Electronics Repair and Troubleshooting

ECE 401 / Class ECE 4-A

Lesson/Topic : 3g-1
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A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or

switch electronic signals and electrical power. Transistors are
one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of
semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection
to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the
controlling (input) power, a transistor basically can amplify a signal.
Some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in integrated circuits.
In the analog world of continuously varying signals, a transistor
is a device used to amplify its electrical input.
❖ When it works as an amplifier, it takes in a tiny electric current at one end (an
input current) and produces a much bigger electric current (an output current) at
the other. In other words, it's a kind of current booster. That comes in really useful
in things like hearing aids, one of the first things people used transistors for. A
hearing aid has a tiny microphone in it that picks up sounds from the world around
you and turns them into fluctuating electric currents. These are fed into a transistor
that boosts them and powers a tiny loudspeaker, so you hear a much louder
version of the sounds around you.

In the digital world, a transistor is a binary switch and the

fundamental building block of computer circuitry. Like a light switch
on the wall, the transistor either prevents or allows current to flow
through. A single modern CPU can have hundreds of millions or even
billions of transistors.

❖ Transistors can work as switches. A tiny electric current flowing through one part
of a transistor can make a much bigger current flow through another part of it. In
other words, the small current switches on the larger one. This is essentially how
all computer chips work. For example, a memory chip contains hundreds of
millions or even billions of transistors, each of which can be switched on or off
individually. Since each transistor can be in two distinct states, it can store two
different numbers, zero and one. With billions of transistors, a chip can store
billions of zeros and ones, and almost as many ordinary numbers and letters (or
characters, as we call them).

Types of Transistors
There are many types of transistors in use. Each transistor is specialized
in its application. The main classification is as follows:
Bipolar Junction Transistor
A Bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed as BJT is called so as it has
two PN junctions for its function. This BJT is nothing but a normal
transistor. It has got two types of configurations NPN and PNP. Usually
NPN transistor is preferred for the sake of convenience. The following
image shows how a practical BJT looks like.

The types of BJT are NPN and PNP transistors. The NPN transistor
is made by placing a p-type material between two n-type materials. The
PNP transistor is made by placing an n-type material between two p-type
materials. BJT is a current controlled device.

Field Effect Transistor

An FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device. It is
a voltage controlled device unlike a bipolar junction transistor. The
main advantage of FET is that it has a very high input impedance, which
is in the order of Mega Ohms. It has many advantages like low power
consumption, low heat dissipation and FETs are highly efficient devices.
The following image shows how a practical FET looks like:

The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using

either p-type or n-type material as main substrate. Hence the current
conduction of a FET is done by either electrons or holes.
Comparison between JFET and BJT :
FET Terminals
Though FET is a three terminal device, they are not the same as BJT
terminals. The three terminals of FET are Gate, Source and Drain.
The Source terminal in FET is analogous to the Emitter in BJT,
while Gate is analogous to Base and Drain to Collector.
The symbols of a FET for both NPN and PNP types are as shown below:

Types of FET
There are two main types of FETS. They are JFET and MOSFET.

The JFET is abbreviated as Junction Field Effect Transistor.

JFET is just like a normal FET. The types of JFET are n-channel FET and P-
channel FET. A p-type material is added to the n-type substrate in n-
channel FET, whereas an n-type material is added to the p-type substrate
in p-channel FET.
FETs have a few disadvantages like high drain resistance, moderate input
impedance and slower operation. To overcome these disadvantages, the
MOSFET which is an advanced FET is invented.

MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor or

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor . This is also
called as IGFET meaning Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor. The FET is
operated in both depletion and enhancement modes of operation. The
following figure shows how a practical MOSFET looks like:

Classification of MOSFETs :
Depending upon the type of materials used in the construction, and the
type of operation, the MOSFETs are classified as in the following figure.

The N-channel MOSFETs are simply called as NMOS. The symbols

for N-channel MOSFET are as given below.
The P-channel MOSFETs are simply called as PMOS. The symbols for
P-channel MOSFET are as given below:

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Testing/Checking/Troubleshooting
Transistors
How to Know if a Transistor is Defective :
Transistor is an active electronic part. An active electronic part is something
can perform amplifications or signal processing. Transistors are basic
elements on power amplifiers, audio amplifiers, switching converters, power
supplies and so on. A transistor term is somewhat generic. It could be a
BJT, MOSFET of JFET. But for common people, it is commonly referring to
a BJT. So, in this testing we will concentrate on how to know if a transistor
defective that refers to a BJT.

Below is a simple illustration on how the NPN and PNP differ from each
other:
How to Know if an NPN Transistor is Defective -

If the transistor is known to be an NPN type, below are the troubleshooting

steps on how to know if a transistor defective.

Steps:

1. Get a DMM and set it to diode mode

2. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to the base or the “P” or the base
of the above figure for the NPN type. Connect the negative probe to the “N”
or the emitter. A good transistor will read a voltage around 0.7V. A bad
transistor will read otherwise. Otherwise means a value that is far away the
0.7V level. A good transistor usually reads around 0.3V-0.7V for germanium
and silicon variants.

3. Transfer the negative probe of the DMM to the other “N” or the collector
pin. The judgement must be the same as item 2 above.

4. Try reversing the probe connections of item 2 and 3, the reading now must
be 0V. This means the transistor junction is not conducting as it is in reverse
bias state. If the reading is otherwise, then the transistor is faulty.
5. A faulty transistor may have zero resistance when measuring across
collector-emitter.

How to Know if an PNP Transistor is Defective –

If the transistor is known to be an PNP type, below are the troubleshooting

steps on how to know if a transistor defective.

Steps:

1. Get a DMM and set it to diode mode

2. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to the base or the “P” or the emitter
of the above figure for the PNP type. Connect the negative probe to the “N”
or the base. A good transistor will read a voltage around 0.7V. A bad
transistor will read otherwise. Otherwise means a value that is far away the
0.7V level. A good transistor usually reads around 0.3V-0.7V for germanium
and silicon variants.

3. Transfer the positive probe of the DMM to the other “P” or the collector
pin. The judgement must be the same as item 2 above.

4. Try reversing the probe connections of item 2 and 3, the reading now must
be 0V. This means the transistor junction is not conducting as it is reversed
biased. If the reading is otherwise, then the transistor is faulty.

5. A faulty transistor may have zero resistance when measuring across

collector-emitter.

If the Transistor Type is not Known, How to Start the Diagnosis:

Nowadays, it is easy to get any electronic component datasheet once the

part number or the body marking is available. However, in the absence of
these, it will be difficult. The possible remedy is to have understanding on
the circuit diagram if it is available. NPN and PNP type has different biasing
configuration. The NPN type always has positive supply to its base section
while ground on the emitter and positive supply again to the collector. On
the other hand, the PNP type has ground on the base section and positive
source on the emitter section.
How about there is no circuit diagram available. A trial and error will do.
Follow below steps :

Steps to identify an NPN transistor:

1. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to any pin or leg of the
transistor. Connect also the negative probe to any leg or pin of the
transistor but not to the pin/leg that has the positive probe. Ensure
the DMM setting is in the diode mode. Observe the DMM reading.

2. If the DMM reading is within 0.3V-0.7V, this means one of the diodes
on the transistor junctions is able to forward bias.

3. Do not remove the positive probe on its location while remove

the negative probe to the leg/pin that has no probe connection. If
the DMM reading is still around 0.3V-0.7V, then the transistor is an
NPN type.

4. If above tests result to otherwise, then consider steps below:

Steps to identify an PNP transistor:

1. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to any pin or leg of the
transistor. Connect also the negative probe to any leg or pin of the
transistor but not to the pin/leg that has the positive probe. Ensure
the DMM setting is in the diode mode. Observe the DMM reading.

2. If the DMM reading is within 0.3V-0.7V, this means one of the diodes
on the transistor junctions is able to forward bias.

3. Do not remove the negative probe on its location while remove

the positive probe to the leg/pin that has no probe connection. If
the DMM reading is still around 0.3V-0.7V, then the transistor is a
PNP type.

If the above trials result to otherwise, the transistor can be faulty. It is

worth replacing it. The Above testing are basic only. Experience will tell
you more on How to Know if a Transistor is Defective.
Transistor Failure Mode :

Common transistor failure modes are shorted base-emitter

junction, shorted base-collector junction, shorted collector
emitter, open collector-emitter, open base-emitter junction or
open base-collector junction.
==============================

Testing a Transistor with a Multimeter:

Ask any field or bench technician what their most-used piece of test
equipment is and they will probably say a DMM (Digital MultiMeter). These
versatile devices can be used to test and diagnose a wide range of circuits
and components. In a pinch, a DMM can even substitute for expensive,
specialized test equipment. One particularly usefull skill is knowing how to
test a transistor using a digital multimeter.

Basic Transistor Pinouts

Fortunately, using a DMM to get a basic pass/fail reading from a suspected

faulty NPN or PNP bipolar transistor is a simple and quick task. Some
multimeters have a built-in transistor testing function, if yours does, you
can skip this blog post – simply insert your transistor into the socket on
the multimeter and set the meter to the correct mode. You will probably
get information such as the gain(hFE) that could be checked against the
datasheet as well as a pass/fail reading. If your meter does not have a
transistor testing function, fear not – transistors can easily be checked
with the “Diode” testing setting. (Some meters have the diode test
function coupled with the continuity test – this is OK).

Testing the Transistor :

Remove the transistor from the circuit for accurate test results.

Step 1: (Base to Emitter)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the BASE (B) of the
transistor. Hook the negative meter lead to the EMITTER (E) of the
transistor. For an good NPN transistor, the meter should show a voltage
drop between 0.45V and 0.9V. If you are testing PNP transistor, you
should see “OL” (Over Limit).

Step 2: (Base to Collector)

Keep the postitive lead on the BASE (B) and place the negative lead to
the COLLECTOR (C).

For an good NPN transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between
0.45V and 0.9V. If you are testing PNP transistor, you should see "OL"
(Over Limit).

Step 3: (Emitter to Base)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the EMITTER (E) of
the transistor. Hook the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the
transistor.

For an good NPN transistor, you should see “OL” (Over Limit).If you are
testing PNP transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between
0.45V and 0.9V.

Step 4: (Collector to Base)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the COLLECTOR (C)
of the transistor. Hook the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the
transistor.

For an good NPN transistor, you should see “OL” (Over Limit).If you are
testing PNP transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between
0.45V and 0.9V.
Step 5: (Collector to Emitter)

Hook the positive meter lead to the COLLECTOR (C) and the negative
meter lead to the EMITTER (E) – A good NPN or PNP transistor will read
"OL" (Over Limit) on the meter. Swap the leads (Positive to Emitter and
Negative to Collector) – Once again, a good NPN or PNP transistor should
read “OL”.

If your bipolar transistor measures contrary to these steps, consider it to

be bad.

You may also be able to use the voltage drop to determine which lead is
the emitter on an unmarked transistor, as the emitter-base junction
typically has a slightly higher voltage drop than the collector-base
junction.

Remember: This test only verifies that the transistor is not shorted or open, it
does not guarantee that the transistor is operating within its designed
parameters. It should only be used to help decide if you need "replace" or "move
on to the next component". This test works on bipolar transistors only – (you
need to use a different method for testing FETs).

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Electronics Repair and Troubleshooting
ECE 401 / Class ECE 4-A
Lesson/Topic : 3g-2
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Testing/Checking/Troubleshooting
Transistors
How to Check a MOSFET Using a Digital Multimeter
Testing MOSFETs using DMM through a set of steps, which will show
you how to accurately learn the good or faulty condition of a MOSFET:

MOSFETs are outstanding devices when it comes to amplifying or

switching of various kinds of loads. Though transistors are also largely
applied for the above purposes, both the counterparts are hugely
different with their characteristics.

The amazing efficiency of MOSFETs are to a great extent neutralized

by one drawback associated with these devices. It is the involved
complexity which makes these components difficult to understand and
configure.

Even the simplest of operations like testing a good MOSFET from a bad
one is never an easy task especially for the beginners in the field.

Though MOSFETs usually require sophisticated equipment for checking

their conditions, a simple way using a multimeter is also considered
effective most of the time for checking them.

We take the example of two types of N-channel MOSFETs, the K1058

and the IRFP240 and see how these MOSFETS can be tested using an
ordinary digital multimeter through slightly different procedures:
How to Check N-Channel MOSFETs
1) Set the DMM to the diode range.

2) Keep the MOSFET on a dry wooden table on its metal tab, with the
printed side facing you and leads pointed towards you.

3) With a screwdriver or meter probe, short the gate and drain pins
of the MOSFET. This will initially keep the internal capacitance of the
device completely discharged.

4) Now touch the meter black probe to source and the red probe
to drain of the device.

5)You should see an "open" circuit indication on the meter.

6) Now keeping the black probe touched to the source, lift the red
probe from drain and touch it to the gate of the MOSFET
momentarily, and bring it back to the drain of the MOSFET.

7) This time the meter will show a circuit "continuity”.

The results from the point 5 and 7 confirms that the MOSFET is OK.

Repeat this procedure many times for proper confirmation.

Note : For repeating the above procedure each time, you will need
to reset the MOSFET by shorting the gate and the drain leads using
meter probe as explained earlier.

How to Check P-Channel MOSFETs

For P-channel the testing steps will be as per 1,2,3,4 and 5, but the
polarities of the meter will change. Here's how to do it.

1) Set the DMM to the diode range.

2) Fix the MOSFET on a dry wooden table on its metal tab, with the
printed side facing you and leads pointed towards you.

3) With any conductor, short the gate and drain pins of the P-
MOSFET. This will initially enable the internal capacitance of the device
to discharge, which is essential for the testing process.

4) Now touch the meter RED probe to source and the BLACK probe
to drain of the device.

5) You will find an "open" circuit reading on the meter.

6) Next, without moving the RED probe from the source, remove the
black probe from drain and touch it to the gate of the MOSFET for a
second, and bring it back to the drain of the MOSFET.

7) This time the meter will show a continuity or a low value on the
meter.

That's it, this will confirm your MOSFET is alright, and without any
problems. Any other form of reading will indicate a faulty MOSFET.

How to Test an IRF540 MOSFET

The procedures are exactly similar to the above explained N-channel

MOSFET testing procedures. The following video clip shows and proves
how it may be implemented using an ordinary multi-meter:
https://youtu.be/AVNbDzaM0V4
Simple MOSFET Tester Jig Circuit

If you are not convenient with the above mentioned testing procedure
using a multimeter, then you can quickly construct the following jig for
checking any N-channel MOSFET efficiently :

Once you make this jig, you can plug-in the relevant pins of the
MOSFET into the given G, D, S sockets. After this you just have to press
the push button for confirming the MOSFET condition.

If the LED glows only on pressing of the button, then your

MOSFET is fine, any other results will indicate a bad or
defective MOSFET.
The cathode of the LED will go to the drain side or drain socket.

For P-Channel MOSFET you could simply modify the design as per
the following image (note the LED terminal connection ):
================================
How to Check a JFET Using a Digital Multimeter
Testing a JFET with a multimeter might seem to be a relatively easy
task, seeing as how it has only one PN junction to test: either
measured between gate and source, or between gate and drain.

Testing Continuity of an N-channel JFET

Testing continuity through the drain-source channel is another matter,
though. Remember, how a stored charge across the capacitance of the
gate-channel PN junction could hold the JFET in a pinched-off state
without any external voltage being applied across it? This can occur
even when you’re holding the JFET in your hand to test it!
Consequently, any meter reading of continuity through that channel
will be unpredictable, since you don’t necessarily know if a charge is
being stored by the gate-channel junction. Of course, if you know
beforehand which terminals on the device are the gate, source, and
drain, you may connect a jumper wire between gate and source
to eliminate any stored charge and then proceed to test source-
drain continuity with no problem. However, if you don’t know which
terminals are which, the unpredictability of the source-drain connection
may confuse your determination of terminal identity.
Strategy on Testing a JFET

A good strategy to follow when testing a JFET is to insert the pins of

the transistor into anti-static foam (the material used to ship and
store static-sensitive electronic components) just prior to testing.
The conductivity of the foam will make a resistive connection between
all terminals of the transistor when it is inserted. This connection will
ensure that all residual voltage built up across the gate-channel PN
junction will be neutralized, thus “opening up” the channel for an
accurate meter test of source-to-drain continuity.
Since the JFET channel is a single, uninterrupted piece of
semiconductor material, there is usually no difference between the
source and drain terminals. A resistance check from source to drain
should yield the same value as a check from drain to source. This
resistance should be relatively low (a few hundred ohms at most) when
the gate-source PN junction voltage is zero. By applying a reverse-bias
voltage between gate and source, pinch-off of the channel should be
apparent by an increased resistance reading on the meter.
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Electronics Repair and Troubleshooting
ECE 401 / Class ECE 4-A
Lesson/Topic : 4
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Testing Electrical and Electronics

Component / Devices with Multimeter
Testing/Checking Cable and Wires
To check if the cable and wires are in good condition or broken
before sizing the proper cable & wire for wiring installation,
we perform the continuity test. For this purpose, take Analog
meter (or Digital Multimeter) and select “Resistance” ( Rotate
the knob to the “Ω” or Resistance).
Now connect both terminals, i.e. both naked ends of the
cable/wire with the Analog or Digital Multimeter terminals. If
the meter reading shown “0 Ω” or nearing “0 Ω”, it means
Cable/Wire is in “Good Condition”. On the other hand, if meter
reading is “Infinite”, it shows the cable/wire may be defective
or broken (open). So you need to replace it with a new one.
==================================
Testing Power Cord
Power cords get a lot of usage and, as a result, they eventually
wear out, causing shorts in the device to which they are
attached. An appliance that won't start can cause you a lot of
hassle. Many times the problem is the result of a bad power cord.

Most power cords have this type of connector.

Unplug the power cord from the device and from the AC outlet.
Failure to do so can result in electrical shock or death.
Testing the Cord. Before you begin diagnosing the cord be sure
your multimeter is set to the continuity setting, found in the ohm
section of your multimeter.
Test for a potential open circuit by using one multimeter lead
to touch one of the prongs on the AC side of power cord. Use the
other lead to touch one end of the console side of the power cord.
If there is an adequate electrical connection, the multimeter will
read an almost “0 Ω”. If not, try using the lead to touch the
other prong.

Repeat the above directions for the other outlet and prong of the
power cord.
If the multimeter fails to read an “0 Ω” on any of the occasions
outlined above, your power cord is open. In other words, you will
need to replace the power cable.
Once you have verified that the power cord provides an adequate
electrical connection, you will have to test that the cable is not
shorted.
Test for a potential short circuit by touching each prong on the
AC side of the power cord.
If the multimeter reads “0 Ω”, your power cord is bad and must
be replaced immediately.
If your power cord is shorted, do not attempt to replug the cord
into the AC outlet.
If your power cord has passed all of the steps above, then you
have successfully tested that your power cord is in working order.
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Testing Switch/Push Buttons
Use the same method (mentioned above for checking the cable and
wires)…to perform this method correctly, you will need to apply
this method in both cases (ON & OFF positions) on switches and
push buttons…In other words, first apply this method on
switches/push buttons and then “Push” the push button and
perform the same method again.

At first attempt, if meter reading is “Zero” and in the second

attempt, the meter reading is infinite, it means
Switch/Push button is in good condition. If meter reading is
“Zero” or “infinite” in both attempts, it means switch is in short
circuit or continuity connection is broken and you should
replace it with a new one.
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Testing Fuse
To verify Fuse condition, i.e. is “Fuse” in good condition or
damaged? … We perform the same method, continuity test as
mentioned above. In short, if the meter reading is “Zero” it
means Fuse is in good condition. If Multimeter reading is
infinite, it means Fuse continuity may be broken or blown.
So you should replace it with a new one immediately.

=====================================

Testing LED (Light Emitting Diode)

Before testing a diode, we must identify the diode terminal i.e.
anode and cathode. For LED, the longer terminal of diode is
anode (+) and the shorter terminal is cathode (-). In other
cases, the flat terminal of diode is cathode and the other side
is anode as shown in the figure below:
To test an LED with digital or analog multimeter, follow the
instructions given below:
• Disconnect the LED from the circuit and power supply if it is
already connected in a circuit.
• Find the LED terminal i.e. anode and cathode (as shown in
above fig)

• In case of digital multimeter, set the meter on “Diode

Test” Mode (in case of analog multimeter, set the
multimeter on Resistance or continuity mode ) by
turning the rotary switch of multimeter.
• Connect the LED in forward biased with multimeter test leads
i.e. cathode to black (-ve) and anode to Red (+ve) test leads.
• If the LED glows, it does need to say it is in good condition
and working properly, otherwise LED is defective and it should
be changed.
• In reverse biased (LED anode to Black and cathode to Red
test leads), it won’t work and multimeter won’t show any
reading as LED will not allow the flow of current through it i.e.
it acts like an open switch same as diode.
======================================

Testing Zener Diode

Zener diode is something else as compared to normal diodes as
simple PN junctions diodes operated in forward biased and not in
reverse bias. The case is reverse in case of zener diode as it only
operates in reverse biased when the applied reverse voltage is
greater than the zener breakdown voltage. This way, we need
additional simple circuit to check whether the zener diode is
good or bad.
To check a zener diode with digital or analog multimeter, follow the
instructions below.
• Disconnect the zener diode from the circuit and power supply
if it is already connected in a circuit.
• Find the zener diode terminals i.e. anode and cathode as it is
same as normal LED and PN junction diodes (as shown in
above fig)
• Connect the zener diode across a variable or known (such as
12V DC) supply voltage source in series of 100Ω resistance
and then connect the zener diode reverse bias (cathode to
Red (+ve) and anode to Black (-ve) test leads of multimeter
as shown in fig.

• In both of digital or analog multimeter, set the meter on “DC

Voltage” test mode by turning the rotary switch of
multimeter.
• Increase the supply voltage gradually to the zener diode and
note the meter reading displayed on screen. The meter
 reading should increase until the breakdown voltage of zener
diode (in case of 12VDC supply voltage, the breakdown
voltage is 6V) when you increase the supply voltage step by
step from low to high. After this, meter should not show
additional value i.e. it must shows a constant value (Such as
6V in case of 12VDC supply voltage). When meter stop at
specific value and not showing another value when you still
increasing the supply voltage, you should not continue to
increase the supply voltage otherwise, diode may destroy.

• If it is the case, the zener diode is in good condition

otherwise, the zener diode is faulty and need to be
changed.
=======================================

Testing/Checking Relay Coils & SSR Relay

To test an SSR (Solid state relay) and electromechanical relay coils
by using multimeter, You will have to follow the detailed and step
by step guide about “How to Test a Relay, Checking SSR & Coil
Relays”.
Before testing any relay you need to know about the relay itself.
➢ What is a Relay?
A relay is an electromechanical switch. It controls a circuit using
a very low current that energizes the coil. The coil generates a
magnetic field which attracts a movable lever (pole) to change the
switch position.
➢ Terminals Of Relay
In general SPDT (Single pole double throw) type of relay, there
are Five terminals.
 • Two of them are coil input terminals, which is basically the
control input (activates & deactivates the relay)
• The common terminal is the feeding input of the high
voltage circuit. This input is passed through the pole (switch)
of the relay to either NO terminal or NC terminal.
• Normally opened (NO) terminal is that terminal of the relay
whose connection with common terminal remains open
when the relay is deactivated. It closes when the relay
activates.
• Normally closed (NC) terminal is the other terminal of relay
whose connection with common terminal remains closed
until the relay activates.
➢ Terminal Identification
Usually, the terminals are specified on the protective cover of the
relay. if there is no information about its terminals then you can
identify it using an Ohmmeter.
 • The coil has a resistance of fewer than 400 ohms except
for some cases. so the terminals having resistance
around 300 ohms will be the coil terminals.
• The NC terminal has almost 0-ohm resistance with
respect to the common terminal when the relay is
deactivated.
• The NO terminal has infinite resistance with respect to
the common terminal when the relay is deactivated.

Operation Of Relay
Deactivated mode: When there is no power source connected to
the coil input, the current will flow through the Common
terminal to NC terminal.
Activated mode: when the coil is energized, the current will only
flow from common terminal to NO terminal.
Relay Coil Test:
This test is performed to examine the coil condition
(open or closed or shorted turns). This problem occurs due to
exceeding the input voltage of the coil. The operating input
parameter’s min & max limits are specified in its datasheet.

Using Multimeter
There are two modes in multimeter which can be used to test a
relay.
(a) Continuity Test Mode
The main purpose of this test is to check the continuity of the coil.
• Set the multimeter in continuity test mode.
• Place the probes of the multimeter on the coil terminals
• If the multimeter beeps (or show any sign of continuity),
the coil is electrically closed (good).
• If the multimeter does not beep, the coil is open &
damaged. The relay needs to be replaced.
If your meter does not have a continuity function or for some
reason does not show any sign of continuity then use the second
method.
Unfortunately, if you test a relay using this continuity method it
will not reveal any turns of the coil that has been shorted.
 (b) Resistance Mode
If you choose to test a relay using Ohmmeter, you need to do a
bit of research beforehand. You need to know about the nominal
value of the coil resistance from its datasheet. You can find its
datasheet online by using the model number usually written on its
protective case.
However, most of the time the resistance of the coil lies
beneath 400 ohms.
• Set the multimeter in Ohmmeter.
• Place the probes on both terminals of the coil.
• Record the resistance shown in the multimeter.
If the measured resistance matches the resistance mentioned in
its datasheet, the relay coil is fine.
If the resistance is very low or very high, the coil most likely
has short turns or opened respectively.

Note: AC coil power relays have high coil resistance (usually

higher than 10kohm). So you need to make sure what type of
relay you are testing.

How to Test a Solid State Relay (SSR)

Testing Solid State Relay in Diode Test Mode (DMM)
To test a solid state relay by using digital multimeter, follow the
steps given below:
• Rotate the multimeter knob to the “Diode Test Mode”.
 • Connect the A1(+) and A2(-) terminals to the multimeter
according to the schematic.
• If the relay is in good condition, multimeter will show 0.7 (In
case of silicon transistor) or 0.3 (in case of germanium
transistor)
• If multimeter shows “0” or “OL”, its mean that the relay is
damaged and faulty.

Testing Solid State Relay in Resistance Mode

The input end can be tested with a multimeter. The multimeter is
placed in the "R×10k" gear, the black test lead (the positive
electrode of the battery in the meter) is connected to the positive
electrode of the SSR input terminal, and the red test lead (that is,
the negative electrode of the battery in the meter) is connected to
the negative electrode of the input terminal of SSR. The meter
pointer should deflect more than halfway. Re-testing after
swapping the two test leads, the meter pointer should not move.
If the needle deflects to the top or does not move
regardless of the forward or reverse voltage access, the
solid-state relay has been damaged.
You can also make a test circuit according to the figure below.
For a good relay, when the control voltage of the SSR input
terminal is turned on, the light-emitting diode VD is on; when the
control voltage of the SSR input terminal is cut off, the light-
emitting diode VD is off.

General Precaution
• Disconnect the power source before checking, servicing,
repairing or installing electrical equipment and devices.
• Always, select the higher value in Digital or analog
Multimeter, and then, gradually reduce it to the proper value.
• Never try to work on electricity without proper guidance and
care.
• Read all instruction and cautions and follow them strictly.

Testing a Speaker
The speaker needs to be disconnected from the amplifier. If the
speaker cable itself has a ¼ inch connector to the amplifier, you
can actually test the speaker from the cable. If the cable
connectors to the speaker are terminal receptacles, you will need
to slide them off the terminals. If the cables are soldered on, then
you will need to heat them up with a soldering iron and remove
them. Once the speaker is disconnected from the amplifier you are
ready to test.
Testing the speaker

There are two common ways to test a speaker. If you’re in a

pinch, you can use a 9-volt battery. The more accurate way, if you
have the tools, is to use a multimeter. These two methods can be
used when testing a mid-range or lower frequency woofer. Testing
a tweeter is a little different. We will discuss this later.

Test using a 9V battery.

Test using a multimeter.

……Test with a battery
You will need a 9-volt battery and two small single conductor cables
to connect the battery to the speaker terminals. The easiest thing
is to get a 9-volt battery connector (like one in a guitar pedal).
Then, connect that to the battery. Also, if the spacing of the
terminals are right, you might be able to touch the battery to the
terminals without the use of wires at all.
A 9V battery adapter.
Battery process
Prepare the battery by placing one of each of the wires on each of
the battery terminals. If you have a battery connector, connect it
to the battery. Now quickly touch the cable leads, positive to
positive and negative to negative, to the speaker terminals. Keep
in mind, do this immediately! We don’t want the DC voltage of the
battery applied to the speaker for an extended period of time. Now,
if the speaker is working, it will move and make a pop
sound when the battery touches the speaker terminals. If
it is not working, the speaker will not move or make a
sound.
A few guidelines when using the battery method
• Touch the positive side of the battery to the positive side of
the speaker and the negative to the negative.
• Only touch the battery to the terminals for a quick moment.
• It is best to use a partially discharged battery.

Test with a multimeter

To use the multimeter, set it to read resistance. It may have an
ohms symbol for this setting. After this, place the leads of the
multimeter on the speaker terminals. You can touch the positive
and negative leads to either terminal when reading resistance. If
you have a 4 ohm (impedance) speaker, it could measure the
resistance on the multimeter between 2 and 3.4 ohms, an 8 ohms
speaker could measure between 5 to 7 ohms, and a 16 ohms
speaker might measure between 12 to 14 ohms. If a speaker
measures very low or no resistance, then it is bad. This means
there is a short inside the speaker. If the speaker measures a very
high resistance, it is also bad. This means there is a broken
connection in the speaker. Either way, the speaker will need to be
replaced.
A background on impedance and resistance
If you have a multimeter, you can get an accurate reading of the
resistance of the speaker. Let’s understand a little about what it is
we are reading. The impedance of the speaker, measured in ohms,
is typically listed on the back of the speaker. This value deals with
an AC signal (alternating current), the electrical signal that causes
a speaker to move. The ohm value, listed on the back of the
speaker, is the nominal impedance. Frequency response will
change the speaker’s impedance as the speaker moves, so this
value is not constant. When you measure with a multimeter, you
measure resistance (also measured in ohms). This value deals with
DC (direct current) that is applied to the speaker. This value will
be slightly lower than the impedance value of the speaker.

Multimeter reading of a nonworking speaker.

 Multimeter reading on a working speaker.

Testing a tweeter
Piezo tweeters, often on bass guitar cabinets, work a little
differently. These speakers have a crystal element, not a moving
voice coil. Measuring them with a multimeter will often give you
results that could make you think the speaker is bad. The best way
to test them is to QUIETLY play a signal through them, listen to
it, then see if it produces sound. If it does not, or sounds bad, the
speaker needs replacing. There’s nothing too scientific about this
test.
========================================
Electronics Repair and Troubleshooting
ECE 401 / Class ECE 4-A
Lesson/Topic : 5
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How to Troubleshoot an AC/DC Power Supply

Most electronic appliances have a power supply converting AC from

your wall socket to DC for use within the appliance. When the
power supply is no longer supplying power to your appliance, you
may need to follow a few simple troubleshooting procedures to
identify the problem. Most power supplies convert a 220VAC input
to a lower voltage DC output using the three basic parts of an
AC/DC power supply. These parts are the step-down transformer,
the rectifier and the filter.

Basic Components of an AC/DC Power Supply Unit-

Input transformer

The input transformer is used to convert the incoming line voltage

down to the required level of the power supply. It also isolates the
output circuit from the line supply, commonly used is a step-down
transformer.

Rectifier

The rectifier used to convert the incoming signal from an AC format

into raw DC. It can be a half-wave or a full-wave rectifier.

Filter Capacitor

The pulsated DC from the rectifier is fed to the smoothing

capacitor. It will remove the unwanted ripples in the pulsated DC.
Bleeder Resistor

Bleeder Resistor is also known as a power supply drain resistor. It

is connected across the filter capacitors to drain their stored charge
so that the power system supply is not dangerous.

Basic Schematic Diagram (Unregulated AC/DC Power Supply)-

Troubleshooting An AC/DC Power Supply:

1. Plug the power supply into a wall socket and measure its DC
output, noting if the output is steady or fluctuates. If the
output is close to the rated value, but fluctuates, the
transformer and rectifier are likely okay. If there is no DC
output, skip ahead to Step 4.

2. Unplug the power supply. Unsolder the connection from the

rectifier to the filter and use the DMM to measure (each) filter
capacitor, checking for a shorted, open or leaky capacitor. If
there are no bad capacitors, go to the next step. Remove the
bad capacitor, being sure to suck or wick the bad capacitor's
attachment points before soldering the replacement back in.
Test again as in Step 1.
3. Use the DMM to measure the filter's smoothing resistor's
value or verify continuity if smoothing is done with an
inductor. Replace bad component if resistor value is off or
the inductor is completely shorted. Repeat test from Step 1.

4. Use the DMM to read the AC voltage across the step down
transformer's secondary (not the AC input) winding. This
should read an AC voltage a bit over twice the expected DC
voltage output.

In a 12 VDC power supply, the secondary winding should

read around 30 VAC. Most likely, a failed transformer will
have little or no reading on the secondary winding. Replace
transformer if bad, then test the new one as in Step 1.
5. Switch the DMM to read DC voltage and measure the output
of the rectifier stage. This should show a value near the
expected DC output but will have a lot of fluctuation in the
reading as it is a series of half-waves.

At this point for the 12 VDC power supply, the rectifier

reading will be around 13 VDC with a lot of fluctuation.

Tip:

If the DC reading is not in the expected range, unplug the

power supply and use the soldering iron and solder sucker
(or solder wick) to lift one end of each rectifying diode.

Switch the DMM to diode reading and check each isolated

diode for opens or shorts, replacing any failed diodes and
soldering all diodes back into place.

If your power supply has a single rectifier block and the

reading on the secondary winding of the transformer was
good, replace the whole rectifier block.

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Electronics Repair and Troubleshooting
ECE 401 / Class ECE 4-A
Lesson/Topic : 6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Regulated Power Supply Troubleshooting

If the system (example - equipment, appliances) is completely dead,

that is nothing happens in the system, you should immediately
suspect the power supply. This is one part of any system where the
average technician can often troubleshoot and repair a problem.

Any system is powered by battery or a transformer-rectifier

supply connected to the 220-V lines. Batteries usually power
portable system. A 9-V battery is most common. To check its output
voltage, turn the system on (to load the battery) and measure the
battery’s terminal voltage. If it is significantly below 9V, perhaps 8V
or less, replace the battery and recheck the unit. Also check for
corroded terminals.
Portable system applications include mobile phones, notebook computers,
cameras, camcorders, personal digital assistants(smartphones), medical
instruments, power tools, and portable GPS.

Some portable system employs a group of cells to obtain the

necessary voltage. These must be connected in a series-aiding
configuration of the positive terminal of one cell to the negative
terminal of the next, and so on. The battery compartment has a
diagram with battery symbols and plus and minus signs molded into
the plastic to help us install the cell properly. Should one cell be
placed in the compartment backward, it would cancel the voltage of
two cells, thereby dropping the total voltage to the point where the
system would not work. Check for proper installation of all cells. Then
perform the “loaded” test described above for 9-V batteries.
Stereos and communications receivers will most likely use a
regulated power supply similar to that shown in figure 1.
Start troubleshooting by checking the output voltage with a
DMM connected between point D and ground. If the voltage
is correct (per manual specs), your problem lies elsewhere.
If not, test the fuse for continuity and be sure the power plug is
connected to a “hot” or live power outlet and the switch is on.

Next, check rectifier output waveform at point A with an

oscilloscope per the diagram in figure 2. The waveform should be
similar to the one illustrated below :
If the rectifier output waveform is not similar to that shown in figure
2, one or more diodes in the bridge have probably failed.
Diodes fails in one of two ways, either by opening or
shorting. An open diode changes the bridge rectifier from
full-wave to half-wave. As a result, ripple increases dramatically
(see figure 3). A shorted diode causes heavy currents that
should blow the fuse or, at the very least case, overheated
components.
Bridge rectifiers are usually encapsulated (you cannot get at
the individual diodes). The unit must therefore be replaced
should problems be found.

If the filter capacitor (from point A to ground) opens, the bridge

output will be unfiltered, making it more difficult for the voltage
regulator to eliminate ripple. It’s difficult to say exactly what the
waveform would look like.
A shorted filter capacitor shorts the rectifier output, causing,
at best, a blown fuse, and at worst, a burned-out rectifier
and/or power transformer. In either case, open or shorted,
replace the capacitor.

Assuming the rectifier and the filter capacitor pass the tests
discussed above, measure the zener reference voltage at point
B and compare with specs per manual. Measure the voltage
at point C, the feedback voltage to the inverting input of the
op-amp. It should be within a tenth of the volt or so of the
zener voltage. The point C voltage can be calculated using the
voltage divider (VDP) formula:

V at point

By using a common operational amplifier (op-amp) and a few other external

components, it is possible to design linear voltage regulators capable of offering
excellent performance and particularly suitable for powering low-power loads.
An operational amplifier is an IC that can amplify weak electric signals. An
operational amplifier has two input pins and one output pin. Its basic role is
to amplify and output the voltage difference between the two input
pins.

Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, The series resistor R1 limits
the current through the diode and drops the excess voltage when the diode is
conducting.

The pass transistor drops the voltage down to the required level and
allows high current to pass.

Measure the emitter-collector voltage of the pass transistor. It

should be approximately 5 to 7 V depending on power supply load.
If this voltage is a few tenth of a volt or less, the transistor is shorted
and must be replaced.

Note: The above procedures on power supply troubleshooting

apply for any piece of equipment using a regulated power
supply.
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