Final Major PDF

Evaluation of use of Plastic Waste in Construction
A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT ON
“Evaluation of Use of plastic Waste in Construction”

SUBMITTED TO
RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA , BHOPAL (M.P.)
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Guided By- Submitted By-
DR. R.K. AGRAWAL 1) SHUBHAM BHARGAVA

HEAD OFDEPARTMENT, 2) SHREYANSH AGRAWAL
CIVIL ENGINEERING, 3) SACHIN SURANA
MEDI-CAPS UNIVERSITY, 4) TAHER BETMAWALA
INDORE 5) SOURABH JOSHI
6) RISHI KHARVANSH
7) SARVESH NEEMA
SESSION 2018-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
MEDI-CAPS ISTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, RAU, INDORE-453331
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Medi-Caps Institute of Science and
Technology
RECOMMENDATION
It is recommended that the project entitled - "Evaluation of Use of plastic

Waste in Construction" submitted by Shubham Bhargava, Shreyansh Agrawal,
Sachin Surana, Taher Betmawala, Sourabh Joshi , Rishi Kharvansh, Sarvesh
Neema with roll no. 0876CE151158, 0876CE151156, 0876CE151130,
0876CE151173 , 0876CE151163 , 0876CE151130 , 0876CE151146 respectively
is accepted as the requirement for the award of bachelor degree in Civil
Engineering.
Dr. R.K. Agrawal
Supervisor and Head of Department Internal Examiner
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Medi-Caps Institute of Science and Technology
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The most awaited moment of successful completion of an endeavor is always a

result of persons involved implicitly or explicitly in it. The successful
completion of the planning and research phases of our project is the result of
dedicated efforts put in by many people and this report would be incomplete
without giving due credits to them. This acknowledgment is but a token of
gratitude in recognition of their help in our endeavor.
We sincerely thank our project guide and project coordinator Dr. R. K. Agrawal
for providing us the solutions that always take us out from all the chaos. It had
been an honor and pleasure to work under him. Not just the technical
knowledge but a lot we have learnt from his calm and composed attitude for
which we will remain indebted to sir throughout our life. We would like to give
our sincere thanks to Dr. R. K. Agrawal, HOD of Civil Engineering Department
and all the faculties from whom we have learnt a lot. Last but not the least, we
would like to thank our colleagues, friends and our parents who were a
constant and willing source of encouragement and inspiration for us
throughout the project.
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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This is to certify that the project entitled - "Evaluation of Use of plastic Waste
in Construction" submitted by Shubham Bhargava, Shreyansh Agrawal,
Sachin Surana, Taher Betmawala, Sourabh Joshi, Rishi Kharvansh, Sarvesh
Neema with roll no. 0876CE151158, 0876CE151156, 0876CE151130,
0876CE151173 , 0876CE151163 , 0876CE151130 , 0876CE151146 respectively
has been carried out under my supervision in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor in Engineering in Civil
Engineering at Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology Indore and this
work has not been submitted elsewhere to the best of my knowledge.
Guide :
Dr. R.K. Agrawal
Professor and Head of Department
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled - "Evaluation of Use of plastic
Waste in Construction" submitted by Shubham Bhargava , Shreyansh Agrawal ,
Sachin Surana , Taher Betmawala , Sourabh Joshi , Rishi Kharvansh , Sarvesh
Neema with roll no. 0876CE151158 , 0876CE151156 , 0876CE151130 ,
0876CE151173 , 0876CE151163 , 0876CE151130 , 0876CE151146 respectively has
been examined and cross-checked for the partial fulfillment for the award of
degree by Rajeev Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P), of Bachelor
of Engineering in Civil Engineering at Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology,
Indore.
Internal Examiner External Examiner

Date:-
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DECLARATION
We Shubham Bhargava (876CE151158) , Shreyansh Agrawal (0876CE151156) , Sachin
Surana (0876CE151135) , Taher Betmawala (0876CE151173), Sourabh Joshi
(0876CE151158)
, Rishi Kharvansh (0876CE151130) and Sarvesh Neema (0876CE151146) students of
Bachelor
of Engineering in Civil Engineering descipline, Medi-Caps Institute of Science and
Technology ,
Indore (M.P.), hereby declare that the work presented in this dissertation entitled
“Evaluation of
Use of plastic Waste in Construction” is the outcome of our own work, is bonafide
and correct to
to best of our knowledge and this work has been carried out taking caring of
Engineering Ethics.
The work presented here doesn’t infringe any patented work and has not been
submitted to any other
University or anywhere else for the award of any degree or any professional
diploma.
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TABULAR CONTENT:
S.No. TITLE PAGE NO.
1. INTRODUCTION 10-14
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 15-24
25
3. CRITIQUE
26
4. PROBLEM STATEMENT
5. MATERIALS AND
27-41
METHODOLOGY
6. RESULTS 42-72
7. CONCLUSION 73-74
8. FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK 75
REFERENCES 76-77
9.
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LIST OF TABLES :
S.NO. TABLE NAME TABLE NO.

1 Properties of common Materials 1.1
2 Normal Consistency of cement 6.1
3 Setting time of cement 6.2
4 Specific gravity of cement 6.3
5 Properties of cement 6.4
6 Specific gravity of sand 6.5
7 Water absorption of sand 6.6
8 Sieve analysis of Fine Aggregate 6.7
9 Properties of fine aggregates 6.8
10 Specific gravity and water absorption of 6.9
coarse aggregate
11 Properties of coarse aggregates 6.10
12 6.11
Properties of Low Density Poly Ethylene
(LDPE)
13 Calculation of plastic granules weight for 6.12
the mix
14 Observation for slump test 6.13
15 Compaction factor test 6.14
16 Compressive strength test 6.15
17 6.16
Split Tensile Test
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LISTS OF CHARTS :
S.NO. CHART NAME CHART NO.
1 Number of scientific articles published on 1.1

the use of PET plastics
2 Comparison of Slump Value 6.1
3 Comparison of Compaction Factor Test 6.2
4 Compressive strength of 0% vs 10% 6.3
7 Compressive strength of 0%, 10% and 6.6

30%
8 Comparison of split tensile strength 6.7
9 Split tensile strength of 0% vs 20% 6.8
10 Split tensile strength of 0% vs 30% 6.9
11 Split tensile strength of 0%, 10% and 30% 6.10
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
The problem of disposing and managing solid waste materials in all countries has
become one of
the major environmental, economical, and social issues. A complete waste management
system
including source reduction, reuse, recycling, land-filling, and incineration needs
to be
implemented to control the increasing waste disposal problems. Typically a plastic
is not
recycled into the same type of plastic products made from recycled plastics are
often not
recyclable. The use of biodegradable plastics is increasing. If some of these get
mixed in the
other plastics for recycling, the reclaimed plastic is not recyclable because the
variance in
properties and melt temperatures. The purpose of this project is to evaluate the
possibility of
using granulated plastic waste materials to partially substitute for the coarse
aggregate in
concrete composites. Among different waste fractions, plastic waste deserves
special attention on
account non biodegradable property which is creating a lot of problems in the
environment. In
India approximately 40 million tons of solid waste is produced annually. This is
increasing at a
rate of 1.5 to 2% every year. Plastics constitute 12.3% of total waste produced
most of which is
from discarded water bottles. The plastic waste cannot be disposed off by dumping
or burning, as
they produce uncontrolled fire or contaminate the soil and vegetation.
Considerable researches and studies were carried out in some countries like USA and
UK on this
topic. However, there have been very limited studies in India on plastics in
concrete. Hence an
attempt on the utilization of waste Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) granules as
partial
replacement of coarse aggregate is done and its mechanical behavior is
investigated.
Presently, different types of waste materials and industrial byproducts such as

recycled concrete
aggregate, glass, ceramic, fly ash, slag, etc., are being used with and without
natural aggregates
and ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), not only in traditional construction but also
in digital
construction like 3D printing. It has been shown that the properties of these
materials are suitable
to produce new concrete up to a certain limit. Therefore, numerous studies have
been conducted
to find the optimum content of these materials in concrete, which does not
negatively influence
the engineering properties of concrete. Waste materials such as plastics and glass,
which present
possible environmental hazards and are often landfilled, are often used in concrete
for different
applications. Globally, the use of plastics had seen an astronomical increase since
1920, when it
was first developed for industrial use. The many advantages of plastics have caused
the increase
in its production by plastic industries. Compared to other materials such as glass
and metal,
plastics have lower cost, a higher strength-to-weight ratio, are more durable
(resistant to
deterioration), easy to work and shape, and have a low density. Some staggering
statistics have
shown that in 2013, 299 million tons of plastic were produced globally, exceeding
the estimated
consumption for 2015 by about 2 million tons. However, waste plastics are generally
a threat to
the global environment. While the production of plastics in its varied forms cannot
be halted,
recycling may be a solution to the threat waste plastics pose to the environment.
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in landfills. Again, the recycling of all sorts of waste materials is sustainable

and conserves
natural resources. Millions of tons of plastic waste are generated all around the
world, and they
frequently find their way into rivers, coast, beaches, and the land. Only about 25%
of plastic
waste is recycled around the world. Recovery and recycling of plastics remain
insufficient, and
millions of tons end up in landfills and oceans every year. This percentage of
recycled plastic can
be increased by transforming waste plastic into products Sustainability 2018, 10, x
FOR PEER
REVIEW 2 of 26 plastics in its varied forms cannot be halted, recycling may be a
solution to the
threat waste plastics pose to the environment.
Recycling of various types of organic and inorganic waste such as construction,
electronics, and
agricultural waste, among others, has drawn much attention due to the increasing
cost of
dumping the waste and decreasing space in landfills. Again, the recycling of all
sorts of waste
materials is sustainable and conserves natural resources. Millions of tons of
plastic waste are
generated all around the world, and they frequently find their way into rivers,
coast, beaches, and
the land. Only about 25% of plastic waste is recycled around the world. Recovery
and recycling
of plastics remain insufficient, and millions of tons end up in landfills and
oceans every year.
This percentage of recycled plastic can be increased by transforming waste plastic
into products
suitable for housing and construction. Figure 1 illustrates the cumulative amount
of plastic waste
generation and disposal from 1950 up to 2015 and the projected amount by 2050. Up
to 2015,
only about 16% of the waste generated was recycled. It is projected that by 2050,
up to 33% of
the waste generated will be recycled. Even if this projection comes true, the
amount of
unrecycled waste will still leave much to be desired.
Figure 1.1 Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal (historical data up to
2015 and projection
data up to 2050).
A major challenge with plastic waste is that it may consist of mixed organic (food
remains) and
inorganic (attached paper level) fractions, which makes it a complex stream to
recycle. However,
a possible solution would be to use it as aggregates in concrete for various
applications where
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Contamination of plastic waste would not make any significant difference to the
concrete
properties. With global production of more than 5.3 billion cubic meters per year,
there may be a
huge potential for using recycled plastics in concrete. Consequently, significant
use of waste
plastics as aggregate in concrete may further reduce the amount of unrecycled
plastic waste.
However, while a large variety of plastic types such as polyethylene terephthalate
(PET),
polylactic acid (PLA), polypropylene (PP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene/linear low-density polyethylene
(LDPE/LLDPE),
polystyrene (PS), and other resins are available on the market, research has shown
that not all of
them are suitable for use as aggregates in concrete. Resin-based types of waste
plastic and PET
have been reported to have the highest rate of use for concrete production. Other
types have only
been recycled to a small extent or not recycled at all.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3875 3 of 26
In most cases, waste plastics have been used in concrete either as fine or coarse
aggregate.
Although utilization of this type of waste in concrete is beneficial from an
environmental point
of view, its engineering (e.g., mechanical and thermal) properties are essentially
different from
natural aggregates (Table 1). It is also worth noting that the properties of
recycled waste plastic
concrete depend on the pre-treatment given to the waste plastic. The bond strength
of plastic
aggregates and the cement paste could be significantly influenced by the treatment.
Furthermore, the intrinsic behavior of waste plastic such as low fire resistance,
surface
roughness, and shape can significantly alter the properties of concrete.
Consequently, much
research has been devoted to studying the influence of waste plastics in concrete
in the past three
decades (Figure 2).
A list of different types of waste plastics and their influences on different
concrete properties, as
examined by various researchers, is given in Table 2. It can be seen that the
number of articles
has increased almost tenfold during this period. However, a number of issues are
still not solved.
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Graph 1.1 Number of scientific articles published on the use of PET plastics in
cementitious
materials
Utilization of recycled waste plastics in concrete as a partial aggregate

replacement has a clear
effect on the properties of the material. Therefore, if this material is to be used
in concrete in
large quantities, it is important to know the relationship between the addition of
recycled waste
plastics and the engineering properties. This review provides a basis for
understanding this
relationship.
A thorough search of peer-reviewed literature was undertaken to find studies in
which
recycled plastic has been used for the production of concrete. Major search engines
(ScienceDirect, Google Scholar) were used. The focus was on recent literature,
i.e., published
after 2010, relevant to current developments in the field. Articles from reputable
journals dealing
with building materials on the one hand and sustainable development and recycling
on the other
hand were extracted. Note that the number of citations of individual articles was
not used as a
selection criterion; instead, articles were selected based on their relevance to
(parts of) this
review. After collecting the relevant articles, we then categorized into those
dealing with fresh,
mechanical, and durability properties of concrete. Thereafter, each property was
reviewed from
the different publications, and a position statement was arrived at by these
authors. Where
differences or similarities exist, these were discussed extensively. The purpose of
the paper is to
present clearly, from experimental results, the performance of concrete containing
recycled
waste plastic regarding the fresh, mechanical, and durability properties.
Therefore, this
paper can be used as a valuable source of data for researchers for their future
studies since it
critically summarizes the recent findings on the use of waste plastics in concrete.
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1.2 Objectives
❖ To compare the compressive strength of Recycled Plastics used as Coarse

Aggregate for
Constructional Concrete with the Conventional concrete.
❖ To know its applications in construction industry.
❖ To reduce the pressure on naturally available materials by replacing it with

recycled
plastic aggregate
❖ Compare the physical characteristics of natural aggregate with Plastic recycled

aggregate.
❖ To study the behavior of fresh and hardened concrete reinforced with plastic
waste coarse
aggregate.
❖ To study it’s behaviour in construction of pavements and roads.
❖ To produce lightweight polymer concrete for multi-purpose use.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
The purpose of this lesson is to have a broad understanding of using alternative
materials with
the replacement of coarse aggregate using Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE).
2.2 Earlier Researches
1) M. A. Kamaruddin et al. (2000) : “Potential use of Plastic Waste as

Construction Materials: Recent Progress and Future Prospect”
Plastic associates products based have been considered as the world most consumer
packaging
solution. However, substantial quantities of plastic consumption have led to
exponential increase
of plastic derived waste. Recycling of plastic waste as valued added product such
as concrete
appears as one of promising solution for alternative use of plastic waste. This
paper summarized
recent progress on the development of concrete mixture which incorporates plastic
wastes as
partial aggregate replacement during concrete manufacturing. A collection of data
from previous
studies that have been researched which employed plastic waste in concrete mixtures
were
evaluated and conclusions are drawn based on the laboratory results of all the
mentioned
research papers studied.
2) K.S.Rebeiz and A.P.Craft (2000) : “Plastic waste management in

construction: technological and institutional issues”
The main objective of a solid waste management system is to effectively safeguard

the public
health, safety, and welfare. The various options involved in a waste management
process are
landfilling, incineration, and recycling wastes into useful products. Plastics
recycling, in
particular, would not be successful unless the proper infrastructure to collect the
waste is being
set, the technology to economically reprocess the waste into new products is
available, and the
establishment of markets for the cost-effective use of recycled products are
developed. The
development of new construction materials using recycled plastics is important to
both the
construction and the plastics recycling industries. Extensive research investigated
the use of
resins based on recycled poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) plastic waste for the
production of a
high performance composite material, namely polyester concrete (PC). Resins using
recycled
PET offer the possibility of a lower source cost of materials for forming good
quality PC. PC
products also allow the long-term disposal of PET waste, an important advantage in
recycling
applications.
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3) Oriyomi M. Okeyinka et al. (2001) : “A Review on Recycled Use of Solid

Wastes in Building Materials”
Large quantities of solid wastes being generated worldwide from sources such as
household,
domestic, industrial, commercial and construction demolition activities, leads to
environmental
concerns. Utilization of these wastes in making building construction materials can
reduce the
magnitude of the associated problems. When these waste products are used in place
of other
conventional materials, natural resources and energy are preserved and expensive
and/or
potentially harmful waste disposal is avoided. Recycling which is regarded as the
third most
preferred waste disposal option, with its numerous environmental benefits, stand as
a viable
option to offset the environmental impact associated with the construction
industry.This paper
reviews the results of laboratory tests and important research findings, and the
potential of using
these wastes in building construction materials with focus on sustainable
development. Research
gaps, which includes; the need to develop standard mix design for solid waste based
building
materials; the need to develop energy efficient method of processing solid waste
use in concrete;
the need to study the actual behavior or performance of such building materials in
practical
application and the limited real life application of such building materials have
also been
identified. A research is being proposed to develop an environmentally friendly,
lightweight
building block from recycled waste paper, without the use of cement, and with
properties
suitable for use as walling unit. This proposed research intends to incorporate,
laboratory
experimentation and modeling to address the identified research gaps.
4) Ahmed Trimbakwala (2003) : “Plastic Roads Use of Waste Plastic in Road

Construction”
India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilo-metres (3,400,233 mi) as on 31

March 2015, the
second largest road network in the world. The plastic wastes can be used in road
construction
and the field tests withstood the stress and proved that plastic wastes used after
proper processing
as an additive would enhance the life of the roads and also solve environmental
problems. Plastic
use in road construction is not new. It is already in use as PVC or HDPE pipe mat
crossings built
by cabling together PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or HDPE (high-density poly-ethylene)
pipes to
form plastic mats. Waste plastic is ground and made into powder; 3 to 4 % plastic
is mixed with
the bitumen. The durability of the roads laid out with shredded plastic waste is
much more
compared with roads with asphalt with the ordinary mix. The use of the innovative
technology
not only strengthened the road construction but also increased the road life as
well as will help to
improve the environment and also creating a source of income.
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5) Azmat Shaikh, Nabeel Khan, Faisal Shah, Devendra Shukla, Gaurav Kale
(2003): “Use of Plastic Waste in Road Construction”
Plastic waste is one such resource, a major component of solid waste which is
abundantly
available and disposed of without proper treatment. There has been an exponential
growth in
municipal plastic waste disposal especially in urban areas which deteriorates the
beauty of the
landscape. Plastic was found to be an effective binder for bitumen mixes used in
flexible
pavements. This efficient method helps the pavements to resist higher temperature
by
minimizing the formation of cracks and reducing rainwater infiltration which
otherwise leads to
the development of potholes. These pavements have shown improved crushing and
abrasion
values and reduced water seepage.Plastic roads would be a boon for India’s hot and
extremely
humid climate, where temperatures frequently cross 50°C and torrential rains create
havoc,
leaving most of the roads with big potholes. Bituminous Concrete (BC) is a
composite material
mostly used in construction projects like road surfacing, airports, parking lots
etc. It consists of
asphalt or bitumen (used as a binder) and mineral aggregate which is mixed together
& laid
down in layers then compacted. Now a day, the steady increment in high traffic
intensity in terms
of commercial vehicles, and the significant variation in daily and seasonal
temperature put us in
a demanding situation to think of some alternatives for the improvisation of the
pavement
characteristics and quality by applying some necessary modifications which shall
satisfy both the
strength as well as economic aspects. Also considering the environmental approach,
due to
excessive use of polythenes in the day to day business, the pollution to the
environment is
enormous. Since the polythenes are not biodegradable, the need of the current hour
is to use the
waste polyethene in some beneficial purposes.
6) Mohammed Jalaluddin (2003): “Use of Plastic Waste in Civil Constructions

and Innovative Decorative Material (Eco- Friendly)”
The project elucidates about the use of plastic in civil construction. The
components used include
everything from plastic screws and hangers to bigger plastic parts that are used in
decoration,
electric wiring, flooring, wall covering and waterproofing. Plastic use in road
construction that
have shown same hope in terms of using plastic waste in road construction. i.e.
plastic roads.
Plastic roads mainly use plastic carry bags, disposable cups and PET bottles that
are collected
from garbage dumps as important ingredients of the construction materials. By using
plastic
waste as modifier, we can reduce the quantity of cement and sand by their weight,
hence
decreasing the overall cost of construction. At 5% optimum modifier content,
strength of
modified concrete we found to see the times greater than the plain cement concrete.
Using plastic
poisons our food chain under the plastic affects human health. By the disposable
plastics is the
main source of plastic. For these plastic pollution is not only the ocean also in
desert. Plastic will
increase the melting point of the bitumen. Rain water will not seep through because
of the plastic
in the tar. So, this technology will result in lesser road repairs.
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7) Mojtaba et al. (2006) : “Using plastic instead of bricks in Buildings”
Concluded that reusing the plastic bottles as the building materials can have
substantial effects
on saving the building embodied energy by using them instead of bricks in walls and
reducing
the CO2 emission in manufacturing the cement by reducing the percentage of cement
used.
It is counted as one of the foundation’s green project and has caught the attention
of the
architecture and construction industry. Generally the bottle houses are bioclimatic
in design,
which means that when it is cold outside is warm inside and when it is warm it is
cold inside.
Constructing a house by plastic bottles used for the walls, joist ceiling and
concrete column
offers us 45% diminution in the final cost. Separation of various components of
cost shows that
the use of local manpower in making bottle panels can lead to cost reduction up to
75%
compared to building the walls using the brick and concrete block.
8) Shilpi et al. (2006) : “Plastic PET bottles use in bottle brick technique”
Concluded that by utilizing PET bottles in construction recycled materials, thermal

comfort can
be achieved in very low cost housing, benefit in residents for those who cannot
afford to buy and
operate heating and cooling systems. Plastic is non biodegradable, toxic, highly
resistant to heat
and electricity (best insulator) and not recyclable in true sense, plastic PET
bottles use in bottle
brick technique. This gives relief for the poor people of India to provide cheap
and best houses
for living .
9) Puttaraj et al. (2006) : “Use of waste plastic in plastic-soil brick”
This research paper examined that efficient usage of waste plastic in plastic-soil
bricks has
resulted in effective usage of plastic waste and thereby can solve the problem of
safe disposal of
plastics, also avoids its widespread littering and the utilization of quarry waste
has reduced to
some extent the problem of its disposal. Plastics are produced from the oil that is
considered as
non-renewable resource. Because plastic has the insolubility about 300 years in the
nature, it is
considered as a sustainable waste and environmental pollutant. So reusing or
recycling of it can
be effectual in mitigation of environmental impacts relating to it. It has been
proven that the use
of plastic bottles as innovative materials for building can be a proper solution
for replacement of
conventional materials .
10) Pratima et al. (2008): “Solution to plastic pollution problems in landfills”
Plastic bottles wall have been less costly as compare to bricks and also they
provide greater
strength than bricks. The PET bottles that are not recycled end up in landfills or
as litter, and they
take approximately 1000 years to biodegrade. This has resulted in plastic pollution
problems in
landfills, water ways and on the roadside, and this problem continues to grow along
with the
plastic bottle industry.
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11) Arulmalar et al. (2009) : “Use of PET bottles in construction”
This research paper studied that the initial perception on the use of PET bottles
in construction is
changing day by day. A paradigm which emerged as PET bottle bricks in the
construction of
load bearing walls with steel trusses and prefabricated metal sheet is at present
witnessing flat
roofs with nylon 6 replacing steel reinforcement and intuitive vault construction .
Even though
research on the effective use PET in developing new material as an option,
solutions exploring
the application of PET bottles as structural members, foundation, retaining walls
and secondary
elements like street furniture, road dividers, pavements and other landscape
elements is to be
looked in to. The Governing bodies shall formulate policies to propagate this eco
centric
approach via appropriate practices, research investigations on the properties of
the materials and
construction techniques.
12) Vikram Pakrashi et al. (2010) : “Light weight Eco-bricks for

Construction”
This research paper examined that Eco-brick is a viable resource for construction
purposes with a
number of possible applications. The bricks are relatively easily manufactured with
controlled
weight and packing. Eco bricks have relatively good compressive strength, with
values matching
that of basic concrete cubes. The weight of Eco-brick was observed to hold a nearly
relationship
with load at failure and with specific strength. Eco-bricks have a relatively good
specific
strength. They are lightweight but strong for the weight they bear.
13) Andreas Froese et al. (2011) : “Research on PET bottle walls”
This research paper concluded that when the bottles are filled with soil or sand
they work as
bricks and form a framework for walls or pillars. Different types of walls varying
in size and
orientation of the bottles are built. The compression strength and fracture
behavior of each wall
are measured and compared. PET bottle walls can bear up to 4.3 N/mm² when the
bottles are
filled with sand which is the weakest filling material. The bottles bear one third
of the load while
the plaster bears two thirds. Plaster made of clay or a cement mixture fills the
space between all
bottles while a roof made of wood or corrugated metal completes the house. As only
regional
products are used the houses are cheap and can be afforded even by poor families.
Additionally
the method has so far proven to be earthquake resistant and allows short
construction periods.
14) Seltzer et al. (2011): “Buildings made out of glass bottles”
This research paper revealed that the first example of known structures built with
bottles is the
William F. Peck’s Bottle House located in Nevada (USA). It was built around 1902,
and it
required 10,000 beer bottles to be built. These buildings were primarily made out
of glass bottles
used as masonry units and they were bound using mortar made out of adobe, sand,
cement, clay
and plaster.
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15) Job Bwire & Arithea Nakiwala et al. (2012) : “Water bottle housing”
This research paper suggested that, baked bricks, tiles, concrete and rocks, among
other
construction materials, have been essentials in construction. But did you know that
a house
constructed using plastic bottles can save you more and be just as strong as or
even stronger than
brick homes? Water bottle housing is an innovation aimed at providing low cost
housing, while
contributing to environment management.
16) S. Rajasekaran et al. (2014) : “Reuse of waste plastic coated aggregate”

Marshall’s mix design was carried out by changing the modified bitumen content at
constant
optimum rubber content and subsequent tests have been performed to determine the
different
mix design characteristics and for conventional bitumen (60/70) also. This has
resulted in many
improved characteristics when compared with straight run bitumen and that too at
reduced
optimum modified binder content (5.67%).
17) Sasane Neha et al. (2015) : “Application of waste plastic as an effective

construction material in flexible pavement”
Polyethylene as one sort of polymers is used to investigate the potential prospects

to enhance
asphalt mixture properties. The objectives also include determining the best type
of polyethylene
to be used and its proportion. Two types of polyethylene were added to coat the
aggregate High-
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE). The results
indicated that
grinded HDPE polyethylene modifier provides better engineering properties. The
recommended
proportion of the modifier is 12% by the weight of bitumen content. It is found to
increase the
stability, reduce the density and slightly increase the air voids and the voids of
mineral
aggregate.
18) Mercy Joseph Poweth, Solly George and Jessy Paul (2018) : “Study on use
of plastic waste in road construction”
The population growth, industrialization, consumerism and technological development

have led
to uncontrollable accumulation of waste. Proper waste disposal is of great
importance in both
rural and urban areas. This study discussed the suitability of plastic waste
materials for pavement
construction.. The waste is mixed in different proportions to the soil sample and
their influences
on geotechnical properties were studied. The results of the tests indicated that
plastic alone is not
suitable for pavement subgrade. When quarry dust was added along with soil plastic
mix,it
maintains the CBR value within the required range.
The rate of production of waste has increased tremendously in almost all parts of
the world in the
past few decades. The quantities of these waste that are accumulating, are causing
serious
disposal problems. The conventional methods of disposal are found to be
inadequate.Due to
population growth, industrialization, consumerism and technological development
there has been
a tremendous increase in the rate of production of waste. Every year, 7.2 million
tonnes of
20 | P a g e
hazardous waste is produced and its disposal is becoming a major issue and about
one km2 of
additional landfill area is needed every year. Indian government spends about Rs
1600 crore for
treatment & disposal of these wastes. In addition to this, industries discharge
about 150 million
tonnes of high volume low hazard waste every year, which is mostly dumped on open
low lying
land areas..In this scenario, the conventional waste disposal methods are found to
be inadequate.
Through this project, a small attempt has been made at deducing a new method of
waste
disposal. This paper aims at proposing a new method of disposal of plastic, quarry
dust and tyre
waste by using them in the sub grade soil of pavement. The Main objective of this
study are safe
and productive disposal of wastes - plastic, quarry dust and tyre, study of index
properties and
CBR values of variable mixes of soil and waste and suitability of soil-waste mix in
sub grade.
This paper aims at proposing a new method of disposal of plastic, quarry dust and
tyre waste by
using them in the sub grade of pavements. A series of laboratory tests including
specific gravity,
grain size analysis, Atterberg’s limits and CBR test were conducted for this
purpose.
19) Huda Shafiq and Anzar Hamid (2018) : “Plastic Roads: A Recent
Advancement in Waste Management”
Plastics are the non-biodegradable materials and so a means to degrade our

environment. Plastic
wastes have proved to be a source of health hazard as it is toxic in nature.
Plastic waste is a big
nuisance in today’s world. So, this plastic waste should be reused to eliminate the
threat to the
surroundings. One such reuse can be in the construction of rigid pavements. Plastic
coated
aggregates have proved to offer better resistance to abrasion and wear and tear.
Moreover the
bond between these plastic coated aggregates and the concrete is also very strong
due to
increased contact area between plastic (polymers) and concrete. Such roads show
better
performance and have increased life spans. Although, Plastic is the most widely
used material in
the present times. It is light in weight, moisture resistant, flexible and very
inexpensive. These
qualities increase our propensity towards plastic and hence making its use very
common. Today
plastic is used in every vital sector of the economy, ranging from agriculture to
automobile,
electronics, construction, etc. It has revolutionized all spheres of life. But this
plastic ultimately
becomes a waste. It is a common site both in urban and rural areas to see plastic
wastes littering
the roads. It forms the major portion of the total municipal solid wastes (MSW).
Tons of plastic
wastes which include polyethenes, cups, bags, etc. are discarded every year,
polluting land,
rivers, seas, oceans, etc. plastic is a non-biodegradable material and it has been
found that it can
remain on earth for about 4500 years without showing any signs of degradation. Its
improper
disposal can cause serious health hazards in humans. Based on the present usage
scenario of
plastics, its complete ban will not be justified; hence we have to find the
alternatives to reuse the
plastics.
20) Praveen Mathew, Shibi Varghese, Thomas Paul, Eldho Varghese (2013) :
“Recycled Plastics as Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete”
The use of plastic is increasing day by day, although steps were taken to reduce
its consumption.
This creates substantial garbage every day which is much unhealthy. A healthy and
sustainable
21 | P a g e
reuse of plastics offers a host of advantages. The suitability of recycled plastics

as coarse
aggregate in concrete and its advantages are discussed here.
The initial questions arising of the bond strength and the heat of hydration
regarding plastic
aggregate were solved. Tests were conducted to determine the properties of plastic
aggregate
such as density, specific gravity and aggregate crushing value. As 100% replacement
of natural
coarse aggregate (NCA) with plastic coarse aggregate (PCA) is not feasible, partial
replacement at various percentage were examined. The percentage substitution that
gave higher
compressive strength was used for determining the other properties such as modulus
of elasticity,
split tensile strength and flexural strength. Higher compressive strength was found
with 20%
NCA replaced concrete. Heat resisting behaviour of the PCA concrete is also
discussed in this
study.
21) SJB Institute of Technology, Bangalore : “Recycled plastics used as coarse

aggregate for constructional concrete”
Landfill sites are becoming overcrowded and expensive for waste disposal, efforts
are made to
minimize the quantities of materials that are delivered to landfills. The threat
due to leaching of
non-biodegradable materials like waste plastics, scrap tyres. E-waste may
contaminate the soil
and ground water. If the production of waste cannot be prevented, then it is
attractive to create an
alternative use in another process instead of disposal. The benefits of plastic
recycling can be
economically advantageous, due to abundant availability lower cost for mixing with
other
variants like concrete, bitumen etc. The development of concrete with
nonconventional
aggregate, such as polystyrene foam wastes, HDPE, polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
and other
plastic materials has been investigated for use in concrete in order to improve the
properties of
the concrete and reduce cost. The use of such plastic wastes in concrete will
contribute to the
sustainability of the concrete design and the natural environment.
The project aims at use of recycled plastic in concrete as a partial replacement of
Coarse
aggregate. The maximum percentage of aggregate replaced by shredded plastic as been
determined based on detailed experimental study.
The waste plastic of LDPE (Low Density Poly Ethylene) is collected from Bangalore
south
localities and mixed with OPC and sand in varying proportions (0%, 20%, 30%, and
40%). The
compressive strength for each variant is determined in laboratory.
22) Lakshmi.R, K.L.N.College of Information Technology, Sivagangai

Nagan.S, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai (2010) : “Studies on
Concrete containing E plastic waste”
Utilization of waste materials and by-products is a partial solution to
environmental and
ecological problems. Use of these materials not only helps in getting them utilized
in cement,
concrete and other construction materials, it helps in reducing the cost of cement
and concrete
manufacturing, but also has numerous indirect benefits such as reduction in
landfill cost, saving
in energy, and protecting the environment from possible pollution effects.
Electronic waste,
abbreviated as e-waste, consists of discarded old computers, TVs, refrigerators,
radios – basically
any electrical or electronic appliance that has reached its end of life.
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Efforts have been made in the concrete industry to use nonbiodegradable components
of E waste
as a partial replacement of the coarse or fine aggregates. An experimental study is
made on the
utilization of E-waste particles as coarse aggregates in concrete with a percentage
replacement
ranging from 0 % to 30% on the strength criteria of M20 Concrete. Compressive
strength,
Tensile strength and Flexural strength of Concrete with and without E-waste as
aggregates was
observed which exhibits a good strength gain. Ultrasonic tests on strength
properties were
executed and the feasibility of utilizing E plastic particles as partial
replacement of coarse
aggregate has been presented.
23) Ankit Arora and Dr. Urmil V. Dave {Nirma University,

Ahmedabad} (2013) : “Utilization of e-waste and plastic bottle waste in concrete”
E-waste and plastic waste are the major problem in today scenario as these are
nonbiodegradable. Attempts were made in past to use them in concrete by grinding
them. But it
failed to give good strength because grinded particle has flattened shape. Grinded
plastic and e-
waste mixed with concrete is a good way to dispose them with cheap concrete
production.
The following paper deals with the grinding, rubbing and mixing technique to use e-
waste and
plastic waste in concrete. E-waste from electrical and electronic equipment, that
may be old or
might have reached end of life and plastic waste from plastic mineral and cold
drink bottles were
collected and grinded to size of 2 mm using pulverizing machine. The grinded pieces
were
rubbed against each other with friction roller machine designed and fabricated by
the authors. It
is done to develop roughness and make grinded pieces shape irregular so that they
can bond well
with cement when mixed with it. A mix design was done for M20 grade of concrete by
IS
method. Ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade was selected. Grinded E-waste and
plastic waste
were replaced by 0%, 2%, and 4% of the fine aggregates. Compressive strength and
flexural
strength were tested and compared with control concrete. Experiments done shows
increase in
compressive strength by 5% and reduce cost of concrete production by 7% at optimum
percentage of grinded waste. Grinded waste greater than 3.2.75mm in certain
proportion act as a
good filler material in concrete and on-going experiments are done to apply gap
gradation by
grinding the waste into specific sizes. This will ensure better packing density and
hence good
strength. Moreover decorative tiles were made with the grinded waste and white
cement which
give appealing look to the wall and are cheaper than the vitrified tiles.
2.3 Summary of the literature review
Concrete is the most widely used man made construction material in the world and
its second
only to water as the most utilized substance in the planet. Seeking aggregates for
concrete and to
dispose of the plastic waste is the present concern. Today sustainability has got
top priority in
construction industry. In the present study the recycled plastics were used to
prepare the coarse
aggregates thereby providing a sustainable option to deal with the plastic waste.
There are many
recycling plants across the world, but as plastics are recycled they lose their
strength with the
number of recycling. So these plastics will end up as earth fill. In this
circumstance instead of
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recycling it repeatedly, if it is utilized to prepare aggregates for concrete, it

will be a boon to the
construction industry.
Most of the failures in concrete structures occur due to the failure of concrete by
crushing of
aggregates. Plastic Coarse Aggregates which have low crushing values will not be
crushed as
easily as the stone aggregates. These aggregates are also lighter in weight
compared to stone
aggregates. Since a complete substitution for Normal Coarse Aggregate is not found
feasible, a
partial substitution with various percentage of Plastic Coarse Aggregate is done.
Volumetric
substitution was employed in this investigation. Hence in the present study, it is
aimed at
concrete mix with partial replacement of coarse aggregate by LDPE granules (0%,
10%, 20%,
and 30%).This mix in the form of cubes and cylinders were subjected to compression
and split
tension to ascertain the behaviour and strength parameter.
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CHAPTER 3
CRITIQUE
Plastic associates products based have been considered as the world most consumer
packaging
solution. However, substantial quantities of plastic consumption have led to
exponential increase
of plastic derived waste. Recycling of plastic waste as valued added product such
as concrete
appears as one of promising solution for alternative use of plastic waste. This
paper summarized
recent progress on the development of concrete mixture which incorporates plastic
wastes as
partial aggregate replacement during concrete manufacturing. A collection of data
from previous
studies that have been researched which employed plastic waste in concrete mixtures
were
evaluated and conclusions are drawn based on the laboratory results of all the
mentioned
research papers studied
Plastics have become an essential part of our modern lifestyle, and the global
plastic production
has increased immensely during the past 50 years. This has contributed greatly to
the production
of plastic-related waste. Reuse of waste and recycled plastic materials in concrete
mix as an
environmental friendly construction material has drawn attention of researchers in
recent times,
and a large number of studies reporting the behavior of concrete containing waste
and recycled
plastic materials have been published. This paper summarizes the current published
literature
until 2015, discussing the material properties and recycling methods of plastic and
the influence
of plastic materials on the properties of concrete. To provide a comprehensive
review, a total of
84 studies were considered, and they were classified into sub categories based on
whether they
dealt with concrete containing plastic aggregates or plastic fibers. Furthermore,
the morphology
of concrete containing plastic materials is described in this paper to explain the
influence of
plastic aggregates and plastic fibers on the properties of concrete. The properties
of concretes
containing virgin plastic materials were also reviewed to establish their
similarities and
differences with concrete containing recycled plastics
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CHAPTER 4
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Solid waste management is the most pressing environmental challenge faced by urban
and rural areas of India. India, with population exceeding 134 crores, is one of
the largest
producers of solid waste. There is rapid growth in the population and the increase
in
population comes with increase in waste generation. India generates around 62
million
tons of solid waste annually, out of which only 20-30% is collected. The waste are
disposed in open spaces, road sides and within residential buildings. Sorting
plastic waste
and using it in construction will reduce waste accumulation to a great extent.
There are
construction stages that does not require normal concrete or heavy load and
alternatively
lightweight can be used on the building or structure. The contineous rise in solid
plastics
waste and cost of building materials over the years in India and the world at
large, forced
researchers to look for ways of addressing the problem.
Plastics waste which is one of the non-bio-gradable materials as stated earlier

causes a
lot of environmental pollution, and there is the need to find solution to such
menace. It
was reported that recycling of waste materials can be economical and as a
consequence
reduces pollution and contamination. The problem with cement concrete are in terms
of
low tensile strength, permeability to liquids, corrosion of reinforcement, prone to
biological or chemical attack, poor freeze/thaw resistances. Research and
Development
has a new dimension in the use of affordable local building materials in addressing
the
concrete drawbacks, such as the use of waste plastics and other admixtures for
improving
the performance of concretes. Research has been carried out in advanced countries,
on
the use of waste plastic materials in concrete, but only few were reported in
India. The
study also evaluates differences in compressive strength and density based on
variable
addition of granulated waste plastic in the cement based composite respectively.
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CHAPTER 5
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

5.1 Plastic
5.1.1 Introduction and Properties
Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-

synthetic organics that
are malleable and can be moulded into solid objects of diverse shapes. Plastics are
typically
organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances.
They are
usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many are
partially natural.
Plasticity is the general property of all materials that are able to irreversibly
deform without
breaking, but this occurs to such a degree with this class of mouldable polymers
that their name
is an emphasis on this ability.
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and

imperviousness to water,
plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips
to
spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood,
stone, horn
and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses.
In developed
countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and another third in
buildings such as
piping used in plumbing or vinyl siding. Other uses include automobiles (up to 20%
plastic),
furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for
example, reportedly
42% of India's consumption is used in packaging. Plastics have many uses in the
medical field as
well, to include polymer implants, however the field of plastic surgery is not
named for use of
plastic material, but rather the more generic meaning of the word plasticity in
regards to the
reshaping of flesh.
5.1.2 Categories of Plastic
 Polyester (PES) – Fibres, textiles.
 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – Carbonated drinks bottles, peanut butter

jars,plastic
film, microwavable packaging.
 Polyethylene (PE) – Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket

bags,plastic
bottles.
 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) – Detergent bottles, milk jugs, and moulded

plastic
cases.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains,

window
frames, flooring.
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 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran) – Food packaging.
 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) – Outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles,

shower
curtains, clamshell packaging.
 Polypropylene (PP) – Bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers,

appliances, car
fenders (bumpers), plastic pressure pipe systems.
 Polystyrene (PS) – Packaging foam/"peanuts", food containers, plastic

tableware,
disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and cassette boxes.
 High impact polystyrene (HIPS) -: Refrigerator liners, food packaging, and

vending cups.
 Polyamides (PA) (Nylons) – Fibres, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing

line, low strength
machine parts: under-the-hood car engine parts or gun frames.
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) – Electronic equipment cases (e.g.,

computer
monitors, printers, keyboards), drainage pipe.
 Polyethylene/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PE/ABS) – A slippery blend of

PE and
ABS used in low-duty dry bearings.
 Polycarbonate (PC) – Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security

windows, traffic
lights, lenses.
 Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) – A blend of PC and

ABS that
creates a stronger plastic. Used in car interior and exterior parts, and
mobile phone
bodies.
 Polyurethanes (PU) – Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface

coatings,
printing rollers (Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material,
for instance
the most commonly used plastic in cars).
5.1.3 Health hazard
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they
are
biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a
variety of
additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and
phthalates are
often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough
for use in food
packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of
the product.
Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European Union has
restricted the use
of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and
the United
States has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's
toys and
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child care articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some
compounds
leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with
hormone
functions and are suspected human carcinogens. Other chemicals of potential concern
include
alkylphenols.
Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture
ofthe
parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals
canremain
trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example,
theWorld Health
Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized
vinylchloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen. Some polymers may also
decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was
reported
that "almost all plastic products" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic
activity, although
the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic
activity.
Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the very chemical bonds that
make them so
durable tend to make them resistant to most natural processes of degradation.
However,
microbial species and communities capable of degrading plastics are discovered from
time to
time, and some show promise as being useful for bio remediating certain classes of
plastic waste.
Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic have been discarded and some of that
material might
persist for centuries or much longer, as is demonstrated by the persistence of
natural materials
such as amber.
Serious environmental threats from plastic have been suggested in the light of the
increasing
presence of micro plastics in the marine food chain along with many highly toxic
chemical
pollutants that accumulate in plastics. They also accumulate in larger fragmented
pieces of
plastic called nurdles. In the 1960s the latter were observed in the guts of sea
birds and since then
have been found in increasing concentration. In 2009, it was estimated that 10% of
modern waste
was plastics, although estimates vary according to region. Meanwhile, 50-80% of
debris in
marine areas is plastic. Before the ban on the use of CFCs in extrusion of
polystyrene (and in
general use, except in life-critical fire suppression systems; see Montreal
Protocol), the
production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer, but
current extrusion
processes use non-CFCs.
5.1.4 Climate change
The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from
petroleum. If
the plastic is incinerated, it increases carbon emissions; if it is placed in a
landfill, it becomes a
carbon sink although biodegradable plastics have caused methane emissions. Due to
the lightness
of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For
example, packaging
beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in
transportation
energy.
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5.1.5 Recycling
Thermoplastics can be re-melted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up
and used
as filler, although the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse
cycle. There are
methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock state.
The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating

the sorting of
plastic wastes, making it labour-intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by
looking at the
resin identification code, although common containers like soda bottles can be
sorted from
memory. Typically, the caps for PETE bottles are made from a different kind of
plastic which is
not recyclable, which presents additional problems to the automated sorting
process. Other
recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However,
new processes
of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase capacity and efficiency of
plastic
recycling.
While containers are usually made from a single type and colour of plastic, making
them
relatively easy to be sorted, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have
many small parts
consisting of over a dozen different types and colours of plastics. In such cases,
the resources it
would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item is
discarded. However,
developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly, which may result
in more
consumer product components being re-used or recycled.
Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. For example,
polystyrene is
rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes
are typically
disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-
toenergy plants.
5.1.6 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Introduction:
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene.

It was
the first grade of polyethylene, produced in 1933 by Imperial Chemical Industries
(ICI) using a
high pressure process via free radical polymerization. Its manufacture employs the
same method
today. The EPA estimates 3.3.7% of LDPE (recycling number 4) is recycled. Despite
competition from more modern polymers, LDPE continues to be an important plastic
grade. In
2013 the worldwide LDPE market reached a volume of about US$33 billion.
Properties:
LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.910–0.940 g/cm3.1. It is not reactive at
room
temperatures, except by strong oxidizing agents, and some solvents cause swelling.
It can
withstand temperatures of 80 °C continuously and 95 °C for a short time. Made in
translucent or
opaque variations, it is quite flexible, and tough but breakable.
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LDPE has more branching (on about 2% of the carbon atoms) than HDPE, so its
intermolecular
forces (instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction) are weaker, its tensile
strength is lower,
and its resilience is higher. Also, since its molecules are less tightly packed and
less crystalline
because of the side branches, its density is lower. LDPE contains the chemical
elements carbon
and hydrogen.
Chemical resistance:
∙ Excellent resistance (no attack / no chemical reaction) to dilute and
concentrated acids,
alcohols, bases and esters
∙Good resistance (minor attack / very low chemical reactivity) to aldehydes,

ketones and
vegetable oils
∙Limited resistance (moderate attack / significant chemical reaction, suitable for

shortterm use
only) to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, mineral oils, and oxidizing agents
∙ Poor resistance, and not recommended for use with halogenated hydrocarbons.
Applications:
LDPE is widely used for manufacturing various containers, dispensing bottles, wash
bottles,
tubing, plastic bags for computer components, and various moulded
laboratoryequipment. Its
most common use is in plastic bags. Other products made from it include:
 Trays and general purpose containers
 Corrosion-resistant work surfaces
 Parts that need to be weldable and machinable
 Parts that require flexibility, for which it serves very well
 Very soft and pliable parts such as Snap-On lids
 Six pack rings
 Juice and milk cartons are made of liquid packaging board, a laminate of
paperboardand
LDPE (as the waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer
ofaluminium
foil (thus becoming aseptic packaging).
 Packaging for computer hardware, such as hard disk drives, screen cards,
and opticaldisc
drives
 Playground slides
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Fig 5.1 LDPE granules
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5.2 Cement
5.2.1 Introduction
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together.
The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to
describe
masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime
as
binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the
burnt lime, to
obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment,
and cement.
Cements used in construction can be characterized asbeing either hydraulic or non-
hydraulic,
depending upon the ability of the cement to beused in the presence of water.
Non-hydrauliccement will not set in wet conditions orunderwater, rather it sets as

it dries and
reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It can beattacked by some aggressive
chemicals after
setting.
5.2.2 Types of cements

i. Portland cement
ii. Energetically modified cement
iii. Portland cement blends
iv. Portland blast furnace cement
v. Portland fly ash cement
vi. Portland Pozzolana cement
vii. Portland silica fume cement
viii. Masonry cements
ix. Expansive cements
x. White blended cements
xi. Colored cements
xii. Very finely ground cements
xiii. Pozzolana-lime cements
xiv. Slag-lime cements

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xv. Super-sulphated cements
xvi. Calcium sulfo aluminate cements
xvii. Natural cements
xviii. Geo polymer cements
5.2.3 Curing
Cement sets or cures when mixed with water which causes a series of hydration
chemical
reactions. The constituents slowly hydrate and crystallize; the interlocking of the
crystals gives
cement its strength. Maintaining a high moisture content in cement during curing
increases both
the speed of curing, and its final strength. Gypsum is often added to Portland
cement to prevent
early hardening or "flash setting", allowing a longer working time. The time it
takes for cement
to cure varies depending on the mixture and environmental conditions; initial
hardening can
occur in as little as twenty minutes, while full cure can take over a month. Cement
typically
cures to the extent that it can be put into service within 24 hours to a week.
5.2.4 Safety issues
Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them because
not only is
cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is exothermic. As a result, wet
cement is strongly
caustic and can easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with
water. Similarly,
dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe eye or
respiratory
irritation. Some ingredients can be specifically allergenic and may cause allergic
dermatitis.
Reducing agents are sometimes added to cement to prevent the formation of
carcinogenic
chromate in cement. Cement users should wear protective clothing.
5.2.5 Cement production in world
In 2010, the world production of hydraulic cement was 3,300 million tonnes. The top
three
producers were China with 1,800, India with 220, and USA with 63.1.5 million tonnes
for a
combined total of over half the world total by the world's three most populated
states. For the
world capacity to produce cement in 2010, the situation was similar with the top
three states
(China, India, and USA) accounting for just under half the world total capacity.
Over 2011 and
2012, global consumption continued to climb, rising to 3585 Mt in 2011 and 3736 Mt
in 2012,
while annual growth rates eased to 4.4.3% and 3.2.2%, respectively. China,
representing an
increasing share of world cement consumption, continued to be the main engine of
global
growth. By 2012, Chinese demand was recorded at 2160 Mt, representing 58% of world
consumption. Annual growth rates, which reached 16% in 2010, appear to have
softened,
34 | P a g e
slowing to 5–6% over 2011 and 2012, as China’s economy targets a more sustainable
growth
rate.
Outside of China, worldwide consumption climbed by 3.2.4% to 1462 Mt in 2010, 5% to

1535
Mt in 2011, and finally 2.7% to 1576 Mt in 2012.Iran is now the 3rd largest cement
producer in
the world and has increased its output by over 10% from 2008 to 2011. Due to
climbing energy
costs in Pakistan and other major cement-producing countries, Iran is a unique
position as a
trading partner, utilizing its own surplus petroleum
to power clinker plants. Now a top producer in the Middle-East, Iran is further
increasing its
dominant position in local markets and abroad. The performance in the rest of the
world, which
includes many emerging economies in Asia, Africa and Latin America and representing
some
1020 Mt cement demand in 2010, was positive and more than offset the declines
in North
America and Europe. Annual consumption growth was recorded at 4.4% in 2010,
moderating to
3.3.1% and 3.2.3% in 2011 and 2012, respectively.
5.2.6 Environmental impacts
Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These
include
emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration
when operating
machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from
quarrying.
Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is
widely used,
and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use.
Environmental
protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after
they have been
closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them. Carbon
concentration in cement
spans from ≈5% in cement structures to ≈8% in the case of roads in cement. Cement
manufacturing releases CO2 in the atmosphere both directly when calcium carbonate
is heated,
producing lime and carbon dioxide, and also indirectly through the use of energy if
its production
involves the emission of CO2. The cement industry produces about 5% of global man-
made CO2
emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel.
The amount
of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly 900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of
cement
produced. In the European Union the specific energy consumption for the production
of cement
clinker has been reduced by approximately 30% since the 1970s. This reduction in
primary
energy requirements is equivalent to approximately 11 million tonnes of coal per
year with
corresponding benefits in reduction of CO2 emissions. This accounts for
approximately 5% of
anthropogenic CO2.The high proportion of carbon dioxide produced in the chemical
reaction
leads to a large decrease in mass in the conversion from limestone to cement.
So,to reduce the transport of heavier raw materials and to minimize the associated
costs, it is
more economical for cement plants to be closer to the limestone quarries rather
than to the
consumer centres. In certain applications, lime mortar reabsorbs the same amount of
CO 2 as was
released in its manufacture, and has a lower energy requirement in production than
mainstream
cement. Newly developed cement types from Novacem and Eco-cement canabsorb carbon
dioxide from ambient air during hardening. Use of the Kalina cycle during
production can also
increase energy efficiency.
35 | P a g e
5.2.7 Green cement
Green cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional

performance
capabilities of ordinary Portland cement by incorporating and optimizing recycled
materials,
thereby reducing consumption of natural raw materials, water, and energy, resulting
in a more
sustainable construction material. The manufacturing process for green cement
succeeds in
reducing, and even eliminating, the production and release of damaging pollutants
and
greenhouse gasses, particularly CO2.Growing environmental concerns and increasing
cost of
fuels of fossil origin have resulted in many countries in sharp reduction of the
resources needed
to produce cement and effluents (dust and exhaust gases).Peter Trimble, a design
student at the
University of Edinburgh has proposed 'DUPE' based on sporosarcina pasteurii, a
bacterium with
binding qualities which, when mixed with sand and urine produces a concrete said to
be 70% as
strong as conventional materials. The idea has been commercialized in the USA
5.3 Aggregates: Fine Aggregates
5.3.1 Introduction
Fine aggregate (Sand) is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided
rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and
coarser than silt.
Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil
containing more than 85%
sand-sized particles (by mass).
The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions,
but the most
common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal
settings is
silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz. The second most
common type of
sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, which has mostly been created,
over the past
half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish. It is, for
example, the primary
form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for
millions of years
like the Caribbean
.
5.3.2 Composition
In terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter

from 0.0625 mm
(or 1 16 mm) to 2 mm. An individual particle in this range size is termed a sand
grain. Sand grains
are between gravel (with particles ranging from 2 mm up to 64 mm) and silt
(particles smaller
than 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm). The size specification between sand and gravel
has
remained constant for more than a century, but particle diameters as small as 0.02
mm were
considered sand under the Albert Atterberg standard in use during the early 20th
century. A 1953
engineering standard published by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. A 1938
specification of the
United States Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed
between
the fingers (silt, by comparison, feels like flour).
36 | P a g e
ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to
0.63
mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-
categories based on
size: very fine sand (1 16 – 1 8 mm diameter), fine sand (1 8 mm – 1 4 mm), medium
sand (1 4 mm –
1 2 mm), coarse sand (1 2 mm – 1 mm), and very coarse sand (1 mm – 2 mm). These
sizes are
based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D; D being the particle
size in mm. On
this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the divisions
between sub-
categories at whole numbers.
The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-
tropical coastal
settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz,
which, because of its
chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant
to
weathering.
The composition of mineral sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock
sources and
conditions. The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical coastal
settings are eroded
limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in addition to other organic or
organically
derived fragmental material, suggesting sand formation depends on living organisms,
too. The
gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for
their
bright, white colour. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar
content, derived
from weathering and erosion of a (usually nearby) granitic rock outcrop. Some sands
contain
magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum. Sands rich in magnetite are dark to
black in colour, as
are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing
sands are
typically green in colour, as are sands derived from basaltic (lava) with a high
olivine content.
Many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern Europe, have iron
impurities within
the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow colour. Sand deposits in some
areas contain
garnets and other resistant minerals, including some small gemstones.
5.3.3 Study
The study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the
origin and kind of
transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is recently weathered from granite or
gneiss quartz
crystals will be angular. It is called Grus in geology or sharp sand in the
building trade where it
is preferred for concrete, and in gardening where it is used as a soil amendment to
loosen clay
soils. Sand that is transported long distances by water or wind will be rounded,
with
characteristic abrasion patterns on the grain surface. Desert sand is typically
rounded.
5.3.4 Uses
 Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as watermelons, peaches
and peanuts,
and their excellent drainage characteristics make them suitable for
intensive dairy
farming.
 Aquaria: Sand makes a low cost aquarium base material which some believe is
better
than gravel for home use. It is also a necessity for saltwater reef tanks,
which emulate
environments composed largely of aragonite sand broken down from coral and
shellfish.
 Artificial reefs: Geotextile bagged sand can serve as the foundation for new
reefs.
 Artificial islands in the Persian Gulf for instance.
37 | P a g e
 Beach nourishment: Governments move sand to beaches where tides, storms or

deliberate
changes to the shoreline erode the original sand.
 Brick: Manufacturing plants add sand to a mixture of clay and other materials
for
manufacturing bricks.
 Cob: Coarse sand makes up as much as 75% of cob.
 Mortar: Sand is mixed with masonry cement or Portland cement and lime to be
used in
masonry construction.
 Concrete: Sand is often a principal component of this critical construction
material.
 Hydraulic Fracturing: A drilling technique for natural gas, which uses rounded
silica sand
as a "proppant", a material to hold open cracks that are caused by the
hydraulic fracturing
process.
 Glass: Sand is the principal component in common glass.
 Landscaping: Sand makes small hills and slopes (for example, in golf courses).
 Paint: Mixing sand with paint produces a textured finish for walls and ceilings
or nonslip
floor surfaces.
 Railroads: Engine drivers and rail transit operators use sand to improve the
traction of
wheels on the rails.
 Recreation. Playing with sand is a favourite beach time activity. One of the
most beloved
uses of sand is to make sometimes intricate, sometimes simple structures known
as sand
castles. Such structures are well known for their impermanence. Sand is also
used in
children's play. Special play areas enclosing a significant area of sand, known
as
sandboxes, are common on many public playgrounds, and even at some single
family
homes.
 Roads: Sand improves traction (and thus traffic safety) in icy or snowy
conditions.
 Sand animation: Performance artists draw images in sand. Makers of animated
films use
the same term to describe their use of sand on frontlit or backlit glass.
 Sand casting: Casters moisten or oil molding sand, also known as foundry sand
and then
shape it into moulds into which they pour molten material. This type of sand
must be able
to withstand high temperatures and pressure, allow gases to escape, have a
uniform, small
grain size and be non-reactive with metals.
 Sand castles: Shaping sand into castles or other miniature buildings is a
popular beach
activity.
 Sandbags: These protect against floods and gunfire. The inexpensive bags are
easy to
transport when empty, and unskilled volunteers can quickly fill them with local
sand in
emergencies.
 Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and
polishing.
 Thermal Weapon: While not in widespread use anymore, sand used to be heated and
poured on invading troops in the classical and medieval time periods.
 Water filtration: Media filters use sand for filtering water.
 Zoanthid "skeletons": Animals in this order of marine benthic cnidarians

related to corals
and sea anemones, incorporate sand into their mesoglea for structural strength,
which
they need because they lack a true skeleton.
38 | P a g e
5.3.5 Resources and environmental concerns
Only some sands are suitable for the construction industry, for example for making
concrete.
Because of the growth of population and of cities and the consequent construction
activity there
is a huge demand for these special kinds of sand, and natural sources are running
low. In 2012
French director Denis Delestrac made a documentary called "Sand Wars" about the
impact of the
lack of construction sand. It shows the ecological and economic effects of both
legal and illegal
trade in construction sand. Sand's many uses require a significant dredging
industry, raising
environmental concerns over fish depletion, landslides, and flooding. Countries
such as China,
Indonesia, Malaysia and Cambodia ban sand exports, citing these issues as a major
factor.
5.3.6 Hazards
While sand is generally non-toxic, sand-using activities such as sandblasting

require precautions.
Bags of silica sand used for sandblasting now carry labels warning the user to wear
respiratory
protection to avoid breathing the resulting fine silica dust. Material safety data
sheets (MSDS)
for silica sand state that "excessive inhalation of crystalline silica is a serious
health concern".
In areas of high pore water pressure sand and salt water can form quicksand, which
is a colloid
hydrogel that behaves like a liquid. Quicksand produces a considerable barrier to
escape for
creatures caught within, who often die from exposure (not from submersion) as a
result.
5.4 Aggregates: Coarse Aggregates
5.4.1 Introduction
Construction aggregate (coarse aggregate), or simply “aggregate”, is a broad

category of
coarse particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed
stone, slag,
recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined
materials in the
world. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and
asphalt
concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall
composite material.
Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to most soils,
aggregates are
widely used in drainage applications such as foundation and French drains, septic
drain fields,
retaining wall drains, and road side edge drains.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and railroads.
In other
words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail base with
predictable, uniform
properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling under the road or building),
or as a lowcost
extender that binds with more expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete.
Preferred
bituminous aggregate sizes for road construction are given in EN 13043 as d/D
(where the range
shows the smallest and largest square mesh grating that the particles can pass).
The same
classification sizing is used for larger armour stone sizes in EN 13383, EN 12620
for concrete
aggregate, EN 13242 for base layers of road construction and EN 13450 for railway
ballast.
The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an exhaustive listing of
specifications
including ASTM D 692 and ASTM D 1073 for various construction aggregate products,
which,
39 | P a g e
by their individual design, are suitable for specific construction purposes. These
products include
specific types of coarse and fine aggregate designed for such uses as additives to
asphalt and
concrete mixes, as well as other construction uses. State transportation
departments further refine
aggregate material specifications in order to tailor aggregate use to the needs and
available
supply in their particular locations.
Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: Mining of
mineral
aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from the
manufacture of
iron and steel; and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly manufactured
from mineral
aggregates. In addition, there are some (minor) materials that are used as
specialty lightweight
aggregates: clay, pumice, perlite, and vermiculite.
5.4.2 History
People have used sand and stone for foundations for thousands of years. Significant
refinement
of the production and use of aggregate occurred during the Roman Empire, which used
aggregate
to build its vast network of roads and aqueducts. The invention of concrete, which
was essential
to architecture utilizing arches, created an immediate, permanent demand for
construction
aggregates.
5.4.3 Modern production
The advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries, which
are now
used throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock deposits of aggregate quality
exist. In
many places, good limestone, granite, marble or other quality stone bedrock
deposits do not
exist. In these areas, natural sand and gravel are mined for use as aggregate.
Where neither stone,
nor sand and gravel, are available, construction demand is usually satisfied by
shipping in
aggregate by rail, barge or truck. Additionally, demand for aggregates can be
partially satisfied
through the use of slag and recycled concrete. However, the available tonnages and
lesser quality
of these materials prevent them from being a viable replacement for mined
aggregates on a large
scale. Large stone quarry and sand and gravel operations exist near virtually all
population
centers. These are capital intensive operations, utilizing large earth-moving
equipment, belt
conveyors, and machines specifically designed for crushing and separating various
sizes of
aggregate, to create distinct product stockpiles.
5.4.4 Recycled materials for aggregates
The largest-volume of recycled material used as construction aggregate is blast

furnace and steel
furnace slag. Blast furnace slag is either air-cooled (slow cooling in the open) or
granulated
(formed by quenching molten slag in water to form sand-sized glass-like particles).
If the
granulated blast furnace slag accesses free lime during hydration, it develops
strong hydraulic
cementitious properties and can partly substitute for Portland cement in concrete.
Steel furnace
slag is also air-cooled. In 2006, according to the USGS, air-cooled blast furnace
slag sold or used
in the U.S. was 4.3 million tonnes valued at $49 million, granulated blast furnace
slag sold or
used in the U.S. was 3.2.2 million tonnes valued at $318 million, and steel furnace
slag sold or
40 | P a g e
used in the U.S. was 4.4.7 million tonnes valued at $40 million. Air-cooled blast
furnace slag
sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (41%), asphaltic concrete
(13%), ready-
mixed concrete (16%), and the balance for other uses. Granulated blast furnace slag
sales in 2006
were for use in cementitious materials (94%), and the balance for other uses. Steel
furnace slag
sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (51%), asphaltic concrete
(12%), for fill
(18%), and the balance for other uses. Glass aggregate, a mix of colours crushed to
a small size,
is substituted for many construction and utility projects in place of pea gravel or
crushed rock,
often saving municipalities like the City of Tumwater, Washington Public Works,
thousands of
dollars (depending on the size of the project). Glass aggregate is not sharp to
handle. In many
cases, the state Department of Transportation has specifications for use, size and
percentage of
quantity for use. Common applications are as pipe bedding—placed around sewer,
storm water
or drinking water pipes to transfer weight from the surface and protect the pipe.
Another
common use would be as fill to bring the level of a concrete floor even with a
foundation. Use of
glass aggregate helps close the loop in glass recycling in many places where glass
cannot be
smelted into new glass. Aggregates themselves can be recycled as aggregates. Unlike
deposits of
sand and gravel or stone suitable for crushing into aggregate, which can be
anywhere and may
require overburden removal and/or blasting, “deposits” of recyclable aggregate tend
to be
concentrated near urban areas, and production from them cannot be raised or lowered
to meet
demand for aggregates. Supply of recycled aggregate depends on physical decay of
structures
and their demolition. The recycling plant can be fixed or mobile; the smaller
capacity mobile plant works best for asphalt-aggregate recycling. The material
being recycled is
usually highly variable in quality and properties.
Many aggregate products of various types are often recycled for other industrial
purposes. In Bay
City, Michigan, for example, a recycle program exists for contractors and their own
unused
products. These piles are composed of unused mixed concrete, block, brick, gravel,
pea stone,
and other used materials. Composed of several alternating piles that grow to
hundreds of feet in
height and diameter. These piles are then crushed to provide gravel for roads and
driveways,
among other purposes. This program has huge economic and environmental benefits to
the local
and surrounding area. Contractors save on disposal costs and less aggregate is
buried or piled and
abandoned.
According to the USGS in 2006, 2.9 million tonnes of Portland cement concrete
(including
aggregate) worth $21.9 million was recycled, and 1.6 million tonnes of asphalt
concrete
(including aggregate) worth $11.8 million was recycled, both by crushed stone
operations. Much
more of both materials are recycled by construction and demolition firms not in the
USGS
survey. For sand and gravel, the USGS survey for 2006 showed that 3.2.7 million
tonnes of
cement concrete valued at $32.0 million was recycled, and 3.4.17 million tonnes of
asphalt
concrete valued at $43.3.1 million was recycled. Again, more of both materials are
recycled by
construction and demolition firms not in this USGS survey. The Construction
Materials
Recycling Association indicates that there are 325 million tonnes of recoverable
construction and
demolition materials produced annually. Many geosynthetic aggregates are also made
from
recycled materials. Being polymer based, recyclable plastics can be reused in the
production of
these new age of aggregates.
41 | P a g e
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS
6.1 Tests on cement
6.1.1 Standard consistency of cement

Standard consistency is defined as the percentage water requirement of cement paste
at which
viscosity of the paste becomes such that the plunger in a specially designed
apparatus (known as
Vicat’s apparatus) penetrates a depth 5 to 7mm, measured from the bottom of the
mould.
Practical importance of Standard consistency value is to determine amount of water
needed to
make paste for other tests of cement.
Apparatus: Vicat’s Apparatus with plunger, needles, stop watch etc.
Procedure:
(1) Prepare a paste of weighed quantity of cement (approx. 400 gms) with weighed
quantity of
water (start from 20%-25%) taking care that mixing (gauging) remains between 3 to 5
minutes
and mixing shall be completed before any signs of setting becomes visible.
(2) Fill the Vicat’s mould with the paste, mould should rest on non-porous base.
(3) Place the mould under Vicat’s apparatus. The plunger attached to a movable rod
is gently
lowered on the paste.
(4) Settlement of plunger is noted, penetration from bottom is equal to the
difference of mould
height and settlement of plunger. If penetration of the plunger is within 5-7mm
from bottom,
then water added is correct. Otherwise, water is added and process is repeated.
Observations:
Mass of cement taken= 400 gms
Table 6.1 Normal Consistency of cement
S. No % water Initial reading Final reading Height not penetrated(mm)

1. 20 40 38 2
2. 24 40 37 3
3 28 40 10 30
4. 30 40 5 35
Standard consistency of cement = 30%
42 | P a g e
6.1.2 Setting time of cement

Two stiffening states of cements are (i) initial and (ii) final setting time.
Initial setting time is
defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to an extent such that the Vicat
needle is not
permitted to move down through the paste within 5 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom
of the
mould. Time is measured from the instant water is added to the paste.
Final setting time is the time when the paste becomes so hard that the annular
attachment to the
needle under standard weight only makes an impression on the hardened cement paste
Initial Setting Time:
(1) Take approx. 400 gms of dry cement and add 0.85 P where P is the weight of
water for
standard consistency to make paste.
(2) Fill the mould with paste, attach square needle to moving rod of apparatus.
(3) The needle is quickly released and is allowed to penetrate cement paste.
(4) Note down the time and penetration from bottom.
(5) Plot a curve between time (min) and penetration (mm).
(6) Find initial setting time (minutes) when penetration of needle (from bottom) is
within 5
±0.5mm.
Observations:
Mass of cement taken= 400 gm
(Size of cement particle passing 850μ size)
Needle dimension = 1 mm2 area of 50mm long
Gauging time = 2-3 min
Qty. of water = (0.85P × 400) gm =0.85×30100×400 = 102 ml
Table 6.2 Setting time of cement
S. No Time Initial Final reading Height not

reading penetrated(mm)
(minutes)
1. 0 40 0 40
2. 5 40 0 40
3 10 40 2 38
4. 15 40 2 38
5. 20 40 2 38
6. 25 40 3 37
7. 30 40 3 37
8. 35 40 3 37
9. 40 40 3 37
10. 45 40 3 37
11. 50 40 4 36
12. 55 40 4 36
13. 60 40 5 35
14. 65 40 5 35
43 | P a g e
Final Setting Time:

(1) Attach needle with annular collar to the movable rod.
(2) Release the needle gently.
(3) The time when needle makes an impression only on the hardened cement paste is
recorded.
Initial setting time = 30 mins
Final setting time = 580 mins
6.1.3 Specific gravity of cement

Specific gravity is determined by use of a Le Chatelier’s flask. In the
determination of specific
gravity of cement, kerosene is used as a medium instead of water, because water
undergoes
hydration reaction with cement, while kerosene does not react. The specific gravity
of OPC is
generally around 3.1.13.3.
Procedure:
1. Weigh the specific gravity bottle dry. Let the mass of empty bottle be W1.
2. Fill the bottle with distilled water and weigh the bottle filled with water. Let
the mass of bottle
with distilled water be W2
3. Wipe and dry the bottle and fill it with kerosene and weigh. Let this mass be
W3.1.
4. Weigh the dry cement sample. Let this mass be W3.2.
5. Pour some quantity of kerosene out and introduce a weighed quantity of cement
(about 50gm)
into the bottle. Roll the bottle gently in inclined position until no further air
bubble rises to
surface. Fill the bottle to the top with kerosene and weigh it. Let this mass be
W3.3.
6. The specific gravity of OPC is given by S=W4 (W3−W1)/(W4+W3−W5)(W2−W1)
Table 6.3 Specific gravity of cement
Description Trial 1 Trial 2

1.Mass of empty bottle W1 gm. 67 67
2.Mass of bottle +water W2 gm. 161 164
3.Mass of bottle +kerosene W3 gm. 144 137
4.Mass of cement W4 gm. 50 50
5.Mass of bottle + cement + kerosene W5 gm. 181 175
6.Specific gravity of cement 3.15 3.00
W4 (W3−W1)
S=
(W4+W3−W5)(W2−W1)
Specific gravity of cement = 3.15

Table 6.4 Properties of cement:
44 | P a g e
S. No. Properties Values obtained Standard values

1. Specific gravity 3.15 3.15
2. Normal consistency 30% 30%
3. Initial 30 min Not less than 30
mins
and and Not greater than
10 hrs
Final setting time 580 min
6.2 Tests on fine aggregates
6.2.1 Specific gravity of sand

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of a material
to the weight in
air of an equal volume of distilled water. Specific gravity of river sand is around
2.5 and
manufactured sand is around 2.7
Apparatus: Pycnometer bottle, Tray, Weighing balance
Procedure:
(1) Take a clean, dry pycnometer, and find its weight with its cap and
washer (W1)
(2) Put about 200 g to 400 g of sand in the pycnometer and find its weight
(W2)
(3) Fill the pycnometer a n d filled in sand as in step2, wi t h distilled water
and
measure its weight (W3)
(4) Empty the pycnometer, clean it thoroughly, and fill it with clean water only to
the
hole of the conical cap, and find its weight (W4)
(5) Repeat the same procedure at least for three different samples
Behaviour of concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate with recycled
plastic granules
Table 6.5 Specific gravity of sand
S. Weight of Weight of Weight of Weight of Specific gravity of
sand
No Empty Pycn. Pycn+dry Pycn.+ dry Pycn.+ water
(W1) (g) sand (W2) (g) sand +water (W4) (g) W2− W1
(W3) (g) (W2 − W1 ) − (W3 − W4 )
1 415 900 1750 1449 2.63

2 415 830 1715 1447 2.66
3 415 885 1745 1450 2.62
Average Specific gravity of fine aggregate= 2.65
45 | P a g e
6.2.2 Water absorption test

Absorption is a measure of the amount of water that an aggregate can absorb into
its pore
structure. Pores that absorb water are also referred to as “water permeable voids”.
Apparatus: Beaker (1 lit), Hot air oven, weighing balance, tray.
Procedure:
1) Take 500 gms of saturated surface dry sand in the air. Note down the weight as W
1.
2) Dry the sample in oven at 100 C-110 C for 24 hrs. Note this weight as W 2.
3) Note down empty weight as W3.1.
4) Calculate water absorption value as the percentage of oven dry weight.
Percentage of water absorption=(𝑊1−𝑊2)*100/𝑊2−𝑊3
Table 6.6 Water absorption of sand

Water Absorption Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial
3
Wt. of tray + saturated surface dry fine agg (W1) 953 948 940
Wt. of tray + oven dry fine aggregate (W2) 947 943 936
Wt. of empty tray (W3) 452 449 444
Percentage of water absorption 1.21 1.01 1.01
Percentage of water absorption = 1.01%
6.2.3 Particle size distribution of sand

There are different types of sand, so we will have to judge which type of sand is
the best for use.
The sand is differentiated on the basis of its gradation. The sand will be called
graded if it
consists of particles having a variety of dimensions. For this reason sieve
analysis is conducted to
determine the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate. As per Indian
standard the
aggregate fraction from 3.2.75mm to 75 micron are termed as fine aggregate.
Fineness modulus is defined as sum of the cumulative percentage of sand retained in
the
designated sieves divided by 100.
The effective size, i.e. D10 represents a size, in mm such that 10% of the
particles are finer then
the sieve size.
Where D60 is the grain diameter at 60% passing, i.e. 40% of sample is retained on
that particular
sieve then there is 60% passing.
Coefficient of uniformity Cu=D60/D30
Coefficient of curvature Cc=D30
2/D10*D60
Apparatus: Sieve Apparatus or sieve set. The apparatus consists of eight different
types of
sieves i.e. 3.2.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600μ, 300μ, 150μ and 75μ sieve for fine
aggregate.
46 | P a g e
Procedure:
1) The sample shall be brought to an air-dried condition before weighing and
sieving.
2) Measure 500 gram of the sand.
3) Arrange sieve in descending order of size from the top.
4) Put the sand in sieve 3.2.75mm, and shake for 10 minutes. Material shall not be
forced
through the sieve by hand pressure.
5) After 10 minutes stop the shaker and separate the sieve 3.2.75mm from the
apparatus. Then
with the help of balance measure the weight of retained particles,
note this weight in the table.
6) Measure the weight of the particles retained in each sieve and notes them in the
table.
7) Calculate the percentage of weight retained on each sieve.
8) Find the percentage of the weight which has passed through each sieve.
plastic granules
9) Plot particle size (log scale) and % passing and find out D10, D30, and D60.
Table 6.7 Sieve analysis of Fine Aggregate

IS Sieve (1) (2) (3) (4)
(5)
Size Weight Percentage Cumulative Cumulative
Percentage finer
(mm) retained Weight weight percentage
100-Col(4)
(gm.) retained retained (gm.) weight retained
3.2.75mm - - - -
100
2.36mm 11 1.1 11 1.1
94.4.9
1.18mm 190 19 201 20.1
74.5.9
600µ 328 32.8 529 52.9
44.1
300µ 436 43.1.6 965 93.4.5
3.1.5
150µ 28 2.8 993 94.5.3
0.7
Pan 7 0.7 1000 100
0
Result: Fineness Modulus = Σ Col. (4)/100 =264.5.9/100 =2.699
Table 6.8 Properties of fine aggregates:
Properties Values obtained

Specific gravity 2.65
Water absorption 1.01
Fineness Modulus 2.699
47 | P a g e
6.3 Tests on coarse aggregates (20mm down size aggregate)
6.3.1 Specific gravity and water absorption test

Specific gravity of an aggregate is a measure of strength or quality of the
material. Stones having
low specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher specific gravity.
Water
absorption indicates strength of rocks. Stones having more water absorption are
more porous in
nature and are unsuitable unless they are found to be acceptable based on strength,
impact and
hardness tests.
Apparatus: Beaker (1 lt), Hot air oven, weighing balance, tray
Procedure:
(1) Take about 2kg of coarse aggregate sample, wash thoroughly to remove finer
particles and
dust and immerse in water for 24 hours at a temperature between 22°C and 32°C with
a cover of
at least 5 cm of water above the top of the basket. Lift the basket 25 mm above the
base of tank
and allowing it to drop 25 times at the rate of more than one drop per second. The
weight is
noted while suspending in water=W1.
(2) Remove the aggregate from basket and allow it to drain for few minutes. Weight
of empty
basket in water is measured as W2.
(3) Take out the immersed aggregate and place in a dry cloth. It shall then be
spread out not more
than one stone deep, and best exposed to the atmosphere away from direct sunlight
or any other
source of heat for not less than 10 minutes, or until it appears to be completely
surface dry.
Measure weight of the aggregate (W3)
(4) The aggregate shall then be placed in the oven in the shallow tray, at a
temperature of 100 to
110°C and maintained at this temperature for 24 hours. After 24 hours, It shall
then be removed
from the oven, cooled in the airtight container and weighed (W4).
(5) Specific gravity of aggregate=𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒/𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =𝑊4/𝑊3−𝑊𝑠
Water absorption =𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑/𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓
𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒=𝑊3−𝑊4/𝑊4×
100
Table 6.9 Specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate

Description Trial 1 Trial 2
Wt. of saturated aggregate suspended in water 2806 2796

with basket=W1 gm
Wt. of basket suspended in water=W2 gm 1537 1532
Wt. of saturated aggregate in water=W1-W2=Ws 1269 1264

gm
48 | P a g e
Wt. of saturated surface dry aggregate in 2010 2005

air=W3 gm
Wt. of water equal to the volume of 905 741
aggregate=W3-Ws gm
Dry weight after 24 hours W4 gm 1998 1984
Specific gravity = 𝑊4 2.69 2.67

𝑊3−
𝑊𝑠
Water absorption=𝑊3−𝑊4 × 100 0.6% 1.05%

𝑊4
Avg. specific gravity= 2.68
Avg. water absorption value= 0.8%
Table 6.10 Properties of coarse aggregates:
Properties Values obtained

Specific gravity 2.68
Water absorption 0.8%
Table 6.11 Properties of Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE):
Properties Values
Physical State Solid
Appearance Granules
Grain size 5-7 mm
Density 920 kg/m3
Heat Resistance 80o C
49 | P a g e
6.4 Concrete mix design
6.4.1 Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their
relative amounts
with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability,
and workability
as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning
of ingredient
of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely
the plastic
and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be
properly placed and
compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance. The
compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an
index of its
other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement,
water and
aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing.The cost of
concrete is made
up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of
materials arise from the
fact that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to
produce as lean a
mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high
shrinkage and
cracking in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in
mass concrete
which may cause cracking. The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of
materials required
for producing a minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is
specified by the
designer of the structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there
is no doubt that
the quality control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is
often an economic
compromise, and depends on the size and type of job. The cost of labour depends on
the
workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of inadequate workability may Behaviour of
concrete by
partial replacement of coarse aggregate with recycled plastic granules result in a
high cost of labour to
obtain a degree of compaction with available
equipment.
6.4.2 Requirements of concrete mix design

The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix
ingredients are:
a) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration
b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting
equipment
available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate
durability for
the particular site condition to meet the site condition and meet strength.
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in
mass
concrete.
6.4.3 Types of Mixes
Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement,
fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate
strength are
termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a
margin of
strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients
the nominal
concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.
50 | P a g e
Standard Mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in
strength and may
result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive
strength has been
included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-2000
has
designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30,
M35 and
M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the
specified 28 day
cube strength of mix in N/mm2
. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the mix
proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.
Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the
mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum
cement content
can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix
proportions with specific
materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach
results in the
production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However,
the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct
mix proportions
for the prescribed performance. For the concrete with undemanding performance
nominal or
standard mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic
meter and by
slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete
does not
exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the
masses of the
ingredients.
6.4.4 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions

The various factors affecting the mix design are:
Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other
describable
properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a
specific age,
usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other
factor affecting
the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is
the degree of
compaction. According to Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is
inversely
proportional to the water-cement ratio.
Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of
the section to
be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used.
For the
narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the
concrete must
have a high workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable
amount of
effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability
depends on the
compacting equipment available at the site.
Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental
conditions. High
strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the
situations when the
51 | P a g e
high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high
durability is vital,
the durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
Maximum nominal size of aggregate

In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement
for a
particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with
increase in
maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to increase
with the
decrease in size of aggregate. IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the
nominal size of
the aggregate should be as large as possible.
Grading and type of aggregate

The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability
and water-
cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean
mix is not
desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete
cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the
desired workability
and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory aggregate
is the
uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different size fractions
.
Quality control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test
results. The variation
in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients
and lack of control
of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the
difference between
the mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-content
required. The
factor controlling this difference is termed as quality control.
6.4.5 Mix Proportion Designations

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is
in the
terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a
concrete mix of
proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio
1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse
aggregate. The
proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-cement
ratio is usually expressed in mass.
Factors to be considered for mix design

• The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.
• The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of
concrete.
• Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as
possible within
the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
• The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
• The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to
size and shape
of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for
transportation, placing
and compaction.
A-1 Design stipulations for proportioning

i. Grade designation
ii. Type of cement: M20: OPC 43 grade confirming to IS 8112: 20 mm
52 | P a g e
iii. Minimum cement content : 3 2 0 k g / m3

iv. Maximum water cement ratio : 0.55
v. Workability : 75 mm (slump)
vi. Exposure condition : Mild
vii. Degree of supervision : Good
viii. Type of aggregate
ix. Maximum cement content
: Crushed angular aggregate
: 450 kg/m3
: 450 kg/m3
x. Chemical admixture : Not recommended ( used)
A-2 Test data for materials

a) Cement used : OPC 43 grade confirming to IS 8112
b) Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
c) Specific gravity of
Coarse aggregate : 2.68
Fine aggregate : 2.65
d) Water absorption
Coarse aggregate : 0.6 percent
Fine aggregate : 1.0 percent
e) Free (surface) moisture
Coarse aggregate : Nil (absorbed moisture full)
Fine aggregate : Nil
f) Sieve analysis
Coarse aggregate : Conforming to Table 2 of IS: 383
Fine aggregate : Conforming to Zone I of IS: 383
A-3 TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING

f’ck= fck + 1.65 s
Where
f’ck = Target average compressive strength at 28 days,
fck = Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days= Standard deviation
From Table 1 standard deviation, s = 4 N/mm2
Therefore target strength = 20 + 1.65 x 4 = 26.60 N/mm2
A-4 SELECTION OF WATER CEMENT RATIO

From Table 5 of IS: 456-2000, maximum water cement ratio = 0.55 (Mild
exposure) Based on experience adopt water cement ratio as 0.50
0.5 < 0.55, hence ok
A-5 SELECTION OF WATER CONTENT

From Table-2, maximum water content = 186 litres (for 25mm – 50mm slump range)
For 20 mm aggregates
53
| P a g e
Estimated water content for 75 mm slump = 186 + 3/100 x186 = 191.6 litres
A-6 CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT

Water cement ratio = 0.50
Cement content = 191.6/0.5 = 383 kg/m3 >320 kg/m3 (given)
From Table 5 of IS: 456, minimum cement content for mild exposure condition = 300
kg/m 3
Hence OK
A-7 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE

AND FINE AGGREGATE CONTENT
From Table 3, volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20 mm size aggregate and
fine
aggregate (Zone I) for water-cement ratio of 0.50 =0.60.
In the present case w/c ratio is 0.3.3.Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate is
required to be
increased to decrease the fine aggregate content. As the w/c ratio is lowered by
0.10, the
proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is increased by 0.02(at the rate of +/-
0.01 for every +/-
0.05 change in w/c ratio).Therefore, corrected proportion of volume of coarse
aggregate for the
w/c ratio of 0.5 = 0.62.
Volume of fine aggregate =1-0.62=0.38
A-8 MIX CALCULATIONS

The mix calculations per unit volume of concrete shall be as follows:
Volume of concrete (a): 1m3
Volume of cement (b) = (mass of cement/specific gravity of cement) *1/1000
= [383.1.16/3.1.15] x [1/1000] = 0.122 m3
Volume of water(c) = (mass of water/specific gravity of water) *1/1000
= [192/1] x [1/1000] = 0.192 m3
Volume of all in aggregates (e) = a-(b+c)= 1 – (0.122 + 0.192) =0.686
Mass of coarse aggregates = e * volume of coarse aggregates* specific gravity of
CA= 0.686 x
0.6 x 2.68 x 1000= 1103 kg
Volume of fine aggregates = e * volume of fine aggregates* specific gravity of FA=
0.686 x 0.4
x 2.65 x 1000= 727 kg
A-9 MIX PROPORTIONS FOR TRIAL NUMBER 1

Cement = 383 kg/m3
Water = 192 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 727 kg/m3
Coarse aggregates = 1103 kg/m3
Water cement ratio = 0.50
Yield =2404.6 kg
A-10 MIX CALCULATION FOR REQUIRED VOLUME OF CONCRETE

Volume of concrete = (0.15^3+π*0.15^2/4*30)*24=0.208m 3
Volume of cement = (383*0.208)*1/ (3.1.15*1000) = 0.025m3
Volume of water = (191.6*0.208)/ (1*1000) =0.04m3
Volume of all in aggregate = 0.208-(.025+.04) =0.143m3
54 | P a g e
Mass of coarse aggregate =0.143*0.62*2.68*1000=234.6kg

Mass of fine aggregate = 0.143*
.143* 0.38*2.68*1000 = 145.63kg
Table 6.12
.12 Calculation of plastic granules weight for the mix:
% replacement Weight of plastic granules Weight of coarse
used (kg) aggregate after
(by volume)
replacement
10 2.71 79.2-2.37=76.83
2.37=76.83
20 5.43 79.2-5.43=73.76
5.43=73.76
30 8.13 79.2-8.13=71.07
8.13=71.07
Fig 6.1 Mixing of concrete
55 | P a g e
6.5 Tests on concrete
6.5.1 Slump test
Workability is a term associated with freshly prepared concrete. This can be

defined as the ease
with which concrete can mixed, placed, compacted an andd finished. Slump test
is the most
commonly used method of measuring ‘workability’ of concrete in a laboratory or at
site of work.
It is used conveniently as a control test and gives an indication of uniformity of
concrete from
batch to batch. Vertical settlement
tlement of a standard cone of freshly prepared
concrete is called
‘slump’.
Apparatus:
Slump cone (bottom diameter = 20 cm, top diameter = 10 cm, height=30 cm), Weighing
balance,
tray, standard tamping rod, concrete mixer
Materials used:
Cement, Fine aggregate,
egate, stone chips (Coarse aggregate) and water Concrete Mix:
1:1.5:3
(W/C=0.5). The ingredients are by weight.
Fig 6.2 Slump test
56 | P a g e
Procedure:
1) Take Mix proportion: 1: 1.5:3 by weight; Use W/C ratio=-0.3.3.
2) Prepare three mixes.
3) Clean the internal surface of the mould thoroughly and it should be freed from
superfluous
moisture.
4) Place the mould on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non-absorbent surface, such
as a carefully
leveled metal plate, and fixed it.
5) Fill the mould with freshly prepared concrete in four layers and compact each
layer by
tamping with 25 strokes of tampering rod. After the top layer has been rodded,
struck off the
excess concrete, make level with a trowel or tamping rod.
6) Carefully lift the mould vertically upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete
cone.
7) Determine the level difference between the height of the mould and the highest
point of the
subsided concrete.
8) Height difference in mm is taken as Slump of concrete.
Table 6.13 Observation for slump test
S. N W/C ratio Percentage of plastic Height of mould Height of

subsided Slump H1–
replaced (%) H1 (mm) concrete H2 (mm)
H2 (in mm)
1. 0.5 0 300 240
60
2. 0.5 10 300 232
68
3. 0.5 20 300 225
75
4. 0.5 30 300 214
86
57 | P a g e
Graph 6.1
.1 Comparison of Slump Value
6.5.2
.5.2 Compaction factor test
Compaction Factor is used to indicate workability of concrete where nominal size of

aggregate
does not exceed 40mm. It is a measure of density of concrete to which a fresh
concrete mix can
be compacted for a standard energy iinput relative to the theoretical maximum
density
corresponding to zero air content. This theoretical maximum density can be
estimated in the
laboratory as that obtained by full compaction under mechanical vibration.
Compaction factor is
calculated as below:
Apparatus: Compaction Factor Apparatus, trowels, weighing balance.
Fig6.3: Compaction factor test
58 | P a g e
Procedure:
1. Prepare mix.
2. Clean the inner surface of the upper, lower hopper and cylindrical mould of th
compaction
factor apparatus.
3. Note down the dimensions of upper, lower hopper and cylindrical mould and record
the
dimension with a neat sketch of the apparatus in your report.
4. Take the weight of the cylinder, say W1.
5. Place the concrete mix in the upper hopper up to the brim.
6. Open trap door of upper hopper to allow concrete to fall in the lower hopper
7. Next open trap door of lower hopper to allow concrete to fall in to the
cylindrical mould.
8. For a dry mix, a slight poking by a rod may be required to set the concrete in
motion.
9. The concrete is made leveled at the top of the cylinder.
10. Take the weight of cylinder and partially compacted concrete, say W2.
11. The cylinder is emptied and then re-filled with the same sample of concrete in
layers
approximately 50 mm deep.
12. Each layer is heavily rammed (preferably vibrated) so as to obtain full

compaction.
13. Top surface is then carefully made levelled with the top of the cylinder.
14. Take weight of the fully compacted concrete with the mould, say W3.1.
15. Calculate compaction factor as below:
Observation:
Water cement ratio=0.50Wt. of cylinder, W1 =5.22 kg
59 | P a g e
Table 6.14
.14 Compaction factor test
SN % of Weight of Weight of Mass of Mass of fully 𝐶𝐹

concrete partially fully partially compacted 𝑤2 − 𝑤1
replaced compacted compacted compacted concrete,W3- = 𝑤3 − 𝑤1
concrete,W2 concrete,W3 concrete, W1
W2-W1
1 0 17.48 19.85 7.26 9.63 0.75
2 10 17.69 19.91 7.47 9.69
0.77
3 20 17.91 19.99 7.69 9.70
0.79
4 30 17.93 19.87 7.71 9.65
0.79
Graph 6.2 Comparison of Compaction Factor Test
6.5.3
.5.3 Compressive strength test
Testing hardened concrete plays an important role in controlling and conforming th
equality of
cement concrete work. The main factor in favour of the use of conc concrete
rete ins
tructures is its
compressive strength. One of the important properties of the hardened concrete is
its strength
60 | P a g e
which represents its ability to resist forces. The compressive strength of the
concrete is
considered to be the most important and is often taken as an index of the overall
quality of
concrete. The compressive strength of concrete is defined as the load which causes
the failure of
specimen per unit cross section on compression under given rate of loading.
Apparatus: Cube moulds 150mm size, weighing machine, ramming rods, compression
testing
machine
Procedure:
1) Take three cube moulds for each mix. Assemble the mould with base plate so that
it is rigidly
held together.
2) Clean the inside of the mould and see that joints (at the edges) are perfectly
tight.
3) Pour properly mixed concrete for the given mix to the cube moulds.
4) Compaction by needle vibrator will be preferred. If vibrator is not available,
hand compaction
is to be done by placing concrete in three layers; each layer be compacted with the
help of
standard temping rod by means of 25 blows.
5) Level the concrete at the top of the mould by means of trowel and give proper
identification
mark of the specimen.
6) Keep the cubes in laboratory for 24 hours.
7) After 24 hours, dismantle the plates of cube mould and take out the hardened
concrete cubes
carefully so that edges specimens are not damaged
.8) Immerse the cubes in curing tank filled with water. Keep it for curing up to 28
days.
9) Test the cubes after 7, 14 and 28 days of curing to find the compressive
strength. Tabulate
Compressive strength for each cube and calculate average value for each mix.
Table 6.15 Compressive strength test

% Weight (kg) Peak load
Compressive Strength
Granules (kN) (MPa)
added 7th 14th 28th 7th 14th 28th 7th
14th 28th
days days days days days days days
days days
0% 8.20 8.27 8.29 418.50 505.12 703.57 18.60
22.45 31.27
8.10 8.17 8.22 402.75 501.07 723.37 17.90
22.27 32.15
10 % 7.96 7.99 8.00 371.5 391.90 562.20 16.50
20.40 27.90
8.06 7.91 7.80 321.2 502.90 612.50 16.20
22.30 27.20
20 % 7.83 7.91 7.66 309 453.20 635.50 15.70
20.10 25.20
7.60 7.76 7.75 334.6 438.00 621.50 14.80
19.40 26.60
61 | P a g e
Graphs: Comparison of Compressive strength
Graph 6.3 Compressive strength of 0% vs 10%
62 | P a g e
63 | P a g e
Graph 6.6 Compressive

ssive strength of 0%, 10% and 30%
64 | P a g e
65 | P a g e
Results:
Compressive strength of plastic replaced concrete is compared with conventional

concrete. From
graph it is found that a compressive strength up to 80% is achieved for a mix of
waste plastic up
to 30% (as a replacement
eplacement for coarse aggregate) in concrete. The reduction in
compressive
strength of plastic replaced concrete is due to deficient bonding of plastic
granules in the matrix.
matrix
Fig 66.4 Compressive strength test
6.5.4 Split tensile test

Concrete iss not usually expected to resist the direct tension because of its low
tensile strength and
brittle nature. However the determination of tensile strength is necessary to
determine the load at
which the concrete members may crack. The cracking is a form of tensile failure.
Apparatus: Cylindrical moulds 300mm height and 150mm diameter, weighing machine,
ramming rods, compression testing machine
Procedure:
1) Take three cylindrical moulds for each mix. Assemble the mould with base plate
so that it is
rigidly held together.
2) Clean the inside of the mould and see that joints (at the edges) are perfectly
tight.
3) Pour properly mixed concrete for the given mix to the moulds.
66 | P a g e
4) Compaction by needle vibrator will be preferred. If vibrator is not available,

hand compaction
is to be done by placing concrete in three layers; each layer be compacted with the
help of
standard temping rod by means of 25 blows.
5) Level the concrete at the top of the mould by means of trowel and give proper
identification
mark of the specimen.
6) Keep the cylinders in laboratory for 24 hours.
7) After 24 hours, dismantle the mould and take out the hardened concrete cubes
carefully so that
specimens are not damaged.
8) Immerse the cylinders in curing tank filled with water. Keep it for curing up to
28 days.
9) Test the cylinders after 7, 14 and 28 days of curing to find the split tensile
strength.
10) Tabulate Split tensile strength for each cylinder and calculate average value
for each
mix.
Table 6.16 Split Tensile Test
% Weight (kg) Peak load

Compressive Strength
Granules (kN)
(MPa)
added 7th 14th 28th 7th days 14th 28th 7th
14th 28th
days days days days days days
days days
0% 12.45 12.49 12.50 165.87 183.80 226.99 3.61
4.00 4.94
12.39 12.52 12.48 164.04 181.04 220.56 3.57
3.94 4.80
10 % 12.30 12.44 12.16 96.50 123.60 150.00 2.10
2.70 3.30
12.20 12.30 12.38 103.90 135.10 154.40 2.30
3.00 3.40
20 % 12.01 12.11 12.10 161.30 180.30 206.60 3.50
4.00 4.50
12.00 12.14 12.08 127.20 166.70 204.20 2.80
3.70 4.40
30 % 11.82 11.86 11.73 116.40 134.60 172.80 2.50
2.90 3.80
11.76 11.72 11.67 124.60 150.80 179.70 2.70
3.30 3.90
67 | P a g e
Graph 6.7 Comparison of split tensile strength
68 | P a g e
Graph 6.8 Split tensile strength of 0% vs 20%
69 | P a g e
Graph 6.9 Split tensile strength of 0% vs 30%
70 | P a g e
Graph 6.10 Split tensile strength of 0%, 10% and 30%
71 | P a g e
Results:
Split tensile strength up to 70% is achieved for a mix of waste plastic up to 90%
(as a
replacement for coarse aggregate) in concrete. The reduction
eduction in strength of
plastic replaced
concrete is due to deficient bonding of plastic granules in the matrix.
Fig6.5: Split tensile test
72 | P a g e
CHAPTER 7
7.1 CONCLUSION
The experimental results have shown the use of waste plastic material in making
concrete/mortar
can provide an alternative solution to minimize the environmental impact due to
unscientific
disposal of waste plastic.
The following conclusions were drawn:
• The properties of concrete containing various percentage of plastic (0%, 10%,

20%, and 30%)
were tested for its physical properties and compressive strength.
• The waste plastic used for experiments is of LDPE (Low Density Poly Ethylene), 5-
7mm size
and specific gravity of waste plastic is found to be 0.92.
• The compressive strength of test concrete is compared with plain concrete (fig
1.1) and it is
found that the compressive strength up to 80% is achieved for a mix of waste
plastic up to 30%
(as a replacement for coarse aggregate) in concrete. Hence it is recommended for
light weight
concrete structures.
• The mechanical properties of the test concrete did not display any notable
differences
depending on the color of the plastic waste.
• This research also has potential application for the production of lightweight
concrete, for
minimizing the amount of polymer wastes in landfills, and the creation of
decorative, attractive
landscaping products.
7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• A better workability is achieved for plastic reinforced concrete in comparison to

the
conventional one.
• Considerable reduction in the weight results in the formation of light weight

concrete.
plastic granules
Dept. of Civil Engineering, TOCE, BANGALORE .
• Recycled plastic in the construction purpose can set a benchmark by utilizing the
non-bio-
degradable waste and eventually minimizing the environmental pollution.
73 | P a g e
Disadvantages:
 Strength achieved for the plastic replaced concrete is slightly less than the
conventional
concrete but can be improved by the use of admixtures.
 Cost of plastic is high in the place where we need to buy from the dealers
and hence the
cost of construction also increases.
 There is no proper bonding of plastic materials in the matrix unless

admixtures are Used.
 Plastics may be degraded under the action of direct sunlight which reduces
their
mechanical strength.
 Many plastics are flammable unless treated.
 High embodied energy content
 Low modulus of elasticity: makes them unsuitable for load-bearing
applications.
 Thermoplastics are subject to creep and soften at moderate temperatures.
 Thermal expansion for most plastics is high: adequate thermal movement has to
be
allowed in detailing.
 Plastics are having low bonding properties so that the strength of concrete
gets
reduced such as compressive,tensile and flexural strength.
 Its melting point is low so that it cannot be used in furnaces because it
gets melt as
its comes in contact with the heat at high temperature.
74 | P a g e
CHAPTER 8
Scope of future work

The present research can be extended to
 The test can be carried out for different grades of concrete.
 The use of admixtures in the test can be performed to get improved strength.
 Experimental study has to be conducted for other varieties of plastics like

HDPE, PP,
PET etc.
 The durability of such a concrete has to be tested for beams and columns with
varying
proportions of waste plastic at different ages.
 The use of waste plastics in concrete is relatively a new development in the

world of
concrete technology and lot of research must go in before this material is
actively used in
concrete construction.
 The use of plastics in concrete lowered the strength of resultant concrete,

therefore, the
research must be oriented towards ternary systems that helps in overcoming
this
drawback of use of plastics in concrete.
 Estimation of the types, quantity and useful components present in the waste
plastic
materials in the city and surrounding areas.
 Methodology for collection and sorting out the useful components of the
plastic waste.
 Carrying out further laboratory investigations, construction of some test

tracks and field
studies on the performance of concrete using the modified concrete.
 Working out relative economics of using the modified concrete mixes in road
construction works, considering the improved performance and increased service
life of
the pavement.
 Preparation of specifications and standards for the construction industry.
 The studies can be further extended by addition of admixtures to make the

concrete not to
alter its strength considerably even with the addition of more percentage of
plastic waste.
 Durability studies can be conducted so as to study its properties in the long

run.
 Tensile strength can be studied where concrete needs more tensile capacity.
75 | P a g e
CHAPTER 9
REFERENCES
1. Praveen Mathew, Shibi Varghese, Thomas Paul - Recycled Plastics as Coarse

Aggregate for
Structural Concrete, IJIRSET, March 2013
2. Lakshmi, Nagan.S, Studies on Concrete containing E plastic waste, INTERNATIONAL

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, 2010
3. IS 10262 (2009): Guidelines for concrete mix design.
4. MS Shetty, Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, Revised Edition, 2010
5. V. Kasselouri - Rigopoulou, S. Gavela, S. Kolias “Use Of Polymeric Wastes in The

Concrete
Production” Polymers in concrete: a vision for the 21st century, Cement & Concrete
Composites
6. Comprehensive literature review on use of waste product in concrete B.V.Bahoria,

Research
Scholar, Civil Engg. Dept., YCCE, Nagpur, India Dr. D.K. Parbat, Professor, Civil
Engg. Dept,
Government Polytechnic, Sakoli,Bhandara, India Dr.P.B.Naganaik, Professor, Civil
Engg. Dept,
GHRCE, Nagpur, India Dr.U.P.Waghe, Professor, Civil Engg. Dept, Y.C.C.E , Nagpur,
India
7. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering

(IJITEE), ISSN:
2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-2, January 2013 Utilization of Recycled Wastes as
Ingredients in
concrete Mix, Nitish Puri, Brijesh Kumar, Himanshu Tyagi
8. Nabajyoti Saikia and Jorge de Brito,”Use of plastic aggregate in cement mortor

and concrete
preparation”, Construction and Building materials, Vol:34, 2012,page no:385-401.
9. K.Balakrishna, C Sukesh, P.S.Teja, M.T.Meher,” Partial replacement of fine

Aggregates with
waste plastic in concrete”, International Journal of Civil Engineering Research,
Vol.3,
No:2,2012, page no:105-113.1.Behaviour of concrete by partial replacement of coarse
aggregate
with recycled plastic granules Dept. of Civil Engineering, TOCE, BANGALORE Page 68
10. Mechanical Study on Concrete with Waste Plastic J.N.S. Suryanarayana Raju, M.
Senthil
Pandian, Department of civil Engineering, VIT University, Chennai, India
International Journal
of Research in Civil Engineering, Architecture & Design Volume 1, Issue 1, July-
September,
2013
11. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering Website:

www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012) Experimental
Investigation on
the Properties of Concrete With Plastic PET (Bottle) Fibers and aggregates.
76 | P a g e
12. M. A. Kamaruddin et al. (2000) : “Potential use of Plastic Waste as

Construction Materials:
Recent Progress and Future Prospect”
13. K.S.Rebeiz and A.P.Craft (2000) : “Plastic waste management in construction:

technological
and institutional issues”
14. Oriyomi M. Okeyinka et al. (2001) : “A Review on Recycled Use of Solid Wastes
in
Building Materials”
15. Ahmed Trimbakwala (2003) : “Plastic Roads Use of Waste Plastic in Road
Construction”
16. Azmat Shaikh, Nabeel Khan, Faisal Shah, Devendra Shukla, Gaurav Kale (2003):
“Use of
Plastic Waste in Road Construction”
17. Mohammed Jalaluddin (2003): “Use of Plastic Waste in Civil Constructions and
Innovative
Decorative Material (Eco- Friendly)”
18. Mojtaba et al. (2006) : “Using plastic instead of bricks in Buildings”
19. Shilpi et al. (2006) : “Plastic PET bottles use in bottle brick technique”
Puttaraj et al. (2006)
: “Use of waste plastic in plastic-soil brick”
20. Pratima et al. (2008): “Solution to plastic pollution problems in landfills”
21. Arulmalar et al. (2009) : “Use of PET bottles in construction”
22. Vikram Pakrashi et al. (2010) : “Light weight Eco-bricks for Construction”
23. Andreas Froese et al. (2011) : “Research on PET bottle walls”
24. Seltzer et al. (2011): “Buildings made out of glass bottles”
25. Job Bwire & Arithea Nakiwala et al. (2012) : “Water bottle housing”
26. S. Rajasekaran et al. (2014) : “Reuse of waste plastic coated aggregate”
27. Sasane Neha et al. (2015) : “Application of waste plastic as an effective

construction material
in flexible pavement”
Mercy Joseph Poweth, Solly George and Jessy Paul (2018) : “Study on use of plastic
waste in
road construction”
Huda Shafiq and Anzar Hamid (2018) : “Plastic Roads: A Recent Advancement in Waste
Management”.
77 | P a g e
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Evaluation of use of Plastic Waste in Construction

A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT ON

“Evaluation of Use of plastic Waste in Construction”

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA , BHOPAL (M.P.)

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

Guided By- Submitted By-

DR. R.K. AGRAWAL 1) SHUBHAM BHARGAVA

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MEDI-CAPS ISTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, RAU, INDORE-453331

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

It is recommended that the project entitled - "Evaluation of Use of plastic

Dr. R.K. Agrawal

Supervisor and Head of Department Internal Examiner

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

The most awaited moment of successful completion of an endeavor is always a

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Medi-Caps Institute of Science and Technology

Dr. R.K. Agrawal

Professor and Head of Department

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Internal Examiner External Examiner

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

S.No. TITLE PAGE NO.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 15-24

8. FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK 75

S.NO. TABLE NAME TABLE NO.

15 Compaction factor test 6.14

16 Compressive strength test 6.15

S.NO. CHART NAME CHART NO.

1 Number of scientific articles published on 1.1

3 Comparison of Compaction Factor Test 6.2

4 Compressive strength of 0% vs 10% 6.3

5 Compressive strength of 0% vs 20% 6.4

6 Compressive strength of 0% vs 30% 6.5

7 Compressive strength of 0%, 10% and 6.6

9 Split tensile strength of 0% vs 20% 6.8

10 Split tensile strength of 0% vs 30% 6.9

11 Split tensile strength of 0%, 10% and 30% 6.10

Presently, different types of waste materials and industrial byproducts such as

in landfills. Again, the recycling of all sorts of waste materials is sustainable

Utilization of recycled waste plastics in concrete as a partial aggregate

❖ To compare the compressive strength of Recycled Plastics used as Coarse

❖ To know its applications in construction industry.

❖ To reduce the pressure on naturally available materials by replacing it with

❖ Compare the physical characteristics of natural aggregate with Plastic recycled

❖ To study it’s behaviour in construction of pavements and roads.

❖ To produce lightweight polymer concrete for multi-purpose use.

2.2 Earlier Researches

1) M. A. Kamaruddin et al. (2000) : “Potential use of Plastic Waste as

2) K.S.Rebeiz and A.P.Craft (2000) : “Plastic waste management in

The main objective of a solid waste management system is to effectively safeguard

3) Oriyomi M. Okeyinka et al. (2001) : “A Review on Recycled Use of Solid

4) Ahmed Trimbakwala (2003) : “Plastic Roads Use of Waste Plastic in Road

India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilo-metres (3,400,233 mi) as on 31

6) Mohammed Jalaluddin (2003): “Use of Plastic Waste in Civil Constructions

7) Mojtaba et al. (2006) : “Using plastic instead of bricks in Buildings”

Concluded that by utilizing PET bottles in construction recycled materials, thermal

9) Puttaraj et al. (2006) : “Use of waste plastic in plastic-soil brick”

11) Arulmalar et al. (2009) : “Use of PET bottles in construction”