ROAD DRAINAGE SYSTEM: CHALLENGES FOR BANGLADESH HILLY TERRAIN

Introduction

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub surface water from an area. Road
drainage includes the removal or control of surface water and subsurface water away from the road
surface and the sub grade that support it. It includes interception and diversion of water from the road
surface and sub grade. Adequate drainage is the single most important element in pavement
performance, and drainage systems can be extensive and expensive. Purposes of road drainage are as
follows:

1. Road drainage maintains the surface of the road and its foundation as dry as possible with
water.
2. It maintains the stability and durability of the road.
3. A good drainage system is required to maintain highway transportation at a minimal cost.(6)

This paper will discuss the significance of drainage system, drainage methods with an overview on the
drainage system of hilly area in Bangladesh. The paper restricts its domain for flexible pavement only as
93% roads are asphaltic in the world. Drainage system for the subfreezing weather condition will also
remain disregarded as it is not relevant to Bangladesh.

Significance of Road Drainage

In the planning, design and maintenance of roads, drainage is an integral aspect. Inadequate drainage
affects the performance of roads in a variety of ways: reduction of pavement and sub-grade strength,
inundation of road surface, loss of vehicle control, embankment erosion, loss of slope stability, etc.
Excess water on shoulders and pavement edges causes considerable damage. Sustained contact of
water with bituminous pavements causes failure due to stripping of bitumen from aggregates like
loosening or detachment of some of the bituminous pavement layers and formations of pot holes.
Increase in moisture cause reduction in strength of many pavement materials like stabilized soil and
water bound macadam. Excess moisture in soil sub-grade causes considerable lowering of its stability
due to variation of volume. The water which are dangerous for highways are:

1. Rainwater: Cause erosion on surface or may seep downward and damage pavement (surface
drains)

2. Groundwater: May rise by capillary action and damage pavement (sub-surface damage)

3. Water body: May cross a road (river/stream) and may damage road (cross drainage works)(4)
 Classification of Road Drainage(purpose, material used, process, Shape/dimension)

It is more appropriate to take care of drainage at the time of location survey. Ideal location for a
drainage stand point would lie along the divides between large drainage areas. Then all streams flow
away from the highway, and the drainage problem is reduced to caring for the water that falls on the
roadway and back slope. In contrast location paralleling large streams is far less desirable as they cross
every tributary where it is largest. Ideal locations avoid steep grades and heavy cuts and fills as they
create difficult problems in erosion control. (4) In designing the drainage system, “design storm” is
selected firstly. It is the most severe flood that can be expected in a nominated period of time (as much
as 100 years for a major road or as little as 5 years for a minor street carrying local traffic). The drainage
system must be able to carry the storm water produced by this design storm without flooding the
roadway or adjacent property. In areas where land use is changing from agricultural to residential or
commercial, peak flows will increase notably as the surrounding area is covered with roofs and paving.
(3)

In the hydrologic cycle, a part of the total precipitation or rainfall runs on the ground surface. This
portion, called surface runoff, gets collected in tanks, lakes, reservoirs, and other such water-bodies. A
part of this surface run-off forms streams and joins running water in the form of rivers, which eventually
join the seas and oceans. All these constitute surface water. Similarly, the remaining part percolates into
the ground surface where favorable conditions of permeability exist; these waters join the ground water
table and ground water reservoirs, raising the ground water table. In the dry summer season, ground
water level rises due to capillarity. However, the exploitation of ground water by humans depletes the
ground water and lowers the ground water table. Once again, during rainy season, it gets recharged by
percolation, raising the ground water table. Basing on the hydrology the principal types of highway
drainage are:
1. Surface drainage-removal & diversion of surface water from the roadway & adjoining land. It
may again sub divided into two parts:
a. Dewatering- removal of rainwater from the surface of the road.
b. Cross drainage- covers all the different infrastructural elements to keep the
road structure dry.
2. Subsurface drainage- diversion or removal of excess soil-water from sub-grade

Surface Drainage
Dewatering

Cross fall
The pavement wearing course functions as a waterproof covering for the lower pavement structure.
This can be achieved if the pavement is impermeable and has no cracks. It must also have an adequate
cross fall to lead water immediately away from the road surface. The recommended cross fall will
depend on the road type and on the material of the topmost layer. On a straight road, cross fall will
range between 3 and 5 %. On a straight road cross fall is normally applied as a crown section. On curves,
cross fall is applied in the form of super elevation, also called “one-sided cross fall”. Also, on narrow
roads, it is difficult to create and maintain a crown section due to the available width. So it is usually
more effective to implement full cross fall (in-sloped or out-sloped road) rather than a crown. The cross
fall will depend mainly on the speed limit and the geometry (curve radius) of the road beside other
consideration. A very important issue with cross fall is that it should not have major changes in short
distances as this can cause warping problems for high and heavy trucks as well as traffic safety hazards.
(5)

Road shoulders

The paved shoulder should be at least 0.5% steeper than camber subjected to min of 3%. Alternatively
we can provide continuous layer of 75- 100 mm thick laid under the shoulder at the bottom layer of sub
base about 150 mm thick extended up to the edge. In impervious type, it is practiced to extend the sub-
base course with drainage across the shoulder up to side drain. For a quick drainage it is necessary to
ensure that shoulder surface is properly sloped and free from irregularities and depressions. On the
other hand, where higher rate of super elevation, the outside shoulder are kept level or rounded. On the
inner side, the shoulder should be made to drain away from the pavement, a low rate of super elevation
is provided. The unpaved shoulder should be further 0.5% steeper along the horizontal curve. Shoulder
on inner side of the curve should have slope steeper than that of pavement. (7)

Cross Drainage
Side ditches/Drain

Drain provided on the sides of road is called side drain. Side drains runs normally parallel to the length of
road. Side ditches collect road water and lead it onward to outlet ditches and are especially important
when road is in cut. If the road is on a high embankment, side ditches are not always necessary and their
need has to be evaluated case by case. The longitudinal gradient of side ditch should be at least 4 ‰ (4
mm/m). Side ditches are classified into two categories: 1) road cut ditches and 2) rainwater ditches. A
rainwater ditch means that the ditch only collects rainwater from the road and its surroundings.
Outlet ditches

Outlet ditches are drainage structures that lead the water from the side ditches away from the road
area. The water from outlet ditches normally discharges to existing waterway systems, such as river
channels and lakes. The outlet ditch is a critical part of road drainage system but often ignored. It is
recommended that the longitudinal gradient of an outlet ditch should be at least 4%. In practice this
may require to be reduced to a lower gradient to suit the local circumstances. Outlet ditches should be
excavated in such a fashion to discharge into a natural watercourse at the same level as the bottom of
the natural channel. If there is no natural channel, the outlet ditch should be excavated for a suitable
distance to minimize any accumulations of silt, mud or other harmful materials.

Culverts

A culvert is a pipe or box structure generally used as cross drains for ditch relief and to pass water under
a road at natural drainage and stream crossings. If the culvert clear opening is large, the culvert is
defined as bridge. The shape of a culvert is usually a round pipe, but culverts can also be pipe arch,
structural arch or box. The shape depends on the site, the required area and the allowable height of soil
cover. Culverts can usually be obtained as plastic, steel or concrete. Some old culverts can also be made
of wood or masonry. Culverts pipes are expensive, and relatively small culvert pipes used for cross-
drains can be susceptible to clogging and require cleaning. That is why, when planning the installation of
a culvert, the most important thing to keep in mind is to make sure that the culvert is adequately sized
and has overflow protection. Culverts should also be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions and suitably protected from erosion, scour and road maintenance equipment. Main road
culverts should be installed in the lowest point of the terrain. The rule of thumb when installing a culvert
is that natural channel modifications should be minimized and any constriction of the channel flow
width must be avoided. This can be done by maintaining the natural grade and alignment of the channel
through the culvert. Culverts should normally be installed orthogonally to the road alignment. They can
also be installed at an angle to the road alignment if required by local circumstances.
When designing the size of culvert a number of matters should be taken into account, i.e. size of
drainage area, surrounding terrain type, rainfall intensity, etc. The outlet of a culvert pipe should ideally
be located in a stable, non-erosive area. Well-vegetated or rocky areas are good places to locate a
culvert. Water flowing from a culvert can cause erosion problems where it discharges directly on to
erosive soil. Channel protection, riprap or other structural solutions are not as good as a correctly sized
and well placed pipe. The height and position of a culvert will be dependent on a number of matters:

1. An adequate longitudinal gradient (at least 1% to prevent the accumulation of silt or mud)
2. The depth of the side ditch
3. The level of the drainage system in the surrounding terrain
4. It should be also kept in mind that many times, in weak soil areas, the road will settle around the
culvert which will cause ditch bottom level to rise.

Access road culverts

Access road permits the water in side ditches of main roads to pass through side roads joining the main
road. Such roads can be main road intersections or simple private access roads. The function of the
access road culverts is to provide a continuation of the main road ditch through the side road as if the
road did not exist.

Catch basins

Catch basin is a structure like chamber constructed on a sewer line. The catch basin (catch pit) is
provided with grating to prevent the entry of rubbish into the drainage system. Water from pavement
surface is collected in catch basin and discharged to the sewer line.

Sub-surface Drainage
Removal or Diversion of excess soil-water from sub-grade is termed as sub-surface drainage. In sub-
surface drainage it is practiced to keep the variation of moisture in sub-grade to a minimum. The change
in moisture of sub-grade are caused by the following

1. Movement of Capillary Water

2. Percolation of Rain Water
3. Seepage Flow
4. Fluctuations in Ground Water Table

Lowering of Water Table

When the formation level is at or below the general ground level it is necessary to lower the
water table. In places where water table is high, height of road formation on embankment
should not be less than 1.0-1.2 m. If soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower
water table by constructing longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand and
top of trenches is covered with clay seal. If the soil is relatively less permeable, the lowering of
ground water table may not be adequate. Hence in addition to the longitudinal drains traverse
drains have to be installed at suitable intervals to effectively drain off the water.
Control of Seepage Flow
If seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6-0.9 m from sub-grade level, longitudinal pipe drain in
trench filled with filter material and clay seal may be constructed to intercept the flow. When
the general ground as well as impervious strata below are sloping, seepage flow is likely to exist.
Control of Capillary Rise
If the water reaching the sub-grade due to capillary rise is likely to be detrimental, it is possible
to solve the problem by arresting the capillary rise.  It can be done by following methods:
(a) A layer of granular materials of suitable thickness is provided during the construction
of embankment, between the sub-grade and the highest level of sub surface water
table.
(b) Alternate method is providing the capillary cut off is by inserting an impermeable or
a bituminous layer in place of granular blanket. If the water reaching the sub-grade due
to capillary rise is likely to be detrimental, it is possible to solve the problem by arresting
the capillary rise.

Special drainage structures

Once water has been collected from a road and its surroundings it has to be led out of the road area to
an acceptable discharge point. Usually this is a natural water system such as a river, lake or channel. If
this is not possible, one solution can be the use of a “soak away”. The purpose of a soak away is to
dispose of water back into the natural circulation from where it came, i.e. water seepage back to nature
via porous walls. Soak ways can only be used in porous sub-grades and not, for example, in clay areas.
Soak ways have to be individually designed for size and capacity. The finished soak away space must be
kept open and free from clogging to remain effective.
 Consideration for good drainage

Generally, the installation of a drainage system includes a desired goal, a survey of existing conditions,
previous experience with similar conditions, and preparation of designs and plans. A good drainage
system should attain the following condition:

1. It should not reduce the strength of the pavement and sub-grade.

2. Water removes from the pavement surface and no formation of pot-holes and ruts.

3. No seeping of surface water through the pavement layers, shoulders and the sides into the sub-grade.

4. Prevent volume changes in the sub-grade and consequent settlements and deleterious effects.

5. Impede Soil erosion around the pavement.

6. Impede slope failures in the case of cuttings and embankments for the roads.

7. Obstruct capillarity and frost action which weakens the sub-grade.

8. The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all the surface
water collected.

9. Highest level of ground water table should be kept well below the level of sub-grade, preferably by at
least 1.20m.

Maintenance of Drainage

Regular maintenance of drainage systems will keep drainage problems to a minimum and saves time
and money in the long run. Regular maintenance includes inspection, cleaning, and repair drain and
ditches as necessary. Responsible person should check gutters, downspouts and pipes during and after
storms and remove debris that might cause clogging. Seed and mulch or otherwise vegetate all bare
areas, especially on slope (10).Outlet ditches are normally located outside the road area with the result
that the road administrator may not always own the land that they pass through. This can create
 difficulties in gaining permissions from the landowner when the outlet ditch is clogged and requires re-
opening.(5)During culvert condition analysis the general condition of the culvert is evaluated visually
and also how much the culvert has been filled with material. Culverts are ranked to be in “worst
condition” if more than 75% of the culvert is filled with soil. A sample culvert condition analysis may be
as follow:

Challenges of Drainage system in Bangladesh Hilly terrain

Topographically, Chottogram Hill Tracts(CHT) are the only extensively hilly area in Bangladesh. The
length of the metallic roads within Rangamati, Khagrachhari and Bandarban districts is 123 km, 134 km
and 296 km respectively. In hill roads, there are complex drainage problems. For the same
imperviousness area and rainstorm magnitude a hillside zone normally generates higher flood peaks
than a flat area due to its shorter time of concentration.(8) Water flowing down the hill has to be
efficiently intercepted and disposed of downhill side by constructing suitable cross drainage works.
Types of curve used in hill roads are of different than plain road. If hill roads are not properly drained,
rockslides and slips may occur blocking the road during monsoon season. Of all the techniques
considered for the correction or prevention of slope instability on hillside, proper drainage is recognized
as the most important element. Proper drainage reduces soil moisture content and the destabilizing
hydrostatic and seepage forces on a slope, as well as the risk of surface erosion and piping. There are
requirements that add highly to the significance of drainage in the case of hill roads such as road side
drains, catch water drains, cross-drainage works and measures for improving slope stability, etc.(9)

Plausible Drainage measures in Hilly Terrain

 Components parts of Hill Roads

1. Road Bed
2. Side Drain
3. Parapet Drain
4. Catch Water Drains
5. Brest Wall
6. Retaining Wall
7. Cross Drains
Lined Ditches Handle Runoff

Roads can be graded toward a lined ditch or street side gutter designed to handle sheet flow water from
paved surfaces and uphill slopes. At specific intervals along the main road, water may be transported
under the road through a culvert and released safely onto a non-erodible surface. An energy dissipater,
such as a rock lined outlet, can serve this purpose where slope is minimal. In steeper areas or where
large volumes of water may accumulate, other precautions may be needed to prevent washouts or
localized flooding.

Drainage for Retaining Walls

Good drainage must be provided for solid construction retaining walls. Properly placed weep holes and
perforated pipe with a gravel backfill behind the wall work well. The small openings between wood
boards or non-grouted brick, stone or concrete block retaining walls serve this purpose. Many walls are
not designed for saturated soils or ponded water behind them and can break, tip over or slide if this is
not prevented with good drainage behind them.(10)

Vegetation as Drainage Method for Hydrological effect

Erosion occurs when water move across unprotected ground, removing soil particles. Certain plants can
be effective in preventing erosion on slopes. The best plants for erosion control are those covers ground
or shrubs that are vigorous, attractive, and have a root system effective at holding back soil on a hill.
Ornamental grasses like monde, blue fescue, and yellow foxtail are ideal erosion fighters. These low-
maintenance plants grow at moderate to fast speeds, thrive in both shade and full sun (depending on
the climate), and establish strong, sprawling root systems that give soil staying power. For trees that will
flourish in a hillside garden, look for species with extensive root systems capable of keeping the tree
steady on a slope and penetrating several layers of earth. Cascara, fir, pine, and willow all fit the bill.(11)

Conclusion

Road drainage is the method of removing and controlling excess surface & subsurface water in the
appropriate manner. This consists of the interception and diversion of water from the road surface and
sub-grades.(6)The main advantages of a good drainage system are: effective removal of rainwater out of
the road surface and its surroundings, road structures that stay dry, good bearing capacity, and a road
that is nice and safe to drive.

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