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WSE05101 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER ONE
THEODOLITE
1.1 Introduction
This is the first lecture notes of the lecture series for the module Topographic Surveying. The objective of the
topic (theodolite is to enable student of NTA Level5 at the Water Institute to able to measure horizontal and
vertical angles using a theodolite.
Horizontal and vertical angles are fundamental measurements in surveying. The vertical angle is used in
obtaining the elevation of points (trigonometric levelling) and in the reduction of slant (slope) distance to the
horizontal. Horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain direction to a survey control point, or to topographic
detail points, or to points to be set out.

Theodolite is an instrument used for measurement of angles in surveying. Horizontal and vertical circles of
theodolite can be likened to circular protractors set in horizontal and vertical planes respectively. It follows
that, although the points observed are at different elevations, it is always the horizontal angle and not the space
angle which is measured.

Basically there are two types of theodolites in common use:

(i) The optical mechanical type
(ii) The electronic digital type

1.2 Parts of a theodolite:

The basic features of a typical theodolite are:-
1. The Trivet stage forming the base of the instrument and connects it to the tripod head.
2. The tribrach supports the rest of the instrument and with reference to the plate bubble can be levelled
using foot screws which act against the fixed trivet stage
3. The lower plate carries the horizontal circle which is made of glass, with graduations from 0 0 to 3600.
4. The upper plate carries the horizontal circle index and fits concentric with the lower plate.
5. The plate bubble attached to the upper plate and when centred, using the foot screws, establishes the
instrument axis vertical.
6. The standards which supports the telescope by means of its transit axis.
7. The vertical circle similar in construction to the horizontal circle is fixed to the telescope axis and
rotates with rotation of the telescope.

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8. The vertical index, against which the vertical angles are measured, is set normal to the gravity by
means of altitude bubble.
9. The lower plate clamp anables the horizontal circle to be clamped into a fixed position.
10. The lower plate slow motion sewers, which permit slow movement of the theodolite around its vertical
axis. Most modern theodolites have replaced the lower plate clamp and slow motion screw with a
horizontal circle setting screws.
11. The upper plate clamp and its associated slow motion screw have the same effect as the lower plate
clamp and its slow motion on the horizontal circle index.
12. The telescope clamp and slow motion screw fix and allow slow movement of the telescope in the
vertical plane.
13. The altitude bubble screw center the altitude bubble, attached to the vertical circle index.
14. The optical plummet, built into either the base of the instrument or the tribrach, enable the instrument
to be centred over the survey station.
15. The telescopes are similar to those of optical level.
16. Mirror for illuminating the circle readings (for optical-mechanic theodolites). See figure 1.

Figure 1.1: Electronic Theodolite

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 Figure 1.2: Features of a Typical Theodolite

1.3 Adjustments of theodolite:

There are two types of adjustments carried out on theodolites.
1. Temporary adjustments
2. Permanent adjustment is to be discussed at the end of this topic.

Temporary adjustments:
Temporary adjustments are those which carried out at every instrument setting and preparatory to taking
observations with the instrument. The temporary adjustments are:
(1) Setting the instrument over the station
(2) Levelling up the instrument
(3) Eliminating parallax

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Procedures:

(1) Setting Up:

This involves setting up the tripod above the station and attaching the instrument over the tripod head. The
procedures are as follows:

a) Stretch the tripod legs such that the lengths are approximately equal

b) Fix the tripod above the station with the tripod plate as level as possible and with two tripod legs on the
downhill side, if applicable.
c) Stand back a pace or two and see if the instrument appears to be over the station. If it does not, adjust the
location, and check again from a pace or two away.
d) Move to a position 900 opposed to the original inspection location and repeat step c. (Note: This simple act
of "eyeing-in" the instrument from two directions, 90 0 opposed, takes only seconds but could save a great
deal of time in the long run.)
e) Open the instrument casing/housing noting how the instrument is placed in, this will assist replacing in the
instrument. Remove the instrument from its casing/housing and fix it tightly on the tripod head/plate.
f) Check to see that the station point can now be seen through the optical plummet (or that the laser plummet
spot is reasonably close to the setup mark) and then firmly push in the tripod legs by pressing down on the
tripod shoe spurs.
g) If the point is not visible in the optical plumb sight, leave one leg in the ground, lift the other two legs, and
rotate the instrument, all the while looking through the optical plumb sight. When the point is sighted,
carefully lower the two legs to the ground, keeping the station point in view.
h) While looking through the optical plummet (or at the laser spot), manipulate the leveling screws until the
cross hair (bull's-eye) of the optical plummet or the laser spot is directly on the station mark.

(2) Levelling:
Levelling the circular bubble

The following procedure is used for levelling a theodolite:

a) Adjusting the tripod legs up or down. This step is accomplished by noting which leg, when slid up or
down, would move the circular bubble into the bull's-eye. Upon adjusting that leg, the bubble will either
move into the circle (the instrument is level), or it will slide around until it is exactly opposite to another
tripod leg.
b) Adjusted the leg up or down until the bubble moves into the circle. If the bubble does not move into the
circle, adjust the leg until the bubble is directly opposite another leg and repeat the process. If this
manipulation has been done correctly, the bubble will be centered after the second leg has been adjusted; it
is seldom necessary to adjust the legs more than three times.
c) Perform a check through the optical plummet or note the location of the laser spot to confirm that it is still
quite close to being over the station mark.
d) Turn one (or more) leveling screw(s) to ensure that the circular bubble is now centered exactly (if
necessary).

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e) Loosen the tripod clamp bolt a bit and slide the instrument on the flat tripod top (if necessary) until the
optical plummet or laser spot is centered exactly on the station mark. Retighten the tripod clamp bolt and
reset the circular bubble, if necessary. When sliding the instrument on the tripod top, do not twist the
instrument, but move it in a rectangular fashion. This precaution ensures that the instrument will not go
seriously off level if the tripod top itself is not close to being level.

Levelling the tubular bubble

a) Turn the plate bubble parallel to a line joining any two-foot screws.
b) Hold these two-foot screws between the thumb and first finger of each hand and turn them simultaneously
on opposite direction of the left thumb until the bubble is centered.
c) Turn the plate bubble through 900 so that it is aligned with the third foot screw, turn this screw until the
bubble is centered
d) Return the tubular bubble through 900 to its original position and repeat step 2 till the bubble is centered.
e) As a check, rotate the instrument through 1800. The bubble should remain in the central position if it is
correctly adjusted. If not it needs permanent adjustment.

(3)Elimination of parallax
The following procedure is adopted to eliminate parallax:
a) Focusing the eyepiece: To focus the eye piece, point the telescope towards sky (not to the sun) or hold a
piece of paper in front of the objective, and move the eye piece in and out or rotate it until the cross-hairs
appears sharp and dark.
b) Focusing the object: Direct the telescopes towards the object to be sighted turn the focusing screw till the
image appears clear and sharp. The image so formed is in the plane of cross hairs.

1.4 Terms used in Theodolite:

1. The vertical axis: The vertical axis is the axis about which the whole instrument rotates in the
horizontal plane.
2. The horizontal axis: The horizontal or trunnion axis is the axis about which the telescope and the
vertical circle rotate in the vertical plane.
3. The line of sight or line of collimation: Is the line passing through the intersection of the horizontal
and vertical cross hairs and the optical center of the objective glass and its continuation
4. The axis of the level tube: The axis of the level tube or the bubble line is a straight tangential to the
longitudinal curve of the level tube at its center. The axis of the level tube is horizontal when the
bubble is central.
5. Transiting: It is the process of turning the telescope in vertical plane through 180 0 about the trunnion
axis.
6. Swinging the telescope: It is the process of turning the telescope in horizontal plane.
7. Face left observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the left of the observer, the observation is
known as face left observation.

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8. Face right observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the right of the observer, the observation
is known as face right observation.
9. Changing face: It is an operation of bringing the face of the telescope from left to right and vice versa.

1.5 Measurement of angles:

Horizontal angles:
Although the theodolite or total station is a very complex instrument the measurement of horizontal
and vertical angles is a simple concept. The horizontal and vertical circles of the instrument should be
regarded as circular protractors graduated from 0◦ to 360◦ in a clockwise manner. Then a simple
horizontal angle measurement between three survey points A, B and C in the sense of measuring at B
clockwise from A to C would be as shown in Figure 2.3. To measure the horizontal angle ABC, the
following procedure is adopted:

Procedures:
1. Set up the instrument at point B level it accurately using normal levelling procedures.
With the instrument on face left, release all clamps.
2. Turn the telescope towards the target at A. Fix the horizontal clamp; bisect the target
accurately using horizontal slow motion screw.
3. Press {0} twice to set horizontal angle to 0o00’00”, read and record the horizontal
circle readings.
4. Release the horizontal clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to bisect a target at
point C. Fix the horizontal clamp and accurately bisect a target at C using horizontal slow
motion screw. Read and record the horizontal circle readings as face left (FL) reading.
5. Transit the telescope to change face, release horizontal clamp, swing the telescope to
sight a target at point C fix the horizontal clamp, use the horizontal slow motion screw to
accurately bisect a target at C, read and record the horizontal circle readings as face right (FR)
reading.
6. Release the horizontal clamp, swing the telescope in anticlockwise direction and
bisect a target at point A. Fix the horizontal clamp and accurately bisect a target using
horizontal slow motion screw. Read and record the horizontal circle readings as face right
reading.
7. Set initial horizontal circle reading to 90o00’00”. Repeat steps 2, 4, 5 and 6 to obtain a
second set of angle.

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The first two sets shows displayed angles while the last two sets shows standard record and reduction
of horizontal angles in Land Surveying profession. Engineers in most cases adopt the first method to
make angle measurements. In whatever method used the results remain the same.

WATER INSTITUTE
Reduction of Horizontal Angles
Inst. stn Target stn FL FR Mean Reduced Mean Angle Final Angle
o o
B A 00 01’40” 180 02’00”        
  C 93o03’26” 273o03’20”     93o01’28”  
B A 90o05’00” 270o05’08”        
  C 183o06’20” 03o06’18”     93o01’15” 93o01’22”
               
B A 00o01’40” 02’00” 01’50”      
  C 93o03’26” 03’20” 03’18” 01’28” 93o01’28”  
B A 90o05’00” 05’08” 05’04”      
  C 183o06’20” 06’18” 06’19” 01’15” 93o01’15” 93o01’22”

B C

Figure 1.3: General method of angle measurement

Measurement by reiteration method

The method is generally used when observing a set of angles as shown in the give below. The angles are
observed, commencing from A as explained above, and recording all the readings, as the instrument moves
from point to point in a clockwise direction. On completing at D, face is changed and the observations
repeated moving from D in an anticlockwise direction to A. Finally the mean directions are reduced relatives
to the starting direction, this constitute a single set.
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Observation may be repeated by setting different initial reading, and the steps outlined above are repeated to
complete a second set of angle. If measuring in sets 180 0/n alter the initial readings each time.
A

C
D

B E
Figure 1.4: Measurement of sets of angles

Measurement by Repetition method:

The method of measurement requires the use of a lower plate clamp and slow motion screw arrangement. In
modern theodolite have replaced this with a horizontal circle reading setting screw, there by bunkering this
method absolute to a large extend.
To measure angle ABC the procedure would be as follows:
1 Observe a target B on face left (FL) and record the reading say r 1.
2 Release upper clamp and sight to a target C record the reading purely as a check. Clamp the upper
clamp.
3 Release the lower clamp rotate the telescope right carrying the reading forward, and sight A again.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 n number of times, and record the nth reading say r n. The angle is also measured
on face right (FR).
The angle deduced from FL reading only would be ( rn- r1)/n, and similarly for FR. The mean value
comprises the value of one set.

1.6 Measurement of Vertical Angles

Vertical angles are measured relative to the horizontal plane defined by the vertical bubble. Before
reading vertical angles, the vertical bubble (altitude bubble) if available should first be centered to
make the vertical index horizontal.
Vertical circles are graduated from 0o to 360o with either, the 90o - 270o graduations or the 0o - 180o
graduations defining the horizontal. The procedures adopted in measuring vertical angles are as
follows:

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1. With the instrument in face left, release the vertical clamp. Rotate the telescope vertically to bisect a
target, use the vertical slow motion screw to bisect the target accurately.
2. Level the altitude bubble (if available), read and record the vertical circle reading as FL reading.
3. Transit the telescope to change face, re-bisect a target.
4 Level the altitude bubble read and records the vertical circle reading as FR reading.

1.7 Errors in Angular Measurements

Angular measurements are affected by the three types of errors i.e. systematic errors, Random errors and Gross
errors.

These errors are due to the following sources:

1. Observation or personal
2. Instrument being badly made or unadjusted (instrumental errors)
3. Natural sources

1.7.1 Personal errors

Personal errors are due to
(a) Error in manipulation which includes
(i) Inaccurate centering
(ii) Inaccurate levelling
(iii) Slip due to lower trivet stage and clamps not firmly tightened
(iv) Manipulating wrong slow motion screw e.g. lower tangent screw instead of upper

(b) Error due to sighting and reading - They include,

(i) Inaccurate bisection of point/targets
(ii) Parallax, if parallax not eliminates objects/targets will not be accurately bisected.
(iii) Mistakes in setting micrometer(for optical-micrometer type), taking reading and wrong booking.

1.7.2 Instrumental errors: These are due to:

(a) Imperfect adjustment of the instrument
(b) Structural defectiveness in the instrument
(c) Imperfections due to wear

Imperfect adjustment of the instrument: These may be due to:

(i) Error due to imperfect adjustment of plate bubble. (plate bubble adjustment)

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(ii) Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis (collimation adjustment)
(iii) Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical axis. (Trunnion axis adjustment)
(iv) Error due to non-parallelism of the axis of the telescope level (altitude bubble) and line of sight.
(v) Error due to imperfect adjustment of the vertical circle (vertical circle index adjustment).
(vi) Error due to imperfect graduation - This is eliminated by taking readings at different portions of circle
i.e. Use different initial reading settings.

1.7.3 Natural sources: These are due to:

(i) Unequal atmospheric refraction due to high temperature
(ii) Unequal expansion of parts of telescope circles due to temperature changes
(iii) Unequal settlement of tripod
(iv) Wind producing vibrations

1.8 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite:

Permanent adjustments are carried out when the fundamental axes of a theodolite do not meet the required
relations. These relations are met when the basic requirements of the lines are properly adjusted. These basic
requirements are:

1. The vertical axis should be truly vertical - This axis will be truly vertical by adjusting the plate bubble.
(a) Aim. To set the vertical axis truly vertical when the plate bubble is centered.

(b) Test: Level the instrument as usual, when does not remain central, the bubble is out of adjustment.
Observing on both faces eliminates this.
(i) Set the bubble parallel to two foot screws and bring central
(ii) Turn through 90o and bring central
(iii) Turn back to first position bring central
(iv) Turn through 180o. if still central, the instrument is leveled and the bubble is in adjustment.

Adjustment:
(i) If the bubble is not central bring it back halfway to its central position using the foot screws
(ii) Turn through 90o and bring central and set it halfway to the central position the same position as in (i)
(iii) Turn again through 90o. The instrument is leveled and only the bubble is wrong.
(iv) Using the bubble adjusting screws bring the bu
(v) bble to its central position

2. The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis. This is adjusted by performing
collimation adjustment.

Aim: To set the line of sight perpendicular the trunnion axis.

Test:
(i) Sight to a well defined object with the center of the cross hairs in the middle about the
same level as the instrument, read the horizontal Circle.

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 (ii) Change face and read the horizontal circle again.
(iii) The difference of the two readings should be 1800. If not a collimation errors exist.

Adjustment:
(i) Half the difference from 1800 must be added to one reading and subtracted from the other.
(ii) Using the slow motion screw set the circle right reading correct. This will shift
the target bisection.
(iii) Bisect the target by means of diaphragm screws. Check the adjustment by
repeating the observation.

3. The horizontal axis should be truly horizontal. Performing trunnion axis adjustment does this.

Aim: To set the trunnion axis perpendicular to the vertical axis. When the
Instrument is level it will be truly horizontal.

Test: Carry out spire test as follows:

(i) Sight to a high point with the vertical cross-hair, and clamp the lower clamp.
(ii) Depress the telescope sight and read a scale placed horizontally facing the instrument.
(iii) Repeat (I) and (ii) on FR. If the line of sight intersect the scale at the same point the trunnion
axis is horizontal, if not it is out of adjustment.

4. The cross hairs should be truly vertical and horizontal. This is achieved by performing diaphragm
adjustment.

Aim: To set the cross - hairs truly horizontal and vertical

Test: Having leveled the instrument, sight to a fine point. Move the telescope in elevation. If the mark
remains on the vertical cross hair the adjustment is correct. This is minimized by observing close to
intersection of cross hairs.

5. The vertical circle should be at zero or 900 when the line of sight is horizontal. Performing index error
adjustment does this.
Test:
(i) Set up and level the instrument on FL
(ii) Sight a defined mark, center the vertical bubble and read the angle of slope. Change face
and read again.
(iii) If the instrument is in adjustment the two angles on each face will be equal.

Adjustment:
(i) If the two angles are not equal, the mean of the angles will provided the true angle of slope.
(ii) Half the difference between the readings is the index error
(iii) Set true reading with clip screw. The vertical bubble will run off center.
(iv) By means of bubble adjusting screws, bring the bubble central.

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(v) Repeat the test to check the adjustment.

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