1.

1 Introduction

In practical work, the calculation of the detection depth of the electromagnetic (EM) method is

very important for survey design and data interpretation. However, due to the influence of

instrument accuracy and noise, the actual detection depth is limited. In the field of EM

exploration, the skin depth is usually used to calculate the exploration depth, which is an important

parameter for EM data interpretation and imaging.

The phenomenal of skin depth is arising due to unequal distribution of current over the

entire cross section of the conductor being used for long distance power transmission is referred as

the skin effect in transmission lines.

1.2 Report Problem Statement

The transition from direct current to alternating current caused the emergence of Skin Depth

phenomenon, and every increase in frequency increased this phenomenon.

1.3 The Objectives of Report

1. To know Skin Depth phenomenon.

2. To know how to reduce Skin Effect.

3. To be able how to calculate Skin Depth.

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2.1 Definition of Skin Depth

The skin effect is a phenomenon whereby alternating electric current does not flow uniformly with

respect to the cross-section of a conductive element, such as a wire. The current density is highest

near the surface of the conductor and decreases exponentially as distance from the surface

increases.

"Skin depth" refers to the point at which the current density reaches approximately

37% of its value at the surface of the conductor. Calculating skin depth requires the frequency of

the AC signal and the resistivity and relative permeability of the conductive material. To use this

calculator, just select the material type and enter the signal frequency. The resistivity and relative

permeability of the chosen material will be automatically given. Figure 2.1 below shows the

distribution of current flow in cross section.

Figure 2.1 The distribution of current flow in a cylindrical conductor

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2.2 No Skin Depth in DC

In AC, a changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field, and a changing electric field

creates a changing magnetic field. When AC flows in a wire, a changing magnetic field is created

in the wire. This induces its own current in the wire in the opposite direction to the original.

Depending on the exact geometry of the situation, you will get areas of constructive interference

and destructive interference. In a circular conductor, the 'current density' will decrease as you go

from the outside of the wire to the inside of the wire. Not 'all' the current flows on the surface, but

it is distributed more densely near the surface. In DC, of course the magnetic field is not

changing, so no opposing currents are induced.

2.3 Applications of Skin Depth

current will flow. It is unnecessary (or in some cases wasteful) to use a wire with a radius that is

significantly larger than the skin depth, because most of the current flows in the skin-depth region

regardless of the size of the conductor.

The concept of skin depth might be better appreciated with the help of a real-world

example. Consider RF signals for WiFi or Bluetooth, which operate at 2.4 GHz. Using the

calculator, we see that the skin depth with a copper conductor is 1.331 micrometers. This means

that even with a very thin (e.g., 30 AWG) wire, only a tiny fraction of the wire is carrying a

significant amount of current.

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2.4 Cause of Skin Depth

Conductors, typically in the form of wires, may be used to transmit electrical energy or signals

using an alternating current flowing through that conductor. The charge carriers constituting that

current, usually electrons, are driven by an electric field due to the source of electrical energy. A

current in a conductor produces a magnetic field in and around the conductor. When the intensity

of current in a conductor changes, the magnetic field also changes. The change in the magnetic

field, in turn, creates an electric field which opposes the change in current intensity. This opposing

electric field is called “counter-electromotive force” (back EMF). The back EMF is strongest at

the center of the conductor, and forces the conducting electrons to the outside of the conductor, as

shown in Figure 2.2 below.

Regardless of the driving force, the current density is found to be greatest at the

conductor's surface, with a reduced magnitude deeper in the conductor. That decline in current

density is known as the skin effect and the skin depth is a measure of the depth at which the

current density falls to 1/e of its value near the surface. Over 98% of the current will flow within a

layer 4 times the skin depth from the surface. This behavior is distinct from that of direct

current which usually will be distributed evenly over the cross-section of the wire.

An alternating current may also be induced in a conductor due to an alternating

magnetic field according to the law of induction. An electromagnetic wave impinging on a

conductor will therefore generally produce such a current; this explains the reflection of

electromagnetic waves from metals. Although the term "skin effect" is most often associated with

applications involving transmission of electric currents, the skin depth also describes the

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 exponential decay of the electric and magnetic fields, as well as the density of induced currents,

inside a bulk material when a plane wave impinges on it at normal incidence.

Figure 2.2 Cause of the skin effect

2.5 Is Skin Depth Good or Bad?

The skin effect is a usually undesirable effect which occurs when using AC signals. It causes the

outer surface - the "skin" of the wire - to be used more than the inner surface for carrying current -

engineers say the surface has a higher "current density", or amperes per meter squared. This

causes an increase in the effective resistance of the wire.

Because the outer surface must carry more current the wire is more expensive, because

you can't get rid of the inner surface easily. In electrical power distribution, the skin effect is very

important, because it decides the type and thickness of the wire you use.

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 Skin depth reduces at higher frequencies. Carrying a 50 Hz signal takes less wire than

a 1 kHz signal, for example. Skin depth also varies with the type of wire.

2.5.1 Reducing the Skin Effect

 ACSR bundled conductor is used to reduce the skin effect. ACSR conductors are the steel is

placed inside of or center of the conductor and the aluminium conductor is positioned around

steel wire. The steel increased the strength of the conductor but reduced the surface area of the

conductor. Thus, the current flow mostly in the outer layer of the conductor and no current is

carried in the centre of the conductor. Thus, reduced the proximity effect on the conductor.

 Use cable material with less magnetic permeability. (This reduces the effect, but usually

comes at the cost of higher basic resistance per unit length, so it may be OK if the lines are

short.)

 Reduce the size of the conductor.

 Increasing the voltage by reducing the current which decreases the skin effect in the same

conductor.

2.5.2 Importance of Skin Depth

Importance of skin depth ( to be taken care while designing) is:

 It conveys you that resistive element of line increases, in turn voltage drop, with decrease in

depth.

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  As skin depth reduces, it will have less power handling capacity.

 Skin depth conveys you how much material (inner) is not required in building transmission

line. This will save material (in turn cost) and it reduces the weight (easy handling).

 Decrease in skin depth creates power concentration increase on surface and thus nearby area

you need more space to avoid discharge and sparking as well as give rise to capacitive effect.

 It will increases loss tangent as leakage will increase.

2.6 Factors Affecting Skin Effect

 Frequency – Skin effect increases with the increase in frequency.

 Diameter – It increases with the increase in diameter of the conductor.

 The shape of the conductor – Skin effect is more in the solid conductor and less in the

stranded conductor because the surface area of the solid conductor is more.

 Type of material – Skin effect increase with the increase in the permeability of the

material (Permeability is the ability of material to support the formation of the magnetic

field).

2.7 Points to Remember

 The Skin effect is negligible if the frequency is less than the 50Hz and the diameter of the

conductor is less than the 1cm.

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  In the stranded conductors like Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) the

current flows mostly in the outer layer made of aluminum, while the steel near the center

carries no current and gives high tensile strength to the conductor. The concentration of

current near the surface enabled the use of ACSR conductor.

2.8 Attenuation and Skin Depth

2.8.1 Attenuation

Attenuation defines the rate of amplitude

loss an EM wave experiences at it

propagates (Figure 2.3). The attenuation

of an EM wave is defined by the

parameter β. For a downgoing lanewave,

the attenuation formula is given by: Figure 2.3 Skin depth is defined as the
depth at which the amplitude of the
wave has been reduced by 1/e

where absolute A is the amplitude, A0 is

the absolute amplitude at z = 0 m and:

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2.8.2 Skin Depth

Skin depth defines the distance a wave must travel before its amplitude has decayed by a

factor of 1/e. The skin depth is the reciprocal of the decay constant β. Thus:

Since β depends on the frequency and the physical properties of the media, so does the

skin depth. For a general case, the skin depth can be considered a fairly complicated function.

However, approximations exist in the quasi-static and wave regimes.

2.8.3 Skin Depth for Various Materials

The Table 2.1 below shows skin depths for certain rocks at various frequencies. This is meant

to serve as a general guide, as rock types are classified by a range of physical properties

values which can lead to order of magnitude differences in skin depth.

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 Table 2.1 Skin depths for certain rocks at various frequencies

Type σ μr ϵr δ (1Hz) δ (1kHz) δ (1MHz) δ (1GHz)

Air 0 S/m 1 1 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

Sea Water 3.3 S/m 1 80 277 m 8.76 m 0.277 m 0.015 m

Igneous 10−4 S/m 1 5 50,300 m 1,590 m

Sedimentary
10−3 S/m 1 5 15,900 m 18 m 11 m
500 m
(dry)

Sedimentary
10−2 S/m 1 25 5,000 m 160 m 5.4 m
2.6 m
(wet)

Sulphide Skarn 102 S/m 1 5 50 m 1.6 m 0.05 m 0.002 m

Magnetite Skarn 102 S/m 2 5 36 m 1.1 m 0.04 m 0.01

2.8.4 Approximations

 Quasi-Static Approximation

In the quasi-static regime (ϵω<<σ), the skin depth is approximately equal to:

Assuming the Earth is non-magnetic (μ=μ0=4π×10−7 H/m) and replacing ω=2πf, a

simpler form of the skin depth is given by:

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 Where ρ=1/σ is the resistivity. Thus from the previous two equations, we see that the

skin depth decreases as the conductivity σ, magnetic permeability μ and frequency ω increase.

In most cases however, the magnetic properties are negligible as μ~μ0.

 Wave-Regime Approximation

In the wave regime (ϵω>>σ), the skin depth is approximately equal to:

Assuming the Earth is non-magnetic (μ=μ0=4π×10−7 H/m) and by using the relative

permittivity ϵr=ϵ/ϵ0, a simpler form of the skin depth is given by:

Thus from the previous two equations, we see that the skin depth decreases

proportional (ϵr)1/2/σ; provided the magnetic properties are negligible (μ~μ0). The below

shows skin depths for some representative rocks and frequencies in the wave regime. To see

how physical properties and frequencies affect skin depth, check out the app.

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 REFERENCES

1. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/tools/skin-depth-calculator//

2. https://www.everythingrf.com/community/what-is-skin-depth

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effect/

4.https://www.researchgate.net/post/Why_does_an_AC_current_tend_to_flow_in_th
e_outer_area_of_a_conductor_and_why_does_this_skin_effect_increases_as_thefrequency
increases/

5.https://www.electrical4u.net/why-question/what-is-skin-effect-reduce-skin-effect-in-
transmission-lines//

6. https://circuitglobe.com/skin-
effect.html#:~:text=Frequency%20%E2%80%93%20Skin%20effect%20increases%20with
,the%20solid%20conductor%20is%20more.

7.https://em.geosci.xyz/content/maxwell1_fundamentals/harmonic_planewaves_homogeneo
us/skindepth.html

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