded with a maximum of 10% flat surfaces the sample and the type of container in which it will be stored
and should be a minimum of 95% siliceous in content (to (normally a container supplied by the lab doing the analysis)
avoid dissolution in low pH water). and when the sample should be taken (after 1 hr of pump
The thickness of the gravel pack should be between operation). Finally, the chemical constituents to be tested for
3 and 8" (75 and 200 mm) thickness. Placement of the gravel are listed. All major anions and cations along with alkalinity,
is generally accomplished by either pouring from the surface total hardness, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and oxygen
(in shallow wells) or by placement through a tremie (in wells should be included.
of greater than 1000 ft depth [300 m])(Roscoe Moss
Company, 1985). In most shallow wells of the type serving FLOW TESTING
GWHP systems, the pack material will be poured from the Flow testing of the well provides important data for
surface. This is done while circulating drilling fluid down the the design of the heat pump system, since the groundwater
drill pipe and up the annular space (between the casing and the flow rate chosen is based on pumping power (flow and
bore wall). A key part of the specification is the requirement drawdown).
to maintain drill fluid density below a specific density limit There are several types of flow tests which can be
(9.1 lb/gal). The fluid tends to pick up drilling mud from the done on a production well. In many cases, a step drawdown
walls of the borehole as the gravel is placed. The viscosity test is done for wells serving GWHP systems. In this test, the
limit requires this material to be continuously removed during well is pumped at three rates until water level has stabilized.
the process. The gravel placement should be completed in one The specification describes the flow rates, instrumentation (for
continuous operation. water level and flow data), frequency of readings, length of
test and facilities for disposal of the water. This so-called
DEVELOPMENT single well test provides information primarily on the well
The process of development is one in which the fines itself (yield, drawdown, and specific capacity). A more
in the aquifer material or gravel pack and any remaining sophisticated test in which nearby wells are monitored,
drilling fluids in the near bore area are removed by a variety provides information on the aquifer. These tests are rarely
of methods. The development process is divided into two done for GWHP systems.
phases--initial development using the drilling rig and final Generally, the flows chosen approximate 1/3, 2/3 and
development by pumping after the rig has been removed. To full design flow anticipated for the system served. Starting
some extent, the type of development is influenced by the with the lowest flow the pump is operated at constant rate
geology and well type. Specifications describe the type of until the water level in the well has stabilized at which time
development, when it should be terminated and most the flow is increased to the next rate. Water level is typically
importantly in the final development, what the acceptable sand measured with an electric continuity device on the end of a
production for the well is. calibrated spool of wire. Flow is measured with an orifice
In gravel pack wells, preliminary development is plate discharging to atmosphere and pressure across the plate
often by the so called “flushing” method using a tool known monitored with a manometer. Flow tests are often sub-
as a “double swab” which can be accomplished with the rotary contracted to a well pump contracting firm.
rig. A more effective method known as line swabbing Some jurisdictions require that any well penetrating
requires the use of a cable tool rig. Both of these methods are a potential drinking water aquifer be sterilized. The paragraph
best applied with louver type screens. Jetting is a develop- relating to sterilization describes methods, chemical concen-
ment technique often used most effectively with wire wound tration and length of the sterilization procedure which
screens and it involves directing high velocity water jets at the normally consists of chlorine treatment.

GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001 29

ABANDONMENT The injection stream should be introduced into the
In the event that the well is unsuccessful and cannot well using an injection tube terminating below the water
be used for the intended purpose, it must be abandoned surface. This prevents the injected water from cascading
according to the requirements of the regulatory agency down from the well head and generating air bubbles in the
responsible for water wells. Most states have very specific process. Bubbles driven out into the aquifer can act as an
regulations covering abandonment which typically require obstruction to water flow in much the same fashion as
filling the well with an impermeable material--often cement particulate matter.
grout. It is not necessary to cover these procedures in detail.
Referencing the appropriate state administrative rule will SPECIFICATION TEXT
suffice. The goal of this paper has been to identify the key
sections necessary in the specification document for a water
INJECTION WELL ISSUES well and to comment on the general contents. Actual guide
Injection wells, used for disposal of the water after specification text has been published by many others (Roscoe
passing through the heat pump system, differ from production Moss Company, 1985; AWWA, 1997; EPA, 1975, Montana
wells in several ways. Two of the more important are screen Water Well Drillers Assoc, 1970). In many cases, these
design and seal placement. Most references recommend a references are published in the form of guidelines for the
water velocity through the screen of one half that used in the specification of water wells in which explanatory paragraphs
production well. It appears that this guideline is primarily are included ahead of actual specification sections. Editing
related to the allowance for plugging of the injection screen is normally required to use these sources in construction
with particulate carried into the well with the water. From this documents.
comes the widely held perception that the injection well
should be a larger diameter than the production well. This is REFERENCES
not the case. The reduced screen velocity can be achieved by American Water Works Association, 1997. ANSI/AWWA A
screening more of the aquifer since production wells in water 100-97 Standard for Water Wells, American Water
table aquifers normally screen only the lower ½ to 1/3 of the Works Association, Denver, CO.
aquifer. Beyond this, the need for the additional screen area
assumes the presence of particulate in the injected fluid. If the Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. Manual of Water
production well is sand-free or if a surface strainer is used to Well Construction Practices EPA 570/9-75-001, U.S.
minimize sand, the additional screen may not be necessary. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Supply
Sealing of an injection well should be done in much Division, Washington, DC.
the same way as a production well penetrating an artesian
aquifer. The reason for this is that in the course of the opera- Montana Water Well Drillers Association, 1970. Recom-
tion of the well, the pressure exerted on it is greater than the mended Standards for Preparation of Water
natural pressure of the aquifer it penetrates. As a result, there Well Construction Specifications, Montana Water
is a tendency for water to migrate up around the casing toward Well Drillers Association, Helena, MT.
the surface. If the well is exposed to a positive pressure at the
ground surface, the potential exists for water to leak out Kavanaugh, S and K. Rafferty, 1997. Ground-Source Heat
around the casing at the surface. To prevent this, injection Pumps: Design of Geothermal Systems for Com-
wells should be sealed from just above the injection zone, con- mercial Buildings, American Society of Heating,
tinuously to the surface with a minimum 2" (50 mm) annular Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers.
(between the casing and the wellbore wall) cement seal.
Roscoe Moss Company, 1985. The Engineers Manual for
Water Well Design, Roscoe Moss Company, Los
Angeles, CA.

30 GHC BULLETIN, MARCH 2001