Freshwater Rotifer Culture

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African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 5 (7), pp.

536-541, 03 April 2006


Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB
ISSN 1684–5315 © 2006 Academic Journals

Review

Culture of the freshwater rotifer, Brachionus


calyciflorus, and its application in fish larviculture
technology
FRANCIS O. ARIMORO
Department of Zoology, Delta State University, P.M.B 1, Abraka, Nigeria. E-mail: fransarimoro@yahoo.com
Accepted 24 January, 2006

The bottle neck of most inland freshwater aquaculturists is in obtaining adequate number of fingerlings,
due to their high mortality at early life stages. Their successful production is hindered by many factors
including adequate supply of food at early larval stages which require live food in good quality and
quantity. This paper attempts to review the principles and procedures involved in the culture of the
freshwater rotifer, Brachionus calyciflorus as starter food for most freshwater fish fry. There are several
strains of different sizes of this rotifer, thus making them suitable for fry of a variety of sizes. This rotifer
can be isolated, continuously produced by batch culture and ‘feed back’ culture systems. It can be
fortified with diets containing highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) for high survival and overall high
growth and performance in several fish species including endangered and some problematic species. In
spite of attempts to replace rotifer with more accessible formulated diets they will probably maintain
their role as food organism for fish larvae of various species.

Key words: Rotifer, Brachionus calyciflorus, HUFA, larvae, food.

INTRODUCTION

Rotifers are valuable live food for the culture of the larvae the head capture food, and a specialized pharynx
of most fish species. Several characteristics of rotifers (mastax) with hard jaws (trophy). The trunk contains a
including their very small size, relatively slow motility fluid filled stomach; and further down is a long tail like
have contributed to their usefulness as good prey for foot which is utilize for anchor. Also there are numerous
active larvae (Lubzens et al., 1989). In addition, they cilia-like projections surrounding the head. The function
have the habit of staying suspended in the water column, of these cilia is to circulate water, food, and nutrients
high reproductive rate and high density cultures. They toward the mouth opening. When the cilia detect a meal
o
can tolerate temperatures of between 15 and 31 C. The (usually phytoplankton in the 3-12 µm range), the trunk
o
optimal pH is 6-8 at 25 C (Ludwig, 1993). Brachionus contracts to pull the mouth opening towards the food, the
calyciflorus is of course the commonly cultured corona then surrounds the food item and if the food items
freshwater rotifer for both freshwater fish species and are the correct size, the particles are crushed and then
shrimps (Figure 1). The body of this rotifer is covered by passed into the stomach. This food response is repeated
a cuticle, bilateral symmetrical and sexual dimorphism over and over with seconds, and this is how the energy
exist in the species. In addition, the body is composed of demands of this creature are met (Fukusho, 1989).
four regions; head with corona, neck, body, and foot. The A single rotifer can become thousands of rotifer in a
foot is appendage that extends from the body ventrally few days. Its primary mode of reproduction is called
possessing two toes. With the remarkable developments parthenogenesis, which is a form of asexual
in larval rearing technology of freshwater fish species, reproduction. Usually when environmental conditions are
demand for rotifer is further increasing. It is important to suitable, female rotifers produce up to 7 eggs
know the biology of the rotifers so as to be familiar with simultaneously, without any genetic input from a male
the manipulative strategies to stimulate their growth and rotifer. These eggs are genetically identical, and hatch to
multiplication. The corona, which is a ciliated organ on form new ‘daughter’ rotifers within 12 h. By 18 h post
Arimoro 537

Figure 1. The rotifer, Brachionus calyciflorus with parthenogenesis eggs (photograph by Arimoro F.O.).

hatching, the daughter rotifers begin to reproduce culture of the rotifer, B. calyciflorus, Arimoro and
themselves, and egg production is maintained for up to a Ofojekwu (2004) recommended the use of ‘Basudine’ an
week or more. organophosphoric acid ester applied at the rate of 1.5
-1
mgl . This concentration was arrived at through series of
toxicity experiments to determine the safe concentration
PREPARING STOCK CULTURE OF THE for the rotifer by Agbon et al., 2002. At this concentration,
FRESHWATER ROTIFER BRACHIONUS crustacean including copepods and cladocerans, aquatic
CALYCIFLORUS insects including mosquito larvae will fail to survive
thereby allowing the rotifers to multiply in the absence of
For starting and initiating the rotifer culture, mixed predators. Several other chemicals have been found to
population of zooplankton comprising of rotifers, be effective for the control of parasitic copepods and
copepods and cladocerans are collected from the wild, other crustacean pests (Moore et al., 1984; Burtle and
research institutes, fishing holding tanks or commercial Morrison 1987; Ludwig 1993). The include Trichlorfon, an
hatcheries. To collect rotifers one usually needs a net organophosphate parasiticide that inhibits cholinesterase,
constructed of fine, soft, sheer fabric of plain weave. is very toxic to cladocerans and slightly toxic to free-
These nets work best in open waters but in areas where swimming copepods and their nauplii, but does not kill
-1
vegetation abounds masses of submerged plants can be rotifers at dosages (0.25 mgl ) active ingredient.
removed and washed out in pans or buckets of clear Opuszynski et al. (1984) were able to change copepod-
pond water before using the net. Larger animals can be dominated ponds to rotifer-dominated ponds by applying
-1
removed with coarse screens also. To achieve pure a dose of trichlorfon at 1 mgl .
538 Afr. J. Biotechnol

Fenthion, another organophosphate cholinesterase sources that have been exploited for the cultivation of
inhibitor is also toxic to crustaceans and effective in the rotifers (Hagiwara,1989; Fukusho,1989; Fulks and Main,
control of parasitic copepod (Moore et al., 1984). 1991; Lubzens, 1995; Arimoro and Ofojekwu, 2004). For
Diflubenzuron (Dimilin), a chlorinated diphenyl compound formulated diets, shrimp meal and rice bran, Fukusho
(Thompson, 1989), inhibits chitin formation, preventing (1989) advised that the food should be run through a 100
the development of arthropods beyond the larval stage. µm sieve to obtain a suspended feed usually the colour of
Rotifers and fish are not affected by diflubenzuron at coffee with cream. Research is currently exploring
concentrations that are lethal to cladocerans and alternative and cheap food source for rotifers. Algae are
copepods (Thompson, 1989). plants that require large amount of plant fertilizers such
The freshwater rotifer B. calyciflorus is isolated from as nitrates, phosphates, and iron for growth. Chicken
other rotifers; usually it is the most abundant rotifer in droppings with small quantity of inorganic fertilizer (NPK)
most hatchery operations (Arimoro and Ofojekwu, 2004) have been reported to produce favourable growth of
and in inland Nigerian Rivers (Ovie, 1997). The algae for rotifer culture. To achieve unialgal culture
innoculum water containing them is completely renewed repeated sub culturing technique can be applied or the
-1 -1
with 7.5 mgl Furazolidone (a disinfectant), 10 mgl use of chemicals will suffice. Freshwater Chlorella,
-1 -1
Oxytetracycline, 30 mgl Sarafloxacin, or 30 mgl Linco- Scenesdesmus are important useful algae for the culture
spectin. Stock cultures should be kept in closed vials in of the freshwater rotifer and can be isolated as thus.
an isolated room to prevent contamination with bacteria Stable tea’ is sometimes used as a medium for
and ciliates. The cultures should be aerated and exposed culturing rotifers. It is prepared by boiling one-half pints of
to fluorescent light tubes and generally maintained on fresh horse manure in a quart of water for 1 h and then
algal concentrate. Care should be taken not to over heat straining the mixture. Then two quarts of rain or spring
the cultures. water is added and the resulting mixture is left standing
(uncovered) for two days. This can be inoculated with
green water and will be ready for the introduction of
Culture vessels and water rotifers in about a week or 10 days.

There are quite a number of culture vessels for rotifer


production. The volume of the vessel to be used depends Culture methods
largely on the magnitude of feeding to be carried out.
Whatever size vessel that is used, a note of when it was Batch culture: At the exponential growth phase of algae,
started is important. The smaller the container the sooner they are inoculated with the freshwater rotifer, B.
it has to be renewed to avoid crashes due to the build up calyciflorus. Optimal temperature of culture is usually 20-
o
of ammonia. For large scale feeding programmes, 30 C with a pH of 8.0. Phytoplankton or any of the food
concrete tanks are recommended normally measuring 5 substitute mentioned above are added to the container.
m x 4 m x 1.5 m, with a capacity of 25,000 L at full Cultures can be started by adding a minimum of 10–20
capacity. On the other hand, for small scale feeding, rotifers/ml to minimize the possibility of a crash.
several plastic tanks with a diameter of 16.6 cm and
height 11.0 cm can be used (Arimoro and Ofojekwu, Continuous culture: In continuous rotifer culture, a
2004). A circular tank of diameter 94 cm and height 120 larger container is used. Rotifers are added at the rate of
cm with approximately 300 L is currently being used for 10–20 rotifers/ml to the container, and phytoplanktons
the rotifer culture at the University of Jos (Arimoro and are added to keep the culture a slightly green colour. The
Ofojekwu, 2004; Fenqpi, 1996) recommended the rotifers multiply and a portion of their population is
construction of earthen rectangular ponds with suitable removed daily to avoid pollution of the water body. There
2
size of about 1,000 M of the surface area and about 1 M is also a continuous culture system by Hirata and
of the water depth for use in large scale production of Yamasaki (1983) with slight modification by Arimoro
rotifers. Tanks should not be filled to the capacity so as to (2005 in press). This culture system ensures that
ensure adequate light penetration and ease of manual sediments such as faeces and excess food are
stirring if mechanical aerators are not available. It is fermented in a bucket for 1-2 weeks. This is used for the
advisable to use dechlorinated tap water for rotifer cultivation of algae again. The algae produced from these
culture, rain water or screened pond water to avoid ‘subsistence nutrients’ are fed back to the rotifers in the
contamination. form of ‘recycled diets’. In this way, continuous, steady
cultures of algae and rotifers are maintained.
Mass production of the freshwater rotifer, B.
Nutrient source calyciflorus is possible by the use of the appropriate alga
band supplemented with baker’s yeast. The amount of
-1
Algae, baker’s yeast, ground shrimp meal, flour, rice baker’s yeast fed on a daily basis is about 1g million of
bran, frozen algae, formulated diets are some of the food rotifers. Although baker’s yeast has a small particle size
Arimoro 539

(5–7 µm) and a high protein content and acceptable as set up in a portable or stationery configuration (Ludwig
diet for Brachionus. It is not advisable to be used alone and Lochmann, 2000).
for rotifer culture. Hirayama et al. (1989) and Lubzens et
al. (1989) opined that, rotifers raised on yeast alone lack
the essential fatty acids and vitamins to sustain the larval APPLICATION IN FISH LARVICULTURE
requirements of the predator organisms. Furthermore, the TECHNOLOGY
first trials to replace the complete natural rotifer diet by
baker’s yeast were characterized by varying success and There are considerable reports on feeding successes
the occurrence of sudden collapses of cultures (Hirayama using the rotifer, Brachionus as live food for several
et al., 1989). Most probably the reason for these crashes marine fish species (Villegas et al., 1990; Reitan et al.,
was explained by the poor digestibility of the yeast, which 1993; Ottera 1993, Craig et al., 1994; Castell et al.,
requires the presence of bacteria for digestion. 2003). Also high growth rate and survival of some
freshwater fish species have been reported by several
researchers. Among the documented information are the
MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF ROTIFER works of Lim and Wong (1997). The rotifer B. calyciflorus
CULTURE used in their study were produced by batch culture using
Chlorella species as feed. They reported an overall
It is important that the alga tanks/ponds should be survival rate of larvae fed on the rotifers in door tanks
renewed weekly. Fermented bean cake and chicken ranging between 65.1 and 74.5% in freshwater
manure should be added when the bloom begins to ornamental fish larviculture. They also reported that the
diminish. Also to maintain a culture from a heavy use to use of rotifers would enable freshwater fish larviculturist
another, it is necessary to cut back the amount of feed to improve larval performance and increase yield.
use, and to keep an eye on the population. If the Similarly, Awaiss and Kestemont (1998) observed that
population rises, then it will be advisable to harvest a few. the best growth, survival and biochemical composition
To get bloom, an entirely new culture can be started with were evident in Clarias gariepinus fry fed the freshwater
a reasonable amount of feed/algae and subsequently rotifer, B. calyciflorus during the first week of larval
harvested when it becomes concentrated with rotifers. It feeding. Arimoro and Ofojekwu (2003/2004) obtained
is important to note that feed rates should be based on over 80% survival in the toothed carp, Aphyosemion
the actual density of rotifers in the system and care gardneri larvae raised on the freshwater rotifer, B.
should be taken not to overfeed. In the batch feeding, the calyciflorus from the time they were 5 days old through to
culture tank should be clear of algae before the next 32 days of age.
feeding to avoid excess algae accumulation. Any alga or Shiri et al. (2003) successfully cultured the Burbot (Lota
food that is not consumed within 48 h will degrade, lota) larvae, an endangered freshwater fish species in the
increasing the level of ammonia and this reduces the Western Europe with the freshwater rotifer, B.
dissolved oxygen level in the water. calyciflorus. They obtained a survival rate of 69.2% in the
fry fed rotifer in green water condition containing algae.
They also advocated that rotifers should be maintained in
green water condition as this will help to ensure that they
Harvesting of Rotifers remain nutritious and relevant to the fry. Furthermore,
Arimoro (2005 in press) reported high specific growth rate
When rotifers reach their peak in the plastic vessels, and survival in the African catfish Clarias anguillaris
ponds or small-scale culture; it is advisable to harvest larvae fed this rotifer.
them to avoid sudden crash. A hand net of mesh size (50 Enriched rotifers fed to fry enhance their growth and
µm) is recommended for this exercise. For small scale survival rates (Craig et al., 1994; Rimmer et al., 1994;
cultures, the entire culture volume is filtered through the Cho et al., 2001; Castell et al., 2003; Mercier et al.,
net and the rotifers collected in the plankton net bucket, is 2004). According to Watanabe et al. (1983), rotifer can be
emptied into a plastic or any suitable container for enriched using 7 ml and 15 ml of cod liver oil per 40l and
onward transfer to the fry holding tanks. For large scale 100l respectively, for 12 h every night with oxygen levels
-1
cultures in earthen or concrete ponds, the net is towed kept at 4- 7 mgl all through the period. On the other
from one end of the pond to the other to concentrate the hand, Lubzens et al. (1989) maintained that in order to
rotifers. Each tow is emptied into a bowl. Several tows ensure adequate amounts of essential lipids, rotifers
are made in this way to obtain a considerable quantity of must be enriched with either an appropriate alga or
rotifers for fry culture. Harvest by the use of a rotating emulsified fresh oil. Furthermore, Cruz et al. (1999)
drum filter may be an efficient method for the reported best larval growth and survival by enriching
concentration of rotifers, since the drum filters can be rotifers with powersh-fish oil, containing a high level of
used at any time, will efficiently concentrate particulate Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acid (HUFA) 22; 6n-3 in the red
matter, is self cleaning, keeps the rotifers wet, and can be porgy (Pagrus pagrus) larvae. According to Aragao et al.
540 Afr. J. Biotechnol

2004), feeding rotifers in enriched algae will increase the and survival of the toothed carp, Aphyosemion gairdneri larvae
reared on the freshwater rotifer, B. calyciflorus. Trop.Freshwater Biol.
free Amino Acid (FAA) content of the rotifers. They
(12,13): 35-43.
enriched the rotifers for 24 hrs in a microalga medium. Arimoro FO, Ofojekwu PC (2004). Some aspects of the culture,
Enrichment of rotifer with HUFA before using them as live population dynamics and reproductive rates of the freshwater rotifer,
food appears to increase growth and survival of a variety B. calyciflorus fed selected diets. J. Aquatic Sci. 19(2): 95-98.
Awaiss, Kestemont (1998). Feeding sequences (rotifer and dry
of fish larvae (Lubzens et al., 2001).
chemical composition of African catfish, (Clarias gariepinus) Burchell
The establishment of hatcheries and inducement of (Pisces: Clariidae) Larvae. Aquaculture Res. 29(10): 731.
spawning by hormone injection greatly hold promises for Burtle G, Morrison J (1987). Dimilin for the control of Lernaea in golden
enhanced propagation of most fish species whose larvae shiner ponds.Proc. Arkansans Acad. Sci. 41: 17-19.
Castell J, Blair T, Neil S, Howes K, Mercer S, Reid Young-Lai J,
can be maintained by feeding with rotifers. Techniques Gullison B, Dhert P, Sorgeloos P (2003). The effect of different
that will be developed for all year round availability of HUFA enrichment emulsions on the nutritional value of rotifers (B.
most freshwater species must co-opt the technology of plicatilis) fed to larvae haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus)
feeding with the freshwater rotifer at least for the first few Aquacult. Int.11(1–2): 109 – 117.
Craig SR, Connie R, Holt JG (1994). The effects of enriching live foods
days of larval culture to enhance its growth and chances
with unsaturated fatty acids on the growth and fatty acids on the
of survival. Most fish larvae are small in size and are very growth and fatty acid composition of larval red drum Sciannops
slow swimmers and so require rotifers, which are also ocellatus. J. World Aquacult.Soc. 25(3): 424-434.
slow swimmers for food. Cho SH, Hur SB, Jo JY (2001). Effect of enriched live feeds on the
survival and growth rates in the larval Korean rockfish, Sebates
The optimum feeding rates for most fish larvae on
schlegeli Hilgendorf. Aquacult. Res. 32(3): 199.
rotifers have been determined. Ludwig (1994) reported Cruz- Hernandez C.M, Salhi M., Bessonart M, Izquiero M.S, Gonzalez
-1
that 20ml of rotifers added to the tank culture of the M.M, Fernandez-Palacious H (1999). Rearing techniques for the red
sunshine bass, Morone spp was ideal for growth and porgy (Pagrus pagrus) during larval development. Aquaculture 179(1-
4): 489-497.
survival of the larvae. He obtained a 48% survival rate by Fengqi L (1996). Production and application of rotifers in aquaculture.
27 days of culture. Estimates suggest that one red sea Aquacult. Mag. 22: 16 – 22.
bream larva requires 12,000-15,000 rotifers over 25 days Fukusho K (1989). Biology and mass production of rotifer, Brachionus
until it reaches 10 mm in length (Kafuku and Ikenoue, plicatilis. Int. J. Int. J. Aqric. Fish Technol. 1:232-240.
Fulks W, Main KL (1991). Rotifer and Microalgae culture systems. The
1983). oceanic inst., Honolulu, USA. p. 364.
Hagiwara A (1989). Recent studies on the rotifer, Brachionus plicatilis
as a live food for the larval rearing of marine fish. La Mer 27: 116-
CONCLUSION 121.
Hirata H, Yamasaki S (1983). Steady state zooplankton community in a
feed back culture system. Microcosms Ecol. Rec. Doe. Symp. Ser 52:
The freshwater rotifer, B. calyciflorus is an ideal live food 402-407.
for the first few days culture of most fish larvae because Hirata H, Yamasaki S, Kanaguchi T, Ogawa M (1983). Contionuous
of its numerous characteristics; small size, slow morbidity culture of the rotifer, Brachionus plicatilisfed recycled algal diets.
Hydrobiol. 104: 71-75.
and easy catchability by the larvae. It is also imported to Hirayama K, Mariyama I, Maeda T (1989). Nutritional effect of
enrich this rotifer for all round best performance in the freshwater chlorella on the growth of the rotifer, Brachionus plicatilis.
larva. The culture of the freshwater rotifer, B. calyciflorus Hydrobiologia 186/187: 39-42.
can be maintained continuously in a ‘feed back’ culture Kafuku T, Ikenoue H (1983). Modern methods of aquaculture in Japan,
Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries sciences. 11 Kodansha
system. Many articles have been written on the Ltd, Tokyo and Elsevier, Amsterdam. p. 216.
usefulness of rotifers for the raising of fish fry and how Lim LC, Wong CC (1997). Use of the rotifer, Brachionus calyciflorus
one can expect to raise a high percentage of the Pallas, in freshwater ornamental fish larviculture Hydrobiologia 358
spawned fishes and end up with quality specimens from (1/3): 273 (5).
Lubzens E, Tandler A, Minloff G (1989). Rotifers as food in
feeding rotifers. Rotifers are also used as a conditioning Aquaculture. Hydrobiologia 186/187, 387– 400.
food to induce adult fish to spawn. Lubzens E, Gibson O, Zmora O, Sukenik A (1995): Potential
Freshwater larviculturist will avail themselves with the advantages of frozen algae (Nannochloropsis sp.) for rotifer
findings reported in this review in order to improve larval (Brachionus plicatilis) Culture. Aquaculture 133: 295–309.
Lubzens E, Zmora O, Barr Y (2001). Biotechnology and aquaculture of
performance, increase yield and facilitate breeding of rotifers. Hydrobiologia 446/447: 37–353.
new fish species. This will ensure an overall satisfactory Ludwig GM (1993). Effects of Trichlorfon, Fenthion, and Diflubenzuron
performance in hatchery operations. on the zooplankton community and on the production of the
reciprocal-cross hybrid stripped bass fry in culture ponds.
Aquaculture 110: 301-319.
Ludwig GM (1994). Tank culture of sunshine bass Morone chrysops X
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