CHE4162

 Particle  Technology    
November  2010  Exam  Solutions  

Question  1  (10  marks)    

(a) Explain the principle of operation for measuring particle size using laser diffraction
(4 marks)

(b) 1.5 g of a powder of particle density 2000 kg/m3 are charged into the cell of an
apparatus for measurement of particle size and specific surface area by
permeametry. The cylindrical cell has a diameter of 1.2 cm and the powder forms a
bed of depth 1.5 cm. Dry air of density 1.2 kg/m3 and viscosity 18.4 x 10-6 Pas flows
at a rate of 30 cm3/min through the powder (in a direction parallel to the axis of the
cylindrical cell) and producing a pressure difference of 95 mm of water across the
bed. (density of water is 1000 kg/m3).
Determine
(i) the surface-volume mean diameter of the powder sample. ( 4 marks)
(ii) the specific surface area in m2/kg of the powder sample (2 marks)

Assume that the pressure drop - flow relationship for this packed bed of powder is
described by the Carman-Kozeny equation:

(! "p) (1 ! #) 2 µU
= 180 (Equation 6.9)
H #3 x2

Knowing the pressure drop (-Δp), the packed bed depth, H, the bed voidage ε, the gas
density µ and the superficial gas velocity U, we can determine the particle size x, which
will be the mean surface volume diameter of the particles in the bed (see Chapter 4).
2
π ⎛ 1.2 ⎞ −4 2
Cross-sectional area of cell = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.13 × 10 m
4 ⎝ 100 ⎠

−4 −6 3
Cell volume = area x depth = 1.13 × 10 × 0.015 = 1.695 × 10 m

Mass of powder sample, M = (1! " )# p (cell volume )

Knowing M = 1.5 x 10-3 kg and particle density = 2000 kg/m3,
1.5 × 10 −3
voidage of bed, ε = 1 − = 0.5575 (=~0.56)
2000 × 1.695 × 10 −6

Superficial gas velocity, U =

gas volume flow 30 × 10 −6 1
= × −4
= 4.42 × 10 −3 m/s
cross sectional area of cell 60 1.13 × 10

Pressure drop, equivalent to 95 mm of water, (assuming density of water is 1000 kg/m3)

95
Δp = hw ρ w g = × 1000 × 9.81 = 932 Pa.
1000
(! "p) (1 ! #) 2 µU
Substituting into the Carman-Kozeny equation: = 180 3
H # x2
932
= 180
(1 − 0.56 ) 2 18.4 × 10 −6 × 4.42 × 10 −3
0.015 0.56 3 x sv2
2
932
= 180
(1 − 0.56 ) 18.4 × 10 −6 × 4.42 × 10 −3
0.015 0.56 3 x sv2
xsv2=198.4*8.133x10-9/62133
Which gives xsv = 16.1µm

Checking the packed bed Reynolds number:

x sv ρ f U 16.1 × 10 −6 × 1.2 × 4.42 × 10 −3
Reʹ′ = = =
µ (1 − ε ) 18.4 × 10 −6 × (1 − 0.56 ) 0.0106 << 10

The Reynolds number is much less than 10, the limit for laminar flow, and so the
assumption that the Carman-Kozeny equation can be used is justified.

(ii)For spheres of diameter 5.1 µm, the surface area per unit volume, S is given by:
6 6
S= = = 372671 m 2 / m3
xsv 16.1×10 −6
And so the specific surface or surface area per unit mass of particles is given by:
S 372671
= = 186m2 / kg .
ρp 2000
(If we use the laminar flow part of the Ergun equation, xsv = 14.7 µm and specific surface
= 204 m2/kg.)
Question  2  (10  marks)  
A laboratory leaf filter has an area of 0.8 m2 and operates at a pressure drop of 450
kPa. During a test on filtration of a slurry, the following results are produced:

(a) Calculate
3
the time required to collect 2.5m of filtrate during filtration of the same slurry at a
constant pressure drop of 150 kPa on a similar full-scale leaf filter with an area of 3
m2 . (7 marks)

(b) Calculate the time required for washing the resulting filter cake with 1 m3 of
water at a constant pressure drop of 250 kPa. List assumptions made. (3 marks)

For filtration at constant pressure drop we use Equation 6.27, which indicates that if we
r c !µ
plot t/V versus V a straight line will have a gradient
2A2 (" #p)
r !µ
and an intercept 2 c Veq on the t/V axis.
A ("#p)

Using the data given in the plot: gradient = 4625 s/m6 and intercept = 800 s/m3
 r c !µ r c !µ
hence, 2 = 4625 and 2 Veq = 800
2A (" #p) A ("#p)

which, with A = 0.8m2 and (-Δp) = 450 x 103 Pa, gives

rcφµ
=4625; so rcφµ =2.66x109 Pas/m2
2
(
2 × 0.8 450 × 10 3
)
rcφµ
Veq = 800 so Veq = 0.0865 m3
(
0.8 450 × 10 3
2
)
Substituting in Equation 6.27,
t r cφµ r c φµ
= 2 V + 2 V eq
V 2A (−Δp) A (− Δp)
t 2.66 × 10 9 ⎛ V ⎞
= 2 ⎜ + 0.0865 ⎟
V A (− Δp ) ⎝ 2 ⎠
which applies to the filtration of the same slurry in the same filter medium (although the
area may be different) at any pressure drop.

(a) Calculate the time required to pass 2.5 m3 of filtrate at a pressure drop of 150
kPa on a similar full-scale leaf filter with an area of 3 m2. ( 7 marks)
Substituting these values into the above equation and solving for t:
t 26.54 × 10 6 ⎛ 2.5 ⎞
= 3 ⎜
+ 0.0865 ⎟
(
2.5 9 150 × 10 ⎝ 2 ) ⎠
t = 6593 sec = 1.8 hours.

(b) Calculate the time required for washing the resulting filter cake with 1 m3 of
water at a constant pressure drop of 250 kPa. List assumptions made. ( 3 marks)
During the filtration the cake thickness is continuously increasing and, since the pressure
drop is constant, the volume flow rate of filtrate will continuously decrease. The filtration
rate is given by Equation 6.26.
dV A 2 (− Δp )
=
dt (
rc µφ V + Veq )
Substituting the volume of filtrate passed at the end of the filtration period (V = 2.5 m3),
rcφµ = 2.66 × 10 9 Pas/m2, Veq = 0.0865 m3 and (-Δp) = 150∞ 103 Pa, we find the
filtration rate at the end of the filtration period is dV/dt = 0.196 x 10-3 m3/s. (1 mark)
If we assume that the wash water has the same physical properties as the filtrate
(0.5mark), then this would also be the filtration rate during the wash period if the
pressure drop was 150 kPa.

However, the pressure drop during the wash cycle is 250 kPa. According to Equation
6.26 the liquid flow rate is directly proportional to the applied pressure drop, and so:

⎛ 250 × 10 3 ⎞
flow rate of wash water (at 250 kPa) = 0.196 × 10 −3 × ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.327 × 10 −3 m 3 / s
3 ⎟
⎝ 150 × 10 ⎠
(1 mark)
Hence, the time needed to pass 1 m3 of wash water at this rate is 3060 sec or 51 min.
(0.5 marks)

Question  3  (20  marks)  

A powder having the size distribution given below and a particle density of 2500
kg/m3 is fed into a fluidized bed of cross-sectional area 2 m2 at a rate of 0.5 kg/s.

size range number (i) size range (micron) mass fraction in

feed
1 15-25 0.15
2 25-45 0.60
3 45-85 0.25

The bed is fluidized using air of density 1.2 kg/m3 at a superficial velocity of 0.3 m/s.
Processed solids are continuously withdrawn from the base of the fluidized bed in
order to maintain a constant bed mass. Solids carried over with the gas leaving the
vessel are collected by a bag filter operating at 100% total efficiency. None of the
solids caught by the filter is returned to the bed.
Assuming that the fluidized bed is well-mixed and that the freeboard height is
greater than the transport disengagement height under these conditions, calculate at
equilibrium:

(a) the flowrate of solids entering the filter bag (10 marks)
(b) the size distribution of the solids in the bed (4 marks)
(c) the size distribution of the solids entering the filter bag (4 marks)
(d) the solids loading in the gas entering the filter (2 marks)

The K 1*∞ values for the three size ranges under these conditions are:

K1*∞ = 7.58 × 10 −2 kg/m2s;

K 2*∞ = 2.68 × 10 −2 kg/m2s;
K 3*∞ = 7.95 × 10 −3 kg/m2s

ANSWER:
  
  

 
  
 
e)  Solids  loading  in  the  filter:    =R/UA=0.056/(0.3*2)=0.933  kg/m3  

Summary  answer:  

• R  =  0.056  kg/s  

• mB1  =  0.1259;  mB2  =  0.6029;  mB3  =  0.2718    (sum=1)  

• mR1  =  0.3425;  mR2  =  0.5796;  mR3  =  0.0775  (Sum  =  0.9996)  

Note  there  is  a  quicker  way  to  get  to  the  mBi  equation:  

F  =  R  +  Q   (1)  

FmFi  =  RmRi  +  QmBi  (assuming  bed  is  well  mixed)   (2)  

Ri  =  RmRi  =  KAmBi   (3)  

Sub (3) in (2) gives: FmFi  =  KAmBi  +  QmBi

Fm Fi
With  Q  from  (1),  gives:   m Bi =
KiA + F − R
Question  4        (10  marks)  
(a) Sketch plots of pressure gradient (ordinate) versus superficial gas velocity for
dilute vertical pneumatic transport at two different solids fluxes G1 and (G2 is the
higher solids flux). Mark on the choking velocity, UCH for curve representing the
solids flux G1. Explain why the curves have a minimum. (7 marks)

Answer: Curve CDE is for a solids flux of G1 and curve FG is for a higher feed rate G2.
At point C the gas velocity is high, the solids concentration is low, and frictional
resistance between gas and pipe wall dominates. As the gas velocity is decreased the
frictional resistance decreases but, since the solids concentration of the suspension
increases, the static head required to support these solids increases. If the gas velocity is
decreased below point D then the increase in static head outweighs the decrease in
frictional resistance and Δp/ΔL rises again. This is the cause of the minimum in the plot.

(b) Explain why is it important to carefully control the feed rate of solids into the
pipe of a dilute phase pneumatic transport system? How is this usually achieved? (3
marks)
Answer:Solids feed rate must be carefully controlled so that the dilute phase transport is
maintained. If the solids feed rate is too high, saltation will occur in the horizontal
sections of pipe and (eventually) choking will occur in the vertical sections of pipe.
Saltation and choking may be caused either by decreasing gas velocity at constant solids
flux or increasing solids flux at contact gas velocity.

This is usually achieved by using a rotary airlock to control the solids feed rate into the
pipeline.
Question  5  (20  marks)  

(a) Coal processing, power generation (coal); food industry (e.g. flour); pharmaceuticals industry
(e.g. most particulate pharmaceutical components); plastics manufacture industry (e.g.
polythene powder). (2 marks)
(b) For a suspension of combustible dust in air, the likelihood of flame propagation and
explosion increases with decreasing particle size because finer fuel particles:
• more readily form a dispersion in air;
• have a larger surface area per unit mass of fuel;
• offer a greater surface area for reaction (higher reaction rate, as limiting);
• consequently generate more heat per unit mass of fuel;
• have a greater heat-up rate.
(3 marks)
(c)
(i) Measures that can be taken to control dust explosion hazard in order of decreasing
desirability: (3 marks)

Change the process to eliminate the dust;

Containment;
Inerting;
Add moisture to the dust;
Add diluent powder to the dust;
Suppression;
Venting;
Control dust concentration to be outside flammability limits;
Minimize dust cloud formation;
Exclude ignition sources.

(ii) (8 marks)
Change the process to eliminate the dust;
Change to a different process with no combustible dust. No combustible dust means no chance of
dust explosion.

Containment: Design the plant to withstand the pressure generated by any explosion.
Pressures can rise as high as 10 bar, so the expense involved prohibits this except on small
equipment.

Inerting: Replace oxygen with nitrogen or CO2 to prevent combustion.

Add moisture to the dust: Water content acts as a heat sink reducing temperature rise and
slowing flame propagation.

Add diluent powder to the dust: Diluent powder acts as a heat sink, reducing temperature rise
and slowing flame propagation.

Suppressant: Detect the start of the explosion (pressure sensors) and inject a suppressant (CO2 or
a powder).

Venting: The principle of explosion venting is to discharge the vessel contents through an
opening or vent to prevent the pressure rising above the vessel design pressure. Venting is a
simple and inexpensive method of dust explosion control but cannot be used when the dust, gas
or combustion products are toxic or in some other way hazardous, or when the rate of pressure
rise is greater than 600bar/s. Size of vent must be determined with care to avoid maximum
pressure greater that vessel design pressure.

Control dust concentration to be outside flammability limits: By addition of extra air or

control of release rate of dust into air stream, the concentration of dust is maintained outside the
flammability limits. OK until disturbance in the system or durig startup and shutdown.

Minimize dust cloud formation: No good on its own, but should be incorporated in the general
design philosophy of a plant involving flammable dusts. E.g (1) use of dense phase conveying as
an alternative to dilute phase, (2) use of cyclone separators and filters instead of settling vessels
for separation of conveyed powder from air, and (3) avoiding situations where a powder stream is
allowed to fall freely through air (e.g. in charging a storage hopper). Good housekeeping practice
should ensure that deposits of powder are not allowed to build up on ledges and surfaces within a
building – so avoid secondary explosions

Eliminate ignition sources: Statistics of dust explosions indicate that in a large proportion of
incidents the source of ignition was unknown. So this is good as a general policy, it cannot be
relied upon as a sole measure.

)
(d) Assume that the dust explosion hazard will be reduced by bringing the dust concentration
in the extract to below the lower flammability limit. In 0.5 m3/s of extract, the flow rates of air
and dust are:

air: 0.5 x 0.98 = 0.49 m3/s

dust: 0.5 x 0.02 = 0.01 m3/s

At the limit, the dust concentration after addition of dilution air will be 1.2%, hence:

volume of dust 0.01 1.2

= =
total volume 0.5 + n 100

From which the minimum required flow rate of added dilution air, n = 0.333 m3/s.

(4 marks)