Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

QUARTER I Time Frame: Weeks 1-3 (11 hours)

MODULE 1
CELLS: THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Introduction

What is life? When do we say that a certain thing has life? What made up living things?
How do living things differ from non-living things? These are only some of the questions we
asked about the living world. Understanding life therefore means understanding the organism
itself, its composition, structure and functions, types and even modifications that fit them to be
called organisms.
Having an in-depth knowledge about organisms will help us appreciate the different
forms of life. It will also allow us to look at things in different perspective just like the pandemic
that we are experiencing now. That a virus like Covid-19 could be easily transmitted if we will
not take the necessary precautions or protocols that are being imposed on us. This infectious
disease affects the respiratory system particularly the cells of the different organs for respiration
that plays a vital role in gas exchange.
In this module, you will learn the different concepts about cell specifically the cell theory,
parts and functions of the cell, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, different types of cells and cell
modifications.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

a. Explain the postulates of the cell theory
b. Describe the structure and functions of the major parts and sub-cellular organelles
c. Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing features
d. Classify different cell types ( of plant/animal tissues) and specify the functions of each
e. Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized
functions( e.g. microvilli and root hairs)

Need to Know….
Guide Questions:

1. Who are the major contributors in the development of the cell theory?
2. What are their contributions?
3. What are the 3 major postulates of the cell theory?
4. What are the tenets in the modern cell theory?
5. What is the significance of the development of the cell theory?
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department
Lesson 1. Cell Theory

The invention of a compound microscope by the Dutch spectacle makers in 1590, Hans
and Zacharias Janssen contributed to the discovery of cell. The microscope opened up the world
of microorganisms and unraveled the secret of living things.

In 1665, Robert Hooke examined a slice of cork tissue with his own microscope and
published his observations in his book MICROGRAPHIA, a compilation of his observations
using lenses and magnifying glasses.

Figure 1. The book of Hooke, his microscope and his drawing of the structure of cork seen under
the microscope.( Source: Wikipedia)

Hooke use the term “cellulae”, meaning small compartments, to describe the tiny boxes
he observed in the thin slice of cork which was later own called the “cell”. Hooke thought that it
was only plants and fungi that were made up of cells. In 1676, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
published his observations on tiny living things which he named “animalcules”. Leeuwenhoek
was also the first one to observed red blood cells of different animals including the sperm cell.
Little was known about cell during those times maybe because of the traditional belief on the
theory of spontaneous generation, the belief that life originates from non- living things.
The concept of cell was only appreciated after almost 200 years. As the microscopes
improved, many scientists started to describe different cell types and cell structures. In 1831,
Robert Brown was able to compare diverse kinds of specimen and observed that inside the cell
was a dark dense spot which he called the “nucleus”. He believed that the nucleus is a
fundamental component of the cell.
In 1838, Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a German botanist, concluded that all plant parts are
made of cells. In 1839, Theodore Schwann, a German Physician and physiologist, stated that all
animal tissues are made of cells too. These laid the foundation of the cell theory. From these
observations, The first two postulates of the cell theory was formulated: 1. All living organisms
are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things. The
third postulate was a contribution by Rudolf Virchow who stated that “ 3. all cells arise only
from pre- existing cells” (Omnis cellula e cellula) though the idea of cell division came from
Robert Remak.

The Modern Tenets of the CELL THEORY include:

 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department
1. All known living things are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and functions in all organisms.
3. All living cells arise from pre-existing cell by division.
4. Cell contains DNA (hereditary information) which is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs within the cell.
The discovery of the cell and the formulation of the cell theory contributed a lot in answering
questions about the nature of life.

Lesson Guide:

Go over the different structures of the cell and get familiar with their description and Functions.
Try to make your own model of the cell and label its parts..

Lesson 2: Cell Structures and Functions

All living things are composed of one or more cells. Each of these cells perform all the
different life functions. They contain specific structures that allow them to carry out their
functions. There are 3 major parts of the cell namely: Surface Structures (Plasma membrane), the
cytoplasm and the nucleus.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

Figure 2. Animal cell Figure 3. Plant Cell

Source: https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/cells-the-basic-units-of-
life/02-cells-the -basic-units-of-life-04

I. SURFACE STRUCTURES

1. CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE

The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, physically separates the
intracellular space (inside the cell) from the extracellular environment (outside the cell). All
plant and animal cells have cell membranes. The cell membrane surrounds and protects the
cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is part of the protoplasm and is the living component of the cell.

Figure 4. Structure of the Cell Membrane

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/284149057713134981/
The cell membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of special lipids (fats)
called phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and
a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. The hydrophobic head of the phospholipid
is polar (charged) and can therefore dissolve in water. The hydrophobic tail is non-
polar (uncharged), and cannot dissolve in water.

Table 1. Structure and function of components of the cell membrane.

Components Structure Function

 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department
It is a semi-permeable structure
Consists of two layers of phospholipids. that does not allow materials to
Phospholipid Each phospholipid has a polar, hydrophilic pass through the membrane freely,
bilayer (water-soluble) head as well as a non-polar, thus protecting the intra and
hydrophobic (water-insoluble) tail. extracellular environments of the
cell.
These are proteins found spanning the
membrane from the inside of the cell (in the Act as carrier proteins which
Membrane cytoplasm) to the outside of the cell. control the movement of specific
proteins Membrane proteins have hydrophilic and ions and molecules across the cell
hydrophobic regions that allow them to fit membrane.
into the cell membrane.
Consist of short carbohydrate chains
attached to polypeptide chains and are These proteins are useful for cell-
Glycoproteins
found on the extracellular regions of the to-cell recognition.
membrane.
Act as recognition sites for
Carbohydrate chains attached to
specific chemicals and are
Glycolipids phospholipids on the outside surface of the
important in cell-to-cell
membrane.
attachment to form tissues.
All the exchanges between the cell and its environment have to pass through the cell
membrane. The cell membrane is selectively permeable or differentially permeable (allows
only chosen substances to enter the cell) to ions (e.g. hydrogen, sodium), small molecules
(oxygen, carbon dioxide) and larger molecules (glucose and amino acids) and controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cells. The cell membrane performs many important
functions within the cell such as osmosis, diffusion, transport of nutrients into the cell, processes
of ingestion and secretion. The cell membrane is strong enough to provide the cell with
mechanical support and flexible enough to allow cells to grow and move.

2. CELL WALL

The cell wall is a rigid non-living layer that is found outside the cell membrane and surrounds
the cell. Plants, bacteria and fungi all have cell walls. In plants, the wall is comprised of
cellulose. It consists of three layers that help support the plant. These layers include the middle
lamella, the primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.

Middle lamella: Separates one cell from another. It is a thin membranous layer on the outside of
the cell and is made of a sticky substance called pectin.
Primary cell wall: Is on the inside of the middle lamella and is mainly composed of cellulose.
Secondary cell wall: Lies alongside the cell membrane. It is is made up of a thick and tough
layer of cellulose which is held together by a hard, waterproof substance called lignin. It is only
found in cells which provide mechanical support in plants.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

Figure 5. Structure of a plant cell wall

Source: micro.magnet.fsu.edu

Functions of the cell wall:

1. The main function of the wall is to protect the inner parts of the plant cell, it gives plant
cells a more uniform and regular shape and provides support for the plant body.
2. The cell wall is completely permeable to water and mineral salts which allows
distribution of nutrients throughout the plant.
3. The openings in the cell wall are called plasmodesmata which contain strands of
cytoplasm that connect adjacent cells. This allows cells to interact with one another,
allowing molecules to travel between plant cells.

II. CYTOPLASM

The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up to 90% water.
It also contains dissolved nutrients and waste products. Its main function is to hold together the
organelles which make up the cytoplasm. It also nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and
sugars and provides a medium for metabolic reactions to occur.

ORGANELLES IN THE CYTOPLASM

1. MITOCHONDRIA: “ The powerhouse of the Cell”

A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. This

organelle generates the cell's supply of chemical energy by releasing energy stored in
molecules from food and using it to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a special
type of "energy carrying" molecule.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department
Mitochondria contain two phospholipid bilayers: there is
an outer membrane, and an inner membrane. The inner
membrane contains many folds called cristae which
contain specialized membrane proteins that enable the
mitochondria to synthesise ATP. Inside the inner
membrane is a jelly-like matrix. Listed from the
outermost layer to the innermost compartment, the
compartments of the mitochondrion, are:
1. Outer mitochondrial membrane
2. Inter-membrane space
3. Inner mitochondrial membrane
4. Cristae (folds of the inner membrane)
5. matrix (jelly-like substance within the inner membrane)

Figure 6. Major Structures of Mitochondrion

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/810225789190315059/

2. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells only. The ER has a
double membrane consisting of a network of hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and round sacs.
These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are called cisternae. The ER is located in the cytoplasm
and is connected to the nuclear envelope. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: smooth
and rough ER.

Figure 7. The Smooth and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/241013017548206721/

Smooth ER: does not have any ribosomes attached. It is involved in the synthesis of lipids,
including oils, phospholipids and steroids. It is also responsible for metabolism of carbohydrates,
regulation of calcium concentration and detoxification of drugs.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department
Rough ER: is covered with ribosomes giving the endoplasmic reticulum its rough appearance. It
is responsible for protein synthesis and plays a role in membrane production. The folds present in
the membrane increase the surface area allowing more ribosomes to be present on the ER,
thereby allowing greater protein production.

3. RIBOSOMES: “ Protein Factories of the Cell”

Ribosomes are dot-like structures in the cytoplasm either free or attached to certain
structures and are composed of RNA and protein. They occur in the cytoplasm and are the sites
where protein synthesis occurs. Ribosomes may occur singly in the cytoplasm or in groups or
may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum thus forming the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes are important for protein production. Together with a structure known as messenger
RNA (a type of nucleic acid) ribosomes form a structure known as a polyribosome which is
important in protein synthesis.

Diagram: Free Ribosome Diagram: Polyribosome

Figure 8: Free ribosomes found

Figure 9: Diagram of several ribosomes joined together on
within cytoplasm.
a strand of mRNA to form a polyribosome.

4. GOLGI BODY: “Post Office of the Cell”

The Golgi body is found near the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi body
consists of a stack of flat membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. The cisternae within the
Golgi body consist of enzymes which modify the packaged products of the Golgi body
(proteins).
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

Figure 10. The Golgi Body

Source: https://vectormine.com/item/golgi-apparatus-biological-vector-illustration-diagram

It is important for proteins to be transported from where they are synthesised to where
they are required in the cell. The organelle responsible for this is the Golgi Body. The Golgi
body is the sorting organelle of the cell.
Proteins are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) to the Golgi. In the
Golgi, proteins are modified and packaged into vesicle. The Golgi body therefore receives
proteins made in one location in the cell and transfers these to another location within the cell
where they are required. For this reason the Golgi body can be considered to be the 'post office'
of the cell.

5. VESICLES AND LYSOSOMES

Vesicles are small, membrane-bound spherical sacs which facilitate the metabolism, transport
and storage of molecules. Many vesicles are made in the Golgi body and the endoplasmic
reticulum, or are made from parts of the cell membrane. Vesicles can be classified according to
their contents and function. Transport vesicles transport molecules within the cell.

Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body and contain powerful digestive enzymes that can
potentially digest the cell. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body or the endoplasmic
reticulum. These powerful enzymes can digest cell structures and food molecules such as
carbohydrates and proteins. Lysosomes are abundant in animal cells that ingest food through
food vacuoles. When a cell dies, the lysosome releases its enzymes and digests the cell.

6. VACUOLES

Vacuoles are membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of most
plant cells, but are very small or completely absent from animal cells. Plant cells generally have
one large vacuole that takes up most of the cell's volume. A selectively permeable membrane
called the tonoplast, surround the vacuole. The vacuole contains cell sap which is a liquid
consisting of water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

Figure 11. A Plant Vacuole

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/638807528385779471/

Functions of Vacuoles:
1. The vacuole plays an important role in digestion and excretion of cellular waste and
storage of water and organic and inorganic substances.
2. The vacuole takes in and releases water by osmosis in response to changes in the
cytoplasm, as well as in the environment around the cell.
3. The vacuole is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells. When the cell is
full of water, the vacuole exerts pressure outwards, pushing the cell membrane against
the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure.
4. If there is not sufficient water, pressure exerted by the vacuole is reduced and the cells
become flaccid causing the plant to wilt.

7. PEROXISOMES

Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by a single membrane. They carry out
oxidation reaction that breaks down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many
poisons that may enter the body. Many of these oxidation reactions release Hydrogen
peroxide, (H2O2), which would be damaging to cells; however, when these reactions are
confined in peroxisomes, enzymes safely breakdown hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and
water. For example, alcohol is detoxified by peroxisome in liver cells. Glyoxysomes,
which are specialized peroxisomes in plants, are responsible for converting stored fats
into sugars.

8. CYTOSKELETON

The cytoskeleton is a network of different protein fibers that provides many

functions: it maintains or changes the shape of the cell; it secures some organelles in
specific positions; it enables movement of cytoplasm and vesicles within the cell; and it
enables the cell to move in response to stimuli. There are three types of fibers within the
cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Some of the
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department
cytoskeletal fibers work in conjunction with molecular motors which move along the
fibers within the cell to carry out a diverse set of functions.

Figure 12. The different components of cytoskeleton. Source: bio.libretext.org

Microfilaments are the narrowest protein fibers and sometimes called actin filaments.
They function in cellular movement and provide rigidity to the cell. It can depolymerize(
disassemble) and reform quickly enabling the cell to change shape and move.

Intermediate filaments are the most diverse group of cytoskeletal elements. They have
no role in cellular movement. Their function is purely structural i.e. maintaining the
shape of the cell.

Microtubules are small hollow tubes and are the biggest component of the cytoskeleton.
They help cell resist compression, provide a tracks along which vesicles move through
the cell and a component of the spindle fibers during cell division. They are also the
structural components of flagella, cilia and centrioles.

9. CENTROSOME

Centrosome is a microtubule organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells.
It contain a special organelle called a centriole. The centriole is a cylindrical tube-like structure
that is composed of 9 microtubules arranged in a very particular pattern. The two centrioles are
arranged perpendicular to each other. The centrosome plays a very important role in cell
division. The centrioles are responsible for organizing the microtubules that position the
chromosomes in the correct location during cell division.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

Figure 13. Centrioles

Source: https://knowledgeclass.blogspot.com/2012/11/centrioles.html

10. PLASTIDS

Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There are three different types:

1. Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots for storage.

2. Chloroplasts: Green-colored plastids found in plants and algae.
3. Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow pigments and are common in ripening
fruit, flowers or autumn leaves.

Figure 14. The different types of plastids

Chloroplast

The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle. Within the double membrane is a gel-

like substance called stroma. Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis. Suspended in the
stroma are stack-like structures called grana (singular = granum). Each granum is a stack of
thylakoid discs. The chlorophyll molecules (green pigments) are found on the surface of the
thylakoid discs. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun in order for photosynthesis to take
place in the chloroplasts. The grana are connected by lamellae (inter grana). The lamellae keep
the stacks apart from each other.
The structure of the chloroplast is neatly adapted to its function of trapping and storing
energy in plants. For example, chloroplasts contain a high density of thylakoid discs and
numerous grana to allow for increased surface area for the absorption of sunlight, thus producing
a high quantity of food for the plant. Additionally, the lamellae keeping the thylakoids apart
maximise chloroplast efficiency, thus allowing as much light as possible to be absorbed in the
smallest surface area.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

Figure 15. Chloroplast Structure

Source: ib.bioninja.com.au

III. NUCLEUS : “ Control center of the cell”

The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell's genetic
information in the form of DNA. The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor that
distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes. The structure of the nucleus is described
below:

1. Nuclear envelope: two lipid membranes that are studded with special proteins that
separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm.
2. Nuclear pores: tiny holes called nuclear pores are found in the nuclear envelope and help
to regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins) between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm.
3. Chromatin: thin long strands of DNA and protein.
4. Nucleolus: the nucleolus makes RNA another type of nucleic acid.

Figure 17. Structure of the nucleus

Source: Khan Academy

Functions of the nucleus:

 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department
1. The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and facilitate the
replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
2. The nucleus controls the metabolic functions of the cell by producing mRNA which
encodes for enzymes e.g. insulin.
3. The nucleus controls the structure of the cell by transcribing DNA which encodes for
structural proteins such as actin and keratin.
4. The nucleus is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is important for the
construction of ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of protein translation (synthesis of
proteins from amino acids).
5. Characteristics are transmitted from parent to offspring through genetic material
contained in the nucleus.

Now that we have looked at the basic structures and functions of the organelles in a cell, you
would have noticed that there are key differences between plant and animal cells. The table
below summarizes these differences.

Table 2. Differences between plant and animal cells.

Animal Cells Plant Cells

Almost all plants cells contain plastids such
Do not contain plastids.
chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in addition to the cell
No cell wall.
membrane.
Contain centrioles. Do not contain centrioles.
Animals do not have plasmodesmata
Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
or pits.
Large central vacuole filled with cell sap in mature
Few vacuoles (if any).
cells.
Nucleus is generally found at the
Nucleus is found near the edge of the cell.
centre of the cytoplasm.
No intercellular spaces found between
Large intercellular air spaces found between some cells.
the cells.

Those are the different cellular structures that perform life functions in order for an organism to
live. As you can see, the cell itself is already a living entity with all the basic necessities for life.
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Senior High School Department

References:

BOOKS:

Rea, Maria Angelica D., et. al. 2017. General Biology 1. Rex Book Store, Manila, Philippines
Belardo, Gisselle Millete M., et. al., 2016. General Biology 1. Vibal Pblishing House,Inc. Quezon City,
Philippines.
Faltado, Ruben E.,et.al.2017. General Biology 1. Lorimar Publishing Inc., Quezon City, Metro Manila.

e-SOURCES:

History and Development of Cell theory: https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-

theory/v/history-and-development-of-cell-theory
The Cell Theory Timeline: https://www.slideserve.com/akando/the-cell-theory-timeline
Evolution of the Cell theory: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8577831/
The Cell theory: http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/unity/cell.text.htm
Cell Structure and Functions: https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/cells-the-
basic-units-of-life/02-cells-the-basic-units-of-life-03