Lecture 06 - Earth Pressure Theories
Lecture 06 - Earth Pressure Theories
Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
method to the design of structures. Two of the pioneers in this effort were the Frenchman
Charles Augustin Coulomb and the Scotsman W. J. M. Rankine. Although many others have
since made significant contributions to our knowledge of earth pressures, the contributions of
these two men were so fundamental that they still form the basis for earth pressure
calculations today. More than fifty earth pressure theories are now available; all of them have
their roots in Coulomb and Rankine's work. Coulomb presented his theory in 1773 and
published it three years later (Coulomb. 1776). Rankine developed his theory more than eighty
years after Coulomb (Rankine, 1857). In spite of this chronology, it is conceptually easier for us
to discuss Rankine's theory first. For clarity, we will begin our discussion of these theories by
considering only soils with c = 0 and φ ≥ 0. These are sometimes called cohesionless soils. Once
we have established the basic concepts, we will then expand the discussion to include soils with
cohesion (c≥0, φ≥ 0). Lateral earth pressure theories may be used with either effective stress
analyses (c', φ') or total stress analyses (cT, φT). However, effective stress analyses are usually
more appropriate, and are the only type we will consider in this chapter.
Rankine approached the lateral earth pressure problem with the following assumptions:
2 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
1. The soil is homogeneous and isotropic, which means c, φ and γ have the same values
everywhere, and they have the same values in all directions at every point (i.e., the strength on
a vertical plane is the same as that on a horizontal plane). This discussion will be expanded later
to consider layered soils, where each layer has different values of c, φ and γ∙
2. The most critical shear surface is a plane. In reality, it is slightly concave up, but this is a
reasonable assumption (especially for the active case) and it simplifies the analysis.
3. The ground surface is a plane (although it does not necessarily need to be level).
4. The wall is infinitely long so that the problem may be analyzed in only two dimensions.
Geotechnical engineers refer to this as a plane strain condition.
5. The wall moves sufficiently to develop the active or passive condition.
6. The resultant of the normal and shear forces that act on the back of the wall is inclined at an
angle parallel to the ground surface (Coulomb's theory provides a more accurate model of
shear forces acting on the wall).
evaluate the problem using the principles of statics, as shown in Figure 1a. This is similar to
methods used to analyze the stability of earth slopes, and is known as a limit equilibrium
analysis, which means that we consider the conditions that would exist if the soil along the base
of the failure wedge was about to fail in shear. Weak seams or other nonuniformities in the soil
may control the inclination of the critical shear surface. However, if the soil is homogeneous,
3 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
Pa/b is greatest when this surface is inclined at an angle of 45 + φ/2 degrees from the
horizontal, as shown in the Mohr's circle in previous section. Thus, this is the most critical angle.
Solving this free body diagram for Pa/b and Va/b gives:
The magnitude of Ka is usually between 0.2 and 0.9. Equation is valid only when
β ≤ φ. If β= 0, it reduces to:
A solution of Pa/b as a function of H would show that the theoretical pressure distribution is
triangular. Therefore, the theoretical pressure and shear stress acting against the wall, α and τ,
respectively, are:
Where;
4 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
α = soil pressure imparted on retaining wall from the soil
τ = shear stress imparted on retaining wall from the soil
Pa/b = normal force between soil and wall per unit length of wall
Va/b = shear force between soil and wall per unit length of wall
b = unit length of wall (usually 1 ft or 1 m)
Ka = active coefficient of lateral earth pressure
σz' = vertical effective stress
β = inclination of ground surface above the wall
H = wall height
However, observations and measurements from real retaining structures indicate that the true
pressure distribution, as shown in Figure 2, is not triangular. This difference is because of wall
deflections, arching, and other factors. The magnitudes of Pa/b and Va/b are approximately
correct, but the resultant acts at about 0.40H from the bottom, not 0.33H as predicted by
theory (Duncan et al., 1990).
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Figure 1: Free body diagram of soil behind a retaining wall using Rankine’s solution: (a) active case; and (b) passive case.
6 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
Figure 2: Comparison between (a) theoretical and (b) observed distributions of earth pressures acting behind retaining
structures.
Example 1
A 6‐m tall cantilever wall retains a soil that has the following properties: c' = 0, φ' = 30°, and
γ= 19.2 kN/m3. The ground surface behind the wall is inclined at a slope of 3 horizontal to 1
Vertical, and the wall have moved sufficiently to develop the active condition. Determine the
normal and shear forces acting on the back of this wall using Rankine's theory.
7 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
These results are shown in Figure 3.
8 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
Figure 3: Results from Example 1.
Rankine analyzed the passive condition in a fashion similar to the active condition except that
the shear force acting along the base of the wedge now acts in the opposite direction (it always
opposes the movement of the wedge) and the free body diagram becomes as shown in Figure
1b. Notice that the failure wedge is much flatter than it was in the active case and the critical
9 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
angle is now 45 – φ/2 degrees from the horizontal. The normal and shear forces, Pp/b and Vp/b,
respectively, acting on the wall in the passive case are:
Equation is valid only when β≤ φ. If β = 0, it reduces to:
The theoretical pressure and shear acting against the wall, σ and τ, respectively, are:
10 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
Example 2
A six‐story building with plan dimensions of 150ft x 150ft has a 12‐ft deep basement. This
building is subjected to horizontal wind loads, and the structural engineer wishes to transfer
these loads into the ground through the basement walls. The maximum horizontal force acting
on the basement wall is limited by the passive pressure in the soil. Using Rankine's theory,
compute the maximum force between one of the basement walls and the adjacent soil
assuming full passive conditions develop, and then convert it to an allowable force using a
factor of safety of 3. The soil is a silty sand with c' = 0, φ' = 30°. and γ = 119 lb/ft3, and the
ground surface surrounding the building is essentially level.
11 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (SUIT Peshawar)
Note: The actual design computations for this problem would be more complex because they
must consider the active pressure acting on the opposite wall, sliding friction along the
basement floor, lateral resistance in the foundations, and other factors. In addition, the
horizontal displacement required to develop the full passive resistance may be excessive, so the
design value may need to be reduced accordingly. Finally, to take advantage of this resistance,
the wall would need to be structurally designed to accommodate this large load, which is much
greater than that due to the active or at‐rest pressure.