OPEN

CHANNEL
FLOW
-JASPAL SINGH
(EX IES)
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. UNIFORM FLOW

3. ENERGY DEPTH RELATIONSHIP

4. GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

5. RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

6. UNSTEADY FLOW
 1 INTRODUCTION

An open channelflowis a conduit in which liquidflows with a freesurface

NOTE NÉE EEEwer

The freesurface is an interfacebetween themoving liquidandoverlying fluid

which will haveconstantpressure
In ourcase Moving liquid inmost of timeis water
Andinterms
ofgauge pressure it iszero
GaugePressure Absolute Reference ATM
Pressure Pressure

flow in naturalriversstream rivulets TorrentCanal sewers carrying thesew

channelflow as there
qq.ggfadesideatdefansulgatter etc are theexamples open
of

Basically all openchannelhave a bottomslopeand themechanismofflowis

similar to themovementofmassdownan inclined plane dueto gravity
The component of weightofliquidalong theslope act as a driving force andthe
boundary resistance at theperimeteract as a Resisting force
Since flow in open channel is generallyturbulenteffect surfacetension is
of
negligible hence gravitational forcebecomes the driving force

..

Comparison of Ocfand Pipeflow ..

OCF PIPE FLOW

Ocf must have a freesurface No freesurface is available
A freesurface is subjected to No directatmospheric pressure is
atmospheric pressure available
Only Hydraulicpressureexist
Here flowtake place dueto gravity Here flowtakeplace due to
pres ure
difference
Since gravitational force is governing Here Analysis donebyReynold's
forcehereanalysis is done by number
FROUDES Number

The depth offlow dis ge Here there is no dependencyin between

slope of channel at bottom of these parameters
the freesurface are interdependent
TheCls maybeofanyformcircular The cls of pipe is generally kept
rectangular triangular compound or circular
incase of natural stream it is
irreg lar
along theflowdirection
Therelativeroughness changeswith Therelative roughness is a fined
level of free surface quantity

flow area is determined by geometry flow area is fined by pipedimension

of channel plus the level offree and is usually same along theflow
surface which is likely to change direction
along the flowdirection and with
time as well
aHydraulicgradient line coincidewith Hut is usually above the conduit
free watersurface

NOTE
Total Energy Et Datum elevation Pressure Kinetic
energy a energy energy
ft mgz Pwr Im
 Energy weight H a
f tyg
H Datum head tPressurehead Kinetic head

Hydraulic Head
Sumofdatumhead and Pressurehead Hydraulichead h
h z t
ply
Pw Ywhw aah
WAY 4011 YWAfght w

t
fo hw
L

i Hydraulic Gradient HYgngniyygd.IM

i
hit kithwilitathud Gitpity Ig at p ly t Yg

Line Slopeof which indicates Hydraulic gradient is termedas Hat

Line Slope of whichindicates energy gradient is termed as TEL

Ft gtfof m
Kraig tallEGL
Hotlyorig
Mr
PLAY

I
Y'd oeil Begg obit Mrig

Piggy
A line
Boot oh
µ
bottom
ya B yo 1,144M
of2
I D atiine 2

velocity distribution in case of a

is logarithmic or power law
pjjÉÉIforTamina
In case of pipeflowvelocity
man is
distri
distribution flow
 oh

manedm
man
am
I ng
yo y MA

NOTE Numata E
Different forces which in
may act overthefluidflowing conduit are as follows
1 Inertia force It is thepropertycommon to all the body thatremains in
their state either rest or motion unless some external cause isintroduce
to makethem alter theirstate
It is a product ofmass and acceleration
Fi m a PBY

Fi PEv

2 Gravityforce It is theforce due to own weight ofbody

Fg mg Pug Peg
Fg PL
g
3 Viscous force This force is due to resistanceoffluidagainst
defor ation
which developsbetween different layer offluid

Fu LA Mday t MI t ME
dy
may
fu MVL
U
Reynold's Number
is a dimensionless
It number that signifies the dominance of
force over viscous force iner ial
Re
fig Pit
Re
.froudes Number
It is a dimensionless number that signifies the dominance of
inertial force over the gravitational force
Fe
Étorce
egg
Fe
jg
Different types of openchannel flow

open channel can be classified onthe basis offollowing

1 Natural Channel
These are the channelwhich are formed by the action of Natural force
is
They possessirregular geometry of us uniform depth offlowand bed
slope

2 Artificial Channel
These channels being constructed artificially to thewater at
carryas
desired operation in designed working condition are termed Artificial
Channel
Thesechannels are
usuallydesigned to haveuniform us bedslope depth
etc
Example Canals sewer culverts etc
II On the basis of change in properties of channel
1 Prismatic Channel
A channel in which the cross sectional shape size bedslope side
slope planitorm are constant istermed as prismatic channel
Most of the man madechannel are prismatic
2 Non prismatic Channel
A channel in whichalmost all the properties of channel mentioned
above
vary along its length is termed as Non prismaticchannel
 Most of all natural channel are Non prismatic channel

Wootton at 1,2 3 satin I Attn 2 sweeten3

II On the basis of type of boundary
e Rigid Boundary Channel
Rigid channels are those inwhich the boundary is not a deformable
and shape and roughness is not a function of flow parameter
In thesechannels theflowvelocity shearstressdistribution willbesuch
that no major scouring erosion deposition will take place in channel and
channel geometry and roughness essentially constant war t time
Example linedcanals Nonerodable unlined canals
In rigid boundary channels only depth of flow with space and
time depending upon nature offlow Hence thesevary
channels have only 1
degree of freedom
2 Mobile Boundary Channel
Thesechannelsarethosein which the boundary undergoes changedue
to continous erosion or deposition
In thesechannels theresistanceof flowquantity of sedimentstransport
channel interaction
geometry all depends on of flow with channel
boundaries

In mobile channel depth bedwidth bedslope planiform layout

changes with space and time depending upon nature offlow Hence these
channels are 4 degree offreedom
 In mobilechannels flowcarriesconsiderable amount ofsedimentthrough
suspension and in contact with bed

t t t ta t t

t tt tot tot 2
NOTE In analysis of Ocf channels considered are artificial
prismatic and rigid boundary channel

Types of open channel flow

1 Steady and Unsteady flows

A steady flow occurs when the flow propertiessuch as depthvelocity

discharge at a section do notchange with time
0 0 O etc
day day dg
If theseflow properties varieswith time it is termed as unsteady flow
to 0 0 etc
dy dat day

flow during floods in rivers rapidly varying surges in canals are case
of unsteadyflow
 at a

Kh
Yai Yz You

Depot

MEETS
teady How
Time x
you

Depth yaa
TEETERHow
ya

2 Uniform and Nonuniform flow

Metonprochasdepth
If city
space dischargeetcremains
constant along the length ofchannel the flow is termed as
uniform flow
A flow in which day 0
day 0
dog 0

A flow in which flowpropertiesvaries war t space length ofchannel

is termed as Nonuniform flow

day to day 0 dog 0

A prismatic channel carrying a certain discharge with constant

velocity is case of uniform flow
Backing of flow due to obstruction dam is case of non uniform flow
Examplesofopen channelflow

i ii

Adt

iii Civ

u ui
 nooo

vii
viii

ix x

xi xi
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Xu xvi

xviii
xvii
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Y Ya
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Toptuniform How
In uniform flow gravity force on the flowing fluid balances the
frictional resistance between the flowing fluid and insidesurface of the
channel

In case of non uniform flow the frictional and gravityforces are not
in balance
The constant depth offlow inuniform flowcondition is alsotermed as
Normal depth of flow

In uniformflowbedslope Energy lineslope Watersurface slope

dog
BEBE
Mato
Yoyogi

Da pay Yz

APPA
Otar
Baig
 So 21 22

On 121 411122
21222

Or a
21222

so DE On 21122

3 Varied flow
flow in non prismatic channel and flow withvarying velocity in a
prismatic channel is termed as varied flow
As a uniform varied flow is not possible this term is usedonly for
non uniform flow

Varied flow is further classified as

i Graduallyvaried flow Grf
ii Rapidly varied flow
spatially varied flow
iii Biff
It the depth offlow changes along
the length of channel such that graduallyeverything Gistances mild
is termed as varied
Gradually flow
In auf lossofenergy is mainlydue to boundaryfriction
In auf pressure distribution inverticaldirection istaken as Hydrostatic

If the curvature invariedflow is large and depthchanges appreciably over

a short length such flow is called Ruf

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go at _tE2
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Fto at
Moatnitorm

If sameflow is added or subtracted from thesystem theresulting

var ed
flow is termed as spatially varied flow
Example flow over a sideweirflow over a bottom surface run off due to
rainfall is suf
Beguf

6N
Be my
a

L At

Q am 02 am
Qs

Ptp
 Non Uniform flow Varied flow
i
1
GVf RUF SVF
I
GV RV steady RV unsteady su su
steadyflow unsteady How flow steady unsteady
flow flow flow
1 Gradually varied steadyflow

Backing off water instream due to dam I

atone at two

ii Gradually varied unsteady flow

Passage of flood wave in river

t turn

t timecard
Yoni
Ya at pays

iii Rapidly varied unsteadyflow

A surgemovingup a canal breaking ofwaves on theshore
 Sudden dropof gate
tWE3ERgnt I to 2

god
ay play s

in Rapidly variedsteady flow

A hydraulicjump below a spillway gate

v spatially varied steady flow
flow over side waves or flow over bottom rank

v1 spatially varied unsteady flow

Surface runoff due to heavy rainfall
Different combination of flow
1 Steady uniform flow
2 Unsteady uniform flow PradaCally doesn't exists
3 Steady Non uniform flow N
M
4 Unsteady non uniform flowerpot

t reactant

Yoo page Ypg dy

If flow is uniformthen it is always steady and if flow Enon

it can be steady unsteady
or unif rm flow
4 Laminar and Turbulent flow

When thefluid motionsuch that I layerslidepass over theother layer

it is termed as Laminar flow
 fluid particle of one layerdoes not gointo the other layer i e no
momentum transfers between the different layers

Generally laminarflowoccurs at lowvelocity

flow near the solid boundary is laminar
flow is highly viscous liquid is laminar
for flow to be laminar inopenchannel Re 500
When fluid particles flows in highly disorganised manner in such a way a
particles of one layer penetrates into the another layer flow is
termed as Turbulent
This flow occurs at largevelocity
Momentum transfer continously occur between the different layers

It occurs in fluid having low viscosity

for flow to beturbulent in Ocf Re 2000

NOTE properties offlow is in between laminar andturbulent

Iftermed it is
as Transition flow
In Ocf forflow to betransition Re 500 Re 2000

5 Critical Sub critical super critical flow

In case of Ocfsince gravityforce is governing force analysis of this
flow is done in terms of Froude numberinstead of Reynoldsnumber
Here Froudenumber is usedto differentiatebetween the criticality of
flow
froudes Number Fr
fr Inertia force
Gravitationalforce
Pv2 v
J ee
g
fr
I I
e

jig
where L Characteristic length
g acceleration due togravity
Characteristic length Le for any cross section shape is expressed as
Le Area of flow
Top width offlow
on

By y

B fr
joy
At critical flowcondition in rectangular channel depth offlow is termed
as Critical Depth and velocity of flow is termed as critical velocity
and froudes no is unity
fr Ve L
gye
NOTE Critical flow corresponding to the state in Ocf where flow is
hi hly unstable i e
9 any change in depth 1 Energy cause drastic
change in corresponding energy 1Depth

Type of flow Depth of flowvelocity of flow fr

Sub critical Y Y Ve fr
critical y Ye v Ve fr I
super critical yay v ve fr 1
1 y
froudes numberi e
Denominatorof lg Le representspeed at which the
disturbance wave travels in still water condition and it is termed as
Celerity Co Cr n c

or C

Ic I
E gie
J C
E ro
 If wedisturbthe water which is not flowing this disturbance wave occur
and it propagates in all the direction with a
for a rectangular channel the le yo Hence celerity
Co Igy
Case i
jet flow is supercritical c
ie f I v co eco
v co
O
Since u Co it can not travel orpropagatetoupper stream it can only
prop gate
towards downstream with a pattern as follow fig
It signifies that theflow at upper stream will not beaffected i e thereis
no hydraulic communication between upperstream and downstream flow

Downton
rbance will be felt only
Baojiwithin thisregion

Case
Let the flow is subcritical
ie fr I V eco v co eco Co
0
Since v e co it can propagateboth in upperstream and downstream with a
pattern as follow
upstream townstream
Co

This means theflow at upperstream and downstream will both beaffected

i e there is hydraulic communication between upperstream and down
stream flow
Case iii Let flow is critical
 fr I V Co V Co a Co Coy
O
Since V co it canpropagateonly in downstreamdirection with pattern as
follows
upstream ownstream
g g

This means flow at downstream will be affected and there will be no

hydraulic communication between downstream and upstream
Geometric Element ofchannel section
1 Depth of flow y distance of the lowestpoint a channel section
It is the vertical of
from the freesurface
2 Depth of flow section d
It is thenormal distance of the lowestpointof thechannel
section from the freesurface or it also be termed as depth
direction may
of flow normal to the of flow
MA
Ba

Yoo and

cos o
dy h
d ycos0 a Ma

afatum line

Aaa r
yo nd
NINETEENTHB B B
3 Top width T Mand 0einooat AC
It is the width of channel section at freesurface
4 Welted area Water area A
It is the cross section area of flow normal to the directionofflow
5 Welted Perimeter p
It is length of the lineofintersection of the channel wetted sur
face with cross section planenormal to the direction of flow
6 Hydraulic radius I Hydrauliemeandepthof flow R
It is defined as the ratio ofwelted area and wetted perimeter
R
I
7 Hydraulic Depth D
It is defined as theratio ofwater welted area to thetopwidth
D Ay

Velocity Distribution
Atypical velocity profile at a section in a plane normal to the direction
of flow if observed can bedescribed by logarithmic distribution or
power law distribution
Velocity iszero at the boundaries andgraduallyincreases withincrease in
distance from the boundary
This distribution is quite non unform due to
Non uniform shear stress along the welted perimeter
Presence of freesurface on which shear stress is
zero
It has been observed that maximum velocity of flowoccurs at a certain
distance below the freesurface
This reduction due to the production of secondary currentswhich is
function of aspect ratio
Theratio of width to depth Bly
The presence of corners boundary banks in open channel causes the
velocity vector of flow to have component not only in longitudinal direction
but also in lateral and normal direction
This flow in normal direction is secondary flowand producessecondary
currents
 95Vm
BeUs gang

a
th
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POLAN
K Karmanconstant 0.41
ut Shearvelocity Ortega tuing
I s
mesons
L X

qq.iq

Contours
ofequalvelocity are called as ISOVELS

from field observation it hasbeen referred that averagevelocity of flow

occurs at depth of 0.6 fromfreesurface in shallow channels
yo
Vo.by
vavg

In deep channels however the aboverelation is unreliablehenceaverage

Jelocity is taken to beaverageof velocity of flow at 0.2yo and 0.8yo
from freesurface
Varg Vo.zyoztvo.sc

Average velocity is alsorelated to surfacevelocity as

Varg KVs T K 0.8 0 95
NOTE
for deep narrow channels the location of maximum velocity point
will bemuch lower from the water surface than for a wider channel
of same depth
The critical ratio of By above which the velocity dip become
insi nificant
has value 75
 ie for channels By I 5 i.e narrow channel dip will be signif cant

OT
The roughness of channel will effect the curvature of thevertical
velocity distribution curve and tends to increase curvature of velocity
profile

Gooothbed

oroough bed

Surfacewind have very little effect over velocitydistribution

ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW ANALYSIS
tfiowpropertessuch as velocity pressuregradient in general open
channel flow situation are found to have components in
longitudinalas well as in normal and lateral
direction
Sincemagnitude of normal in lateral component is comparatively less
they are neglected to transfer the flow in I D
In this 1 D flow also representative properties are being considered
across the section for simplicity in analysis

Regarding velocity a meanvelocity for entire cross section is defined and

is computed using conservation of mass continuity equation and
is given by
V
f
vida v
h O avg velocity
actual velocity
As per conservation of mass
a constant oda
AV
f UdA
a JaUday
NOTThe
following important parameters specific to s D Ocf are to be
referred
A singleelevationrepresents the water surface perpendicular to the
flow
Velocity in direction other than thedirection of longitudinal axis of
flow are neglected
At
The fun of kinetic energy flowing past a section can also be
expressed in terms of v

But in this case a correction factor to beapplied as kineticenergy per

will not be same as averaged over the entire cross
Yhitgigantea
Ig Ig
The correctionfactoris termed as kinetic energy correctionfactor
Fme Fass Mee

I P VIA

for total Area KE fun ffv dA

2 V3A

2 f u'd where a kineticenergycorrection

factor
NOT
for Discrete value of actual velocity v
2 A
Ey ad 1
Now KE per unit weight 2
1g
On the same lines fun of momentum at a section is also expressed in
terms of average velocity v using momentum correction factore p
 Mongmnetum Mass x Velocity
Time
P dav
PV dA V
Momentum PV da
Time
for total area momentum flux
IP u'd A PPV A
p fo'd A
V2A

Now momentum across any section PPV A

Here co efficiently a and P are unity is in case of uniformvelocity
distribution
for anyothervelocity distribution a 13 1.0

The higher thenon uniformofvelocity distribution in flow thegreaterwill

be the value of 2 B
for large and deep channels ofregular crosssection withstraight
alignments 2 B has lesser value
In small channels with irregular cross section X P assumes higher
value
If information is not given it may be assumed a 13 1
for natural channel value of 2 13 is asshown in the table
Channels Avg value ofa Avg valueofB
Natural Channel 1 30
River valley 1.75 18
Question ThevelocityDistribution in rectangular channel ofwidth B and
depth offlow yo was givenby t k in which k is a
constant Calculate the avgvelocityyfor the crosssection
and correction factor 2 P
Solution v
ply f y Xxdy
k
 Ky Ty's dy n
da
yo y't 3
x 11114111111 1 n
y Ady
V 33kg042
y
3 yYo x L B y

ii a Tesda
v3A
IckyYBdy
4314042 3Byo

2
jydy 1.35

iii p Joke dA
v2 da

Icky Ady
3Kyo2 Byo

1351.125

Question Velocity Distribution along verticalsection in an openchannel

is shown Determine K E andmomentum correction factor
solution w um
mate mute
y y u
at o u o D
y
y
at D U Um
y YY y si
D mum m Dum
 XU
Y Dum

U Dum X
y
u u
y

i v I x dy
1 of up y une
d
tea Jo da
I
TTY i x dy
Uy ex
2

13
uh f'Uda
infix Uj y lx
dy
. P g 1.33
 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Case I Channel with small slope

If slope of channel is verysmall In the range of 210 forsuch

channel the vertical section is practically same as that of normal
section d cos0 if o is
very small
If the
flow take place in thischannel with the water surface parallel to
bed i e uniform flow insuch case stream lines will be a straight
lines and it can bereferred that depth of flow would beequal to
depth of flowsection
Thus piezometrichead at anypoint in this channel will beequalto water
surface elevation hence Hal coincides with watersurface

Y
hag at
Xy
Wh

2
zo
Bteam line

Case 2 Channel with largeslope

mammoth

as
a
man

O
Zogo Me

DDeatum line

MB
Theuniform flow channel with largeslope o
and the water surface parallel to channel nossa aan
bed
A
 An element AA BB of length at and unit width isconsidered at
section CB
At anypoint A depth n measurednormal to thewatersurface the weight
of water of this elementacts vertical downward that produces
pressure at AA given as follows
Weight of water inelement AA BB W Y OL n 1
Component ofweightofwaterexerting pressureoversection AA n Wooso
Y D Lncos0
Pressure over section AA W
OL NI
YO LncosO
DL

Y ncos 0
The Pressure at point A with depth n is directly proportional to this depth
but with constant of proportion ycos o
The pressure at bottomofchannel Y dcos o
or d h cos o
p 7thcoso cos o
Yh cos20
p
Piezometric head at any pointA 2 n cos o
Zo doso
Water surface levelabove point C Zo th
Hence in this case it can beconcluded that HGL does not lie on water
surface level
Different Equations used in Ocf

IÉnÉeaare
It is based upon conservation

easy to use
of mass
analysed this equation isrelatively

a Steady flow
In flow thevolumetricrate offlow a throughanysection is
a steady
samethen
yr section having different areas
 Q AV AV AzV2 AnVn
al
at m3
on
a
YM Mod Q
ya daddy Maboy

or
a3

In a steady spatiallyvariedflow the discharge at various section

will not be same
In such case following change in the analysis is done
q dog
q

oohI 8h2
of3

b
2

Let rate of addition of water discharge be q dean

Then discharge in sectionwould be

any Q Qi
tf q du
Q of data dn
Let q is constant a Ai t
qt n
Hence continuity equationforsteady spatially varied flow isgiven
by
I
q Q AV AVi AzV2 AnVn
day
b Unsteady flow
In case of unsteadyflowof incompressible fluid the continuity equation
states that the net dischargegoing out of all the boundary surfaces
of controlledvolume is equal to rate of depletion of storage
 Watersurface level at
NNNM L
fft A nl eat t

F 00 00 0
say

Hea Y
tr
y
X X
gon

Q then more water flowsout from the controlvolume

If 02 into then water
coming in it

Theexcess volumeofoutflow intime at is computed considering the

depletion of storage within the control volume by
due to which water
surface starts falling
Herewe can alsosay that Q2 a dog on

Net quantity of water leavingthe surface in at time

Ov Ot Az Qi

g on ot i

Rate of depletion of water in controlled volume in ot time

Ov day d A on at

It T
dy on at ii

As per continuity equation i ii

on at dat T dy on
In at

dfa on a t T day on at

In ox of T
dy of of
T
off
NOT
EEntinuity equation forunsteady su f flow is
 T
Ya off q
Question Whilemeasuring the discharge in a smallstream it was found
that depth of flow increases at rate of 0.25 m 1hr if the
discharge at that section is 25m31sec and surface width of
stream is 25m Estimatethe discharge at section 1.5 km
upstream
Solution
T
In 8 0

Q T 0
L 42511
25 A1 25 68.3560 0
1 5 1000

Q 27 60 m3 see Az
21 Energy Equation
In one dimensional analysis ofsteady open channel flow the energy
equation is in form of Bernoulli's equation
According to this equation the total energy at downstream section
differs from total energy at upper section by an amount equal to
loss of energy between thetwo sections
Total Energy Et Datum z Pressure t kinetic
per unit weight head head f head ing
H z Py
1g
Energy interms of pressure i e Pressureenergy
Kz P
Et
Ya Hydrostatic Pressure
P Static Pressure
PI Dynamic Pressure

NOTE
2 1 Hydraulic Piezometric Head h

I Ig Stagnanthead hs
 mins

Of Aaa
go

OK
zygaam line

ad or
akin
Btp FREE
toast

at 20417ft
188
ppage ay
am 2h zag
no Datum line

In steady varied flow in a channel if the effectof curvature on pressure

distribution is neglected thetotalenergy head is given
by
H z t doso
gig
At any two givensection 1 I 2 2 as per Bernoulli's equation
Zi t coso 22 t y coso t the

NOTE
I y
tyg day

If channel bedslopeis comparatively small 0 100

If flow takesplace in deep narrow channel or

regular 4s
0 00 0 1
cos
fifty Ig Lat Yat
Ug th
Here total head Tossbetweenanytwosection he consist offrictionalhead
 y
loss ht and eddy head loss he
he h f the 1
for prismatic channel he O
At anygiven point in open channel theslopeof TEL channelbedand Hal
is different
Thebedslope is geometric parameter of channel
Theslopeof energy line depends uponroughness characteristics and
change in properties of thechannel section
Slopeof Hal dependsupontype offlow andslopeofchannel bed
Question The width of a horizontal rectangular channel isreducedfrom
3 5 to 2.5 m and the floor is raised 0.25 m in elevation at a
given section At the stream by
section the depth offlow is 2m
upper
and the KE correction factor is 1.15 If the drop in water level at
the contraction is 0.20m Calculate
i Discharge if energy loss iszero
1 Discharge if energy loss is
it of the upper streamvelocity head
KE correction factor for contractedsection is unity

Bram
2mm
af am2

40.25 m

mB5 20,5M

solution
Y2 Y2 0 2 0 25
O 45
1 55 m
22 0 25 m

Continuity equation Q Qi as
AV ArV2
 B Y Vi Boyz V2
3 5 X 2X V 2.5 X 1.55 XV2
V O 55 V2
V O 55 X 2.45
1 35 M Is

By energy equation
cos0 t
2 y coso ta Ving 22 y hang the
O 2 1.15 X t 0.25 1.55 t I X
Vig Vig
2 1.15 0.55V21 1.55 0.25
2g Vig
2 0.3478V2 1.55 0.25 I
2g Yg
V2 2.45 m see
From i
tidy AV BYV
3.5 X 2X 1 36
9 53 m3 Sec
he 0 I 2 Vi

O 2 1.15
2g 0.25 1.55 O I X 1.15 Vin
Vig Yg 2g
V 1 327 m see
A BY V
3.5 X 2 X 1 327
9.289 m3 I see
Question A sluicegate in a 3m widehorizontal rectangularchannel is
discharge freely If thedepth at a small distanceunder stream
and down stream are 2.5m and 0.2m Calculate thedischarge in
channel if loss at thegate is 10 of upstreamdepth

Yi
V 4 2
Solution Q Qi An
A V AzVa
V
By Byz
0 08
V2
V V2
O 25 1X 0 t 0 2 t I V2 t O 1 X 2.5
Yg
. V 0 513 m I see

I By Vi
3 X 2 5 X 0 513
3 84 m3 I see

3 Momentum Equation
The momentum equationcommonly used in open channel
flow islinear momentum equation
Steady flow
Momentum is a vector quantity
Thisequationstates that thealgebraic sum of all internal forcesacting
on thefluid in a particulardirection is equal totime rate
linear momentum insamedirection ofchange of
In steadyflowthe rate ofchange of momentum in a given direction will
be equal to net fun ofmomentum in same direction
at ur

oh fi abb by
Yi
aaa Mw pays
Me
pyo

A M2
NOTE
forces
generally acting onfluidmass
Pressureforce acting on controlled surface
ii frictional force acting on channelbed
iii Body force i e component ofthefluid mass in direction offlow
f Fz fa Fa Mz Mi
YYESO y wsino Fa Yyayso y PPav2 B Pav
 Considering width ofchannel to be unity
Themomentumequation is particularly very useful in analysingrapidly
varied flow whereenergy losses are complex and cannot be estimated
precisely in suchcase momentum equation comes handy as in this analysis
can be done with the helpofexternal forces acting on controlledvolume
or system

Question Compute the force acting on a sluicegate as shown

Conejomme

Yan
Yoo
1

Controlledvolume

fax of
Solution of
Bd me
f fr f f tf Ma M new W
ee f of
Assuming channel is Horizontal Fz 0 and smooth fa o

f Fa f Ma M
Xy 445 f Pqua Pqui

KYI YYE f PQ V2 V

ii Q AV AzV2
Y XI V yaXI V2 q
q ii
Y V You
iii o
y t o
yo t t ha 2 1 he O
wig Yg
t
Yi Yg yo Ug
v 9y V2 9 42
 Y
Y Ig Y G Lg

fi fi ya y
Ya Yi yi yi
É yi yi Yg Ej
Yg Eyi f Pq g Y
Yy YE f
Pty t
ly Yy f Pag y ye Yi Y
Yaty ye
F Y y yep
2
y ty
2

Question for thehydraulicjump on a horizontalapronaided

by a two
dimensional block on the apron find the dragforceper unit
length of the block

Hz
Yi

relock

to mfd Bo fz

f É Thap
solution
f t Fa Fa Fa f M2 MI
f Fa f Ma M
 Yy Yy Fa Pqua Pqui

A q yV your
LEI YE f Pa E G
4yd YI f Pq Y Y
o t y o
yatug
tyg
y Y
yEzg Frg
fo Y yr y
2
Y Yr

Question for thefollowing free overfall the end ofhorizontalrectangular

and frictionless prismaticchannel Thespacebelow the lower nappe
is fully ventilatedit can beassumed that thewaterleaves the brink
horizontally at the depth of ye considering the control volume as
given show that thebackup depth of water y below the nappe is
given by
fi
y
i t
fi Ye
Fa q Discharge per unit width
y Ygy
Attention inssurangince

HE sooooodune

af Yama

solution
I f Fa M2 MI
LI YUE Pqua Pqui
ii q Viye XI XV
y z Xi xV2
9 ye V2 9 ya
41 YY Pai t t
Fa D
E titre
YI 29 z Je I

t
gig Yegg
ti
gg Ee
2ft l H
Yg Yog
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
GGA
TEPEE

Question 1 for a givendischarge thecritical flow depth in an open

channel depends on
al channel geometry only
b channel geometry and bed slope
e channel geometry bed slope androughness
d channel geometry bed slope roughness and Reynoldsnumber
I GATE 2011

Answer a
CriticalHowdepth is thedepth at which specificenergy isminimum

specificenergy E y
Ig
Y Egan
for minimum specificenergy duty
0

I Q22da
dry
2gA dy
A By a
O
dry B T gÉ
1
So critical depth ye dependsonlyon the channel geometry
Question 2 A personstanding on the bank of a canal drops a stoneon the
water surface Henotices thatthe disturbance on thewater
surface is not travelling upstreamThis is because the flow in
thecanal is
b supercritical
uniform IGATE 2008
Answer b
Froudenumber fr
Yy
where
v velocity of How
 Ty velocity of disturbances
Since disturbance on the watersurface is not travelling upstream it
means
j gy V
fr 7 I
Supercritical flow
Question3 In a rectangular channel theratio of thevelocityhead to the
How depth for critical Howcondition
it
IGATE 2019
Answe
Velocity head for a criticalflow a
Eye
2gyes
I ye
So ratio of velocity head tocritical flowdepth L
IIEES
Question 1 Which of thefollowingequations are usedfor thederivation of
the differential equation for water surfaceprofilein an open
channel
1 Continuity equation
2 Energy equation
3 Momentum equation
a 1 2 and 3 b I and 3 only
e 2 and 3 only d I and 2,1142013

Answer d
watersurfaceprofiles are auf profiles which isderived fromcontinuity
equationand energy equation
H
Ig that
t
y z

Above equation is energy equation represents total head at a section

continuity equation is
q au
equation becomes
H t y 2
agar
Differentiating aboveequation we get
In SEpsf
 This equation is thedifferential equation for watersurface profile
Question 2 Thesequentdepthratio in a rectangularchannel is 14TheFroude
number of the supercriticalHow
a 6 62
b 7 55
C 8.45
d 1025 2018
Answer d
Yy It 11 8fr
y depth of supercriticalHow
ya depth of subcritical flow
Ari Froude's no for supercritical How

14 I J28 fr
Fr 10 247
10 25

of thefollowingstatements is correctregarding flow in

Question Whichchannel
open
a The cure for kineticenergyis a parabola
b The cure for potentialenergy is a parabola
c Specificenergy is asymptotic to thevertical anis
d Atcritical depth thespecificenergy is maximum
Answer a

The cure for kineticenergy is a parabola

5556 JEE

Question 1 ThewaterHowfullythroughtherectangular channel of lateral

dimension 4m x3m What isthevelocity ofHow mls throughthe
channel if theslope of energy line and Chez constant is given as
0.0006 and 90respectively
y's
2017
Answer Velocity ofHow v C J RS
where C Chezy'sconstant
R Hydraulic radius Ap
 YX 3
4 3 3 10
s Slope
V 90 X 1,20 X0.0006

V 2.415 M I S
V 2.4 m Is
Question 2 Which of the followingexpression represents the critical
state of flow in non rectangular channel
s
a
yo E
Q
b
Aj
e
Of I
d Q Ap 2017

solution flow is said to be critical when

1for a given discharge thespecific energy is minimum
2 for a given specific energy the discharge is maximum
3 Froude number is
unity
for critical flow Ng AT

Question 3 Which of thefollowing represents thespeed of the elementary

wave in the still water at a depth of y
a
Jgy
b
Jgy
Fy
d J2gy 2017
solution e
In an open channelflow Froude number fr is used to
differe tiate
between thesubcritical critical and supercritical How

fr
Yghe
where fr froudenumber
g acceleration dueto gravity
Characteristic length
Area of How
Topwidth of flow
Hydraulicdepth y
 ÉMINIFOREM PILLOW
flow in open
Aconstant channel is said to beuniformflow if its propertiesremain
war t space i e depth of flow Areaof flow rate offlowetc
remains constant along the channel

dy 0

0
day
0
In
Theconstantdepthofflow inuniform flow is called normal depth
Asdepth offlow and velocity at every section are constanttherefore
channel bed watersurface slope and energy line slopes will besame

A prismaticchannel carryingcertain discharge with constantvelocity is a

example of uniform flow
In uniformflow frictional resistance acting betweenfluid and channel
boundary are balancedby the gravity force
In uniform flowsincevelocityof flow does not changealong the lengthof
the channel acceleration is zero hence the some of all the components
of all external forces indirection offlow must be zero
for practical purposes theflow in natural channelmay beassumed to be
uniform flowundernormal conditions i.e if there is no floodflows
or significantvariedflowcaused
by channel irregularities

Analysis of Uniform flow

Analysis of uniformflow can be done as follows
 touddongvolume
oton
ON

at
Mtn them
Appg

off th o
Egf
Hao
Byo
W
AsaooTD

to zoo
ya

since flow is uniform Fifa

WsinO Ff Ma M O

I YALSinO TopL
To Avg shearstress
ii
acting onchannel boundary Betg
If O is small O sino tan 0 slope of
channel bed So
Hati's.IE.Yx
To y Ap So

fromvariousexperiments onshear stress onwelted area under uniform flow

condition it is observed to bepropotional to dynamicpressure P and
 is independent of
velocity
pay
to K k constant dependent
Py on theroughness of
channel
from YRS
and
KPI
v2
We RSo
JEY Tso

iii
Here constant c Chezy's constant
The above equation is termed as Chezy's equation
R Hydraulic Radius Ap

so Channel bedslope
C depends on nature offlowand nature of surface
NOT
From Darcy's Weisbach equation ht
R
tyg
Ap
IDI Da
d
D 412 ht
fig
9 try
This equation is applied foranalysis of pipeflow
V C Iso
v c fr he
from and c Eg

Lii Manning's Equation

As permanning's averagevelocity offlowin openchannelundergoing
uniform flow is givenby
v
1
12213
so 2 N 1 3T
 R Hydraulic mean depthof flow
So Slope of channel bed
N Roughness coefficientdepends on nature of boundary
surface
NOTE
Its value generally varies in therange of 0.011 0.050
for different type ofchannels manning's co efficient is as follows
Surface Characteristics N Value

Cement 0.011
Wood 0.015
Concrete 0 01
Gravel Bed 0.025
Earthing
ai with no vegetation 0 030
it with vegetation 0.050
NOTE
Relationship between different Roughness constant
V a
C RSo 12213 s
1
1 R't J Rs
V

from and
6
q y RY
Also c 8,4 1 Rt
f 8g

NOTE
Mannings constant can also be computed empirically as follows
a Pavloske equation
RX
C I
X 2.5 TN 0.13 0.75 JR TN O 10

b Kutters Equation 1 0.00155

23 So
I 23 0.0 155
e Bazin's Equation

M
c
Im
depend on surface nature constant Roughness
NOTE
Since a majority ofopenchannelflow are in roughturbulentrange
Manning's theory is mostconvenient one for practical use as it is
random supported byconsiderable amount offield experience
However it has a limitation in that it does not give precise result where
viscous forces predominant insuch case Darcy's theory comes into the
picture
NOTE
Manning's constant can also be computed as follows
a Strickler's formula
dso's dso
N
21 e in meter m represents
particle size in which 50
of the bed material is finer
b Meyer's formula
N di dao m represents
90
inwhich
sizeare
of particle tinner
than dao
factors affecting Manning's constant
N desends upon following factors
a surface roughness
b vegetation
e cross section
irregularitychannel
d Irregular Alignment of
a Since N is proportional to t E equivalent sandgrain roughness a
large variation in roughness magnitude corresponds to small change
in the value of N
b The vegetation on thechannelperimeter act as a flenibleroughness element
At low velocities andsmalldepth vegetation act as arigidbarrier offers
higher resistance to flow
At high velocity and largedepth it act as a moving barrier It bends
and deforms therebyoffers lessresistance
e Channel irregularities and curvature in naturalstream produces energy
 losses which are difficult toanalyse separately however thereeffectto
increase boundary resistance

ECONOMICAL CHANNEL SECTION

A section said to beeconomicalwhen its construction cost is minimum for
a given discharge

A section is said to bemostefficient if for agiven crosssection area the

discharge carrying capacity is maximum
The highest component oftotal construction cost is of lining and if the
perimeter is keptminimum the cost ofthe lining will beminimum
Hence it will bemost economicalsection
for a maximum dischargefor a given area perimeter shouldbeminimum as
12213542
On AV I
Q A
I Ap s
Ap
s

QX
p is
Also if perimeter is minimumresistance offered by perimeter will also be
minimum hencedischarge will bemanimum
Hencefor mosteconomical andmost efficient channel sectionperimeter
should beminimum
Relationship between various elements to form an efficientchannelsections
Most efficient Rectangularsection
A B A constant
By Ay
P B
P ay
Ay Ly
r er s e s s i sa i ie s i n i n

for perimeter to be least 0

g
day B
2 0
day Ay

A 2
y
By 2
y y Bz
P B 24 B B 2B
 y
A 242 2 Bz
A
BI
R R
4 BIB By By
Lii Most efficient Trapeziodal section
last when Aside slopes
B
are fined
B 2 th
I my y
A B my
y idol ay
MY
om
p B t 2J D o
y my
B Ly g m BB
B
Ay my
P Here both area and slope
Ay my 2yd it me are constant

for minimum perimeter 0

day

Ay
m 21 it m 0
defy

M 2 Jitm2
Ay

Ay my 2yd Itm
fromequation Ay B my
B
my my 2yd
I ma

Bt 2
my 2y Ji m2
T
Ly tem
y Ji
me
I
Half oftopwidth Length ofside slope
R Bt
my Ymy B
Bmy y
Ap
B 2yd T
B my y
B B 2
my
 R B
2 Bmy
my
y Ray
In DOAB AADC
since since
of Afc
sin o sino I
I yy m

Fi y
Yama y
N
yJitm y tm2
n
y1
for efficienttrapezoidalsection a circleofradius y shall beinscribed in
trapezoidal section
Case 2 When thesideslope is varied
A my yB
P B 2y Ttm Ay my 2ydItm
for a given area is perimeter is to beminimum
0 m 2J it m
defy Ay
A
y 2J
it m m

from and P Y 21g m m

my 2y Fm
P dy ji mi 2mg
forefficientchannel section withvariety slope 4pm o

Afm Ty I got p ay 0

I
Ly 1,3mm 11 0

i o 10
Itm m
2m JI m2 4m I m

tan O I tan 0 53
10 600
Henceformostefficient trapezoidal section
Length ofsideslope
I
R Y 12
A circleofradius should inscribed in this section
0 600 y
NOTE
Length of sloping side L y Ji m
yJit's
L L
2,4 I
B 2my T
I Yy
B 22m Yy
y
B 4,4 Fy Fy
L B Length of slopingside Bottom
2ft widthof trapezoidalsection
0 60
which is theproperty ofHexagon Hence it can betreatedthatmostefficient
trapezoidal section is Half Hexagon
NOTfthe
averageshearstressto on the boundary ofthe channel is givenby
To CRS
Thestress is not uniformly distributed over the boundary surface
It iszero at theintersection ofthe watersurface with theboundary and
also at thecorner in theboundary
At boundaryshearstress will havecertain pointswhere it will becomemani
mum on thesides as well as on thebed

This nonuniformity insheerdistribution on thesurfaceofchannelis dueto

turbulence ofHowand presence of secondary currents in thechannel

BEEBE got__Éy

0701
9 Yoso
Gii Most efficientTriangularsection T
T
A Imy n
1 x Imy x y my
p 2yd I m
p 2 Am I it m din y
P 25A Im tm
g
r

for mostefficienttriangularsection dam 0

25A 25A f Ima ti
dpm
ft tm

Ym m
0

Ima I m

m I 1
tan 0 0 450
Im I
It signifies that mostefficienttriangular section is that which ishalf square
with horizontal diagonal
p my
2yd I m

R
Yz
Question Waterflows in channel of isoscelestriangleofbedwidth a'and
sides making an anglewith thebed Determine therelation between
depth offlowand bedwidth a'for maximum velocitycondition and
for manimum dischargecondition UseManning's equation and d 20.5 a
SOME at a 2d d d d a 2d
a
d y
P at 2 2d at 2 2d 252
day
AV d
Q 3
a A
I Ap s
A 7 i v
e
a K Ap A
for maximum Discharge dog O
k
Id f o
43
A
33 p dy
43
z p513 313A d 0

53 A p dig 3 p A defy 0

I
 43
I A p I 5 Afd 2A
p da7 0
5 a 2d 2 252 0
I 111
a MostdeficientCiriniaiseition
A AreaABCD Area OABC Area OAC 0
If 2 360 Area OABC
ME DIV Y
If 2 2 Area OABC X
21 C
Area OAC AC X OD A
I d
2 AD OD
L u
AD OD
I sing 12 cos
B
Area OAC D
sing cos O
D sind
A
af go D sin 2

P length of arc ABC TD

A
2 31 Pp
Rig
p RD
go
from Manning's relationship a AV A R s's
a att
from maximum discharge dog 0
sb A
dog sat Aft Li 13 A
p dy z p dy o

2p A 0
31 A p 5dg dfg
5 2p A dpg 0
Af
D cos a
day day adjgo Ig sind 41 go
da da ADE fo
Putin equation
 0 5
21,10 cos 4 2
AFF Tsin
M
60
Hit and Trial 2 302022
d OB OD
R Izcos I
D2 i cos
1 0.938
yd 4542
for manimum velocity day 2 0
1R s

u
Si Ap 3

day add E A 37 0

Ada 143 o
A data P day 0

sind
at at 334 af f cosa 0

2 257024
1 45412 0.81

NOTE
If the same calculationsdone using Chezy's theory
for manimum Discharge a 308 0.95
4
for maximum velocity 2 257024 0.81
Proportions of most efficientchannel section of differentshapes
ChannelType Area Wetted Hydraulic Width Two
Perimeter Radius Path

Rectangle dy Ly Ly
Trapezoidal By 253
y 812 2453 4453
Triangle ya yay 4252 2y

Question Prove thatnormaldepth of flow in a triangular channel having

side slope 2 1 as H v is givenby
a
yn 1.189 Q 1318 22 178
Solution A AV A Russia
i Yn
Q A A
Api 122Zynyn
A
ay Zyn Zynga zyn
P 2
yn 11 22
I c
4,813 243 1
s on bothside
23 ay
Multiply by 1 1.189
yn 9 1318 231
Question Thenormal depth of a widerectangular channel is increased by109
Then computed increase indischarge in the channel
Nilgiri A
By try B
p B R Boy Y
Q I y 542By
43
dy 5g Ky
513
yb dy
10
day IT 3
dog 16 669
Method 2 A cysts 513
Q a Cy 513 Qf Cys
I I
Yj Y
513 513
Qi y 513y
Afg x100
Yi
X100

17 24
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

GATE
Question 1 Arectangularchannelof width 5.0m is carrying a dischargeof
100m31s Theoffroudenumberof theflow is 0.8 Thedepth offlow
in m in the channel is
a 4
b 5
LO GATE 2019
Answer a Given
A o
Width B 5.0 m
Discharge Q 100m31s
Let depth offlow be y
fr guy V velocity of How

V Discharge 100
Again Area 5.0 xy

y
Putting value of v in equation we get
0 8 20
I gys
y 3.99
4.0 M
Question 2 A rectangular openchannel has a width of 5m and a bedslopeof
0.001 for a uniform flowof depth 2m thevelocity is 2mIs The
Manning's roughness coefficientfor the channel is
a 0.033
b 0.050
C 0 002
d 0.017 GATE2019
Answer d
for a rectangular channel
Width of channel 5m
Depth of flow 2m
Bed slope 0.001
Velocity V 2m see
from Manning's
pi'ss's
p
where R 5 2
A 5 2 2
1 ill m
2
2 X 1.111743X 0.001
1
N 0.017

Question 3 A triangularopen channel has a vertexangleof 90 and carries

flow at a critical depth of0.30m Thedischarge in thechannel is
a 0.08M3Is
b O 11 m3Is
c 0.15m3Is
d 0.2 m s GATE2017
Answer b Top width T O 6m
Area A L X 0.3 X0.6 a 0.3 72 0.3 7
0.09 45 a

flow is critical 1
YIQ2 9,13 15
0.3

9 81 X 0.913
0.6
0.109
O Il m3 s
IES
Question 1 In a trapezoidalchannel with bedwidth of 2m and side
slopes of 2V on 1H critical How occurs at a depth of Im What
will be thequantity ofHowand the How velocity Takegas 10
M S2
a 7 22m31s and 3.10 Mls
b 6 82m31s and 2.89 MIs
c 7 22m31s and 2.89 Mls
d 6.82 m3Is and 3.10 Mls 2016
Answer c B 2m e Btye s
Yo Im
Area A 1x B Btyo xyo in 2
Y Il
I x 2 24 x
j
2.5 m e B
Top width T Bt yo
3m
for critical flow fr I
v I V 9.81 X 2
IgA t

Velocity V 2.86 m1sec

Discharge Q
I 6 2.5 1
7 15m31s

Question 2 Anopenchannel is of isoscelestriangleshape withsideslope 1

vertical and n horizontal Theratio of the critical depth to
specificenergy at critical depth will be
a
3
b 3

d s
6 2018
Answer e Ec yo t zag
Area Ac
21 X 2nyexye
nye
 Top width Te anye e T 2nya
a
Ec yet 2nye
2nyc
Ec 5
yo n n

I I
r
Question 3 A 2m widerectangular channel carries a dischargeof 10m31s
Whatwould be the depth offlow if the Froudenumber of the
How is 2.0
a 1.72 m
b 1.36 m
o 0.86 M
d 0 68 M 2018
Answer Cc
We know fr2 92
gys
Q 10m31sec B 2m

9 93 12
5m3 s m
fr 2.0
g 9.81 m sect
22 52
9 81 X y 2
Y 448.81
O 86 M
SSC JE
Question 1 which of thefollowing is the correctratio
a Compressive force to Inertiaforce
b Inertia force to gravityforce
e Inertia force to tensionforce
d Viscous force to inertia force 2017
solution b Froudenumber fr V
Jgle
where V velocity of flow
Accelerationdue to gravity
E E characteristic length
Question 2 What is the depthof the flow m in a circularchannel of
diameter 2.0m for themaximum velocity
162
3.83
2017
solution b
In circular channel How
Velocity is maximum when do 0.81
where D Diameter of circular channel
d depth of flow in circular
Diameter
channel
of channel 2m
a
ID
for maximum velocity do 0.81
v
d 0.81X 2 N
d 1 62 m

Question 3 A 1.2 m widerectangularchannel of bed slope0.0004 and

Manning'scoefficient 0.01 carrying the discharge of 05m31s
Thenormaldepth of the channel is
a 0 13
b 0.32
c 0 43
d 0.39 2017
Answer d
given that
Bedslope s 0.0004
Manning's coefficient n 0.01
Discharge Q 05m31s
Width B 1 2m

y
e B S
 We know that from Manning's equation
Q In A R43 542
for a widerectangular channel hydraulic radius
R y
I 43542
1 1 2y y
On substituting the values
O5 1 2 Jo 0004
of 4513

y 0 39 m
 3 ENERGY DEPTH RELATIONSHIP
The total energy ofchannel war t datum is given by
X
H z t
ycos o Yg
If datum is considered to bechannelbottom thenenergy w r t channelbottom
datum is termed as specificenergy
E youso Yg
If channelbottom is horizontal andHow is turbulent 0 0 2 1
E
y Eg
Thetotal energy in real fluid always decreases indirection offlow down
stream directionin order to overcome the resistance offered
channel boundaries byfriction and
Butspecificenergy isconstantforuniform flowandcaneitherdecreases or
increase in case of variedflowsinceelevationofbed ofchannelrelative to
theelevation oftotalenergy line TEL determines thespecificenergy
Iffriction can beneglected at boundary surfacethentotalenergy offlowin
case of non uniformHowcondition will beconstant while the specific
energy forsuch case will beconstantonly for horizontalbed andfor rest
of case SE will vary

ay

ay
 tore

MB Mt
Arena

Case I When discharge is constant

E
y Eg y Eg Y agar
from aboverelationship it canbe inferred thatspecificenergy
E f Ly Q
if discharge keptconstantspecificenergy varies with depth of flow
is
Mica
YTheaboveequation is of cubical parabola
q.at LEE
constant
D
Phys
Y Ed
criticalflow Y Ya v ve
78
y Yo V Ve
ayyy
super
criticalflow

iffgygomergyle
 E Y Egar
y
Theaboveequationofcubicparabola having twopositiverootsfor thegiven
value of specificenergy E
Hence it can bestated that for a givendischargepassingthrough a section
there can be two depth in thechannel section having samespecificenergy
Thesetwo possibledepth havingsame SE are known as Alternatedepth
A line or having a slopeof 45 when drawnfrom theoriginsignifies energy
Total head E y
Theupper limb ofspecificenergy curve is asymtote to the line or
It can bereferred that intercept AB y and AB Yz Alternate depth
signifies the pressure head
Where as intercept BA
Vig B a signifies thekinetichead

correspo ding
Yogi
to the alternatedepth y and y z

If pressurehead is more y y thenkineticheadcorresponding to it Vig A B

L B A would be comparitively less
Vg
Withincreaseinspecificenergy Ei differencebetweenalternatedepth increases
and with decrease inspecificenergy Ei difference between alternatedepth
decreases

At acertainvalue E E c the 2 alternate depth will merge with eachother

No value of y can beobtainedfor E Ec denoting theflowundergiven

condition is not possible in thisregion
Theconditionofminimumspecific energy is known as criticalflowcondition
and the corresponding depth yeis termed as Critical depth ye
A flow at nearcritical state is unstable this is becauseanyminorchange in
specific energy at or closetocritical state will causemajorchange in depth

Asthe curve isalmostvertical near critical depth a slightchangein energy

would change thedepth to a much greater alternate depth corresponding
 to SE after change
It is alsobeing observed whenflow take placenear critical state the water
surface appearsunstableandwavey such phenomenon are due to minor
changes in energy due to variations in channel roughness crosssection
slope and deposition of sediments
Atcritical depth thespecificenergy is minimumhenceforconstantdischarge
minimum specificenergywould be obtained as

O E y Yg
dry Ythigh
I 3 Tdy
day Ag 2A Addy 0 IAAF
I
A
ga My Y
1 T
YA
Ng 3
critical state
NOTE
If value of a isnot unitythen for critical state
QQ Tc I
gAe
NOT
Thecriticalflow condition isgoverned only thechannel geometry and
by
discharge and KE correctionfactor d
And is independentofbedslope roughness of the channel section
Froudesnumber f Le As
Y
f V
J g Alt
for critical state condition Ogi 3
I

I
E gate
V I
g Aya
fo I 3 Fe I
NOT
Fiorachannel withlargelongitudinal slopeand having non uniform
velocity distribution
f v
f gaggso
Type of How f Depth of flow velocity offlow

Sub critical I Y Ye
Critical
super critical
y ye
yay
I Ee

ma

ya specificenergy

Y 93 Q2 an
way ethos y constant
E3 Ez E
wanting

1 amount

gain
EMNoEMÉiÉhÉ
 If specificenergy curve perdifferentdischargehi ha ha An
drawn following points can beanalysed
constant is

Thedifference betweenalternatedepth decreases yn y ya z y it

with increase in discharge Az Qi
for a particularvalueof discharge amthespecificenergy curve wouldbe
tangential to thesection corresponding to specificenergy E
forany discharge a am no depthofflowwouldbepossibleto carry the
discharge as corresponding tospecific energy of fi
HenceAmis maximum dischargepossiblefromgivenchannelsection
energy Ei
for critical flowcondition O
dy
E
y Eg Y Egar
Q A J2g E y
day day A12g E y 0

12g E Y A
Ig t E y x 1 0
day

12g E Y T t ATg X ED 0
12 E y
0
QI Agg

Of Agg

1 Fr 1
13
NOTE
At critical flowcondition
for a given discharge a specific energy is minimum Ee
for a given specific energy Ei Discharge is manimum Am
Calculation of critical Depth T
E 7
Case 1 Rectangular section
A Bye T B
for critical flow condition 1
of C
B
 1
8y Ye gap

yes a
g ye
Ee Yet Vig Yetalgae
Ee Yet
Egyi
Ee Eye

NOTE
specificenergy atcriticalflow condition is independentofwidthof
channel
fo I 7 Ve
1gAge
Ve
Jgy
Case 2 Triangular channel section
A TX 72M
t y Yo
a
A 12 2myex ye
Ty
for critical flow condition
myo
OF
1 Y
i n
gEmmy
g
s
m

yo 2g

specificenergy at critical depth Ee

Ec Yet 24A
yo
tug
Yo I
yet212m
my
Yc
Ec yet Ec 1.25
Ye
froudenumber for triangular section fr
gal Yaya
fr J2 V fr v52
Jgy Igy
forcriticalflow fr 1 I V52
gye
NOTE
for triangularsection criticaldepth may also be
expressed as
tant
ye of gagging m E it
NOTf
section factor 2

It is a parameter that is afunction of depth y for a givenchannelgeometry

which can beused tosimplify the analysis offlow in Ocf
2 A Ze Ae Af
for critical flowcondition
Of
1
Af Dig
Ze Agt
Qe Zetg
NOTE
Relationship between discharge and depth of flow
E
y Ig
Y Egan

for Rectangular section A By

E y a
2g By 9 8
Y zag

12gy E
g y
 ME
y yo

yap than criticalflow

µ
mama

impose

Ye Ec yay
Y Ye
pyoYe
q
Twopossibledepthofflow areavailablefor a certain value of q as long
as it is less than qman

At manimum dischargethe 2depthmergeintosingledepth termed as

critical depth ye
At ye ye supercritical
critical
At y yo sub
Question If and are alternatedepth in a rectangularchannel Then
yshow ythat s and
yo ayyy

solution
specific energy yity ya y
y ya
At alternate depth
E
E same
Ez E y Vig ya Vig
Yi again 82 28A
Y zgkby Y
2g By
for rectangular section yes
Yi
gYa
2gyp 2gy

y Ig Yat Eye
Yi typ typ Ya Y
 Yo YIg
specificenergy E E Er
E Y t y t 2y yo
Yy Y yz 2y
A Y ly tya ya
y Ya
E Yi t y yo t yo
yi t y z
Question Arectangularsection
channel is to
carry a certaindischarge at a critical
depth If the is to have minimum perimeter Show that
B and find the value of in Pm
Solution ye
A Byc Q Acre ByeXVe Ve Fye
Q Bye I gye 5g Bye
P B aye t
Fye Yo
for minimum perimeter 0
dye
t 2 2 0
dy day fye Yc 32Fg y's
5
I By3 0
2

2 0
32
y
Ye 34 B
Pmin B t 2ye Bt 2
3gYe 2.5 B
Pmin 2.5 B

CHANNEL TRANSITION
A transition is theportionofchannel with varying cross section that
connects one uniform flow channel to another uniformflow channel

Thisvariationof a channelsectionmaybecausedeitherbyreducing or
 increasing thewidth or byrising or lowering thechannel bottom
Thistransition are usedformetering theflow dissipation ofenergy
reduction or increaseof velocity change in channel section or alignment
with minimum dissipationofenergy
Whenchangein crosssectionoccurs in relatively shortlength it is termed as
sudden transitionand when thischange take placegradually over long
length of channelsection it istermed as gradualtransition

sudden MtDNA oseudden

ooo expansion

ios
Gradual TENEMENT Gradual expansion

Fawi
Norabridge
pier
I Transition withraised bottomin rectangular section
a subcritical town s
Boateng
y line

In y Edo pfaafc
Humps ok
Frictionless q
 E EatDa
Yiu a opynastant if D2 92m
ay yo E EctDEM
YIM MA If 12712m
flow is notPossible
Dffeth chokedcondition
You MB
If AZ'DDZm
E E Ez Ec
Yaa
as don't
o
É if
_ooooouzot
as omri

specificenergies

any
Y
yoooo valid forsubcritical
42 my2 flow
og Yo
EEem Be
Az s

Consider a horizontalfrictionless channel ofrectangular crosssection

having uniformwidth B and provided with a rise in bottom ofthechannel
bed termed as Hump
As thewidth is constant the dischargeper unit width q will besame at
differentsectionfortotaldischarge of Q flowingthrough thechannel
Consider 2 sections 1 I and 2 2 at somedistance L fromeachother in
channel

Sincespecificenergy is always measured worstchannelbottom a rise in bottom

decrease in specific energy
of channel causes
E Ez 02 Or E z E 02

If How is subcritical a decreasein specificenergy Ezaki would leadto

decreasein depth offlow y ya and increasevelocity offlow V2 Vi
Therefore at hump depthofflowdecreases and velocity increases
 If theheightofhump at increased furtherdepth offlow and specific
energy at the section would decrease
Butfor a constantdischarge Q'thisreduction in specificenergy is limited
to critical depth ye only
At thispointtheheightofhumpbe 02 02m and Ez Ee
Ez E 02m Ee
El Yi t 2
Ye t
2 2 32 Ye
By Bye
Ez 32Ye

Now if theheightofhump is increased furthersuchthat 02 02 then in

order topass the same discharge thespecificenergy is to beincreased at
section l e f E or otherwiseflow is not possible with givencondition
and flow in thissectionissaid tobe chocked
In this caseofsubcriticalflow the approaching hump therequired increase
in specificenergy is providedwithincrease in depth offlow atsection I I
Y y
If thespecificenergy isheldconstant with theheightofhump oz more than
02m the discharge Q is to decreased until the
givenspecificenergy is
minimum specificenergy Ed corresponding to the new discharge

E Oz Ez Ec
Ec Yo t a d
2g Bye
Ec Z Ye

E oz Ez Ec Yup arm
Ec Ye t zag Bye 2 Yo Me Mr
EE etc 9
Ec 3gYe ooo

Case 2 Super critical flow

as

Epa my2 age

no
 theHow atsection I I is supercritical thedepthofflowincreases at the
Ifhump
ya yd
This increases indepth ofHow is due to decreaseinspecificenergy Each
It is observed thatforsupercriticalflow a decrease inspecificenergy would
lead to increase in depth offlowand decrease in velocity offlow Vaud
Letthe depth offlowbe and y at thesesections respectively
y
If for a constantdischargethe heightofhump is increased at section 2 2
the depth offlow increases to
corresponding decrease in specificenergy
Ez E OZ

Thisreduction inspecificenergyis limitedcritical depth and at thispoint

the height of hump be ye
EI E azm E
Asobserved incaseofsubcriticalflow when 02 02mflow inchannel gets
chokedthen inorder topasssomedischargespecific energy is toincreased
at section I I E Ea
In caseofsupercritical flow approaching thehump therequiredincrease
in specificenergy is provided with decrease in depth offlow ofsection l e
y ky
Similarly if thespecificenergy isheldconstantwith 02 02m thechocking
condition arrives and discharge is tobedecreased Q a untill thegiven
specificenergy isequalto minimumspecific energy Ed corresponding to
new discharge Q
E 02 A2 Ec
E o Ez Ed
Sizeofminimumhump for critical flow
E Eezt 02

Let 02m betheheightofhump that will cause critical

withoutchanging upperstreamspecify energy
towhathump
Any valueof 02 02m will alsocause critical flowover thehumpbutupper
stream specific energy will getchange
Hence 02m istermed as minimumheightofhump requiredtocausethecritical
flowover thehump withoutchanging theupperstreamspecificenergy
02 02m
Ez Ee 32Ye
E 32Ye t 02m
 02m E
32Ye
02m Y 2gByy Ye

221
I
Fri 32 g y
Fri
Dgm
I
FEI X32

13
02m
I
FI 32fr
if there is a energy losstaking
section of he magnitude
placebetween upperstream and downstream
E Ea t oz the
Question In arectangularchannel 3.5m widewithsloCanof0.0036uniform
flow occurs at a depthof 2m find howhigh behumpberaised
withoutcausing afflux
If upperstreamdepth is to beraised to 2 am whatshouldbethe heightof
hump N 0 015
Solution s
azm E
E Y
32Ye
at
yo g 3
gig zig obis 17173g
X O 0036142
I s z t V 3.82m
3 Q 3.82X 3.5X 2
1 812 26 74m31sec
Ye 7g94
q 2637,4
02m 2 2.74 321 81 2
7.64 m see
0 022m
82m 22 mm

Ii E Ec to 21 02 E Ec
02
y t
Vig Ee
2.4 x 2.71
34,742
a 21a g
021 0 198m
198 mm

Question A trapezoidal channelwith a basewidthof6mand sideslopesof

2h Iv carries aflowof60m31sec at a epth of 2.5m Thereis a
smoothtransitiontorectangularsection dmwide a
gradual lowering of the channel butby 0.6m
accompanied
find the by
depthof
 water within rectangularsection and what istheminimumamountby
which the bed must beloweredforuppersectionHowto be possibleas
specified
at 2 an

Mouton Mt
Iguana2.5M
2.56Mammo py

06 M
a

fftom 31sec
Moo

Solution Keegan agon

Initial froudes number fr

QI 00
A b my y 162 23 2.3 275m
T b t 2my 6 2 2 2.5 16m
A 602 16 0.5341 Subcritical flow at
9.81 127.513

Al t 2.5 602
Y 24A2 2 9.81 X27.52
2.742 m
for critical condition at section
Ec 32 ye 32 og
3 1
3 252m
forflow to takeplace E 02min Ee 3.252 2.742
02m 0.51 M 02m
for 02 0.6m E 02 Ez Ez 2.742 0.6
3.342m
I
Y Iga
3 342
Yet 2 8981 6
42
Yz 2.566 m 1.845m 1.07am
 Ye 213 Ec 23 3.252
2.168 m
i Ya Yc hence 2 2.566 m
y
I Transition withreductionof width in rectangularchannel section

Mz

KBaDygB ppb N 8,022,2Bomb

oh
ppl

AMEL
A

we
Yyygy

E AAAA of
iqa off

sadarootAAN Wndia
Bag
8dman
we
Effin amy
E r Mary ay

q
 9man 7 Aman 79279

Y soooooo dfatht
out
Eman

Mo
Mpp tag tagman

BB
ask
Begg
p

forsubcritical for supercritical

83 pygmy tooooo Darth
41 ayy Ya
Boyz for an Yz
Yang
gain
payo
aye aye m
Width
t thBg WEEK
FEE
this Big

Consider a frictionless horizontalchannel withwidth B carrying a discharge

Q at a depth of How y at section 1 I
Atsection 2 2 width is being reduced to Baby asmoothtransition Asthereis no
energy loss in thisflowandsincebed elevation are same at bothsections
specificenergy atbothsection issame
As total discharge remainsconstant betweenthesection butwidthisdifferent
Discharge per unit width varies
Ba L B
q 92 Of
 92 7 9
further if widthofsection isreduced to B L B2min dischargeperunitwidth
a would further increases
Case 1 Subcritical flow
As the approaching flow atsection 1 I is insubcriticalflowstate depth
of flow y would be morethanthedepth offlow at section 2 2 ya i.e
Yi Y2
If width is reduced at section 2 2 q willincreasebutdepth will decrease
ThisdepthofHowdecreases upto a certainminimum value ye corresponding
to which q is manimum andwidth of throatwouldbeminimum Bamin
Anyfurther qbeyondqmanis notpossibleforsamevalueofspecificenergy and
this condition is termed as Chocking condition
At chocking condition
ya ye 3 Ee
yo E Engin

Bzmin
Jeg
Or Bamin A
113EYg
Bamin
87gEE

In caseofsubcriticalflowwhenwidth ofsection 2 is reduced further B Bamin

where 93 q'man qman to passthis dischargespecificenergy at section I I
E is to beincreased ie EE

This results in increasein depthofflow at section 1 I

y y
Theflow at section 2 2 would still remaincritical butdepthofflowforthis
new critical statewouldincrease
Here E Ee yo ye
Case 2 Super critical flow
As theapproachingflow atsection 1 I is in supercritical statehavingdepthof
flow y and dischargeper unit width q by and at section 2 a width
isreduced to Br dischargeper unit width q
og would increase ie qua
forsupercriticalflow if dischargeper unit widthincreases depthofflow will
increase i e ya
y
This depth offlowincreases uptoye corresponding towhichq ismaximum Eman
and widththroughout is minimum
Anyfurtherincreasein dischargeper unitwidthbeyondqman is notpossible
for same value of E
To passthis dischargeqian qman from section 2 2 specificenergy is to be
increased at section 1 E1 R that would cause thedepth of How at
section 1 1 to reduce
ya Cy
Similarly like subcritical flowcase ye will notbeconstant A new critical
depth
ye ye will beformed At this new specificenergy E
NOTE
for critical How
specificenergy is minimumfora given discharge
Discharge is man for a givenspecific energy
froudes no equal to unity
Depth offlow and velocity offlow would be ye and ve respectively
Specific force is minimum for a given discharge
Discharge is maximum for a given specific force
Specificforce f Pt M
YAdy YAy te
tear y
f A
j t
ga
for minimum value of F 0
dfg

0
dry day Ag Ey
A t 1 0
got day

A 0
YE
 1
GI
This isthecondition ofcriticalflow hence at critical flowcondition E is
minimum forconstant discharge and vice versa

A discharge of 16m31secflows at a depth 2m in a 4mwide

Question
channel section Thedown
of
streamwidth is reducedto
rectangular
3 5m and hump of 0.35mis constructed Calculate thechangein
water surfacelevel

Solution
Initial froudesnumber fr Ygy
60
AQgy 4 2 2 98

fr 0.45121 Subcriticalflow
E Y 2 602
241 2 9.81 X 9 2
2 204 m
3 604.512
Ye g 9.81
1287 m
Ec 32yo 32X 1 287 1 93 m

Available E at section 2 2 downstream

Ez E Oz
1 204 0 35
0.854 m
 Ez s Ee

flow isnot possible at same specific energy of upperstream E

flow is chocking
Upperstream for new upperstream specificenergy
E Ez t 02
Ez Ec
f Ec t 02
1 93 0.35
2.28 M
E Yi t
again
2 28
Y 2x Cy xa
y 2 09 m 0.723 m 0 5,37m
Y 2.09 m Ye 1 287m
Change in watersurfacelevel 2 09 0.35 1.287
0.453 m fall

SEEL
SEEL

2m afc tF0 453m

MMM
MY

ap MAMEDE2.09m
t hymenal287m

Moz
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
GATE
Question 1 A 10mwiderectangular channel carries a discharge of 20m31s
under critical condition Using 9.81 m1st the specificenergy
is g
GATE 2018
Answer Given B lo m
q 20m3Is
q 2m31s m
3
ye g
0.741 M
Ac 1.5
ye for rectangular channel
15 0.741
Ec l Il m

Question 2 In a linedrectangularcanal theFroudenumber of incoming

flow is 3.0 A hydraulic formswhen it meets the pool of
water Thedepth of How jump
after jump formation is 1.51m
the
Froudenumber of How after the hydraulicjump is
a 0 30
b OH
e 0 41
d Noneof the above GATE 2002
Answer e

Fra Yz

2
fr 3 0
1 51
Y2
AY
I
Y I JI 8 Fri
Y2
 3 02
Y I J t t 8 X32
04m
Y
Now y Yz I JI 8 Fri
0 4 1.521 I JI 8 Fri

Are 0 409
0 41

Question 3 A hydraulicefficient trapezoidal channel section has a uniform

flow of 2m Thebed width of the channel is
mare 2016
Answer
Y 53 B Y53

Y
60C
B
slope length B
Jy't Y B
B
27 43
2.309
IES
Question 1 WhenHow is critical through open channels which of the
following statements are correct
1 The specific energy is minimum for a given discharge
2 The discharge is maximum for a given specific energy
3 Thespecific forceisminimumfor a given discharge
4 Froudenumber of theflow is equal to unity
I 2 and 4 only
I 2 3 and 4

Answer e
The various characteristicof thecriticalstate ofHowthrough
channel section are
e specific energy is minimumfor a given discharge
2 The discharge ismaximum
for a given
3 The specific force is minimum
specific energy
for given discharge
a
 4 Thedi'schange ismaximum for a given specific force
5 The Froude number isequal to unity

Question 2 At a hydraulicjump the flow depth are 0.4m and 5m at

the upstream and downstream respectively Thechannel is wide
rectangular The dischargeper unit width is nearly
a 5.8 m 4S
b 6.4 m2Is
c 7 3 M Is
d 8.3 m s 2016
Answer C

2g y ya Y ty
2 92 0.4 5 0.4 5
9 81
q 7 278 m
S
7.3 Ms

Question 3 for a smoothhump in a subcritical flowto function as a

broad crested weir the height oz of the hump above the bed
must satisfy which one of the following
a 02 2 A Ye
b 22 7 E Ed
e 22 E E Ye
d 02 E E Ee 2007
Answer b

1 A2
II
E I
n
i r In
n i 1 o

Above thebroadcrested weir flow iscritical so specificenergy above the

hump will be Ee
R Ea t 02
DZ E E Ez
for flow to be critical Ea Ee minimum specific energy
Or 02 7 E Ec
SSC JE
Question 1 Theterm alternate depth in openchannelflow refers to the
a Depthshaving the same specific energy
b Depth before and after the passage
for a given discharge
of the surge
Depth having the same kineticenergy for a given discharge
g Depth on either side of a hydraulic jump
pony
Answer a

Question 2 The depthofwater below thespillway and after hydraulic

jump are Im and 6 m respectively The head loss will be
I
mm
c 1.7 M
d None of these 2016
Answer d
sequent depth conjugate depth
Im
Y

Theenergy loss Er in thejump is givenby theenergy equation

3
EL Yz y
4YiYu

GEE
5 21 m

Question 3 which of thefollowing impression represents theenergy

dissipated in the hydraulicjump y and are the How
depth at supercritical flow and subcriticalyaflow respectively
OR 3
a Ya Y
4Y Yz
b of
Yzyty

C DE ya y73
4 yYz

d OE Yz Y 2017
4YYa
Answer Impressionfor energy loss dissipated in the hydraulicjump
Theenergy loss Erin thejump is given by theenergy equation
application between section I and 2

TI r r n i n I l 1 I 1 I 1 Y
EL E Ez
El Y zag p Yatzgye
we know that
y ya y Yr
2g
Er y y Y Ya Y ya yity
2 Yi't ya
Ya Y 1 I
y ty
ay Yu
3
Ee Yz y
AyYz
 4 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
TheGraduallyvaried flow Grf is defined as steady non uniform flow
where the depth of flowvariesgradually from sectiontosection along
the length of the channel
Thebackwaterproducedbyobstruction like dams or weirs across the river
and the drawdown produced by a sudden drop in channelaneexampleof
GVf

In Givf losses are negligible thecurvature streamlines isnegligibleandloss

of
of energy is essentially due to boundary friction
In Givf thebedslope So water surfaceslope Sw andenergyslope Sa
differsfromeach other
Almost all majorhydraulicengineering activity in freesurfaceflowinvolves
the computation of Givf profiles
Assumptions in GVf
Pressure distribution is hydrostatic
Resistance to flow isgiven Manning's or Chezy'sequationwithscopetaken
asscopeofenergy line
by
u
1 pits sp
V C RI Spta Here R fly
Channel bed slope is small ie Hal is at freewatersurface level
 Velocity distribution is uniform a 13 1
Resistance coefficient N c are constantwith depth

Channel is prismatic

Differential form Equation of Givf

H E t 2
2 t
y
Ig
Since watersurface generally vary in longitudinal direction n thedepth
offlow and total energy are function of n
MEG

TEL
Ea my

H
on

May
So gu
Daba

It Eazy
If So
t darn

Sf t dat
dat So St Differential equationof Givf

Lii H 2 t
y Ig
t
dig din day dan Eg
Sy so day day Egan
So
Sy day
Eg Is In
so
Sf t day
f Ya day data
 Sf So day Ogas Man
So so
day
Y 3

So Sf
dy 1
NgIs

fr
YLe Ig A AFg
At
fr Q Q'T
3
A
g Ay gA
day SEE
It is alsotermed as dynamicequation of Grf
So I 1
In ftp.y
1
Nga
Q AV
542
A
1 143 K A
1 Ro
For you s so K
uniformFiggy Fg
jarge per unit slope
Ko R Conveyance ofthe channel
Ko At
Fg
Q KoTso Q KISI
ko Conveyance fornormal depth
K Conveyance for any depth
Ka

NOTE
Section factor 2 AJ 4 1 Af fly
for critical depth ye sectionfactor Ze Ag
for critical flow condition 1
QI
A3 Ogi
Zo
Fg Zi Og
 Now
So 1 Sfso so I l E
My 592 2
1 1
og 3 E
for verywiderectangular channel
R Ap
BAILY
B
y 2y
R By y
B B
f
te p
Manning's Equation Chey's Equation
Q AV
Q A Russ 2 Cri son
1
Q Byo yo sot D ByoCyo'sSot
Byo'sgot Q CB
Y St sci

Similarly
Y'a Bye spy a By
3125842 ii

Ey I Yg
fi YAT gPBy3
f Q

fr
Yy In
for widerectangular channel
stiff
Manning equation Chezy's equation
s
so
I
So I
Yg Ey
day
i
Y in g
Relation between water surfaceslope and channel bottomslope
Case I Rising water case 0
dya
a
dig So
 day so Sw
EEE BDBog
yMMM
pggg

Éater
Slope of surface worst channel bed
dy
Sw water surfaceslopewith horizontal
So Channel bed slope

N Nn HAFTARAH
Apollo
at may

dig So Sw

0 NRDth

Case II falling water case day so

B aux
Dt3oEg

data Sw So
ready

So
Question A rectangular channel 7.5m wide has a uniform depth offlow
and has a bedslope 1 3000 If dueto construction of weir at
qm
downstream
of channelwatersurface at a section is raised by
 0.75m Determine the watersurfaceslope w r t horizontal at
this section n 0.02

mean 2.75Mamma
solution
for upperstream Q AV
Q A R13 so

Q 2 7.5
do X
153132 x 31000

Q 16 346 m3 see

for downstream Q
I pits spill
y
16.35 7.5 X 2.75 X Sf
o 02 155131.575
Sf 71361

did 31000 73161

gig I 16.352X 7.5
9 81 X 2.75 7.573
7 0 and so
day at
day So Sw
Sw So day
41946
z 00
Sw 76124

Classification of auf profiles

It is important to systematically classify the watersurface profile in
channel beforecomputation offlow profile is carried out

Suchclassificationhelpsget an overall understanding of how the flow

depth vary in a channel
It alsohelps to detectany error made in flow computation
 A Grf profile is classified on the basis ofchannelslopeand the magnitude of
flow depth in relation to yo andyo
Thechannel slopeis classified on thebasisof relative magnitude of normal
depth yo and critical depthyo
a Ar
let channel is rectangular
A By Bypis
Let B y Q By y
513 It
s constant
013
Hence y
so Se
Go yo s
Channel slopes are classified as follows
1 Steep slope s
so Se C
Here flow isYcsuper critical at normal depth asdepth
yo
flow is less than critical depth of
2 Mild slope
So So yois yo
Here
flow subcritical at normal depth as depthofflow
is more than critical depthofflow
3 Critical slope e
So Sc Yo Yoat normal depthofflow as it is equal to
Here flow is critical
critical depth of flow
4 Horizontal slope H
so 0
Yo D Vo 0
td overcome
Ie Me HopeCannotSustainuniform Eth o o adygon
How it signifies thesituation equivalent
to that of reservoir static many a

5 Adverse slope A
So O a
i e thisslopeyo
cannotsustain uniformflow as componentof
weight responsible tocarry outflow is in samedirection as that of
friction forceopposing theflow
wson
a So O
NOTE
It can bereferred thatslope istermed as sustainableslope when it
is so 0 becauseflow underuniform condition can occur forsuch a
Channel
Slope istermed as unsustainablewhen So so sinceuniform flow
condition can never occur insuch a channel

A channel can beclassified as mild or steep channelonly

mild
at a given
discharge if magnitudeof discharge changes than the slope can
change into steepslopes and vice versa
As critical condition depth inchannel dependsupondischargeand
channel properties
for critical flowcondition 1
gig

Coomb
Nama

come onto
NDadar

auto safe
ante

at thereat
Samechannelwithdifferent a
AAManatie t

flow profileassociated withthese channel slopes are designatedas S M C

H A for respectiveslopes and the space abovethe channel bed can be
divided into 3 zones depending upon relativemagnitudeof
yo yo yo
Thespace aboveboth CBLandMDL is designated as
Zone I
y yo Yo
Zone II
Yg y y
Zone III The
spaceyabgveyoyygn.net bed below
NDLCDL
 CDLage
NDL MADL
of
gas chain

ago yo

Estoop EitMied

WEEKENDL
Nymph

ooo YT page

iii Etihad
imagers

at mom
DL
Ryoo a
Ame
DL
page

Horizonte
as
Qualitative observationaboutvarioustypeof watersurfaceprofile can
bemade and profile can bedrawnwithoutperforming computation
any
 This is achieved by considering the signof numerator and denominator
in dynamicequation of Gut
Thefollowinganalysistendsto know whetherthe depthincrease or
decrease with distance and how the profile approaches the upperstream
and downstream limits
Dynamic equation day So I 1 St so
I F
ai y ye flow is subcritical
fr I Denominatorispositive
ii y ye flow is supercritical
fr 1 Denominatorisnegative
iii
y ye flow is critical
fr 1 Denominator 0
day
ie water surfaces profileapproaches thecriticaldepth vertically 90
civ y yn flow is uniform
So Sf Numerator O
0
dy
The surface profile approachesnormal depth asymptotically
C y yn So St Numeratorispositive

CD y yn St So Numerator isnegative
NOT
It
is not possible to have averticalwater surfaceprofilehence it is
assumed that water surface profile approaches the critical depth line
at verysteepslope
It may benotedwhenthewatersurfaceslopeis verysteep it cannot be
assumed that acceleration in vertical direction are negligible
This means that thetheory of auf is not applicablehereandshould break
down insuchsituation becausepressure is no longer hydrostatic inthose
region
Hencedynamic equation of auf is not applicable in casewhen depth
is close to critical depth and isshown in broken line
Minamata O
9
me
Ii dye 0
V11 At Y
Ogg O V x o fr t o
so So water surfaceprofilebecomes
day
dy da horizontal as flowdepth becomes
very large
vill for widerectangular channel
PFE q St gin 2

gy3
1013
y
So q N2
013 Soy 92ns
y
dy 1
1013
y
Ynys

013 z
83
943 Soy qz
y gy3 q
If y O
dy t d

Water surfaceprofiletends tobecome vertical as theflowdepthtends to

zero

Ex If thedepth of flowincreases in direction offlow

i e dig 0
then thedynamicequation of
I Feely Gut represents backwater curve

Moz
ppdfappatve
ma Y

x If the depth of flow decreases in the direction of flow

ie ve
dy
ian eauationo
qq.am GVf
represents a draw
 Y ahhh 0 My

Apportomaching
iatopom yoga so
thangs Horizontal

Divergingfrom hhmgmtddm.IT
channel
Natfoogy o bottom

it n

Qualitative Analysis of auf profile

1 Mi
haggogntal

Yim MANDL
ago
mama

Mingppggycritical'S
MEEEEE

y yo yoSo Numerator is positive

y yo Sf
y yo fr I Denominator is positive Subcritical flow

day tyre the Depth offlowincreases in

flow direction
 0 flow profile is Asymptote to normaldeath
y yn dy line

Y Ya day So flow profile is horizontal at N

It is the most common of all auf profile

It is found in subcriticalflowcondition
It is observed whendestruction to theflow is carried out such as weir
dams control structure and natural features such as bend's occurs
Thesecurves extends to severalkm upstreams beforemerging with normal
depth

Cooparizontal

NAMAH
Amma

2 Mz
Naman

Yoa MMM
coma 2
Your

Miop
SELL So Sc
Yo y yex Numerator is negative
ye ye St 1So
Fr Denominator is positive
y ye Sub critical flow
dy Yee ve Depth offlow decreases inflow
direction

y yo day 0 flow profile is asymptote to NDL

 a y flow profile is vertical tool
y ye dug

The Maprofileoccurs at asudden drop in bedof channel at transition and

it the canal outlet into the pools

NiggoooooooooITED
M
Mz EET POOL
Comb

Afdten drop

3 M3

BAD

Year Yono
MMA

Mild slope so Sc
NUtNINER

yo ye y
St So Numerator is negative
y yo fr 1 Denominator is negative
ye ye
the
supercritical
Depth offlow increase inflowdirection
day Lee
a flow profilemeets CBL vertically
y Ye dy
y o
x
day a flow profilemeets channel bottomvertically
When a supercritical streamenters a mild slope channel Ms
typeofflow profile
occurs
Theflowleadingfrom a spillwayor a sluicegate to a mild slopeforms Ms
type of flow profile
Thebeginning ofMy curve is usuallyfollowedby a smallstreamof Ruf and
downstream is generally terminated
by a hydraulicjump
Compared to M and Ma Ms profile are relativelyshorterinlength

are

Jump

4 S

and otorirozontal
ADIL

Nisman
StMLAuoso So

y ye yo St Numerator is positive
y Yo p Denominator is positive Subcritical
y ye
dig the
the Depth of flowincreases in flow
direction
 y ye day N flow profilemeets CDL vertically

y dye So flow profileis horizontal at a

Thes profileproduced whentheflow from a step or steepchannel isterminated

by a deep poolcreated by a obstructionsuch as weir or dam
At beginning of curvetheflowchanges fromthenormal depth supercritical
flow to subcriticalflowthrough a hydraulicjump
The profile extend downstream in a positivesurfaceslopeto reach a horizontal
asymptote at a pool elevation

Sana

5 S2

am

Ye asa

yo

steep BB E to

y
oaasc ge
y yo
yo Sf so
fr 1
Numerator is positive
Denominator is negative
ye ye Super critical
 dig thee ve Depth of flowdecreases inflow
direction
y ye day flow profilemeet CDL vertically

Y yo day o flow profile meet NDL asymptotically

Profile of Sztype occurs at theentranceregion ofsteep channelleading from

a reservoir and at a break ofgrade frommild slope tosteepslope

Generally S2profile are ofshortlength

otros toooooooo

52

6 S3

YoplayYeMan 53

Stephanos Sc

Yoc yo y so Numerator is negative

Y yo St
 ye ye s fr 1 Denominator is negative
super critical
the flow depth increases inflowdirection
dig If
0 flow profilemeets NDL asympotically
y yo dy
Y
TO
dy a flow profilemeetchannelbed
vertically
freeflowfrom a sluicegate with a steepslope on it downstream is ofS3type
of flow profile
The S curve is alsoresultswhenflowenlistfrom a steeperslope to a less
steep slope

Dago

Macppanappos yo
Bajorek Y02

Be

Sama

Aflame
7 CL

Boac

Yeatman

Gibuddobeppso se

y yo yo St So Numerator is positive
y yo fr I Denominator is positive
y yo Sub critical
the Depth offlow increases in flow
did the direction
Y a day x so Surfaceprofile is horizontal at D

Ye
a Surface profilemeets CDL NDL
Y dy vertically
8 Cz

Yo yo panama

giti BDMN
MSO.SC

yo c yo y Numerator is negative
y yo
ye ye It Denominator is negative
supercritical flow
the Depth of flow increases in flow
day Yee direction
 Y YO day
N flow profile meets bedslope
vertically
o flow profile meets NDL
Y yo ay asympt tically
NOTE Asper Chezytheory differentialequationof art for widerectangular
Channel
So it Hy
Tie I
Yay
Put yo yo
So critical water surfaceprofile will bestraight
If line

9 He
reforzontal

aah
aaaaa

yea

monomania
Horizontamasao o

yo Cy ye Sf So Numerator is negative
Y yo fr i Denominator i ositive
y yo Subcritical flow
ve Depth of How decreases in
du Ife direction of flow
x a Water surface profile will meet CDL
y ye ay vertically
d so water surfaceprofile is horizontal
Y dy
A horizontal channel can beconsidered as lower limit reachedbymildslope
as it bedslopebecomes horizontal I flatter
There is no region 1 forhorizontal channel as y o
 Hz and Hz profile are similar to Ma and Ms typeof profilerespectively
however Hz curve has a horizontal asymptote

Mr
Amash
AH
ate

10 Hz

a
Mdf3
auto

we

Yo ya y
y yo
y aye It YMormettaiorisisnenegatai

super critical
the flow depth will increase inflow
day Ife direction
x
ye a Watersurfaceprofile will meet CAL
y day
vertically
O a water surfaceprofile will meet
Y day
channel bed vertically

11 As aaaaaHorizontal
Andhra
Az AMEDL

aafc
to
s annotate
Adverse slope
 Yo c y yo Numerator is negative
y yo
y ye It Denominator is positive
subcritical flow
ve depth of How will decrease in flow
In It direction
x
ye a flow profile will meet CALvertically
y day

y a
day So flow profile will horizontal at N

Adverseslope are also rare and Az and Az curves are similar to HzandHz
curves respectively
Theseprofile are off considerably very short length

MamoOL

mama

12 Az

companies apart

gie

Fogerty

Yo ye y Numerator is negative
yo yo
yo sp Denominator is negative
yo
Supercritical flow
day Ife the Depth of flow will increase in
How direction
 How derecho
x
Y Ye day
Watersurfaceprofile willmeetcar
x o a and channel bedslopevertically
y day

Question Water flow in a triangularchannel ofsideslope45 I c Hsu and

longitudinal slope of0.001 Determine if the channel is mild steep or
critical slope
Discharge through thechannel is 02m31sec and assume n 0.015
solution
T 2my 24
A x
Ty 12 X LY Y
I
o
252Tty
2
Y
Y
f Y
R Ap

52
a AV
35042
Yo x
Ep
0 2 X 0.001
Yo o I
0 536 m
Yo
for criticalflow
O2
91X
9 81 Ly c
ye
0 382 m
Ye slope is mild
Yo Ye

Question Arectangular channel withbottom width 4mand So 0.008 has

In a Gut in
of
channel the at a certain
a 1
5m31sec this depth
location is found to be 0.3m Assume n 0.015 Determinethetype of
GVA profile
Solution R Byt
B y
Q AV
Byo BY so
y
 15 4Yo
0 g 44Yy 0.0008

0 41m
Yo

yo Y
1.5
s
3
I0 4
9 81
242 M

Y 0.3m

Yo Y to a channel ismild
Yo ye

ye y yo zone 2
GVF Profile is M2

Control section
A controlsection is defined as a section inwhich finedrelationship exist
between depth
of flowand discharge
Enample water spillway sluicegate
Control section is a pointwherecalculations of auf flowprofile starts

It proceeds upperstream in case of subcriticalflow and downstream in case

of subcritical flow
Hence supercritical flowhasupperstreamcontrolsection andsubcritical flow
has downstream controlsection
upper stream downstream
É I tr I
 Makarios
am
wannabees

Ye
 Ypg Moz

Brake in Grade
When two channelsections havedifferentbedslopethesection iscalled break
in grade

following
i for pgif.gg tobenoted
my forsection
control
analysis qualitative of flow profile
is downstream
ii for supercritical flow controlsection is upper stream
iii CDLis constant heightabove channelbottom
Civ NDL varies as per channel bedslope

V MatchNDL for varioustype of flow

ForExample
a Mild Milder
Nampa

comas

ate
myYo

Bad Moray
Mide
b steep steeper

i
n or Sa n AL

Yeffer
NDL
yo Yo
in y step steep
c steeper steep
ACCEL

Mt AMMAL

nope
Moo
Adam DL
Saa youngage

Btteeper
asleep
d Milder Mild

MIA
Bat
Yoma MADL

Mtf
_yx Afc
AMAL
 Yohanan

any
FEtfoooooooooooMINEN MIT
i
NDAA
Yc MANDL

Katya
HEAL
steep
g Mild Adverse
Mild
NHN poem or

Ye

h Adverse to Mild
Mild Aute
Aaa
some
MANDL
myo
MADL
ay
Wto
Adverse Midd
in Mild steeper steep

NDL

Lepanto son

Yao NH3 Me afaos

Mild
steeper steep
 Arang
of 0.025 auf
for a discharge of 6m31sec
mwinnasamanning's constant
in this channel Identify the
possible profile produced in the following break grade
a 501 0.0004 to 502 0.015
b So 0.005 To 502 0.004
solution
a 3
ye g
4
O 61 M
QI ABY x so
I ayyy
6 4X X
Yo o 02 411g 0.0004

Yo 1.91 m
channel is mild
6 4 XYo x
doz 0.05

0.54 C ye
LILI
Yo2Channel is steep

WTEEM

IÉ
go.ggz

poop

3
b ye 9
41
0.61 M
Y A AV
6 4X
Byo I Bbfc x so
3
x 0.005
Yo Yo1oz 112,4
0.78 m
YoChannel is mildye
6 4 802 0.102 10.009
4414g 73
0 840 m
YouChannel ye
is milder

Mi

umami

ia
omm

good m

midget
Gradual Varied flow Computation

It can be done by any of the following methods

1 Numerical method Directstep method
2 Direct Integration Chow'smethod
3 Graphical method

1Direct Step Method

This method is simplest and suitable for prismatic channels
dfa So Sf
Mentioning the aboveequation in finite difference form
So SJ
Ey
ox
SEE Sf Averageslope of TEL in
reach DX
X2 Xi SE Asf
IS fr
In order to calculate SI following procedurecanalsobeadopted
Y 42
Yang
I
Q BYang Rough Sp Ri R2
1 Rang t

AMEL
Yax 4appY'appian
rapport

Y'jeayin
Nt
83,4 3 02 A

s
 Question Determine the length of backwater curvecaused by astern of
1 5m in rectangular channel ofwidth 50m and depth 2m
Assume So 210 and N 0.03

Solution

At section
a AV
A R43 5042

50 2 43
fo X
3 3 2 solo
A 112.4 m3 see
E Y
IMMA
2YAP
2 112.42
2 9.81 50 2
2.069 m
Ez Y2
At section
a A R St
112.4 50 3.5 X 50 X 3.5 3 5 42
fo 50 2 3 g
Sf 112018

Ez 3.5 112.42
2X9.81 50 3.532
3.52 m
Yang Y Is
2 3.5
2

2.75 M
Ri
Rang t R2
3812 2 591 5.5
2
Rang 2.461 m
Q AV 2
112.4 50 2.75 X
do
2.461143x Sj
Sf 51524

On Ez E
So If
3.52 2.069
seta
ON 4564.66M
4.56 km

NOTE Yc 9 9
Iggy 0.8m

Yo Yi Ya
Y Ya Yo
Hence y Yo Yc Profileis M
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION
GATE
Question 1 A Im widerectangular channel has a bedslopeof 0.0016 and
the Manning's roughness coefficient is 0.04 Uniformflow
takes place in thechannel at a flow depth of 0.5m At a
particular section gradually varied flow auf is observed and
theflowdepth is measured as 0.6m The Grf profile at that
section is measured as
a Si
b S2
MMI
GATE 2017
Answer c

Given Depth 0.5m

y
Q In AR43542
I X 0.5 11402.5 3 O 0016 2
go 0g

0 198m31s
3
Yc 94g 0.51
0 1586m
Yo
M ND L 0.5
Yn
O6m Mr CAL yo 0.16
M3

So M profile
Question 2 A 4 m widerectangular channel having bedslopeof 0.001
car ies
a discharge of16m31s Considering Manning's roughness
coefficient 0.012 and g 10m15 the category of the channel
slope is
a Horizontal
b Mild
Critical
Steep GATE 2016
Answer b
 3
y g 3

1 1696 M

Q In A R43 g42

0.612 4 X Yn ayyy Jo
16 001

151789
Yn 4412g

0 6024 y513
4 2yn 3
Question3 Theflow rate in a widerectangular openchannel is 2 0m31sper
metrewidth Thechannelbedslope is 0.002 The Manning's
roughness coefficient is 0.012 The slopeof thechannel is classified
as
a critical
b horizontal
c mild
d steep GATE2007
Answer d
Discharge permetrewidth 2m31s
Bed slope sq 0.002
I 9 2213542

forwiderectangularchannel R yn
9 4 yn yn 3 Js
2X 0.012 513
J0.012 yn
Yn 0.688 M
Critical depth of flow
ye g 3
q
0.741 M
ye yn
Hence slope is steep
IES
Question 1 Best sideslopefor mosteconomical trapezoidalsection in
open channel flow wherein sideslopes are defined by x
horizontal to 1 vertical is when X equals
a 0.404
b 0 500
c 0 577
d 0.673 2011
Answer e
The mosteconomical trapezoidal section is half ofregular
hexagon

I1

tan 600 I
N 0 577

Question 2 Thevelocity withwhich an elementarysurge wave can travel

upstream in a channel withdepth y 1.6m andvelocity V
2 4Mls is
a 16 mIs
b 13 6 mIs
e 2.4 M Is
d 1.6Mls 2012
Answer d
aww É

Y
y so y't
we know that Vw C v
where Vw Absolutevelocity of surge
Given y L 6M V 2.4Mls
we know that C Jgy
 C J4LOmX 1 6
Is
Vw 9 2.4
I 6 mls

Question 3 Consider thefollowingstatements regarding a gradually varied

How in a prismatic open channel
1 Total energy lineremains parallel to the water surface
2 The rate of energy loss at the section isinvensly proportional to
die where d is flow depth with inden n
3 In analyzing theflow theenergy equation offlow is not applicable
4 Pressure distribution at every section can be assumed to be
hydrostatic
Which of thefollowing are correct
a I and 4
b 2 and 4
e I and 2
d 2 and 3 2017
Answer b 2
Q In AR43Sj
1143 dft
Can Qm 2
dft AR4312 Bd d 43
An2
B da93

Rate of energy loss Intois

Alsodue to smaller slope ofwatersurface line onstream line having
less slope normalacceleration can be neglected
Pressure distribution can betaken as hydrostatic

SSC JE
Question 1 When theflow is an open channel is graduallyvaried theflow
is said to be
a steady uniform flow
b Steady non uniform flow
c Unsteady uniform flow
d Unsteady non uniform How 2011
Answer Depth of flow changes with distance in graduallyvariedflow
 Henceflow is non uniform
Depth of How does not change with time at a givenlocationfor a
given discharge hence flow issteady

Question 2 In thestep methods bothdirect and standard the

must compu ations
a Proceed downstream in suborn
b Proceed upstream in subcrititaideotww
d Always proceed upstream
d None of these
Answer b
 5 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
In Ruf a suddenchangeofdepthoccurs at a particularpoint of achannel
and thechangefrom onedepthto another in a distanceofveryshort
length
Streamlines in Rufhave and most of thetimechange
verylargecurvature
in curvature breaks the and this results inhighstate of
flow profile
turbulence causing considerableloss of energy

Hydraulicjump is an example of Ruf

Pressuredistribution is non hydrostatic inthis case dueto the highcurvature
of How
HYDRAULIC JUMP

When theflow conditionchangesfrom supercritical tosubcritical the result is

abruptrise of water accompanied by rollers and is termed as Hydraulicjump
or standing wave
Thechange inHowtake placefor a relatively shortrangeof channel so it
is a total phenomenon Therefore boundary friction is relatively small and
in many cases it is insignificant
A hydraulicjump is formed when a water moving at a supercritical velocity in
relatively shallow stream strikeswater having largedepth and subcritical
velocity
Example
Down stream of sluice gate
Whensteep channel changes to flat channel
iii At thebottom of spillway
in Downstream of narrow channel
u Irrigation canal falls
Applications of Hydraulicjump
Hydraulicjump can bepracticallyused forfollowing purposes

Ifof t.si
for desalination of sea water
atone
To minchemicals usedforwaterissipate
purification
oneenergy sowing water downstream
the hydraulicjump in structures and preventthe scouring ofdown
stream side
To raise the water level on downstream sideof a metering flume thus
maintaining high water level
Analysis of Hydraulic jump
During hydraulicjumpthesupercriticalflowstreamjumps todisturbance
meet its
alternate depth but while doingso it generates considerable in
form of largescaleeddies and reverse flowroller due tothisjump falls
short of attaining its alternatedepth
Thus theresultingdepth are called sequentdepth or conjugate
depth y and y

eBay
EE n
0RAMA Stant
yooo y Ya alternate
Yao Yi ya Conjugate
sequent
depth
Depth
you

D nozzofood

YAHTZEE
Otp
trouers
free

any any

my ooo

a Lfa 2
Toe of Jump End ofJump
NOTE
1 Toe ofjump section I I wheretheincoming supercriticalstreamundergoes
an abruptrise in the depth forming thestarting ofjump is
called Toe ofjump
2 End of thejump It is thepoint at whichthe roller formationterminates
i e Section 2 2 and water surface is level
3 Length ofjump Distancebetween toe and end ofthejump istermed as
length of thejump

As per Momentum equation

AGORAPHOBE
MORREALE
 pi p twsino F Ma M
Ywyicoso wsino Wylyso f BalQua B ear
wsino O
cos0 I
f O B B
Fi ay 1 2115
OR
p p Ma Mi
Mz
pityMi pay
Herespecificforce is constantunderfrictionlessandhorizontalsurface
specific force constant

Yay PE constant
constant
Ay go
Case I Jump in Horizontalrectangular channel
Is Sequent Depth ratio
Ay t
ga
By Ya t constant If
g y Y
t constant
g g constant
y gag

y Ey YE gig

gig Y gig
Ya Y 29 ya y yay
YY g
Y Y Yorty
2g
g9 YYa Yity 7 i
 f V
J g Alt JGy ATgy

Byggy

Fy2 9
gys
Fri Ey Fri gyp
g
frig friya s ii
From i Hii
g 3 2
Fri
Y y Yz y tyz
2ft Yy Y Y2
2fr t
Yg Yy
2ft
Yg Y OHso
I fri
ya
fy.tt Jit8fri

Y I
12 J t 8Fri I
Alsocalled Belanger momentum equation
I
forhigh value offroudesnumber i e fr 8 Theaboveequation can also
be approximated as
I 41 Fr
Yy

Theaboveequationisforrectangular horizontal frictionlesschannel and if

friction is not neglected actualvalue of y will be less than ya
calculated from aboveequation

ii Energy loss
EL E Ez
y zgy Yat gyu
El y yr gig I typ YI
Ee Ly ya
I Gigg
29 y ya Y ya
 EL Cy yr t YiYuGy tyz Yi Yi
yiyi
Y yr y ya Yi y
44,42
Y Ya ay ya Y yr yah Yi
ay Y
EL Ya Y
ayYz
Cii Relative Energy Loss
ERL AL Elly
Ei ly
El Fri
Y ayyy g
3
fye x Yt Yay 1
YyY ly 4y Yu
Y4y 173
Ey 4 Yr Y

My 1

44 I AI
I IJ it Bfr I i
EE 4
t Ii Bar I FE
3
J I 8 Fr 2 3
FI 8 4
1211 8Fri I HIT
3
J I 8Fri 3
FI 812 Fri Jl 8AM 1

CivEfficiency of jump
It is defined as theratio of energy ofjumpafter and beforeits
formation
Ijump FI
Ez E Ez
 Ijump El Er 1
EE
I
1 Relativeenergy loss
njump
GHeight of thejump
It is defined as difference of levelof water afterandbeforeits
formation
Hg Yz Y
ui Relative Initial Depth
It is defined as ratio of original level of waterbeforejump tothe
height of thejump
RID Yi I
Relative Sequent Depth
It is defined as ratio of level of water at theend of the
jump to energy of jump
Rsp YE

Length the jump Lg

ofLength between thetoe of the
the
ofjump is horizontal distance
jump where the water surface level start to take offand the endof the
jump
Length of thejump isrequired byselecting the apronlength and
the height of the side wall ofstilling basin
Experimenting it is found thatin horizontal channel
if fr 25 f Fri
Lg
if fr 5
Lg
6.1

rat T
mfr
 NOTE length ofthejumpcan also be found as
Lg 69 Yz y 6.9HJ

t.am That
Bag

Types of jump
Depending on thevalues offroudes no of f ofincoming flowjumps are
being classified as follows

1 Undular jump
It is formed when I Lf 1.7
In this case watersurface is undulating with a
surface very smallripples on the
Sequent depthratio isverysmall andrelativeenergyloss is almost

zero EF O

YaMs
Y ma

Un Na
taump
2 Weakjump
It is formed when 1.7C f E 2.5
In this case seriesof small rollers forms on thejumpsurface but the
downstream watersurfaceremains smooth
In this case relativeenergy loss is PE 5 184

my
my

Weak jape
3 Oscillating jump
It isformed when 2.5 f 4 5
In this caserelativeenergy lossis comparatively more EE 18 457
Theentering jetof wateroscillates inrandom mannerbetween bedand
surface of jump
Theseoscillations are common in canalsand can travel upto
distancedamaging conside able
verythebank earthen of canal

not
my

4 Steady
jump
It is formed when 4.5 fi 9
This jump is well established the roller andjumpaction is fully developed
to cause appreciable energy loss 709
In this case relativeenergy loss FI 45
 Stayjump
5 Strong 1 Choppy jump
Thisjump is formedwhen fr 9
In thiscase sequentdepthratio Y ly is quitelarge
Energy dissipation isveryefficient and is inrangeof E 907

as
may

Question If theenergylossis hydraulicjump in a rectangularchannel is

found to be 6m and prejump froudes no of flow f 6
Determine
y and ya
Solution
Y I II I 8 fi i i
I I 58 62 I I
8
Y
3
EL 6 1Y 8y y
y13 4 8y Y

Y 0 55 m
8X 0 55 4 47 m
Y2
Question Waterflows at therate of 1000 Itr see along a channelof

is
jump What at an upper
forms recta gular
section 1.6m in width Calculate thecriticaldepth A hydraulic
stream pointwherethedepthis 80 of critical
depth would be rise iswater level due to thejump formation
the
Also calculatetheenergyloss injump formation
solution s
ye ang

a
0 341 M

ii y 0.8 X Ye
0 8 X O 341
0.273 M
A
Yj I IJ 1 8 fi 1
jy ATgy
f 1.0
It 1 8 1.4 I 1 6 0.273 9.81 0.273

0 4209 m f 14
Yz
Iii Ee ya y
4Y Y
0.42 0 27373
4 0.273 0.42
0 0073 M

Question A hydraulicjumpoccurs in a 90 triangularchannel derive an eq

nation fordischarge and the conjugate depth If the depthbefore
and after thejump inthechannel are 0.6 and 1.5mrespectively And
the Roades no before andafterthejump
Fozzy
satin A I Ty try y y gMangyYz
p m
from momentumequation MY
Ptm constant
go
P M Pat Ma
AiYi PQui Pain
t
e Ay x g f
AA
gig tyg y typing
 Y Y
Y Y 3 yi yi

I 4 11 Ya Y yity yetye

g YYy11tt yay y t y yetye

Q
of y y yity y ya
Y tyr
Q YY E y t y Yat
Y the
Yi

Ii y 0.6 m y 1.5 m

Q 0.62 1.52 42
I
O GX1 5 X 9.381 0.6 1.5
0.6 1.5

Q 2 12 m3 Sec

ii f Q
Y A g
J At
fr Qazy
Gg g yy
fi

I I
41,44
0.344

Velocity profile in jump

WtI'YD rooming

op goodooouonarydayegion
Temp in non rectangular horizontal Channel

IF
When thesidewalls channel are not vertical as in caseoftriangular
of
trapezoidal parabolicetc Theflow inthejump will involve lateralexpansion
also along withincrease indepthof How
As thecrosssection area are not linearfunctionofdepthofflowcomputation of
jump properties i.e
comparatively difficult
Specific force can beusedtofind thesequentdepth inthiscase forgiven
as follows
disc constant
p m arge
Aydt gag constant

AY t
got AZT YA
AY
Azz Ya Ghar

AiYi
AEI
1
AE I
f
GI
fi Ogp
A3
Of fit
Aint
YI
An 1
fit AEI
AEF 1 t AE
valid for anytypeofnonrectangle channel
NOTE
Jump in exponential channel
Enponential channel are thosechannels in which area of thecrosssection of
channel is related
to thedepth as follows
A Kya

at

It
MEG Aranya

for hydraulicjump specificforce constant

Ay ga constant

Kya A
Equating themomentof area at freesurface level

Ay da ly h
tdin ly h
T dayKya
day
1
atKya
T a Ey
I akg ay
Hence
I I oft haha y h dh
Y a
ha dh
y kgof yh
Yaya y hat ha dh
 y It
Sequent depthratio can now be computed by substituting thevalues of all
parameters in equation
ENERGY DISSIPATION
Dueto highenergylossoccurring during thejump it has led to its adoption
as a part of the energydissipators system below the hydraulicstructure

Stilling basinin the downstream portion of thehydraulicstructurewhere

the energy dissipation is intentionally allowed to occur such that out
going stream can safely bedischarged into thechannel below it
function of stilling basin isto provide a stablegoodjumpwith high energy
dissipation

Stillingbasin is fully pavedsection and more additional unitssuch as baffle

walls chutes end sills are provided in it
Due to theprovision ofchuteblock battle wall thelength ofthe jump and
tail water depthrequiredreduces as compare to unaidedjump
NOTE
Chute block It is usedforsplitting and aeration of How
Battle wall It provides additional resistance to flow
Ind si e It helps in listingthe outgoing stream into a trajectoryhence
avoiding wear and tear scouring at downstream
Question A hydraulicjump in a 5m wideoutlet at a short distance down
stream of control gate isformed if theflowdepth are 10m and 2m
in upperstream and downstreamrespectively of thesluicegate and
discharge 150m31sec Thendetermine
is flow depth downsteam of the jump
Lii Thrust on thegate
iii Head loss in the jump

managegate

Wto on tEET s
age
wa yummyem

solution
i
 is f Eas
99 3313
3.38

Y If it 8ft I I
IJt 8 3.38 I
I
8.62 m
Yz
ii Thrust on gate f
LY y y
y y
12 9.81 1,8123
f 209.28 kN

iii EL Ya y
4YY2
3
8.62 2
4 8.64 2

4.23 M
Question Given that unit discharge in a rectangular channel is 18m31sec
m and the head loss across a hydraulic jump that forms in this
channel is 1 em Estimate the per jump and postjump depth

Solution
2g y ya Y yr
y Yg It Yy
El 1e
Yay
g
11 Y 3 Yay 1 3
Gyp Y ly
4
ay Y y My 1
y 4.4 y Y ly
Y4y 113
Now 9.4 Y Y Y
2g
Hy Y Y
I
Y
 4a 9.4844
Hy 11 Yy Yy I
Y
2g yay 17
Let n
Y
2.931
Y
Yz 2.931 y
29g y ya Yity
Y X 2.931y y 2.931Y
1.789 m
Y
Yz 2.931 X 1.789
5.24 m
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
GATE
Question 1 The prejump Froudenumber for a particular flow in a
horizontal rectangular channel is 10 The ratio of sequent
depth i.e post jump depth to prejumpdepth is
Answer 13.65 GATE 2016

Y I I1 81107 1
I
13 651

Question 2 In a 5m widerectangular channel thevelocitydistribution

in thevertical direction y is given by u 1.25y Thedistance
is measured the channel bed If theflow depth is 2m
ythe dischargefrom
per unit widthof thechannel is
a 2 40m31s m
b 2.80 m3IsIm
C 3 27 m s IM
d 12.02 m3 s M GATE 2018
Answer a
u 1.25 Yt dy

dq 1.25y 6
dy
1.25 6
q y dy
2 405m31s m
q

Question 3 A hydraulicjump is formed in a 2m widerectangular

channel which is horizontal and frictionless The postjump
depth andvelocity are 0.8m and Im Is The prejump velocity
is MIs GATE2015
n
Answer yV2 0.8m
I m Is
Fra
YI 110 I 0.82 2

Fra 0.3535
y Yz I JI 8foe
02.8 I JI t 8 0.35352

0 I65685
V
Y V2Yz
V 1X 0 8
0.165685
4 828 M Is
IES
Question 1 Thesequentdepthratio in a hydraulicjumpformed in a
rectangular horizontal channel is 10 TheFroudenumber of the
sup tow is
a 12 2
a
2016
Answer c
Yy
10
12If it 8ft I
I
Froude no of supercritical flow
F 2128 1
7 416

Question 2 Hydraulicjumpforms in a horizontal rectangular channel

a unit discharge of 1 019m31sec m at a depth of101.9
mm Thisjump is classified as
a Weak jump
b oscillating jump
c Steady jump
d strong jump 2017
Answer d
Fy 1.0192
gg 9 81X0.10193

fr 10
f 9.0 Strong jump
Question 3 Which of thefollowing assumptions is I are made inthe
of hydraulicjumpanal sis
1It is assumed that beforeand afterjump formation the flow is
essentially two dimensional and that thepressure distribution
is hydrostatic
2 The length of thejump is small so that the losses due tofriction
on thechannel floor are small andhence neglected
3 The channel floor is horizontal or the slope is so gentlethat the
weight component of thewater mass comprising the jump is
a
high
I very
b 2 only only
a 3
d 1 only
2 and 3 2019
Answer b
Before deriving theexpressionfor thedepth of hydraulic
jump the following assumptions are made
I The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is hydrostatic
beforeand after thejump
2 ee due to friction on thesurface of thebed of the channel
Loss
are small and henceneglected
3 Theslopeof thebed is small so that thecomponentof the
weight of the fluid in thedirection of flow is negligibly small
SSC JE

Ent TheFroudenumberfor a hydraulicjump is 3.2 thetypeof

jump is
a Oscillating jump
b steady jump
c strong jump
d Weakjump 2017
Answer a
for froude number from 2.5 to 4.5 thejump will beoscillate
ng jump
Question 2 Which of thefollowing represents the CORRECTrelationship
between the Chez coefficient C andcoefficient of roughness
of channel f
y's
a C
If
b c a Jt
C d
c

C
f312
d
Y 2017
Answer a
Chezyesformula V C JRS
v Average velocity
Hydraulic Radius

C 8g
C d
If
Question 3 Therange offroudenumber of a weakjumpis
a 1.0 to 1.7
b 1.7 to 2.5
2 5 to 4.5
4.5 to 9.0 2017
Answer b Classification of Jump
Froude number Types of jump

1 C fr E 1.7 Undular jump

1.7 Fr E 2.5 Weak jump
2.5 C fr 4.5 Oscillating jump
4.5 C fr I 9 Steady jump
fo a strong jump
 G UNSTEADY FLOW
Unsteadyflow are alsocalledTransientHow occurs in openchannel
when thedischarge or depth or bothvaries worst time at a given
section
0 0
I 41 d4
Unsteady Howcan befurther classify based on curvature
Is Gradually varied unsteady flow Graf
Ex flood flow in a stream
ii Rapidly varied unsteadyflow RUF
Ex formation of surge
Equation of continuity
for an unsteady flow in a channel the continuity equation is intheformof
as follows
T 0
gq 91
Here 01 Adown v
of dy
t V T 0
Ady In 21
NOTE
In theaboveequationinflow and outflow is notconsidered However
if there is some inflow or outHowthe equation can be transformed as
A t V
Yu Of t T
dig q
Thecross sectional area can bethe function of depth and can also
section to section vary from

yay

yppe

ATIFG Y
 A t n y

91 Fn Yy
keptconstant
T
dog

In oof y T

from and
A v
oof T
I 7
1
0

A down VT
V
oof y of T
dy 0

NOTf
forprismaticchannel In 0
Hence
no t ut t T 0
dy 071

Surges in openchannel
Surges are waves and their presence in the flow field leads to a tranquil
unsteadyHow both wort depthand velocity
Surges may becausedbyvariousfactors
Closer or opening
ofvalves gates
Loading or unloading of turbines
Start or stopping of pumps
failure dams
of to theHow
leading in reserviour downstream
Wind driven circulation in lakes
Depending on thedirectionof movement ofthesewaves Howdeptheithermay
decrease or increase

A surge is producing an increase inHowdepth is called positivesurge and one

which causes a decrease inHowdepth is called Negativesurge
It may alsobereferred as if the wave is higherthan originalsteady flow
depth it is called positivesurgeand in case of negativesurgethe wave is
lowered than original steadyHow
A surge can travel eitherupstream or in downstream directionaccording to
which following casesmay beobserved
i souls dIs
Marco

atmy

ate of2

Disoresagemoving dls
ii Ms godIs
t
awww
mommy
z

p ivory moving uts

uts GE
i to

tow
BY
am

af and2

Negaatresarger
moving dls

iv on

d Vw

adj
MY MAY2

D00Deo_gg
Negative surge moving us
 observed in following practical situation
These surges formation
maybe
Surge type Practical situation
is the surge moving downstreamdownstream ofsluicegatewhen
opened suddenly
i tve surgemoving upstream upperstream of sluicegatewhen
closed suddenly
iii ve surge moving upstream upperstream ofsluicegatewhen
open suddenly
fu ve surgemoving downstream downstream ofsluicegatewhen
dosedsuddenly

souls D Is

µ off
ME
Pee of
at

Suddenly opened

Bri on MEEEEE

Suddentycoon
Analysis of surges
for theanalysis ofthesurgeswhich is therapidvaried unsteadyflow and
equivalent steadyflow condition isgenerated or situation is formedby
considering the flow war t surge

Case I Positive surgemovingdownstream

flow depth at section I and 2 are

y and with velocity v and V2
y
A wave of height 2 positivesurge is moving downstream withvelocity Vw

If a negativevelocityequaltotvw is superimposed on theHowfield thewave

will appear to have a stationary reference and flowfield will convertto
steady flow
NOTE
Superimposing negativevelocity tvw can beconsidered to beobserving the
flow bytaking surge as a reference

OMG Actually heresection

1I and 2 2 are at
same placebut at
Add differenttime
Za Maw
Manz
Yas
yo am

Aaa egg

dearest volume
my
Unsteady
steady at goop old
orw
soggy

your mama
vw ay areaVw

zoo are
 A Vi Vw Az V2 Vw
P Pa Ma M
YA Y YAzYI PA V Vw v2 Vw V Vw

YAY Yazyz PA Vi Vw V2 Vw v Vw
On simplification
ay v Vw V2 Vw
V2 Vw I
Alf Ah
Now substituting us in equation
YAY YAY PA V Vw Ay Vw l A1 Vi
YA yi EAZYz PA V Vw Vi Vw
E 1
YAY YAzyz PA AA 1 Vi Vw
Vi Vw g AY Azyz
A Af 1

from aboveequation Vw can befound

for a rectangular channel considering unitwidth of channel
y Vi Vw ya V2 Vw

Kyi Kyi Py v Vw v2 vi

fromequation
v v Vw t Vw
yg
YI YI Vi Vw Vi Vw Vith
Yg Y
y Y Yg
v Vw

Y Uw
Vi Vw
Y I
YI YI Yg
2
ay 1
Vi 42 y ye
gVw
Yi Y ya 1
 42
YAYYy t
Vi I Y Y tyz
Yw
for rectangular channel frictionless unit width
Case 2 Positivesurgemovingupstream direction

Who 2

Hd2
Jp2

you on

control
vagrant
Am Maw
a

appt
Yea
Mammy.tw
gas
Considering rectangular channel
A V Vw Az V2 Vw
Y Vi Vw Yz V2 Vw
V2 V Vw Vw
Y
Pi Pr Ma M
VAY PAY PA V Vw V2 Vw Vi Vw

Yi V12 Py vitro ve ve
Vw Vi
Py V Vw Y v tvw

Py v Vw
Y
Vita
Yj I
I
YI YI Yg Vi Vw
12
VitgVw
I Yy Yy Yy
Vi gtvw Y tyr
Ly
for rectangular channelfrictionless unit width

CELERITY
Thevelocity of small disturbancessurges wave borerelative to the initial
Howvelocity in canal is called Celerity
for surgemoving downstream
for surge moving upstream
c Vw Vi
C Vw V Fyi
The value ofcelerity in eitherofabovetwocasescomes out tobesame
C
I 94 Cy tye
Applicableonly rectangular channel unit width frictionless

Herethe height of surge ya y

for a wave of smallheight
ya y o or ya y
I C
I g Yy 2y
C Ty
Question Waterflows below asluicegateinto arectangularchannel at a
velocity of 0.6 m see and depthof 0.1 m Thedischarge is suddenly
increase to 3 times toits original volume
by opening thegatefind
the change in depth of How

Amo
Mariamman

lmao ooooamis

Kd
Tano
make Vw
you
Imam VW
area

Solution
YzV2 3Y V 3X0.6 1

YzV2 1.8m3 see

Yi Vi Vw Ya V2 Vw
110.6 Vw 1.8 Yaw
0 6 Vw 1.8 YzVw
Vw 18 06
Yz 1
1 2
Ya I
I Ly yr Py Vi Vw veve

I 12 y 0.6 Vw V2 0.6
1g
i y
1 Y's 0.6
1 273
y Iy 06

Yz
 Changein height ya y
by 1.273 1.0
0 273 m

Question A 3mwiderectangularhas aflowof 3 6m31secwith avelocity of

0.8 m1sec If suddenreleaseofadditional How at upstreamendof
thechannel causes thedepth torise a 509 Determine the absolute
velocity of theresulting surgeandnew How rate

tow
or my

ay ay

asko
una
ma
amorw
Ya Y Madhavw
man

solution Q AV
B YV
Y BTy

1 5 m
 15 y
42 1 5 X 1.5
2 25 M

Vi
Yw I try yity
1.5 2.25
0.8g Yw I 435
Vw 4.452 m see

0.8 Vw 27 6
0.8 Vw I 127.6
Vw 4.45 and Vw 6.05 m see
Vw 6.05 m see

i Y Vi Vw Yz Va Va
1 5 0.8 6.05 2.25 V2 6.05
V2 2.55 m1sec
Q2 AzV2
3 2.25 X2 25
17.2125 m3 see

Question Waterflows at a depthof 0.8m at a velocityof 0.9 msee in wide

rectangular channel in a reachofimmediately upstream of control
gate Thegate is suddenly closedcompletely Determine theresulting
surge condition

w our

Young
Ma
age
 Mar
Vw
new
protostar

pawpaw a 82

Solution V Vw
Ya Vata
Y
0.8 0.9 Vw Ya o Vw V2 o

Vw 0.72
Yz 0 8
2
I Cy Yi ly VitVw V2Vi

X 0.82424 00.8 0.9 0.09

0.82 424
gig 0.09
0.9
8 tyq.to
1.075 m
Y
Height ofsurge 1.85
0.8
0 275 M

Velocity ofsurge Vw 0.72

Yz 0.8
0.72
1 075 0.8
2.61 m see

R
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
GATE
Question 1 A personstanding on thebank of a canal drops a stone on
the water surface Henotices that the disturbance on the
watersurface is not travelling upstream This is because
the flow in the canal is
a subcritical
b supercritical
c steady
d uniform GATE 2008
Answer b
froudenumber fr
where
Fy
u velocity ofHow
Tgy velocity of disturbance
Since disturbance on the water surface is not travelling upstream it
means
Fy
fr
e v
I
Subcritical flow
Question 2 A widechannel is Im deep and has a velocity offlow v as
2.13 Mls If a disturbance is caused an elementary wave can
travel upstream with a velocity of
a 1 00 Mls
b 2.13 Mls
C 3 13 Mls
d 5 16 m IS GATE 2004
Answer a
depth of water
YE Iz mis
velocity of disturbance with respect to water
Co Ur Jgy
3 13 Mls

velocity of disturbance withrespect to ground

co V
I 3 13 2 13
Ims

Question 3 A spillway discharges floodflow at a rate of 9m31s permetre

width If the depth of How on the horizontal apron at the
toe of the spillway is 46 cm the tail watch depth needed
 to form a hydraulicjump is approximately givenby which of
the following options
a 2.54 M
b 4 90 m
8727 mm
GATE 2011
Answer e
Discharge pen unit width q 9 m3Is width
Y 0.4 6 m
In rectangular channel
t y y ly ya 9g
O 46 2 0 46 t yz 2X 92
Y 9 81
y22 0 46 Yz
5
35 899
766 6.22
Yz
5 766 m
Y2 5.77 m
IES
Question A partially
The
open sluicegate is suddenlyraised to its full
waves at the are
opening resultingsurge gate
a a positive wave travelstowards thegate from the upstream
side while a negative wave travels downstream from the
b 99in wave travels from the gateontothe upstreamside
awha positive wave travels downstream from the gate
c a negative wave travels from thegateonto theupstream side
while a positivewave travelsdownstream from thegate
d a negativewave towards the gatefrom the upstream side
wheareas a positive wave travels downstream from the gate
Answer 2010
positive wave means the wave which results in an increase
in thedepth of flow and negative wave causes a decrease in
the depth of flow
Question 2 which of the following equations are used for the derivation
of thedifferential equation for water surface profile in open
channel How
I
Continuity equation
Energy equation
2
3 Momentum equation
Select the correct answer using the code
a I 2 and 3
b Only I and 3
 e Only I and 2
d Only 2 and 3 2006
Answer
forinderivation of differential equation for water surface
channel used all
profile openflowequation continuity
energy equation
equation
I In open channel flow the maximum velocity
Question Statementdoes not occur on thetreesurface
Statement II There is winddrag on the freesurface of an
open channel
2016
Answer b
Manimum velocity of flow occurs at a certain distancebelow
the freesurface is called velocity dip
Thisreduction is due to the production of second current
whichfunctions of affect ratio surface wind hasany dilute
effect on velocity distribution
very
Assertion and reason is both correct

SSC JE
Question 1 What is thevelocity with which elementary wave can travel
upstream if the velocity offlow is 2m Is and depth offlow
in channel is Im
g 12132
35.132
2017
Answer a
depth offlow y Im
Velocity of flow v 2m1sec
we know that
vwave ground Vware water waterlground
Vware Co V
Because v Velocity of wave downstream
Co Celerity

e
B It
 and Co
g
Jg Bp
Ty
Co
J39 132
8 X1
M S
and Vwave Co V
3.132 2
1 132 m see

Question 2 whichofthefollowing represents thespeed of the elementary

wave in the still water at a depth of y
al
Igy
b J 972
cJgy
d J 2gy 2017
Answer e
In an open channel How Froudenumber fr is used to
differentiatebetween the subcritical critical and supercritical
flow fr V
I g le
where fr Froudenumber
to gravies
Treating
Characteristic Length
width
Top of flow
Hydraulic depth y