Smog

Smog, or smoke fog, is a t ype of int ense air pollut ion. The word "smog" was coined in t he early
20t h cent ury, and is a cont ract ion (port mant eau) of t he words smoke and fog[1] t o refer t o smoky
fog due t o it s opacit y, and odor.[2] The word was t hen int ended t o refer t o what was somet imes
known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from t he 19t h cent ury t o t he
mid-20t h cent ury. This kind of visible air pollut ion is composed of nit rogen oxides, sulfur oxide,
ozone, smoke and ot her part iculat es. Man-made smog is derived from coal combust ion
emissions, vehicular emissions, indust rial emissions, forest and agricult ural fires and
phot ochemical react ions of t hese emissions.

Smog and sunny day within 10-day interval in Fanhe, China

 External audio

"Fighting Smog in Los Angeles" (https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/fighting-s

mog-in-los-angeles) , Distillations Podcast, 2018 Science History Institute

Smog is oft en cat egorized as being eit her summer smog or wint er smog. Summer smog is
primarily associat ed wit h t he phot ochemical format ion of ozone. During t he summer season
when t he t emperat ures are warmer and t here is more sunlight present , phot ochemical smog is
t he dominant t ype of smog format ion. During t he wint er mont hs when t he t emperat ures are
colder, and at mospheric inversions are common, t here is an increase in coal and ot her fossil fuel
usage t o heat homes and buildings. These combust ion emissions, t oget her wit h t he lack of
pollut ant dispersion under inversions, charact erize wint er smog format ion. While phot ochemical
smog is t he main smog format ion mechanism during summer mont hs, wint er smog episodes are
st ill common. Smog format ion in general relies on bot h primary and secondary pollut ant s. Primary
pollut ant s are emit t ed direct ly from a source, such as emissions of sulfur dioxide from coal
combust ion. Secondary pollut ant s, such as ozone, are formed when primary pollut ant s undergo
chemical react ions in t he at mosphere.

Phot ochemical smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a t ype of air pollut ion derived from
vehicular emission from int ernal combust ion engines and indust rial fumes. These pollut ant s react
in t he at mosphere wit h sunlight t o form secondary pollut ant s t hat also combine wit h t he primary
emissions t o form phot ochemical smog. In cert ain ot her cit ies, such as Delhi, smog severit y is
oft en aggravat ed by st ubble burning in neighboring agricult ural areas since 2002. The
at mospheric pollut ion levels of Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Lahore, Mexico Cit y, Tehran and ot her
cit ies are oft en increased by an inversion t hat t raps pollut ion close t o t he ground. The
developing smog is usually t oxic t o humans and can cause severe sickness, a short ened life span,
or premat ure deat h.

Etymology

Coinage of t he t erm "smog" is oft en at t ribut ed t o Dr. Henry Ant oine Des Voeux in his 1905 paper,
"Fog and Smoke" for a meet ing of t he Public Healt h Congress. The 26 July 1905 edit ion of t he
London newspaper Daily Graphic quot ed Des Voeux, "He said it required no science t o see t hat
t here was somet hing produced in great cit ies which was not found in t he count ry, and t hat was
smoky fog, or what was known as 'smog'."[3] The following day t he newspaper st at ed t hat "Dr.
Des Voeux did a public service in coining a new word for t he London fog." However, t he t erm
appears t went y-five years earlier t han Dr. Voeux's paper, in a column in t he 3 July 1880, Sant a
Cruz Weekly Sent inel.[4] On 17 December 1881, in t he publicat ion Sporting Times, t he aut hor
claims t o have invent ed t he word: "The 'Smog' - a word I have invent ed, combined of smoke and
fog, t o designat e t he London at mosphere..."[5]

Causes

Coal

Coal fire can emit significant clouds of smoke t hat cont ribut e t o t he format ion of wint er smog.
Coal fires can be used t o heat individual buildings or t o provide energy in a power-producing plant .
Air pollut ion from t his source has been report ed in England since t he Middle Ages.[6][7] London, in
part icular, was not orious up t hrough t he mid-20t h cent ury for it s coal-caused smogs, which were
nicknamed 'pea-soupers.' Air pollut ion of t his t ype is st ill a problem in areas t hat generat e
significant smoke from burning coal. The emissions from coal combust ion are one of t he main
causes of air pollut ion in China.[8] Especially during aut umn and wint er when coal-fired heat ing
ramps up, t he amount of produced smoke at t imes forces some Chinese cit ies t o close down
roads, schools or airport s. One prominent example for t his was China's Nort heast ern cit y of
Harbin in 2013.

Transportation emissions

Traffic emissions – such as from t rucks, buses, and aut omobiles– also cont ribut e t o t he
format ion of smog.[9] Airborne by-product s from vehicle exhaust syst ems cause air pollut ion and
are a major ingredient in t he creat ion of smog in some large cit ies.[10][11][12][13]

The major culprit s from t ransport at ion sources are carbon monoxide (CO),[14][15] nit rogen oxides
(NO and NO2),[16][17][18] volat ile organic compounds,[15][16] and hydrocarbons (hydrocarbons are t he
main component of pet roleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel).[15] Transport at ion
emissions also include sulfur dioxides and part iculat e mat t er but in much smaller quant it ies t han
t he pollut ant s ment ioned previously. The nit rogen oxides and volat ile organic compounds can
undergo a series of chemical react ions wit h sunlight , heat , ammonia, moist ure, and ot her
compounds t o form t he noxious vapors, ground level ozone, and part icles t hat comprise
smog.[15][16]

Photochemical smog
The photochemical smog formation diagram. (Based on U 6.3.3 in mrgsciences.com[19] )

Phot ochemical smog, oft en referred t o as "summer smog", is t he chemical react ion of sunlight ,
nit rogen oxides and volat ile organic compounds in t he at mosphere, which leaves airborne
part icles and ground-level ozone.[20] Phot ochemical smog depends on primary pollut ant s as well
as t he format ion of secondary pollut ant s. These primary pollut ant s include nit rogen oxides,
part icularly nit ric oxide (NO) and nit rogen dioxide (NO2), and volat ile organic compounds. The
relevant secondary pollut ant s include peroxylacyl nit rat es (PAN), t ropospheric ozone, and
aldehydes. An import ant secondary pollut ant for phot ochemical smog is ozone, which is formed
when hydrocarbons (HC) and nit rogen oxides (NOx) combine in t he presence of sunlight ; nit rogen
dioxide (NO2), which is formed as nit ric oxide (NO) combines wit h oxygen (O2) in t he air.[21] In
addit ion, when SO2 and NOx are emit t ed t hey event ually are oxidized in t he t roposphere t o nit ric
acid and sulfuric acid, which, when mixed wit h wat er, form t he main component s of acid rain.[22]
All of t hese harsh chemicals are usually highly react ive and oxidizing. Phot ochemical smog is
t herefore considered t o be a problem of modern indust rializat ion. It is present in all modern
cit ies, but it is more common in cit ies wit h sunny, warm, dry climat es and a large number of mot or
vehicles.[23] Because it t ravels wit h t he wind, it can affect sparsely populat ed areas as well.
Airplane used to collect airborne hydrocarbons, May 1972

The composit ion and chemical react ions involved in phot ochemical smog were not underst ood
unt il t he 1950s. In 1948, flavor chemist Arie Haagen-Smit adapt ed some of his equipment t o
collect chemicals from pollut ed air, and ident ified ozone as a component of Los Angeles smog.
Haagen-Smit went on t o discover t hat nit rogen oxides from aut omot ive exhaust s and gaseous
hydrocarbons from cars and oil refineries, exposed t o sunlight , were key ingredient s in t he
format ion of ozone and phot ochemical smog.[24]: 219–224 [25][26] Haagen-Smit worked wit h Arnold
Beckman, who developed various equipment for det ect ing smog, ranging from an "Apparat us for
recording gas concent rat ions in t he at mosphere" pat ent ed on 7 Oct ober 1952, t o "air qualit y
monit oring vans" for use by government and indust ry.[24]: 224–226 

Formation and reactions

During t he morning rush hour, a high concent rat ion of nit ric oxide and hydrocarbons are emit t ed t o
t he at mosphere, most ly via on-road t raffic but also from indust rial sources. Some hydrocarbons
are rapidly oxidized by OH· and form peroxy radicals, which convert nit ric oxide (NO) t o nit rogen
dioxide (NO2).

(1)

(2)

(3)

Nit rogen dioxide (NO2) and nit ric oxide (NO) furt her react wit h ozone (O3) in a series of chemical
react ions:

(4) ,

(5)

(6)

This series of equat ions is referred t o as t he phot ost at ionary st at e (PSS). However, because of
t he presence of React ion 2 and 3, NOx and ozone are not in a perfect ly st eady st at e. By
replacing React ion 6 wit h React ion 2 and React ion 3, t he O3 molecule is no longer dest royed.
Therefore, t he concent rat ion of ozone keeps increasing t hroughout t he day. This mechanism can
escalat e t he format ion of ozone in smog. Ot her react ions such as t he phot ooxidat ion of
formaldehyde (HCHO), a common secondary pollut ant , can also cont ribut e t o t he increased
concent rat ion of ozone and NO2. Phot ochemical smog is more prevalent during summer days
since incident solar radiat ion fluxes are high, which favors t he format ion of ozone (react ions 4 and
5). The presence of a t emperat ure inversion layer is anot her import ant fact or. That is because it
prevent s t he vert ical convect ive mixing of t he air and t hus allows t he pollut ant s, including ozone,
t o accumulat e near t he ground level, which again favors t he format ion of phot ochemical smog.

There are cert ain react ions t hat can limit t he format ion of O3 in smog. The main limit ing react ion
in pollut ed areas is:

(7)

This react ion removes NO2 which limit s t he amount of O3 t hat can be produced from it s
phot olysis (react ion 4). HNO3 is a st icky compound t hat can easily be removed ont o surfaces
(dry deposit ion) or dissolved in wat er and be rained out (wet deposit ion). Bot h ways are common
in t he at mosphere and can efficient ly remove radicals and nit rogen dioxide.

The presence of smog in California is shown near the Golden Gate Bridge. The brown coloration is due to the NO2 formed
from photochemical smog reactions.

Natural causes

Volcanoes

An erupt ing volcano can emit high levels of sulfur dioxide along wit h a large quant it y of
part iculat es mat t er; t wo key component s t o t he creat ion of smog. However, t he smog creat ed
as a result of a volcanic erupt ion is oft en known as vog t o dist inguish it as a nat ural occurrence.
The chemical react ions t hat form smog following a volcanic erupt ion are different t han t he
react ions t hat form phot ochemical smog. The t erm smog encompasses t he effect when a large
number of gas-phase molecules and part iculat e mat t er are emit t ed t o t he at mosphere, creat ing
a visible haze. The event causing a large number of emissions can vary but st ill result in t he
format ion of smog.

Plants

Plant s are anot her nat ural source of hydrocarbons t hat could undergo react ions in t he
at mosphere and produce smog. Globally bot h plant s and soil cont ribut e a subst ant ial amount t o
t he product ion of hydrocarbons, mainly by producing isoprene and t erpenes.[27] Hydrocarbons
released by plant s can oft en be more react ive t han man-made hydrocarbons. For example when
plant s release isoprene, t he isoprene react s very quickly in t he at mosphere wit h hydroxyl
radicals. These react ions produce hydroperoxides which increase ozone format ion.[28]

Health effects

Highland Park Optimist Club wearing smog-gas masks at banquet, Los Angeles, circa 1954

Smog is a serious problem in many cit ies and cont inues t o harm human healt h.[29][30] Ground-level
ozone, sulfur dioxide, nit rogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are especially harmful for senior
cit izens, children, and people wit h heart and lung condit ions such as emphysema, bronchit is, and
ast hma.[13] It can inflame breat hing passages, decrease t he lungs' working capacit y, cause
short ness of breat h, pain when inhaling deeply, wheezing, and coughing. It can cause eye and
nose irrit at ion and it dries out t he prot ect ive membranes of t he nose and t hroat and int erferes
wit h t he body's abilit y t o fight infect ion, increasing suscept ibilit y t o illness.[31] Hospit al
admissions and respirat ory deat hs oft en increase during periods when ozone levels are high.[32][33]

There is a lack of knowledge on t he long-t erm effect s of air pollut ion exposure and t he origin of
ast hma. An experiment was carried out using int ense air pollut ion similar t o t hat of t he 1952
Great Smog of London. The result s from t his experiment concluded t hat t here is a link bet ween
early-life pollut ion exposure t hat leads t o t he development of ast hma, proposing t he ongoing
effect of t he Great Smog.[34]
Modern st udies cont inue t o find links bet ween mort alit y and t he
presence of smog. One st udy, published in Nat ure magazine, found t hat smog episodes in t he
cit y of Jinan, a large cit y in east ern China, during 2011–15, were associat ed wit h a 5.87% (95% CI
0.16–11.58%) increase in t he rat e of overall mort alit y. This st udy highlight s t he effect of
exposure t o air pollut ion on t he rat e of mort alit y in China.[35] A similar st udy in X'ian found an
associat ion bet ween ambient air pollut ion and increased mort alit y associat ed wit h respirat ory
diseases.[36]

Levels of unhealthy exposure

The U.S. EPA has developed an air qualit y index t o help explain air pollut ion levels t o t he general
public. 8 hour average ozone concent rat ions of 85 t o 104 ppbv are described as "Unhealt hy for
Sensit ive Groups", 105 ppbv t o 124 ppbv as "unhealt hy" and 125 ppb t o 404 ppb as "very
unhealt hy".[13] The "very unhealt hy" range for some ot her pollut ant s are: 355 μg m−3 – 424 μg m−3
for PM10; 15.5 ppm – 30.4ppm for CO and 0.65 ppm – 1.24 ppm for NO2.[37]

Premature deaths due to cancer and respiratory disease

In 2016, t he Ont ario Medical Associat ion announced t hat smog is responsible for an est imat ed
9,500 premat ure deat hs in t he province each year.[38]

A 20-year American Cancer Societ y st udy found t hat cumulat ive exposure also increases t he
likelihood of premat ure deat h from respirat ory disease, implying t he 8-hour st andard may be
insufficient .[39]

Alzheimer risk
Tiny magnet ic part icles from air pollut ion have for t he first t ime been discovered t o be lodged in
human brains– and researchers t hink t hey could be a possible cause of Alzheimer's disease.
Researchers at Lancast er Universit y found abundant magnet it e nanopart icles in t he brain t issue
from 37 individuals aged t hree t o 92-years-old who lived in Mexico Cit y and Manchest er. This
st rongly magnet ic mineral is t oxic and has been implicat ed in t he product ion of react ive oxygen
species (free radicals) in t he human brain, which is associat ed wit h neurodegenerat ive diseases
including Alzheimer's disease.[40][41]

Risk of certain birth defects

A st udy examining 806 women who had babies wit h birt h defect s bet ween 1997 and 2006, and
849 women who had healt hy babies, found t hat smog in t he San Joaquin Valley area of California
was linked t o t wo t ypes of neural t ube defect s: spina bifida (a condit ion involving, among ot her
manifest at ions, cert ain malformat ions of t he spinal column), and anencephaly (t he
underdevelopment or absence of part or all of t he brain, which if not fat al usually result s in
profound impairment ).[42] An emerging cohort st udy in China linked early-life smog exposure t o an
increased risk for adverse pregnancy out comes, in part icular oxidat ive st ress.[43]

Low birth weight

According t o a st udy published in The Lancet , even a very small (5 μg) change in PM2.5 exposure
was associat ed wit h an increase (18%) in risk of a low birt h weight at delivery, and t his
relat ionship held even below t he current accept ed safe levels.[44]

Areas affected

Smog can form in almost any climat e where indust ries or cit ies release large amount s of air
pollut ion, such as smoke or gases. However, it is worse during periods of warmer, sunnier weat her
when t he upper air is warm enough t o inhibit vert ical circulat ion. It is especially prevalent in
geologic basins encircled by hills or mount ains. It oft en st ays for an ext ended period of t ime
over densely populat ed cit ies or urban areas and can build up t o dangerous levels.

Canada
According t o t he Canadian Science Smog Assessment published in 2012, smog is responsible for
det riment al effect s on human and ecosyst em healt h, as well as socioeconomic well-being
across t he count ry. It was est imat ed t hat t he province of Ont ario sust ains $201 million in
damages annually for select ed crops, and an est imat ed t ourism revenue degradat ion of $7.5
million in Vancouver and $1.32 million in The Fraser Valley due t o decreased visibilit y. Air pollut ion
in Brit ish Columbia is of part icular concern, especially in t he Fraser Valley, because of a
met eorological effect called inversion which decreases air dispersion and leads t o smog
concent rat ion.[45]

Delhi, India

During the autumn and spring months, some 500 million tons of rice and wheat crop residues are burnt, and winds blow
from India's north and northwest towards east.[46][47][48] This aerial view shows India's annual crop burning, resulting in
smoke and air pollution over Delhi and adjoining areas.

For t he past few years, cit ies in nort hern India have been covered in a t hick layer of wint er smog.
The sit uat ion has t urned quit e drast ic in t he Nat ional Capit al, Delhi. This smog is caused by t he
collect ion of Part iculat e Mat t er (a very fine t ype of dust and t oxic gases) in t he air due t o
st agnant movement of air during wint ers.[49]

Delhi is t he most pollut ed[50] cit y in t he world and according t o one est imat e, air pollut ion causes
t he deat h of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year.[51][52][53] During 2013–14, peak levels of
fine part iculat e mat t er (PM) in Delhi increased by about 44%, primarily due t o high vehicular and
indust rial emissions, const ruct ion work and crop burning in adjoining st at es.[51][54][55][56] Delhi has
t he highest level of t he airborne part iculat e mat t er, PM2.5 considered most harmful t o healt h,
wit h 153 micrograms.[57] Rising air pollut ion level has significant ly increased lung-relat ed ailment s
(especially ast hma and lung cancer) among Delhi's children and women.[58][59] The dense smog in
Delhi during wint er season result s in major air and rail t raffic disrupt ions every year.[60] According
t o Indian met eorologist s, t he average maximum t emperat ure in Delhi during wint ers has declined
not ably since 1998 due t o rising air pollut ion.[61]

Dense smog blankets Connaught Place, New Delhi

Environment alist s have crit icized t he Delhi government for not doing enough t o curb air pollut ion
and t o inform people about air qualit y issues.[52] Most of Delhi's resident s are unaware of
alarming levels of air pollut ion in t he cit y and t he healt h risks associat ed wit h it .[55] Since t he mid-
1990s, Delhi has undert aken some measures t o curb air pollut ion – Delhi has t he t hird highest
quant it y of t rees among Indian cit ies[62] and t he Delhi Transport Corporat ion operat es t he world's
largest fleet of environment ally friendly compressed nat ural gas (CNG) buses.[63] In 1996, t he
Cent re for Science and Environment (CSE) st art ed a public int erest lit igat ion in t he Supreme
Court of India t hat ordered t he conversion of Delhi's fleet of buses and t axis t o run on CNG and
banned t he use of leaded pet rol in 1998. In 2003, Delhi won t he Unit ed St at es Depart ment of
Energy's first 'Clean Cit ies Int ernat ional Part ner of t he Year' award for it s "bold effort s t o curb air
pollut ion and support alt ernat ive fuel init iat ives".[63] The Delhi Met ro has also been credit ed for
significant ly reducing air pollut ant s in t he cit y.[64]

However, according t o several aut hors, most of t hese gains have been lost , especially due t o
st ubble burning, rise in market share of diesel cars and a considerable decline in bus
ridership.[65][66] According t o CUE and Syst em of Air Qualit y Weat her Forecast ing and Research
(SAFER), burning of agricult ural wast e in nearby Punjab, Haryana and Ut t ar Pradesh regions result s
in severe int ensificat ion of smog over Delhi.[67][68] The st at e government of adjoining Ut t ar
Pradesh is considering imposing a ban on crop burning t o reduce pollut ion in Delhi NCR and an
environment al panel has appealed t o India's Supreme Court t o impose a 30% cess on diesel
cars.[69][70]

Beijing, China

Joint research bet ween American and Chinese researchers in 2006 concluded t hat much of t he
cit y's pollut ion comes from surrounding cit ies and provinces. On average 35–60% of t he ozone
can be t raced t o sources out side t he cit y. Shandong Province and Tianjin Municipalit y have a
"significant influence on Beijing's air qualit y",[71] part ly due t o t he prevailing sout h/sout heast erly
flow during t he summer and t he mount ains t o t he nort h and nort hwest .

United Kingdom

London

Victorian London was notorious for its thick smogs, or "pea-soupers", a fact that is often recreated (as here) to add an air of
mystery to a period costume drama

In 1306, concerns over air pollut ion were sufficient for Edward I t o (briefly) ban coal fires in
London.[6] In 1661, John Evelyn's Fumifugium suggest ed burning fragrant wood inst ead of mineral
coal, which he believed would reduce coughing. The "Ballad of Gresham College" t he same year
describes how t he smoke "does our lungs and spirit s choke, Our hanging spoil, and rust our iron."

Severe episodes of smog cont inued in t he 19t h and 20t h cent uries, mainly in t he wint er, and were
nicknamed "pea-soupers," from t he phrase "as t hick as pea soup". The Great Smog of 1952
darkened t he st reet s of London and killed approximat ely 4,000 people in t he short t ime of four
days (a furt her 8,000[72] died from it s effect s in t he following weeks and mont hs). Init ially, a flu
epidemic was blamed for t he loss of life.

In 1956 t he Clean Air Act st art ed legally enforcing smokeless zones in t he capit al. There were
areas where no soft coal was allowed t o be burned in homes or in businesses, only coke, which
produces no smoke. Because of t he smokeless zones, reduced levels of soot y part iculat es
eliminat ed t he int ense and persist ent London smog.

It was aft er t his t hat t he great clean-up of London began. One by one, hist orical buildings which,
during t he previous t wo cent uries had gradually complet ely blackened ext ernally, had t heir st one
facades cleaned and rest ored t o t heir original appearance. Vict orian buildings whose appearance
changed dramat ically aft er cleaning included t he Brit ish Museum of Nat ural Hist ory. A more
recent example was t he Palace of West minst er, which was cleaned in t he 1980s. A not able
except ion t o t he rest orat ion t rend was 10 Downing St reet , whose bricks upon cleaning in t he
lat e 1950s proved t o be nat urally yellow; t he smog-derived black color of t he façade was
considered so iconic t hat t he bricks were paint ed black t o preserve t he image.[73][74] Smog
caused by t raffic pollut ion, however, does st ill occur in modern London.

Other areas

Grease filter hood after 4 days at Italian city polluted air in winter (all surface was white)
Ot her areas of t he Unit ed Kingdom were affect ed by smog, especially heavily indust rialised
areas.

The cit ies of Glasgow and Edinburgh, in Scot land, suffered smoke-laden fogs in 1909. Des Voeux,
commonly credit ed wit h creat ing t he "smog" moniker, present ed a paper in 1911 t o t he
Manchest er Conference of t he Smoke Abat ement League of Great Brit ain about t he fogs and
result ing deat hs.[75]

One Birmingham resident described near black-out condit ions in t he 1900s before t he Clean Air
Act , wit h visibilit y so poor t hat cyclist s had t o dismount and walk in order t o st ay on t he road.[76]

On 29 April 2015, t he UK Supreme Court ruled t hat t he government must t ake immediat e act ion
t o cut air pollut ion,[77] following a case brought by environment al lawyers at Client Eart h.[78]

Mexico City, Mexico

Situated in a valley, and relying heavily on automobiles, Mexico City often suffers from poor air quality.

Due t o it s locat ion in a highland "bowl", cold air sinks down ont o t he urban area of Mexico Cit y,
t rapping indust rial and vehicle pollut ion underneat h, and t urning it int o t he most infamously smog-
plagued cit y of Lat in America. Wit hin one generat ion, t he cit y has changed from being known for
some of t he cleanest air of t he world int o one wit h some of t he worst pollut ion, wit h pollut ant s
like nit rogen dioxide being double or even t riple int ernat ional st andards.[79]
Photochemical smog over Mexico City, December 2010

Santiago, Chile

Similar t o Mexico Cit y, t he air pollut ion of Sant iago valley, locat ed bet ween t he Andes and t he
Chilean Coast Range, t urn it int o t he most infamously smog-plagued cit y of Sout h America. Ot her
aggravat es of t he sit uat ion reside in it s high lat it ude (31 degrees Sout h) and dry weat her during
most of t he year.

Tehran, Iran

In December 2005, schools and public offices had t o close in Tehran and 1600 people were
t aken t o hospit al, in a severe smog blamed largely on unfilt ered car exhaust .[80]

United States

A NASA astronaut's photograph of a smog layer over central New York

View of smog south from Los Angeles City Hall, September 2011

Counties in the United States where one or more National Ambient Air Quality Standards are not met, as of October 2015

Smog was brought t o t he at t ent ion of t he general U.S. public in 1933 wit h t he publicat ion of t he
book "St op That Smoke", by Henry Obermeyer, a New York public ut ilit y official, in which he
point ed out t he effect on human life and even t he dest ruct ion of 3,000 acres (12 km2) of a
farmer's spinach crop.[81] Since t hen, t he Unit ed St at es Environment al Prot ect ion Agency has
designat ed over 300 U.S. count ies t o be non-at t ainment areas for one or more pollut ant s t racked
as part of t he Nat ional Ambient Air Qualit y St andards.[82] These areas are largely clust ered
around large met ropolit an areas, wit h t he largest cont iguous non-at t ainment zones in California
and t he Nort heast . Various U.S. and Canadian government agencies collaborat e t o produce real-
t ime air qualit y maps and forecast s.[83] To combat smog condit ions, localit ies may declare "smog
alert " days, such as in t he Spare t he Air program in t he San Francisco Bay Area.

In t he Unit ed St at es, smog pollut ion kills 24,000 Americans every year. The U.S. is among t he
dirt ier count ries in t erms of smog, ranked 123 out of 195 count ries measured, where 1 is
cleanest and 195 is most smog pollut ed.[84]

Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley

Because of t heir locat ions in low basins surrounded by mount ains, Los Angeles and t he San
Joaquin Valley are not orious for t heir smog. Heavy aut omobile t raffic, combined wit h t he
addit ional effect s of t he San Francisco Bay and Los Angeles/Long Beach port complexes,
frequent ly cont ribut e t o furt her air pollut ion.

Los Angeles, in part icular, is st rongly predisposed t o t he accumulat ion of smog, because of t he
peculiarit ies of it s geography and weat her pat t erns. Los Angeles is sit uat ed in a flat basin wit h
t he ocean on one side and mount ain ranges on t hree sides. A nearby cold ocean current
depresses surface air t emperat ures in t he area, result ing in an inversion layer: a phenomenon
where air t emperat ure increases, inst ead of decreasing, wit h alt it ude, suppressing t hermals and
rest rict ing vert ical convect ion. All t aken t oget her, t his result s in a relat ively t hin, enclosed layer
of air above t he cit y t hat cannot easily escape out of t he basin and t ends t o accumulat e
pollut ion.

Los Angeles was one of t he best -known cit ies suffering from t ransport at ion smog for much of
t he 20t h cent ury, so much so t hat it was somet imes said t hat Los Angeles was a synonym for
smog.[85] In 1970, when t he Clean Air Act was passed, Los Angeles was t he most pollut ed basin
in t he count ry, and California was unable t o creat e a St at e Implement at ion Plan t hat would
enable it t o meet t he new air qualit y st andards.[86] However, ensuing st rict regulat ions by st at e
and federal government agencies overseeing t his problem (such as t he California Air Resources
Board and t he Unit ed St at es Environment al Prot ect ion Agency), including t ight rest rict ions on
allowed emissions levels for all new cars sold in California and mandat ory regular emission t est s
of older vehicles, result ed in significant improvement s in air qualit y.[87] For example, air
concent rat ions of volat ile organic compounds declined by a fact or of 50 bet ween 1962 and
2012.[88] Concent rat ions of air pollut ant s such as nit rous oxides and ozone declined by 70% t o
80% over t he same period of t ime.[89]

Major incidents in the U.S.

 26 July 1943, Los Angeles, California: A smog so sudden and severe t hat "Los Angeles
resident s believe t he Japanese are at t acking t hem wit h chemical warfare."[90][91]

30-31 Oct ober 1948, Donora, Pennsylvania: 20 died, 600 hospit alized, t housands more st ricken.
Lawsuit s were not set t led unt il 1951.[92]

24 November 1966, New York Cit y, New York: Smog kills at least 169[93] people.

Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

In t he lat e 1990s, massive immigrat ion t o Ulaanbaat ar from t he count ryside began. An est imat ed
150,000 households, mainly living in t radit ional Mongolian gers on t he out skirt s of Ulaanbaat ar,
burn wood and coal (some poor families burn even car t ires and t rash) t o heat t hemselves during
t he harsh wint er, which last s from Oct ober t o April, since t hese out skirt s are not connect ed t o
t he cit y's cent ral heat ing syst em. A t emporary solut ion t o decrease smog was proposed in t he
form of st oves wit h improved efficiency, alt hough wit h no visible result s. Coal-fired ger st oves
release high levels of ash and ot her part iculat e mat t er (PM). When inhaled, t hese part icles can
set t le in t he lungs and respirat ory t ract and cause healt h problems. At t wo t o 10 t imes above
Mongolian and int ernat ional air qualit y st andards, Ulaanbaat ar's PM rat es are among t he worst in
t he world, according t o a December 2009 World Bank report . The Asian Development Bank (ADB)
est imat es t hat healt h cost s relat ed t o t his air pollut ion account for as much as 4 percent of
Mongolia's GDP.[94]

Southeast Asia

Singapore's Downtown Core on 7 October 2006, when it was affected by forest fires in Sumatra, Indonesia
Smog is a regular problem in Sout heast Asia caused by land and forest fires in Indonesia,
especially Sumat ra and Kalimant an, alt hough t he t erm haze is preferred in describing t he problem.
Farmers and plant at ion owners are usually responsible for t he fires, which t hey use t o clear
t ract s of land for furt her plant ings. Those fires mainly affect Brunei, Indonesia, Philippines,
Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, and occasionally Guam and Saipan.[95][96] The economic losses
of t he fires in 1997 have been est imat ed at more t han US$9 billion.[97] This includes damages in
agricult ure product ion, dest ruct ion of forest lands, healt h, t ransport at ion, t ourism, and ot her
economic endeavours. Not included are social, environment al, and psychological problems and
long-t erm healt h effect s. The second-lat est bout of haze t o occur in Malaysia, Singapore and
t he Malacca St rait s is in Oct ober 2006, and was caused by smoke from fires in Indonesia being
blown across t he St rait s of Malacca by sout h-west erly winds. A similar haze has occurred in June
2013, wit h t he PSI set t ing a new record in Singapore on 21 June at 12pm wit h a reading of 401,
which is in t he "Hazardous" range.[98]

The Associat ion of Sout heast Asian Nat ions (ASEAN) react ed. In 2002, t he Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollut ion was signed bet ween all ASEAN nat ions.[99] ASEAN formed a
Regional Haze Act ion Plan (RHAP) and est ablished a co-ordinat ion and support unit (CSU).[100]
RHAP, wit h t he help of Canada, est ablished a monit oring and warning syst em for
forest /veget at ion fires and implement ed a Fire Danger Rat ing Syst em (FDRS). The Malaysian
Met eorological Depart ment (MMD) has issued a daily rat ing of fire danger since Sept ember
2003.[101] Indonesia has been ineffect ive at enforcing legal policies on errant farmers.

Pakistan

Since st art of wint er season heavy smog loaded wit h pollut ant s covered major part of Punjab
especially t he cit y of Lahore,[102] causing breat hing problems and disrupt ing normal t raffic.[103]

Doct ors advised resident s t o st ay indoors and wear facemasks out side.[104]

Pollution index
Smog in São Paulo, Brazil

The severit y of smog is oft en measured using aut omat ed opt ical inst rument s such as
nephelomet ers, as haze is associat ed wit h visibilit y and t raffic cont rol in port s. Haze, however,
can also be an indicat ion of poor air qualit y, t hough t his is oft en bet t er reflect ed using accurat e
purpose-built air indexes such as t he American Air Qualit y Index, t he Malaysian API (Air Pollut ion
Index), and t he Singaporean Pollut ant St andards Index.

In hazy condit ions, it is likely t hat t he index will report t he suspended part iculat e level. The
disclosure of t he responsible pollut ant is mandat ed in some jurisdict ions.

The Malaysian API does not have a capped value. Hence, it s most hazardous readings can go
above 500. When t he reading goes above 500, a st at e of emergency is declared in t he affect ed
area. Usually, t his means t hat non-essent ial government services are suspended, and all port s in
t he affect ed area are closed. There may also be prohibit ions on privat e sect or commercial and
indust rial act ivit ies in t he affect ed area excluding t he food sect or. So far, t he st at e of
emergency rulings due t o hazardous API levels was applied t o t he Malaysian t owns of Port
Klang, Kuala Selangor, and t he st at e of Sarawak during 1997 Sout heast Asian haze and t he 2005
Malaysian haze.

Cultural references
Claude Monet made several trips to London between 1899 and 1901, during which he painted views of the Thames and
Houses of Parliament which show the sun struggling to shine through London's smog-laden atmosphere.

The London "pea-soupers" earned t he capit al t he nickname of "The Smoke". Similarly,

Edinburgh was known as "Auld Reekie". The smogs feat ure in many London novels as a mot if
indicat ing hidden danger or a myst ery, perhaps most overt ly in Margery Allingham's The Tiger in
the Smoke (1952), but also in Dickens's Bleak House (1852) and T.S. Eliot 's "The Love Song of
J. Alfred Prufrock".

The 1970 made-for-TV movie A Clear and Present Danger was one of t he first American
t elevision net work ent ert ainment programs t o warn about t he problem of smog and air
pollut ion, as it dramat ized a man's effort s t oward clean air aft er emphysema killed his
friend.[105]

The hist ory of smog in LA is det ailed in Smogtown by Chip Jacobs and William J. Kelly.[106]

See also

Smog t ower

Asian brown cloud

1997 Sout heast Asian haze

2005 Malaysian haze

2006 Sout heast Asian haze

2013 East ern China smog

2013 Nort heast ern China smog

2013 Sout heast Asian haze

2015 Sout heast Asian haze

At mospheric chemist ry

Cont rail

Crit eria air cont aminant s

Emission st andard

Great Smog of London

Haze

Inversion (met eorology)

Nit ric oxide

Ozone

Umwelt zone

Vog

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Further reading

Brimblecombe, Pet er. "Hist ory of air pollut ion." in Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the
Atmosphere (Van Nost rand Reinhold (1995): 1–18

Brimblecombe, Pet er, and László Makra. "Select ions from t he hist ory of environment al
pollut ion, wit h special at t ent ion t o air pollut ion. Part 2*: From medieval t imes t o t he 19t h
cent ury." International Journal of environment and pollution 23.4 (2005): 351–367.

Cort on, Christ ine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)

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