Agb 211

AGB 211 2nd yr 1st sem
SYLLABUS
THEORY
History of Animal Breeding; Classification of breeds; Economic characters of livestock
and poultry and their importance; Breeding/Selection techniques for optimal
production. Selection: Response to selection and factors affecting it; Bases of selection
individual, pedigree, family, sib, progeny and combined; Indirect selection; Multitrait
selection. Classification of mating systems; Inbreeding and outbreeding-genetic and
phenotypic consequences viz., inbreeding depression and heterosis: Systems of
utilization of heterosis; Selection for combining ability; Breeding methods for the
improvement of dairy cattle and buffaloes (crossbreeding, sire evaluation, field progeny
testing, open nucleus breeding system (ONBS), sheep, goat, swine and poultry; Breed
development; Conservation of germplasm, Current livestock and poultry breeding
programmes in the sate and country.
PRACTICAL
Description and measurement of economic traits of Livestock & poultry.
Standardization of performance records, Computation of selection differential,
generation interval and expected genetic gain; Construction of selection index; Sire
indices, Measurement of inbreeding and relationship coefficients; Estimation of
heterosis.
MODULE-1: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL BREEDING AND

DOMESTICATION OF LIVESTOCK SPECIES
Learning objectives
This module deals with,
 introduction to animal breeding,
 importance of animal production in agricultural economy of India,
 domestication of livestock.
INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL BREEDING
 The population explosion and a poor distribution of food are among the world’s
greatest problems today. Animals throughout the world supply human beings
with milk, meat, egg, draft power, transportation, hides, fertiliser and many other
useful products. Therefore, animal breeding is the beginning or the foundation to
meet out the requirement. Hence, it behoves agriculturists and livestock breeders
especially to give special attention to their programme of animal breeding.
 Animal breeding is a fascinating discipline. It has long been recognised as one
branch of arts and only recently it started to be recognised as a special branch of
science. It is also one of the steps in the process of animal production, but it is the
first step and fundamental to a sound animal husbandry. Application of improved
methods of breeding, feeding, management and disease control during the last
few decades has greatly increased the efficiency of production.
 Animal breeding is the application of genetics and physiology of reproduction to
animal improvement. The purpose of animal breeding is not only to genetically
improve individual animals but to improve whole animal population i.e. to
improve future generations of animals. To achieve this, the breeder is provided
with two important tools: Selection and Breeding. These two tools are the
decision making in livestock improvement.
 Selection decides which animals are going to become parents to produce
offspring for the future generation and breeding decides which males should be
mated with which females. Therefore improvement in type, production,
longevity, regularity of breeding etc. as well as the ability to transmit these
desirable qualities to many progenies can be expected through application of
proper selection and systems of breeding.
IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION IN AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMY OF INDIA
 Livestock contributes to agriculture economy of India by way of milk, meat,
drought power, wool, skin, manure and by-products and serve as the
important source of income to about 300 million rural people. India’s
economic progress significantly depends on agriculture and livestock and it
will remain so, for many decades. The census figures, on livestock and its
production status of India are given in the Table 1 & 2.
 Realizing the importance of the livestock, the Govt. of India under the Ministry
of Agriculture has created an autonomous body namely ICAR (Indian Council
of Agricultural Research) to conduct research on various aspects of livestock
production and health. There are 10 research institutes directly under the
control of ICAR, which undertake research on various species of livestock. The
institutes are:
1. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR), Karnal,
Haryana.
2. Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute (CSWRI), Avikanagar,
Rajasthan.
3. Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar, Haryana.
4. Central Institute for Research on Goats, Mukdoom, UP
5. Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Izatnagar, Uttranchel.
6. National Equine Research Centre, Hissar, Haryana.
7. National Camel Research Centre, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
8. Indian Grass land and Forage Research Institute, Jansi, UP
9. ICAR North Eastern Hill Complex, Shillong, Megalaya.
10. National Research Centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh
 In addition, there are about 46 State Agricultural Universities, 5 Deemed to be
Universities 11 Veterinary and Animal Sciences Universities, Indian Veterinary
Research Institute, Izatnagar and National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
conducting research in animal production and health with the help of ICAR.
LIVESTOCK POPULATION TREND IN INDIA (in millions)
Spec 1951 1956 1961 196 1972 1977 198 1987 199 199 200 20
ies 6 2 2 7 3 07
Cattl 155.3 158.7 175.6 176.2 178.3 180.0 192. 199.6 204. 198. 185. 191.
e 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 9 53 8 2 2
Buff 43.4 44.9 51.20 53.0 57.4 62.0 69.7 75.97 83.5 89.9 97.9 102.
alo 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 4
Shee 39.10 39.3 40.2 42.0 40.0 41.00 48.7 45.7 50.8 57.5 61.5 68.
p 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 6
Goat 47.2 55.40 60.9 64.6 67.5 75.60 95.2 110.2 115.2 122. 124. 134.
0 0 0 0 5 1 8 7 4 7
Hors 1.50 1.50 1.30 1.10 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.82 0.8 0.8 0.7
e&
Pony
Cam 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.10 1.08 1.00 1.03 0.9 0.6 0.5
el
Pig 4.40 4.90 5.20 5.00 6.90 7.60 10.0 10.62 12.79 13.3 13.5 11.6
7
Mule 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.20 0.2 0.2 0.1
Don 1.30 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.00 1.00 1.02 0.96 0.97 0.9 0.6 0.4
key
Yak NC NC 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.13 0.13 0.04 0.06 -- -- --
Total 292. 306. 335. 344. 353. 369. 419. 445. 470. 485 485 510
80 60 40 10 40 00 59 28 14 .4 .0 .6
Poul 73.50 94.8 114.2 115.4 138.5 159.2 207. 275.3 307. 347. 489. 571.
try 0 0 0 0 0 74 2 07 6 0 1
Dog NC NC NC NC NC NC 18.5 17.95 21.77 25.5 29.0 38.
4 8
Source : Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Govt. of India
PRODUCTION TREND OF MILK, EGG AND MEAT IN INDIA
States/UT Milk (000 Tonnes) Eggs( Lakhs Nos,) Meat @ (000
s Tonnes)
Year 2006- 2007- 2008- 2006- 2007- 2008- 2006- 2007- 2008-
07 08 09 07 08 09 07 08 09
Andhra 7939 8925 9570 159411 175884 183446 484 556 604
Pradesh
Bihar 5450 5783 5934.0 9454 10707 10740 21 181 188
Chhattisgar 849 866 908 9216 9184 9738 29 13 20
h
Goa 57 58 59 135 152 149 178 0.3 0#
Gujarat 7533 7911 8386 7757 8256 12675 4 17 19
Haryana 5367 5442 5745 39596 40727 38150 2 9 230
Himachal 872 874 884 772 843 977 18 3 4
Pradesh
Jammu & 1400 1498 1499 6320 6500 6500# 8 28 28#
Kashmir #
Jharkhand 1401 1442 1466 7110 7130 7154 3 44 44
Karnataka 4124 4244 4538 19498 20181 23688 27 110 115
Kerala 2119 2253 2441 11987 13831 15095 44 60 124
Madhya 6375 6572 6855 9518 9747 6713 107 21 34
Pradesh**
Maharashtr 6978 7210 7455 33950 34640 35502 76 250 536
a **
Orissa 1431 1625 1672 14246 15479 19948 20 59 118
Punjab 9168 9282 9387 37740 37914 36790 243 109 108
Rajasthan 9375 9536 9491 6631 6730 6449 23 71 84
Tamil 5560 5586 5673 80435 83937 88098 36 398 419
Nadu**
Uttar 18095 18861 19537 9483 9814 10140 10 203 517
Pradesh
Uttarakhan 1213 1221 1230 1889 1911 1962 63 8 10
d
West 3982 4087 4176 30386 30542 31372 55 231 375
Bengal
Arunachal 49 50 24 73 394 361 70 21 21
Pradesh
Assam 751 752 753 5350 4910 4659 69 30 31
Manipur 77 78 78 836 845 1105 0 24 22
Meghalaya 75 77 77 978 990 995 220 37 37
Mizoram 16 17 17 348 403 411 13 11 13
Nagaland 67 45 53 868 802 832 200 22 63
**
Sikkim 49 49 49# 144 143 143# 7 0 0#
Tripura 89 91 96 1193 1320 1388 229 14 19
A&N 23 24 26 535 622 618 0.29 0 0
Islands
Chandigarh 46 47 47 291 282 273 22 1 1
D&N 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 0
Haveli
Daman & 1 1 1 11 13 13 0 0 0
Diu
Delhi 289 282 285 186 182 41 33 32 26
Lakshadwe 2 2 2 127 128 135 0.29 0 0
ep
Pondicherr 45 46 46 107 137 112 9 8 9
y
All India 10086 10483 10846 50663 53528 55637 2302 2572 3822
9 7 5 0 0 8
# Provisional / Data not received from the state. The figures of 2007-08 have been used
for 2008-09
** Unregistered sector also included.@Meat production from recognized sector unless
specified otherwise.
Source : Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Govt. of India.
DOMESTICATION OF LIVESTOCK
Man domesticated animals since they have provided him with meat and milk
for table, skin for clothing and power for tillage and transport. As civilisation
developed, food became more abundant and methods of livestock rearing
improved the latent possibilities for rapid growth in body size and milk
production began to be realised under man’s selection.
 Without agriculture and animal husbandry, there could have been no
civilisation. The domestication of animals provided the foundation on which
civilisation could be built. Most of the animals currently husbanded by man
were domesticated in Neolithic times with the exception of dog that was used
in the earlier Palaeolithic era.
 Domestication began at the end of Old Stone Age and received decided impetus
during the New Stone Age. During New Stone Age, man conceived the idea of
domesticating plants and animals to increase and ensure his food supply and
this was the greatest turning point in man’s long history. The exact time and
places of domestication are not known. It might have taken place
simultaneously and independently in several regions. It probably occurred
8,000 to 10,000 years ago in Asia possibly around Mediterranean sea (Egypt)
or even in Europe.
 Domestication of animals carried out for
o Religious rites (as sacrifice to the God)
o Gratifying his economic needs ( meat & milk for table and wool & skin for
clothing)
o Companionship
Stages of domestication
 Free range
 Confined with human environment but at random
 Specific breeding pattern to produce progeny
 Planned development of breeds with traits he desired in them
Effects and consequences of domestication
 Domestication led to changes in characteristics of animals domesticated,
conditioned by functions for which man domesticated them, i.e., in terms of
size, colour, hair, body structure etc. It led to better feeding and caring of
animals, selection and rearing of more profitable animals and better breeding.
Order of domestication
1 Pre-agricultural period Dog, Goat and Sheep
2 Early agricultural period Cattle, Buffalo, Yak and Pig
3 Transport and labour Elephant, Horse, Camel and Ass
4 Pest destroyers Mongoose, Ferret and Cat
Other animals
 Dog was the first animal tamed by man for the sake of companionship and
followed by cattle, sheep and goats. Horse was probably the last to be
domesticated.
1 Chicken and Elephants First domesticated in India
2 Swine China
3 Horses Eastern Europe and West Asia
4 Guinea pigs and Turkey America
 Dog
o They are represented in Egyptian monuments as early as 3400 B.C.
 Cattle
o Domesticated as early as early as 2100 B.C. Evidences from tombs and
caves of Egypt also confirmed that cattle were slaughtered for meat. The
Mohenjo-Daro seal with a bull known around 2500 B.C makes it almost
certain that Indian Cattle (Zebu) originated in India.
o Cow was a very important animal in Greek mythology and was a sacred
animal in many older civilisations. They were mainly used for food,
draft and tillage. All the present day breeds of cattle derived from Bos
taurus (European Cattle), Bos indicus (Indian Cattle) and Bos
longifrons (African Cattle).
 Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
o Buffalo was originally confined to India and Sri Lanka; reared for food
and skin.
 Sheep (Ovis aries)
o Domestic sheep was originated in Europe and cooler regions of Asia.
Sheep was originally a hairy animal with an under fur of wool.
o People living in cooler places made selection on them which resulted in
the development of the present day woolly breeds.
 Goat (Capra hircus and Capra ibex)
o Goat was the earliest animal domesticated and the origin of
domestication is doubtful because goat and sheep are similar in bone
structure. From the available paintings and sculptures of that area, it is
confirmed that goats were reared around 7000 – 6000 B.C in Jordan
and between 4000 – 3000 B.C in West Asia.
 Swine (Sus domesticus)
o Sus scrofa (European), Sus vittatus (wild boar) and Malayan pig were
domesticated around 2500 – 2400 B.C. They were domesticated latter
than cattle and sheep but earlier than horse.
 Horses The present day horses are all traced to one of the three types of horses
viz.,
o Przhevalski’s Horse (Steppe Horse) (Central Asia)
o Desert Horse (Mangolian Horse)
o Forest Horse
o According to Ridgeway (1905), the origin of horses were from
Przhevalski’s Horse (Steppe Horse) (Central Asia), Celtic Pony
(Northern Europe) and Libyan Horse (North Africa). Gay (1913) and
Matthew (1926) also endorsed Ridgeway’s statement.
 Fowl
o Red Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) was the chief ancestor of the domestic
fowl. Evidences from Mohenjo-Daro seals and Egyptian era from 1500 –
1400 B.C confirmed the domestication of poultry.
MODULE-2: HISTORY OF ANIMAL BREEDING
Learning objectives
 history of animal breeding,
 landmark of animal breeding.
HISTORY OF ANIMAL BREEDING

 Till 500 A.D. when the fall of Roman Empire began animal breeding was at its
esteem. With the fall of Roman Empire for about 1000 years called Dark and
Middle Ages, animal husbandry was at a still.
 From 1700 A.D., again there was an improvement. The beginning of modern
animal breeding is to be found mainly in England and Europe.
 The British Royalty encouraged horse breeding especially for race horses. The
Earls and Dukes imported bulls from Holland and bred their native stocks. Dutch
cattle were introduced into Herefordshire that laid the foundation of the present
Hereford cattle. By crossing the native and Dutch cattle and subsequent
inbreeding, the British cattle were improved far beyond the best.
LANDMARKS IN ANIMAL BREEDING

 1677 Anton Van Leeuwenhock & his student Jonn Hamm; Observed sperms
through a magnifying lens
 1725 – 1795 Robert Bakewell, an English man began his animal breeding work
at Dishley, Leicestershire, England with horses, sheep and cattle. He is called
Father of Animal Breeding. He travelled extensively for his time both in
England and on the continent in quest of superior breeding stock. He
developed theories and tested them with experiments. He concentrated on
producing farm animals with increased efficiency. Bakewell’s two remarks
were “Like begets like” and “Breed the best to the best”.
 The reason for Bakewell's success in animal breeding experiments was due to
the fact that he followed certain strong principles. They were as follows:
o Has got definite ideals/objectives/goals. For example, beef cattle – a low
set blocky and quick maturity.
o Practised sire testing by leasing the sires to other breeders and those
that proved most satisfactory was brought back for use on his own
females.
o “Breed the best to the best” regardless of relation ship and this led to
extremely close breeding.
o Performed progeny testing of bulls and rams.
o Introduced inbreeding as tool in livestock improvement.
o “Like begets like”
 Superior animals are more likely to produce superior offsprings than inferior
individuals. He is very critical in his selection of breeding stock not only as to
appearance but also as to performance.
 Bakewell’s methods were widely copied and thus the foundation of purebred
was laid. He laid the foundation for the Shire horses, Leghorn cattle and
Leicester sheep.
 1775 Collings brothers copied the Robert Bakewell’s method and laid
foundation for the Shorthorn cattle.
 1780 L. Spallanzani of Italy: First scientific work on A.I. Successfully obtained
three pups by A.I. in dogs.
 1791 British Royalty encouraged horse breeding for races, which results in
English thoroughbred and general studbook.
 Tompkins and Galliers laid the foundation for Hereford breed of cattle in
England.
 1775 – 1849 Thomas Bates developed highly inbred herd of cattle.
 1822 Coats first published a herd book for Shorthorn breed of cattle. Settlers in
America developed American saddle horse.
 1846 English herd book for Cattle
 1862 Herd book for Aberdeen Angus Cattle
 1866 Mendel published the law of heredity in Journal of Zoological Society of
Austria
 1875 Herd book for Dutch Friesian Cattle
 1879 First work of trap nesting of birds in Austria
 1890 Babcock's method of fat % estimation (USA)
 1893 Gerber’s method of fat % estimation (Germany)
 1895 Milk recording Association in Denmark
 1899 E.I. Ivonoff; Practised A.I. in many stud farms (horses). First to
undertake A.I. successfully in Cattle and Sheep
 1903 Mendel’s principles were rediscovered by DeVeris of Holland, Von
Tschermark of Austria and Correns of Germany
 1907 Growth rate, Feed consumption and Carcass quality for meat production
in swine in Denmark
 1908 G. H. Hardy and Weinberg Independently formulate the Hardy-Weinberg
law of population genetics
 1923 Pig testing station in Sweden
 1939: Sampath Kumaran of Palace Dairy Farm, Mysore used A.I. for the first
time in India.
 1942 P.Bhattacharya of Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, first
scientific work on A.I. in India.
 1953 J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick Propose the double-helix model for DNA;
Discovery of DNA as the genetic material
 1980 Martin Cline and co-workers created a transgenic mouse
 1990 The first genetic engineering company “Genetech” founded in San
Francisco in USA.
 1990 Formal launch of the international Human Genome Project
 1990 Publication of Michel Crichton’s novel “Jurassic Park” in which bio-
engineered dinosaurs roam in a palentological theme park
 1997 Researchers at Scotland’s Roslin Institute lead by Ian Wilmut have cloned
a sheep called “Dolly” from somatic cell of an adult ewe.
 1998 Scientists from University of Hawai cloned a mouse using Wilmut’s
technique creating not only dozens of copies but three generations of clones.
 1998 Scientists at Japan’s Kinki University cloned eight identical calves using
cells from a single adult cow.
 1998 Scientists at USA created a cloned calf from a Friesian cow and named as
“Jafferson”.
 2000 Cloned dairy calf at University of California at Vermont.
 2010 Cloned a buffalo calf named ‘Shresth’ at National Dairy Research
Institute, Karnal, India.
 Registry books were set up to safeguard the purity of the breed and to supply
authentic record of performance. Livestock shows were also made. From 1880
to 1950, the livestock population has risen in numbers but the number per
head compared to human population has declined. But the increase in
productivity of dairy cattle, faster maturity and meatier carcasses in meat
animals have tended to offset the decrease in number.
 In India, though developments have taken place and many breeds evolved still
there is no definite record. Livestock census for the whole India was not
available till 1920. The presence of princely states and the absence of uniform
policy in taking census and maintaining records, partition of India in 1947 have
made these figures only partly reliable. ICAR has started herd books for the
first time India for Red Sindhi and Sahiwal breeds of cattle in 1941.
Subsequently herd books were also established for Hariana, Murrah, Gir,
Kankrej, Tharparkar, Kangayam and Ongole breeds.
 Superior animals more likely produce superior offspring than inferior
individuals. He is very critical in his selection of breeding stock not only as to
appearance but also as to performance.
 In spite of the large animal population, India is deficit in all livestock
production. This is due to poor genetic worth of our livestock, shortage of
fodder, poor economic condition of our farmers and adverse climatic
conditions. With determined effort and scientific animal husbandry practices,
it should be possible to make the country self sufficient in all livestock products
in the not distant future.
MODULE-3: CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS - CATTLE, BUFFALO,
SHEEP AND GOAT
Learning objectives
This module deals with the classification of breeds like,
 cattle,
 buffalo,
 sheep and
 goat.
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE AND BUFFALO
Phylum Cordata
Sub- Craniata (Vertebrata)
phylum
Class Mammalia
Sub-class Theria (Viviparous)
Infra-class Eutheria (Placenta)
Order Ungulata (hoofed mammals)
Sub-order Artiodactyles (even-toed)
Sub- Pecora (true ruminants)
division
Family Bovidae (hollow -horned)
Genus Bos
Species taurine group
taurus (European cattle – without hump)
indicus (Indian cattle- humped)
bibovine group
gaurns (gaur), frontalis (gayal), sondaians (banteng)
bisotine group
grunniens (yak), bonasians (European bison),
bison (American bison)
bubaline group
caffer (African buffalo), bubalis (Indian reverine buffalo), mindorensis
(Mindora buffalo),
depressicornis (Celebes buffalo)
The Bos taurus is again divided into three subgroups:
 Bos primigenins – Strong horns, narrow fore head. Example-Angus, Ayrshire,
Short-horn, Holstein Friesian, Red Poll.
 Bos longifrons – Broad and dished fore head. Example - Jersey, Guernsey,
Brown Swiss.
 Bos brachycephalus – Short and broad head. Example - Canadian, Hereford,
Kerry.
CATTLE BREEDS

The genus Bos, is classified into Bos indicus (Tropical, humped cattle) and Bos
taurus (temperate, hump-less cattle)
Exotic cattle breeds
Milch breeds Beef breeds Dual purpose breeds
Ayrshire Hereford Red Polled
Holstein Short horn Devon
Friesian Polled Milking short horn
Jersey short horn
Guernsey Galloway
Red Dane Aberdeen Angus
Brown Swiss Brahman
Dexter Beef master
Dutch Belted
Indian cattle breeds
Milch breeds Dual purpose (or) General utility breeds
 Red  Nimari
Sindhi  Tharparkar Kankrej Nellore
 Sahiwal  Dangi
 Gir  Rath
 Deoni
 Hariana
 Krishna
 Valley
 Ongole

Draught Breeds – Four Types
 Short horned : White (or) Grey with long coffin shaped skull - Nagori, Bachur
 Lyre horned : Grey with wide fore Head - Malvi, Kherigarh
 Small black, red or dum cattle with large patches of white marking found in
Himalayan Region - Ponwar, Siri
 Mysore type : Prominent fore head with long and pointed horns which rise
close together - Hallikar, Umbalachery, Alambadi, Pulikulam, Amritmahal,
Burgur, Khillari, Kangayam
BUFFALO BREEDS
Buffalo breeds are classified as Riverine type (or) Water buffaloes and Swamp type
 Murrah Group - Murrah, Nili-Ravi and Kundi
 Gujarat Breeds - Surti, Mehsana and Jafarabadi
 U.P. breeds - Bhadawari and Tarai
 Central Indian varieties - Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Manda, Jerangi, Kalahandi
and Sambalpur
 South Indian breeds - Toda and South Kanara
Swamp
 The swamp buffaloes are also found in India, mostly in the Brahmaputra area
that is Assam and West Bengal with average mature live weight of 340 kg.
There are 18 known Swamp buffaloe breeds/strains in China (Yang & Zhang,
2006) while Indonesia has identified seven breeds/strains (Triwulanninghsi el
al., 2006). Among the breeds of Indonesia, the spotted swamp buffalo is more
unique and is largely raised for socio-religious purposes. Animals used for
special rites command very high prices. The swamp buffalo found in the
Philippines are believed to have originated from China, although some
deliberate efforts were made to import Chinese Shanghai buffaloes in the early
part of the century (del Barrio, 2009). Thai swamp buffalo are found mostly in
the Northeast of Thailand and have received special program of selection and
improvement for growth and size. Selected breeders have 900 to 1000 kg live
weight (Pak- Uthai, 2009).
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Taxonomic classification of Sheep Taxonomic classification of Goat

(domestic group) (domestic group)
Phylum Cordata Cordata
Sub- Craniata (Vertebrata) Craniata (Vertebrata)
phylum
Class Mammalia Mammalia
Sub-class Theria (Viviparous) Theria (Viviparous)
Infra-class Eutheria (Placenta) Eutheria (Placenta)
Order Ungulata (hoofed mammals) Ungulata (hoofed mammals)
Sub-order Artiodactyles (even-toed) Artiodactyles (even-toed)
Sub- Pecora (true ruminants) Pecora (true ruminants)
division
Family Bovidae (hollow -horned) Bovidae (hollow -horned)
Genus Ovis Capra
Species Aries hircus
 Other groups of sheep: Bighorn group, Aragalis group, Urial group and Bharal
group
 Other groups of goats: True group, Pasang group, Ibex group and Markhor
group
SHEEP BREEDS - INDIAN BREEDS OF SHEEP
Northwestern arid and Northern Sourthern Eastern
semi-arid region temperate peninsular region
region region
Chokla Gaddi Deccani Chottanagpuri
Nali Rampur Bushair Bellary Balangir
Marwari Bhakarwal Nellore Ganjam
Jaisalmeri Poonchi Mandya Tibetan
Pugal Karnah Hassan
Malpura Gurez Mecheri
Sonadi Kashmir Kilakarsal
Patanwadi Merino Vembur
Muzzafarnagri Changthangi Coimbatore
Hissardale Nilgiri
Ramnad White
Madras Red
Trichy black
 Breeds in Tamil Nadu: Mecheri, Kilakarsal, Vembur, Coimbatore, Nilgiri,
Ramnad White, Madras Red, Trichy black
Exotic breeds of sheep
 Mutton type - Dorset Horn, Suffolk, Cheviot, Southdown
 Wool type - Merino, Rambouillet
 Fur type - Karakul
GOAT BREEDS - INDIAN BREEDS OF GOAT
Northwestern arid Northern temperate Southern peninsular Eastern
and region region region
semi arid region
Sirohi Gaddi Sangamneri Ganjam
Marwari Changthangi Malabari Bengal
Beetal Chigu Osmanabadi
Jhakarna Kanni adu
Barbari
Jamnapari
Mehsana
Gohilwadi
Kutchi
Surti
Exotic breeds of goats
 Milch breed : Saanen, Alpine
 Mohair breed : Angora
 Dual purpose : Anglo-nubian.
MODULE-4: CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS - PIG AND POULTRY
Learning objectives
 pig and
 poultry.
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS - PIG
Taxonomic classification of Taxonomic classification of

Pig Horse
phylum
Sub-order Artiodactyles (even-toed) Perissodactyles (uneven- toed)
Sub- Sunia
division
Family Suidae (True pigs) Equidae (hollow-horned)
Genus Sus Equus
Species scrofa (European wild pigs) E.caballus (the horse)
domesticus (domestic pigs) E.asinus(the ass)
cristatus (Indian wild pigs) E.zebra (the zebra)
andamanensis (Andaman
Islands)
verrucosus (Malayan pigs)
vittatus (Malayan pigs)
barbatus (Malayan pigs)
salvanius (Himalayan pigs)
africanus, procus (African pigs)
Pigs breeds
 Indigenous pigs are known as Desi pigs, mostly black in colour and smaller in
size when compared to western breeds.
 Exotic breeds of pigs - Large white Yorkshire, Middle White Yorkshire,
Landrace, Duroc, Berkshire, Hampshire, Tamworth
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS - POULTRY
Taxonomic classification of Fowl Taxonomic classification of

Duck
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Class Aves Aves
Order Galliformes Anseriformes
Sub-order Galli
Family Phasianidae Anatidae
Sub- Phasianinae Anatinae
family
Genus Gallus Anas
Species gallus (Jungle fowl), domesticus plathyrhynchos
(domestiated)
Breeds of fowls
 Fowls are often classified based on the purpose for which they are developed
such as egg type, meat type and dual purpose (for both egg and meat), but it is
mostly on the basis of their origin. According to the latter, the birds are
classified into the following major classes: American, Asiatic, English and
Mediterranean. A breed refers to a group of domestic fowls with a common
ancestry, and having similarity in shape, conformation, growth, temperament,
shell colour of egg and breeds true to type. Variety is a subdivision of breed and
within a breed there may be several varieties. The term variety is used to
distinguish fowls having the characteristics of the breed to which they belong
but differing in plumage colour, comb type, etc., from other groups of the same
breed. A breed or a variety may have several strains or lines identified by a
given name and produced by a breeder through at least 5 generations of closed
flock breeding. Several strains within a breed or variety phenotypically may
look alike but often differ in their production performance depending upon
their breeding history.
Class Breed Varieties
American Plymouth Rock Barred, Whites, Buff, Patridge,
Silver pencilled
Wayandotte Whites, Silver laced, Patridge
Rhode Island Red Rose comb, Single comb
Rhode Island White Rose comb
New Hampshire Single comb
Jersey Black Giant Only single comb
English Orphington Buff, Whites, Black
Sussex Light, Speckled
Australop Black
Dorking Black
Cornish Whites, Rock
Asiatic Brahama Light, Dark
Long Shan Black, Whites
Cochin Buff, Whites, Black, Patridge
Medetaranian Leghorn White, Dark, Light, Buff
Minorca White, Black, Buff
Ancona Single comb, Rose comb
Blue Andulusian Single comb
Spain Spanish
Butter cup
Polish Polish
Hamburg Hamburg
French Hounder
Crevecocus
Lafleche
Game Game
Oriendae Sumatra
Malaya
Cubalaya
Miscellaneou Sultan
s Frizzle
Classification based on utility
 Game: Aseel
 Meat type : Cornish
 Egg type : Leghorn
 Dual type : Rhode Island Red
 Fancy / Exhibition type : Silky, Frizzled, Bantams, Nacked neck etc.,
MODULE-5: CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS - HORSE, DONKEY,
CAMEL, YAK AND MITHUN
Learning objectives
 horse,
 donkey,
 camel,
 yak and
 mithun.
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS - HORSE AND DONKEY

Horse Donkey
phylum
Sub-order Perissodactyles (uneven- toed) Perissodactyles (uneven- toed)
Family Equidae Equidae
Genus Equus Equus
Species E.caballus (the horse) E. africanus
E.asinus(the ass) E. africanus asinus
E.zebra (the zebra)
Horse
 Arabian
 Australian Stock Horse
 Australian Stock Horse
 French Saddlebred
 Mongolian
 Palomino
 Prezwalski (sha-val-ski)
 Quarter Horse
 Marwari
 Manipuri Horses
 Spiti Horses
 Kathiawari Horses
 Bhutia Horses
 Zanskari Horses
Donkey
It is considered that asses are of purely African origin. The ass was first domesticated in
the valley of the Nile. Three wild races of asses were observed:
 North-East African race (Nubia).
 North-East African race (Sudan) and
 Somalian race (Somali-land).
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS - RABBIT, CAMEL, YAK AND
MITHUN
Taxonoic classification of rabbit and camel

Taxonomic classification of Taxonomic classification
Rabbit and Hare of Camel
phylum
Order Lagomorpha Artiodactyla
Sub-order Leporidae (rabbits and hares) --
Family Leporinae Bovidae
Genus Oryctolagus (rabbits), Camelus
lepus (hares)
Species cuniculus (rabbits), Dromedaries
negricolli (hare) bactrianus

Taxonoic classification of yak and mithun

Yak Mithun
phylum
Sub-order Artiodactyles (even-toed) Artiodactyles (even-toed)
Family Pecora (true ruminants) Pecora (true ruminants)
Genus Bovidae (hollow -horned) Bovidae (hollow -horned)
Species bisotine group bibovine group
grunniens (yak), gaurns (gaur),
bonasians (European bison), frontalis (Mithun, Dulong,
bison (American bison) Gayal),
sondaians (banteng)
Yak (Bos grunniens)
 Yak is being reared in different pockets like Lubrang, Chhander, Madla,
Phudung, Jang, Thembu, Broxer, Mago, Lunger, Chunna, Sella pass and
Tawang of West Kameng and Tawang districts.
Mithun (Bos frontalis)
 Mithun (Bos frontalis), the domesticated free-range bovine species, is an
important component of the livestock production system of North-Eastern
hilly region of India. This unique bovine species is believed to be domesticted
more than 8000 years ago. Mithun is primarily reared as meat animal and
highly preferred among the tribal people of North-Eastern region of India.
Mithun is also used as a ceremonial animal and plays important role in
economical, social and cultural life of the tribal people of North-East. Besides,
it is now established that superior quality milk and hide can be obtained from
mithun. National Research Centre on Mithun was established by ICAR in the
year 1988 in the state of Nagaland to conserve, propagate and improve this
species for future use.
MODULE-6: ECONOMIC TRAITS OF CATTLE AND BUFFALO AND
THEIR IMPORTANCE
Learning objectives
 economic traits to be followed in cattle and buffalo,
 economic traits of livestock for milk and
 economic traits of buffalo for meat.
INTRODUCTION
 The genetic improvement of dairy animals depends on animal breeding
technologies. In most of the developing countries including India the animal
breeding technologies are neither advanced nor widely adopted because of
considerable geographical variation in environment, fragmented farming
mostly at a subsistence level, poor maintenance of records, substantial
livestock genetic diversity, lack of awareness of rural households and many
other problems directly and indirectly associated with the genetic
improvement of animals. As a result, in spite of some important genetic
resources available in the country, the productivity of dairy animal in general is
very low in India in comparison to the dairy animals of developed countries.
Thus, the reasoning for genetic improvement of dairy cattle and buffaloes
would be critically differentiated in institutional / organised herds and field
condition in our situation.
ECONOMIC TRAITS TO BE FOLLOWED IN CATTLE AND
BUFFALO
Growth rate
 The delayed maturity affects the age at first calving and ultimately the total
productive life of the animal. The growth rate of the domestic water buffalo is
lower than that of cattle. It is a slow maturing animal and its growth continues
till 10th year, although rate of growth is slower after the fifth year.
Age at first calving
The economics of a dairy animal is directly depend on age at first calving. A reduction in
the age at first calving has following advantages.
 productive period during the life time of an animal is increased.
 act as guideline for easier culling.
Specie Age at first calving (Days)
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Peak yield
 Peak yield in lactating animal is the initial maximum production of milk in a
day. Peak yield generally taken to be criterion for evaluating dairy animals
because of absence of pedigree and performance records and market prices are
fixed on the quantity milk given by buffalo as peak yield.
Specie Average Peak yield (kg)
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Lactation yield
 It is the total milk production in complete lactation. For any breeding or
genetic improvement program whether it is through selective breeding or
through cross breeding the performance of dairy buffalo in terms of production
of milk has to be of top consideration.
Specie Lactaion yield (kg)
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Life time milk yield
 The importance of life time milk production has got economic bearing on the
up keeping of dairy animals. An animal which produce more milk during its
productive life is bound to be the most profitable unit in a dairy enterprises.
Specie Lactaion yield (kg)
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Lactation length
 It is the no. of days animal gives milk. The amount of milk produce by an
animal in a lactation depends on the initial maximum milk secretion,
persistency of production and lactation period.
Specie Lactaion length (Days)
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Dry period
 It is the period during which an animal remain out of production. An optimum
dry period or the period of rest is essential to recoup its depleting potentialities
owing to production of milk for prolong period.
Specie Dry period (Days)
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Service period
 The period between date of calving and date of conception. There is positive
phenotypic correlation between service and lactation period.
Specie Service period (Days)
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Breeding efficiency
 Frequency of reproduction or birth of many offspring at one time and / or
during the life time reveal the genetic variability in an individual and thus
allows more efficient chance for selection.
Specie Breeding efficiency
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Average calving interval
 It is the average period in days or months between two successive calvings.
Specie Calving Inteval
s
Cattle
Buffalo
ECONOMIC TRAIT OF LIVESTOCK FOR MILK (QUALITY)

 Milk from buffalo differs from that of Cattle. The biggest difference is with
respect to fat. In Cattle, the milk contains between 3 to 5% fat, depending on
feed and breed. In Buffalo milk the average fat content is usually 7 to 8% but
may be as high as 13%.
Fat %
 It is average % of fat in milk over the month in lactation.
Specie Average milk fat %
s
Cattle
Buffalo
Protein %
 It is average % of protein in milk over the month in lactation.
Species Average protein %
Cattle
Buffalo
ECONOMIC TRAITS OF BUFFALO FOR MEAT/ CARCASS

TRAITS
Buffalo meat production accounts for about 30% of the total 4.9% million
tonnes meat production in country and their contribution is next to milk as
major source of live stock economy and come to about 16% of the total
output of livestock sector. During the last 25 years meat production has
increased from 764,000 tonnes in 1970-71 to 4.9 millon tonnes indicating
average growth rate during the last two decades at 4.6% as against 21%
during the last 5 year.
Dressing percentage
 Dressing percentage in buffalo is 40% - 45%. This is slightly lower than in
cattle. The dressing % is higher in Murrah followed by that in crossbred and
Bulgarian Buffalo.
Average daily gain
 The average daily gain in buffalo calves is 478 gram. The crossbreds of
Murrah with Bulgarian Buffaloes have shown slightly better ADG.
Muscle PH
 The PH should be alkaline.
Birth weight
 The birth weight of water buffalo is higher than of all domestic breeds of
cattle except Friesian cattle. The birth weight of buffalo varies with respect
of the sex of calf and the calving sequence. The average birth weight of male
buffalo is significantly higher than the female buffaloes. During subsequent
calving the birth weight of calves increases up to the fourth calving when the
dams attain full maturity weight. The average birth weight is found to be
ranging between 27.3 to 33.2 kg.
MODULE-7: ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SHEEP AND GOAT AND

THEIR IMPORTANCE
Learning objectives
 sheep and
 goat production in India.
SHEEP PRODUCTION IN INDIA


Sheep is a important livestock species of India. They contribute greatly to the
agrarian economy, especially in the arid/semi-arid and mountainous areas
where crop and /or dairy farming are not economical. They play an important
role in the livelihood of a large percentage of small and marginal farmers and
landless labourers engaged in sheep rearing. A number of rural-based
industries use wool and sheep skins as raw material. Sheep manure is an
important source of soil fertility, especially in southern states.
 Sheep in India are mostly maintained on natural vegetation on common
grazing lands, wastelands and uncultivated (fallow) lands, stubbles of
cultivated crops and top feeds (tree loppings). Rarely are they kept on grain,
cultivated fodder or crop residue.
 Sheep are mostly reared for wool and meat. Sheep skins and manure constitute
important sources of earning, the latter particularly in southern India. Milk
from sheep is of limited importance and that too in very limited areas of
Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Indian sheep are not regarded as
dairy sheep.
 The productivity of Indian sheep is lower than those of agriculturally more
advanced countries. Yet considering their nutritional and physical
environment, their productivity cannot be considered as inefficient. The major
reasons for low productivity are inadequate grazing resources, diseases causing
high mortality, morbidity and consequent reduced production, and serious
lack of organized effort for bringing genetic improvement.
Productivity
 Sheep in the Northern temperate region produce wool of good apparel quality.
Similarly, in climatically alike areas of southern hills, the Nilgiri sheep also
produce wool of similar quality. This, however, goes down as we move from
Northern temperate to North-western region where sheep produce wool of
superior to coarse quality. Sheep of Southern peninsular region either produce
no wool or very little of 36s quality and are primarily used for meat production.
Same is the position in Eastern region as the area is of very high humidity and
is not suitable for extensive sheep raising, especially for wool.
 Colour of fleece is generally white in the North-western hilly region, though
black is not uncommon. Black and brown colour appears in greater proportion
as we move towards North-west. In North-western plains containing arid and
semi-arid sub-tropical conditions, fleece colour is again predominantly white
with black and brown mostly on non-fleece points such as head and neck. In
this region, problems of canary colouration of wool (non-scourable golden
yellow colour) is usually observed in the autumn season. This results in almost
82% canary staining of the autumn clip which fetches 8-20% lower price
resulting into a loss of about 1.5 crores per annum. A biological phenomenon of
this colouration is presumed to be a sequel to an adaptive thermo-regulatory
mechanism in hot and humid climatic conditions which requires dissipation of
body heat through cutaneous evaporative cooling. The alkaline sweat under the
conditions of high temperature and humidity reacts with wool fibres and thus
causes the yellow colouration.
Grazing management and Migratory patterns
 In spite of a number of sheep development activities in operation in different
states of the country, sheep rearing still continues to be a nomadic/backward
proposition and thus mostly concerned to poor and landless people. For scanty
suitable grazing lands in most of the states, the shepherds keep on migrating
their flocks over extensive areas within or even in the neighbouring states.
Sheep rearing is thus practiced in a diversified form depending upon the region
and the location. In Rajasthan, around 5 lakh sheep are in permanent
migration where the flocks do not return to their home tract at any time of the
year. The shepherds, however, keep on relieving one another and return home
in turn. These sheep are mainly grazed in MP, UP and parts of Rajasthan.
Generally there are two types of migratory flocks:
 Truly nomadic flocks with no fixed centres but following seasonal migratory
routes to grazing areas; they are largely governed by the availability of foraging
and drinking water resources.
 Flocks on the fallow land, but following definite migratory routes to the season
pastures and returning to their permanent abodes during other seasons.
o Sheep are grazed on fallow lands during monsoon and after the Kharif
crops are harvested on stubbles in the harvested fields
o During the later part of the year starting from Sep-Oct, they are mostly
grazed on uncultivated areas where the flocks are non-migratory
o In the case of migratory flocks, the animals are grazed on the harvested
fields and the reserve forests in their migratory tracts on nominal fees
from Nov-Feb
o Shepherds also book harvested fields where the cost of grazing on
stubbles and gram husk in minimal
o In both the migratory and non-migratory flocks, top feeding by lopping
tree branches and shaking of pods is also common
o During extreme summer months of the year, the flocks are grazed in the
cooler hours of the day; grazing starts in the late hours of the day and
the animals are brought to the water points some time in the noon
hours of the following day. Animals are rested during the hotter part of
the day between noon to around 4-5 PM.
o About 5 million households in the country are engaged in the rearing of
small ruminants (sheep, goats & rabbits) and other allied activities.
(2003 census)
o The main reasons for low productivity are poor exploitation of genetic
potential of indigenous animals, low absorption of available technology,
inadequate resource of feed and fodder, insufficient health cover,
inadequate marketing and credit support etc.
GOAT PRODUCTION IN INDIA
 India possesses the second-largest goat population in the world. In the
prevailing socio-economic conditions in the country where per capita land
holding is hardly 0.2 Ha, goat rearing becomes an inseparable component of
mixed farming system. Goat farming has been recommended as the best choice
for the rural people in developing countries because of the low investment,
wide adaptability, high fertility and fecundity, low feed and management
needs, high feed conversion efficiency, quick pay-off and low risk involved.
Goats play an important role in income generation, capital storage,
employment generation and improving household nutrition.
 Goat rearing is the backbone of the economy of small and landless farmers in
India. It is an insurance against crop failure and provides alternate source of
livelihood to the farmers all year round. Goats provide dependable source of
income to 40% of the rural population who are below the poverty line.
 The controversy over goats is on damage it causes to the environment,
predominantly due to its browsing nature. On one hand, the goat is accused as
the major cause of deforestation and soil erosion, and on the other hand, it is
claimed as a useful animal for poor people and is responsible for clearing the
bushes and making the land worthy of cultivation. The goat’s bad reputation
arises mainly from its mismanagement by man rather than any inherent fault.
Nevertheless, the trend is slowly changing, and several states are now
encouraging goat husbandry.
Production Systems
In our country, goats are reared by men and women with diverse working and
professional background. The production systems are as numerous as the socio-
economic and varied agricultural situations in the country. However, they can be
broadly classified into the following:-
 Tethering: This is common in the sub-humid and humid zones, where
probably because of intensive cropping, it is a convenient means of rearing
goats from the stand point of control, minimum labour input and utilization of
feed in situ. It is thus a sedentary system. A variation of this method is
combining tethering with grazing up to 5 goats at a time, led by ropes held by
women and children.
 Extensive production: This involves low carrying capacity in situations
where land is marginal and is plentiful. It is characterized by low rainfall and
various browse plants. The system is used by nomadic people, usually in very
low rainfall areas or during winter months when crop resides are available.
 Intensive production: The goats are fed in confinement with limited access
to land. It involves high labour and cash inputs. Cultivated grasses and agro-
industrial byproducts are fed in situ. This system also has the advantage of
allowing control over the animals.
 Semi-intensive production: This system is practiced to some degree in
most of the situations, but the nature and extent of integration depend on the
type of crops grown and their suitability to goats. The advantages of this
system are increased fertility of land via the return of dung and urine, control
of waste herbage growth, reduced fertilizer usage, easier crop management,
increased crop yields, and greater economic returns.
Status of Goat industry
 The goat industry in India has yet to be firmly laid down on scientific lines.
Goat keepers are maintaining goats in all kinds of situations depending upon
the ecology and their circumstances. The minimum goat unit could consist of
one goat and the maximum could go to a few hundreds under range
management. Goat farming in the country is mainly based on ‘zero input’. The
fear of mortality has perhaps been largely responsible for not starting many
large-scale goat farms. However, large-scale goat farms have successfully
running since over last 30 years at the CSWRI Avikanagar, MPKVV Rahuri,
and at Leh.
Constraints of the Goat industry
The following could be considered as the technical constraints for securing a thriving
goat industry in the country:-
 Non-availability of high-yielding breeding stock.
 Low level of nutrition and managerial efficiency.
 Lack of definition of the production objectives.
 Limited attention to application of the modern techniques for improving the
reproductive efficiency, eg. AI, synchronization of estrous, semen freezing etc.
 Limited use of outstanding exotic breeds for improvement.
 Inadequate control of diseases and parasites due to non-availability of
prophylactic vaccines against important contagious diseases.
 Lack of knowledge on successful rearing of kids. Kid mortality is very high
when weaning is practiced at a very young age.
 Lack of knowledge on silvi-pastoral system.
 Housing for goats in different eco-zones requires a very elaborate and
systematic study.
 Organized marketing is very limited. This has resulted in unscrupulous
exploitation by the middle-man who is often seen moving with the goats along
the migratory routes.
MODULE-8: ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SWINE AND POULTRY AND
THEIR IMPORTANCE
Learning objectives
 economic traits of swine and
 economic traits of poultry.
ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SWINE

Scope of swine production
The challenges faced by our country in securing the food as well as nutritional security
to fast growing population need an integrated approach for livestock farming. Among
the various livestock species, piggery is most potential source of meat production and
more efficient feed converters after the broiler. Apart from providing meat, it is also a
source of bristles and manure. Pig farming will provide employment opportunities to
seasonally employed rural farmers and supplementary income to improve their living
standards. The advantages of the pig farming are:
 The pig has got highest feed conversion efficiency i.e. they produce more live
weight gain from a given weight of feed than any other class of meat producing
animals except broilers.
 The pig can utilise wide variety of feed stuffs viz. grains, forages, damaged
feeds and garbage and convert them into valuable nutritious meat. However,
feeding of damaged grains, garbage and other unbalanced rations may result in
lower feed efficiency.
 They are prolific with shorter generation interval. A sow can be bred as early as
8-9 months of age and can farrow twice in a year. They produce 6-12 piglets in
each farrowing.
 Pig farming requires small investment on buildings and equipments
 Pigs are known for their meat yield, which in terms of dressing percentage
ranges from 65 - 80 in comparison to other livestock species whose dressing
yields may not exceed 65%.
 Pork is most nutritious with high fat and low water content and has got better
energy value than that of other meats. It is rich in vitamins like thiamin, Niacin
and riboflavin.
 Pigs manure is widely used as fertilizer for agriculture farms and fish ponds.
 Pigs store fat rapidly for which there is an increasing demand from poultry
feed, soap, paints and other chemical industries.
 Pig farming provides quick returns since the marketable weight of fatteners
can be achieved with in a period of 6-8 months.
 There is good demand from domestic as well as export market for pig products
such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lard etc.
Contribution of pig farming to national economy
 The pig population of the country is 12.79 million as per the 1992 livestock
census and 13.291 million as per 1997 provisional result of census from states
and constitutes around 1.30% of the total world's population. The state wise
pig population are given in Annexure I . The pork production stands at 4.20
lakh tonnes (1995). During 2001-02 the production of pork and pork products
were estimated to be 612550 mt with 3.03% growth rate in last decade. If
comprised over 38% of the total world meat product Indian share in piggary
meat production moderately increased from 0.53%in 1981 to 0.63 in 2002. The
contribution of pork products in terms of value works out to 0.80% of total
livestock products and 4.32% of the meat and meat products. The contribution
of pigs to Indian exports is very poor. About 934 tonnes of pork and pork
products were exported during 1995-96. The value of pork and pork products
exported is Rs. 262 lakhs against the total value of Rs. 61604 lakhs on account
of meat and meat products export.
 The pig farming constitutes the livelihood of rural poor belonging to the lowest
socio-economic strata and they have no means to undertake scientific pig
farming with improved foundation stock, proper housing, feeding and
management. Therefore, suitable schemes to popularise the scientific pig
breeding cum rearing of meat producing animals with adequate financial
provisions are necessary to modernise the Indian pig industry and to improve
the productivity of small sized rural pig farms.
 In view of the importance of pig farming in terms of it's contribution to rural
poor and possible potentials for pig rearing in our country, Government of
India has initiated measures to promote the pig farming on scientific lines
under it's five year plans. The first step towards this direction is establishment
of eight bacon factories and organisation of pig production in rural areas
attached to bacon factories. In order to make available good foundation stock,
regional pig breeding stations were established for each bacon factory.
Economic traits
 Many important production traits in animals such as milk yield, body weight,
Total fat, carcass weight in animals, fat content of meat are quantitative traits,
and much of the pioneering research into the modes of inheritance of these
traits was performed by animal geneticists. These traits are controlled by
multiple genes, each segregating according to Mendel's laws. These traits can
also be affected by the environment to varying degrees .
The following are examples of economic traits or quantitative traits that we are
concerned with swine production are.
 Litter size at birth
 Litter size born alive
 Litter size at weaning
 Birth weight
 Litter weight at birth
 Weaning weight
 Litter weight at weaning
 Weight at market age
 Growth rate
 Feed efficiency
 Mortality percentage
ECONOMIC TRAITS OF POULTRY
Poultry industry in India
 Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector in
India today. While the production of agricultural crops has been rising at a rate
of 1.5 to 2 percent per annum, that of eggs and broilers has been rising at a rate
of 8 to 10 percent per annum. As a result, India is now the world's fifth largest
egg producer and the eighteenth largest producer of broilers. Driving this
expansion are a combination of factors - growth in per capita income, a
growing urban population and falling real poultry prices.
 In the context of this emerging scenario, questions are being raised about the
impact of the scaling up of production-through structural factors, externalities
and policies-on small-scale producers. Do the transaction costs, policy
distortion and environment externalities place the small-scale producer at a
disadvantage? Why do some poultry farms have higher income than others?
Do large farms earn more profit per unit of output than small ones? What
explains the differentials in profitability?
Transformation from a Backyard Activity to a Major Commercial Activity
 The poultry sector in India has undergone a paradigm shift in structure and
operation. A significant feature of India's poultry industry has been its
transformation from a mere backyard activity into a major commercial activity
in just about four decades. This transformation has involved sizeable
investments in breeding, hatching, rearing and processing. Farmers in India
have moved from rearing non-descript birds to today rearing hybrids such as is
Hyaline, It is Shaver, II and in Babcock, It which ensure faster growth, good
liveability, excellent feed conversion and high profits to the rearers. The
industry has grown largely due to the initiative of private enterprise, minimal
government intervention, considerable indigenous poultry genetics
capabilities, and considerable support from the complementary veterinary
health, poultry feed, poultry equipment, and poultry processing sectors. India
is one of the few countries in the world that has put into place a sustained
Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) egg production project.
Regional Variation in Poultry Development
 Another important aspect of poultry development in India is the significant
variation in the industry across regions. Figure 1.1 illustrates egg production in
India by state during 1998-99. The four southern states - Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu - account for about 45 percent of the
country's egg production, with a per capita consumption of 57 eggs and 0.5 kg.
of broiler meat. The eastern and central regions of India account for about 20
percent of egg production, with a per capita consumption of 18 eggs and 0.13
kg. of broiler meat. The northern and western regions of the country record
much higher figures than the eastern and central regions with respect to per
capita availability of eggs and broiler meat.
Growing Production of Eggs and Broilers
 Table eggs and broiler meat are the major end products of the poultry sector in
India. Presently production of eggs is estimated to number about 37 billion,
that of broilers 895 million, and that of poultry meat 735,000 tonnes. In
addition, organized facilities have been set up over the years for the
manufacture of egg powder and frozen, processed broiler meat essentially to
cater to export markets and markets in the metropolitan areas of India.
Increasing Scale of Operation
 The growth of the poultry sector in India is also marked by an increase in the
size of the poultry farm. In earlier years broiler farms had produced on average
a few hundred birds (200-500 chicks) per cycle. Today units with fewer than
5,000 birds are becoming rare, and units with 5,000 to 50,000 birds per week
cycle are common. Similarly, in layer farms, units with a flock size of 10,000 to
50,000 birds have become common. Small units are probably finding
themselves at a disadvantage because of high feed and transport costs,
expensive vaccines, and veterinary care services and the non-availability of
credit. Some small units are reported to be shifting from layer to broiler
production because output in broiler units can be realized in six weeks.
Structure of the Poultry Industry
 The structure of India's poultry industry varies from region to region. While
independent and relatively small-scale producers account for the bulk of
production, integrated large-scale producers do account for a growing share of
output in some regions. Integrators include large regional firms that
incorporate all aspects of production, including the raising of grandparent and
parent flocks, rearing DOCs, contracting production, compounding feed,
providing veterinary services, and wholesaling.
Concentration of Poultry Units around Cities and Urban Centers
 There has also been a growing tendency for poultry units to be concentrated
around urban areas because of the existence of ready markets for the end
products of poultry production.
Low Per Capita Consumption
 Even though India is the world's fifth largest egg producer and the eighteenth
largest producer of broilers, its per capita consumption of these products is
poor - 37 eggs and 1 kg. of poultry meat per capita per annum. Here, again,
there is considerable variation in per capita consumption between rural and
urban areas and also across the region. Per capita consumption of eggs is only
7.7 per annum in rural areas compared with 17.8 per annum in urban areas. In
seven states, per capita consumption is less than 3.5 per annum. Similarly, per
capita consumption of poultry meat is 0.24 kg. in rural areas and 1.08 kg. in
urban areas.
Slow Changes in Consumption Habits
 An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey
(NSS) rounds reveals many interesting facts. First, 42 percent of households
are vegetarian in that they do not eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 68
percent of households are non-vegetarians. Over time there has been a gradual
shift from vegetarianism to non-vegetarianism. The change is more visible in
rural areas than in urban areas.
Exports
 Exports of poultry products from India comprise table eggs, meat, live birds
and value-added products such as egg powder and frozen yolk. The value of
aggregated exports was Rs. 1,683 million in 1996-97. Exports were expected to
reach the level of Rs. 5 billion by the year 2000.
Employment
 Three decades ago, when egg and broiler production was 10 billion and 30
million, respectively, the total employment numbers in the poultry sector were
not so encouraging. As income and employment in the crop sector started
diminishing, the non-crop sector, which includes dairy and poultry, underwent
a significant shift. With the demand for poultry increasing and production
reaching 37 billion eggs and 1 billion broilers, this sector now employs around
1.6 million people. At least 80 percent of employment in the poultry sector is
generated directly by these farmers, while 20 percent is engaged in feed,
pharmaceuticals, equipment and other services required by the poultry sector.
Additionally, there may be a similar number of people roughly 1.6 million who
are engaged in marketing and other channels servicing the poultry sector.
Issues Relating to Animal Welfare and Environmental Pollution
 Issues relating to animal welfare and environmental pollution by poultry units
have been of increasing concern in developed countries such as the U.S. and
the European Union (E.U.). But in India these issues have not yet emerged as
critical although they are discussed at length in various seminars and forums
on poultry production. Considering globalization and the international trade in
poultry products, however, these issues may assume significance in a few years
because of pressures from importing countries such as those in the E.U.
Constraints on the Growth of the Poultry Industry
 A major constraint affecting the growth of the poultry industry in India is the
lack of basic infrastructure such as storage and transportation, including cold
chain. As a result, there are wild price fluctuations in the prices of poultry
products, i.e., eggs and broilers. Another constraint to growth is an inefficient
marketing system. The presence of so many market intermediaries harms both
the producer and the consumer. A third problem relates to the price
availability of feed resources. Maize or corn plays a major role in broiler
production, as it constitutes 50 to 55 percent of broiler feed. As the broiler
industry is growing at the rate of 15 percent per annum, the demand for maize
is thus likely to increase. Presently India grows only 11 million tonnes of maize
and only 5 million tonnes are available for poultry, which is not sufficient if the
current growth rate of the industry is to be maintained.
Some of the economic traits or quantitative traits in poultry are as follows:
 Hatch weight
 Weight at 20 weeks
 Age at maturity
 Weight at maturity
 Age at maturity in flocks without trapnesting
 Egg production at 40 weeks
 Egg production at 72 weeks
 Hen-day production at 40 weeks of age
 Hen-housed production at 40 weeks
 Hen-day production at 72 weeks
 Livability (0-20 weeks)
 Livability (20 to 72 weeks)
 Egg weight or egg size
 Hatchability
 Hatch weight
 Fortnightly weights up to 8 weeks
 Feed efficiency etc.,
The economic traits in each generations are measured, using selection and mating we
can aim for improving the traits in different species. Without economical traits
measurements it is not possible for having any improvement in animal breeding.

MODULE-9: BREEDING/SELECTION TECHNIQUES FOR
OPTIMAL PRODUCTION
Learning objectives
 genetic effects of selection and
 complications of selection.
INTRODUCTION
 The purpose of animal breeding is not to genetically improve individual
animals but to improve future generation of the animal population. The
method used by the breeder to make long-term change in animals is called
selection. Selection is the process in which certain individuals in a population
are given an opportunity to produce offspring while others are denied this
opportunity. It also decides about how many offspring it should produce and
how long they should remain in the breeding population. Selection is an
important tool for changing gene frequencies to better-fit individuals for a
particular purpose. Selection is not an invention of modern man. It has been
going on in nature since life existed in the world. Selection is choosing of
individuals that will be parents of next generation.
 Effectiveness of selection depends on ability to recognize those animals, which
possess superior inheritance. Those superior animals must be mated together
for the production of offspring. The aids available to estimate the breeding
value of an animal is through the phenotype of an animal or its relatives.
 Various aids available for selection are: (a) Individual selection or mass
selection, (b) Pedigree selection, (c) Progeny testing and (d) Family selection
and sib selection.
 Breeders always tend to go for selection of several traits at a particular time.
Because, the net value of an animal would depends on several traits that may
not be equally economically important. The desirable trait will depend on the
economic value but only of real importance may be considered. If too many
traits selected for one time there will be less progress in improvement of any
particular trait. There are three methods of selection viz., tandem method,
simultaneous but independent culling level method and selection index
method.
GENETIC EFFECTS OF SELECTION
 Selection does not create new genes. It is practiced to increase the frequency of
desirable genes in a population and decrease the frequency of undesirable
genes. Since the selected individuals can transmit only sample halves of genes
they have to their offspring, so if animals with better quality genes possessed
are selected then the offspring will also posses the same. If the frequency of
desirable gene is increased, the proportion of individuals homozygous for that
desirable gene is also increased. The changes thus obtained in gene frequency
due to selection are permanent even if selection ceases thereafter. The higher
frequency obtained by initial selection can be maintained by random mating.
Hence, selection has been aptly called the keystone of the arch in animal
improvement. Man’s selection even in the absence of genetic knowledge has
been highly effective.
COMPLICATIONS OF SELECTION
 Selection is carried out for a variety of traits in different species. For e.g., speed
in racehorses, milk yield in dairy cattle, litter size in swine, wool yield in sheep,
market weight in goats and egg production in poultry. In farm animals, selection
should always be directed to greater utility. However, selection is not so simple a
task to produce immediate results. Selection is also not always successful. If
selection were always being effective, the animal breeders’ problems would be
largely resolved. But the failures of selection dampen the enthusiasm of many
people engaged in animal breeding. The complications can be classified genetic
and operational complications. The genetic complications are: heredity and
environment, genotype and phenotype, heritability, regression to the mean, types
of gene action, correlation of traits and effects of inbreeding. The operational
complications are: objectives in selection, number of traits, foundation stock,
level of performance, systems of selection, length of time and number of animals.
GENETIC COMPLICATIONS
Heredity and environment
 Most traits of economic importance are controlled by many genes and are
greatly influenced by environment also. The environment may alter the traits
and mask the real genetic worth of the individuals. For example, an animal
with a faster growth rate rose in a faulty environment (deficient diet) and an
animal with poor genetic constitution for growth rate but raised in a good
environment can be responsible for mistakes in selection. This effect of
environment can be responsible for mistakes in selection. However, this effect
could be overcome by keeping the stock under selection in a standard and
suitable environment wherein the better genotype will be able to express itself
fully. Under such conditions, the breeder will have a chance to recognise the
differences that are hereditary and thus increase the accuracy of selection.
Genotype and phenotype
 Genotype is animal’s genetic constitution. The genotype remains constant for
an animal throughout its life. But phenotype is the result of interaction
between the genotype and environment in which the animal is developing. The
phenotype, unlike the genotype, changes with time. Hence it affects selection.
Selection is done for the genotype, but seldom, it could be assessed correctly.
So the genotype is assessed based on phenotype of the individual though it is
not accurate. So, for selection to be effective, phenotypic selection should be
done at the age when the economic traits are expressed, for e.g., meat animals
like sheep, swine and poultry, phenotypic selection should be done at market
age. Cows should be selected at the end of first lactation.
Heritability
 Most selection processes are based on phenotypic differences. Though we are
selecting on phenotypic basis, our aim is to effect selection on genotypic basis.
If the phenotype accurately reflects the genotype, the selection will be quite
accurate. But phenotype is not a true indicator of genotype. Heritability of a
trait may be defined as that portion of the phenotypic variation that is due to
additive gene action. If most of the phenotypic variation is due to environment,
progress from selection will be slow. On the other hand, if the additive genetic
variation is larger, then the heritability estimate will more accurately predict
the genotype. The heritability values are not constant and vary from herd to
herd and in the same herd from time to time. Inbreeding for instance increases
homozygosity of genes and reduces the hereditary variation. Therefore,
heritability will decrease with inbreeding and increase without crossing. In
other words, phenotype or individual selection will be more effective in herds
and for traits where the heritability is high. Hence, knowledge of heritability of
economic traits in livestock is therefore essential for a breeder.
Regression to mean
 The offspring of outstanding parents often have a tendency to regress towards
the average of the breed from which they were selected. This is referred to as
Galton’s law of filial regression. This is because (i) due to combination of
genes; when they reproduce due to segregation and independent assortment of
genes, the suitable combination is broken up and the average results and (ii)
due to environment; the offspring are brought up in an environment which is
much different from that of the parent. If the superiority of the parents is due
to lucky combination of genes, little could be done to interfere with the laws of
segregation and independent assortment. If the superiority of the parents is
due to high percentage of homozygosity of favourable genes, by adopting
inbreeding the gene pool could be maintained in the offspring. If the
superiority of the parents is due to heterosis i.e., Aa (heterozygous) better than
AA or aa (homozygous), it is not possible to control the segregation of genes.
So, heterozygous individuals that are superior could be used for market but not
for breeding. The environmental part of regression can be levelled out a great
deal by keeping the same environment as far as possible from year to year. This
is another reason why animals should be tested and selection should be made
under conditions similar to one in which their offspring are to perform.
Type of gene action
 Genes act differently in different combinations. This makes accurate selection
more difficult. For instance, when “A” is dominant to “a”, AA and Aa
individuals who have the same phenotype will be selected with equal
preference. But AA will breed true whereas Aa will segregate. But in case of
over dominance, Aa will produce larger effect than AA / aa. So in heterozygous
condition, selection will not produce desired results. Only crossing of
appropriate inbred lines will produce the desired effect. Hence the job of the
breeder is to increase the frequency of favourable alleles and to discard the less
favourable ones.
Correlation of traits
 Some characteristics are positively correlated, for example, rate of gain in
weight and efficiency of gain in swine. Whereas some others are negatively
correlated, for example, milk yield and butter fat percentage in dairy cattle. If
the desirable traits are positively correlated selection becomes somewhat
easier. If you select for one trait it automatically improves the other trait also.
When the traits are negatively correlated, selection for one trait will affect the
other trait. Hence, knowledge of correlation of different traits will be of great
help in avoiding mistakes in selection.
Effect of inbreeding
 It is generally known that a decline in all attributes of vigour usually
accompanies inbreeding. Breeders therefore hesitate to practice inbreeding.
However, it is necessary to practice inbreeding in order to induce gene
segregation and to fix desirable gene combinations. Inbreeding increases
prepotency. Regularity of transmission is increased with increased
homozygosity, which is obtained only through inbreeding and selection. To
avoid depressing effects of inbreeding: choose foundation stock that is superior
in production, rigid selection from beginning to offset the possible bad effects
of inbreeding on performance and flexible system of mating that permits
besides close breeding, mating of best individuals that is controlled breeding.
OPERATIONAL COMPLICATIONS
Objectives in selection
 Many failures in selection of livestock may be attributed to lack of definite
objectives as a result of which selection has changed its direction frequently.
Selection will be more effective when the breeder has definite objectives for
which to strive. The objectives should be defined by measurements. Judgement
should be used along with measurements, but should never replace
measurements.
Number of traits
 When a single trait is subjected to selection, it is very simple to rank the
individuals in order of their merit for the trait. This becomes increasingly
difficult as the number of traits is increased. An animal may be good in one
trait and deficient in another. Only a few individuals will be good in all the
characters that are under selection. To simplify this problem, the number of
traits must be kept as small as possible and must be those with greatest value
from the stand point of utility.
Foundation stock
 Selection will be ineffective if the foundation animals are genetically poor and
also where there is no genetic variability. Selection merely sorts genes and
permits the better ones to be saved and poorer ones to be discarded. Therefore,
it is important to start with good foundation stock.
Level of performance
 In available stock, selection will be effective for the first few generations and
then it becomes ineffective for further progress. When the level of performance
rises after a few years, due to increased homozygosity and frequency of
desirable genes, further progress is slow, unless it is accompanied by a system
of mating that will bring about new gene combinations. For example, by
artificial insemination is used as a tool, for increase in milk production. The
improvement will be achieved in few generations and afterwards the progress
is slow. Then it does not mean that the sire used is inferior, but the level of
performance of the herd has become higher.
System of selection
 Too much rigidity in the systems of selection may be a handicap to progress in
animal breeding programme. For example, a breeder may specify that no cows
should be selected with the lactation yield less than 2000 kg. But only few cows
will be available and after few years very few animals will reach the standard. A
selection index giving relative importance to each trait is good. But the
importance of the trait at that particular time should be taken into
consideration for selecting the trait.
Number of animals
 Where there are few animals in the herd, selection is very much restricted.
Selection pressure will be applied effectively since it will cull most of the
animals leaving few that will not be able to replace the stock. Also there will be
little opportunity for genetic segregation.
Length of time
 The turnover in livestock is slow in number of animals and in number of
generations because small herds or flocks offer so little opportunity for genetic
segregation. So the breeder must be prepared to continue his project for a
relatively longer period of time. Progress in a single generation is apt to be
masked by environmental effect and it takes many years to turn over several
generations in large animals. Although progress per year is small, real
improvement can be effected over a long period of time.
MODULE-10: SELECTION - CLASSIFICATION OF SELECTION
Learning objectives
 selection and
 its classification.
SELECTION
 Selection is of two kinds namely, natural and artificial selection. Again the
artificial selection is divided into different methods, they are Tandem method,
independent culling level and selection index or index selections.

NATURAL SELECTION
 The main force of natural selection is the survival of fittest in a particular
environment. The survival is for the particular environment in which the
population lives e.g., wild animals. In nature, the animals best adapted to their
environment survived and produced the largest number of offspring. This
natural selection acts through the variations produced by mutations and
recombination of genetic factors and eliminates unsuccessful genetic
combination and allows nature’s successful experiments to multiply.
 Natural selection is a very complicated process and many factors determine the
proportion of individuals that will reproduce. Those factors are:
o differences in mortality in the population especially early in life,
o differences in the duration of sexual activity,
o degree of sexual activity and
o differences in the degree of fertility of individuals in that population.
Natural selection operates through differences of fertility among the
parents or of viability among the progeny. Therefore, in natural
selection by means of survival of the fittest, there is a tendency towards
elimination of the defective or detrimental genes that have arisen
through mutation.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
It is the selection practised by man. This can also be defined as the efforts of man to
increase the frequency of desirable genes or combination of genes in his herd or flock by
locating or saving those individuals with superior performance or that have the ability to
produce superior performing offspring when mated with individuals from other lines or
breeds. This can be classified as:
 automatic selection,
 deliberate selection and
 replacement selection and culling. Replacement selection decides which
animals will become parents for the first time i.e., new animals to replace
parents that have been culled. These new animals are called replacements.
CULLING
 Culling decides which parents will no longer remain parents. It is the removal
of inferior animals rather than the more positive selection of good ones. While
doing culling, decision should be firm that culling has been made for genetic or
environmental reasons. It is easy to cull poor looking stock but genetically this
achieves little if they are poor because of environmental reasons. Thus,
selection and culling go together. The risks of this type of error are higher
when animals examined after a period of high production such as lactation.
E.g. In ewes, twin born will be thin and poor looking and barren ewes will be
fatty. Similar observations can be seen in sows. Therefore, replacement
selection and culling are really just different sides of the same coin. They
involve different sets of animals, but their purposes are the same i.e., to
determine which animals reproduce. Hence, both are integral parts of selection
as a whole.
MODULE-11: BASES OF SELECTION - INDIVIDUAL SELECTION
Learning objectives
 individual selection and
 probable breeding value.
SELECTION BASED ON INDIVIDUALITY
 An animal may be selected for breeding based on the basis of its own
performance one or more traits. This selection based on its own performance is
called mass selection or individual selection. Here the selection is based on
type (appearance) of the animal and its performance (production). This
comparison of performance based on its own individual performance is called
performance test. Selection based on individuality is strictly phenotypic and
phenotype is taken as the sole estimate of the genotype.
TYPE
It is the outward confirmation of individuals i.e. the relative proportion, length, breadth
and size of different parts of the body that include colour, size and shape of horns, ears
etc.
Selection depend on type is inevitable when
 Reliable records of production are not available.
 Selection is to be made early in life before the availability of production records
in order to reduce the cost of culling.
 When records are available in only one sex as milk yield, males have to be
selected only as type.
 When production records come after the death of the individual e.g. Meat
animals.
 Where productivity is not easily and completely measured as in works and
speed.
 When market demands a particular type that is more profitable.
 Where beauty is the main consideration as in pet and fancy stock.
Production
 This needs accurate production records for all animals under selection. But the
actual records available are varying when comparable with one another. E.g. In
dairy cattle milk production in lactation is significantly correlated with
lactation period and age of the cow. Dairy cows gradually increase their yield
till 6th or 7th lactation and then decline.
 Similarly in sows, they produce more piglets than gilts, do owing to an age
effect on fertility. Hence, it is necessary to standardize all the records to a
uniform comparable basis. E.g. In cows – milk production should be adjusted
to 305 days, 6 years and 4% fat.
 Similarly in sows all furrowing records should be adjusted to an equal gilt basis
by correction factors. Then only the figures will be comparable. Average of
many records will reduce the environmental variations in production. While
using record all the available record should be used and not the selected ones.
No records should be omitted except when circumstances are so definite that
no doubt exists e.g. Foot and mouth disease, abortion etc. A poor setback in
health should not be omitted as in itself is an indicator of poor genetic
constitution and conducive for high production. Incomplete record should not
be considered. Constitution, longevity, disease resistance, adaptation to
climate is the other factors that should be considered in production and
selection.
Selection for qualitative traits
 Here the animals are kept or rejected for breeding purpose on the basis of its
own phenotyp0e for that particular trait. The progress made in selection
depends on how closely genotype is correlated with phenotype. Phenotype of
the individuals is often used to estimate the breeding value for qualitative traits
such as colour and horned or polled conditions. Selection for such traits based
on mass or phenotype is more effective than others.
 For e.g. In Angus cattle the coat colour Red (rr) is recessive to dominant black
(BB) colour. But it is practically difficult to distinguish and differentiate the
genotype BB and Bb phenotypically. Thus selection on the basis of
individuality will be useful but not always completely accurate.
Selection for quantitative traits
 Quantitative traits are controlled by many genes and various environmental
factors. There is no sharp distinction among the phenotypes and affected by
both additive and non-additive gene action. No trait is 100% heritable, because
the environment always affects the phenotype to a certain extent. Therefore
phenotype of an individual for quantitative traits is not the true indicator of
genotype. The phenotypic merit of the individuals for quantitative traits is
determined by comparing the individual’s own phenotype with that of the
average of all the individuals within a group from which it is selected and is
called trait ratio.
Trait ratio = Individual’s record for a trait / group average for the same trait
x 100
 Accurate records are also required. The individual’s record is of little value
unless it shows where the individual ranked relative to others under similar
conditions. The environmental part of phenotypic superiority or inferiority will
not be transmitted to the offspring. Therefore in general there is tendency for
the average phenotype of the offspring of a phenotypically superior individual
will tend to regress toward the average of the population, whereas the average
phenotype of the offspring of a phenotypically inferior individuals will tend to
rise toward the average of the population.
PROBABLE BREEDING VALUE (PBV)
PBV of an individual for a particular trait may be determined by
PBV = P1 + b (Pi – P1)
Where,
P1 – phenotypic average of individual contemporaries
Pi - phenotypic value of individuals selected
B – regression coefficient
The PBV of an individual is the estimated genetic superiority of the individual over the
average of the group from which it is selected. PBV is always near the group average
than its phenotypic value because environmental effects which are not transmitted to
the individual’s offspring.
In individual selection, best animals are selected from within a group of animals of
similar age group that have been reared and treated similarly at the same time i.e.
contemporaries. In individual selection the breeder will be having a single record of each
animal’s performance (performance test) and hence an estimate of breeding value (BV)
for a given trait is calculated as:
BV = h2 x (Individual average – Average of contemporaries)
= h2 x Individual deviation
Hence selection based on individual selection is strictly phenotypic and the phenotype is
taken as the sole estimate of individual’s genotype and thus the PBV.
Advantages
 Used for traits of high heritability.
 Traits such as body type, growth rate, fleece production, horn pattern, colour
and others of a similar nature can be evaluated if suitable records are available.
 Useful for traits expressed in both sexes and performance of the individual is
above average for breeding, regardless of the merit of near relatives.
 In the absence of pedigree and progeny records, this is the only available guide
for selecting the breeding stock.
Demerits
 Not useful for sex limited traits such as milk production, egg production,
maternal abilities, semen production and litter size etc.
 If heritability is low, then individual selection is the poor indicator of breeding
value such as reproductive characters.
 Not possible for traits expressed only after sexual maturity, because selection
has to be delayed till maturity resulting in waste of time and money.
 The easy appraisal of appearance often tempts the breeder to overemphasis
this evaluation in selection.
It is concluded that the Individual selection on the basis of individual’s phenotype
(appearance) and performance. Individuals are selected solely in accordance with their
own phenotypic values. This is the simplest and yields more rapid response. It is the
most commonly used method for selective improvement of livestock. Undoubtedly, most
of the progress in livestock improvement can be credited to individual selection. Traits
such as body type, growth rate, fleece production and other of similar nature can be
evaluated directly from the performance of the individual animal, if suitable
performance records are being kept; such evaluations are usually available by the time
initial selection of breeding stock has to be made. In contrast, only a few can be progeny
tested.
MODULE-12: BASES OF SELECTION - FAMILY SELECTION
Learning objectives
 family selection and
 probable breeding value.
FAMILY SELECTION
 Family names are used in at least two senses in animal breeding. The family
name has been traced through the dam and sires. Family, in animal breeding,
includes full-sib and half-sib families. In a random mating population, half-
sibs have a relationship coefficient of 0.25 and full-sibs have a relationship
coefficient of 0.5. Such family members are collaterally related not directly
related. They are neither ancestors nor descendants. Because of their common
ancestry, they would have some genes in common and thereby some
performance in common.
 If the records of the individual are included in the family average and used as a
criterion for selection, it is known as family selection. If the individuals’
records are not included in arriving at the average, then it is known as sib
selection. When selection is carried out for market weight in swine, the market
weights of all males and females in the family are considered in the calculation
of family average (family selection). But when selection is carried out for
fertility traits and milk yield, the performance of males cannot be included but
they are selected on the basis of sibs’ average (sib selection).
 The family selection can be represented as a part of pedigree selection. The
families are ranked and based on this, the entire family is selected or rejected.
Family/sib selection is used more frequently in swine and poultry where the
number of progenies produced by females is high. The family selection does
not increase generation interval. The information from family/sib is combined
with individual information in the form of index and selection is based on the
index.
 Collateral relatives are those not directly related to an individual as ancestors
or progeny. The relatives are neither direct ancestors nor direct descendants of
an individual. They may individual’s brothers, sisters, cousins, uncles, aunts,
nieces, nephews, etc. The more closely they are related to the individual in
question, the more valuable information they can supply for selection
purposes.
 If information on collateral relatives is complete, then it will give an idea of the
kinds of genes and combination of genes the individual is likely to possess. It
will be of much useful in selecting traits that can be measured only after the
sacrifice of the individual e.g. carcass traits. Similarly it is also useful in
selecting dairy bulls, since milk production can be measured only in cows
though bull possesses and transmits genes for milk production to his progeny.
It is also used in selection of poultry for egg and meat production and also for
all or none traits such as mortality, disease resistance and fertility. Selection on
the basis of sib tests (Half sibs or Full sibs) means that an individual id kept for
breeding or is rejected on the basis of the phenotype of its brothers and sisters.
They may be maternal half sibs or paternal half sibs or full sibs.
PROBABLE BREEDING VALUE
 The accuracy of selection on the basis of collateral relatives depends upon the
degree of heritability, closeness of the relationship ® of the sibs and individual
being selected, number of sibs used to determine the sib average, degree of
correlation (t) between the phenotypes of sibs.
Accuracy of selection = Rh Ö n / 1 + (n-1) t
 If environmental correlation among the phenotypes of the sibs are zero, then t
= Rh2
 The accuracy of selection increases as the records on a large number of half
sibs are considered and as the heritability increases. The accuracy of selection
never exceeds 0.5, regardless of the number of half-sibs tested and the degree
of heritability of that trait.
 Nearly 30 half sibs are required to give the same accuracy as information on
the individual’s own record when heritability is as low as 0.10 and 100 or more
when heritability is higher than 0.10. The addition of the record of another half
sib is affected by the law of diminishing returns. However in instances where
information cannot be obtained from the individual, such as sex limited traits
can be used effectively in selection.
 Full sibs may be used in selection, but they have a similar maternal
environment from conception to weaning lowers the accuracy of their use for
such a trait. The selection on the basis of individuality is relatively more
accurate than selection on the basis of full sib records when the trait is highly
heritable. However, when heritability is low, and records on six or more full
sibs are available then selection on the basis of full sibs is more accurate.
 The combination of records on the individual and its sibs for selection is more
advantageous than records on the individual’s own performance when R and t
are greatly different. It is more useful when difference between families are
mainly due to environment possibly because different families have been
treated differently.
Families can be broadly classified into three types:
 Sire families: These are progeny of one sire.
o Out of different dams – born in the same year (contemporaries)
o Out of different dams – born over a number of years
 Dam families
o By different sire – born in the same year i.e. by super ovulation before
artificial insemination with mixed semen from number of sires and
identification of sires by blood typing
o By different sires – born over a number of years
 Sire and dam families: These are progeny by one sire out of one dam.
o Family selection is more effective when the genetic relationship between
members of the same family is large, and the phenotypic relationship
between members is small. When heritability is low, the use of family
data is most valuable as it reduces the chances of making wring
decisions.
Indications
 For sex-limited traits,
 For carcass traits and
 For traits of low heritability.
Limitations
 If selection intensity is more, then there may be an increase in inbreeding and
 Increase in cost and space in raising larger population.
Precautions
 Number of progeny in each family should be large and
 There should not be common environment between sibs.
MODULE-13: BASES OF SELECTION - PEDIGREE SELECTION
Learning objectives
 pedigree selection,
 advantage and disadvantages of pedigree selection and
 its limitations.
SELECTION BASED ON PEDIGREE
 Pedigree is a record of an individual’s ancestors related to it through its
parents or selection based on the information of the ancestors of individuals
that are related to it. Performance records from ancestors can provide useful
information about the potential genetic worth or the breeding value of the
individuals in question. This will give useful information before the animal is
old.
 An estimate of calf’s potential milk yield could be assessed based on milk yield
of its mother until such time as the calf is grown up and can be milked. Much
attention is to be paid to pedigree when no adequate information on the merit
of the individual is available.
 It is usual to expect offspring of outstanding parents to be of higher genetic
value than the average of the individuals of the herd. Each parent transmits
only sample halves of its genes to each offspring and only one quarter of genes
from each grand parent. So parents never provide as much information about
the breeding value of an individual than individual’s performance itself would
provide. Unless the performance of ancestor is known, selection based on
pedigree is meaningless. Even when the performance is known the relationship
between the individual and ancestor is very important. Distant ancestors of an
individual provide even less genetic information about the individual’s
breeding value especially for production traits. This pedigree can be classified
into two as direct and collateral. Collateral means those descended from same
ancestors.
 Selecting a cow based on the performance of its great grand parent is as good
as random selection because the relationship is (1/2)3 = 1/8 i.e. only 1/8th of the
superiority can be expected in the progenies. It will not do much good to go
beyond three generations into pedigree due to halving process of the
chromosomes in each generation.
 Pedigree selection can be made more useful by giving all information good and
bad about ancestors, including the collateral relatives. Pedigree selection is
particularly useful for initial selection for traits that are expressed in only one
sex. Such selections can be made early and inexpensively. However the
accuracy of ancestor’s performance may not be highly reliable because they
have been recorded under different environmental conditions. Rarely the
pedigree records possess the presence of recessive genes or defective animals.
So when the ancestors are relatives for traits that are linked with lethal genes
then chances of getting offspring with such lethal defects is more and use of
such animals should be avoided.
 For traits of high heritability little is gained from considering ancestors and the
most progress could be made by evaluating the individual itself e.g. horned
condition. The main danger in pedigree selection is that the harm done by
lowering the intensity of individual selection is greater than the good made by
making the selection more accurate. Hence pedigree should be used only as a
minor ancestry to individual selection. It may be used to tip the balance
between two individuals who are very close on individual merits.
 The selection based on pedigree is only useful than of individual selection only
when heritability is moderate or low. The average relationship between one
parent and offspring is 0.5. Therefore when pedigree information on both the
parents are available, that gives more reliable estimate of the genotype of the
offspring. When the pedigree data provides information on the phenotypic and
genotypic merit of the ancestors then it is called performance pedigrees. If
the selection differential for the ancestor could be presented in the pedigree or
if the performance record of ancestor could be expressed as a percentage of the
average contemporaries (Trait ratio), the ancestor’s records would be of greater
predictive value.
o Degree of relationship
 If ancestors are more closely related to the individual (Parent –
0.5, grand parent – 0.25 and great grand parent – 0.125) should
receive most emphasis in pedigree appraisal.
o Degree of heritability
 When heritability of the trait is low, the more remote ancestors
should receive relatively more emphasis, but when it is high they
provide almost no new information.
o Environment correlation
 Pedigree selection is accurate when heritability is high. The
correlation between pedigree information and individual’s
breeding value approaches the theoretical 0.71 as heritability
approaches 1.0.
o How completely the merit of ancestors used in the prediction is known.
Dangers of pedigree selection
 Undue emphasis on remote relatives.
 Unwarranted favouritism toward the progeny of favoured individual.
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF PEDIGREE SELECTION
Advantages
 Pedigrees do have the advantage that they are cheap to use.
 Used to select traits not expressed early in life or still immature and have not
had their production records e.g. cancer, tumour, longevity etc.
 Used to select traits expressed in only one sex (sex limited) such as milk
production, egg production, semen production, etc.,
 Useful when selection based on individuality is not accurate i.e. to supplement
selection based on individuality.
 When production performances of the individuals are not available,
 For making preliminary selection of sires in progeny testing
 When the characters are expressed late in life
 For traits with low heritability pedigree information can be combined with
individual’s record.
Disadvantage
 A disadvantage of the use of the pedigree in selection against a recessive gene
is that there are often unintentional and unknown mistakes in pedigrees that
may result in condemnation of the entire family from breeding even when
actually it may be free of such a defect.
LIMITATIONS OF PEDIGREE SELECTION
 Since phenotype is not surely the true indicator of genotype due to
complications by dominance, epistasis and environment prediction of
genotype is difficult. When the phenotypic value of an individual is known not
much is gained by the use of pedigree,
 The sampling nature of inheritance, the genetic makeup of the parents cannot
be known definitely of genes that are heterozygous makes it impossible what
the individual offspring has got from its parents (Better half or poor half).
 Usually pedigree contains ancestors that are selected and hence contains only
selected information to show them in a favourable light and tells very little
about the collateral relatives.
 The pedigree records are made in different environment and hence the
accuracy of the ancestry may not be reliable and
 Unwanted favouritism towards the progeny of the favoured individual.
An unusually good animal in poor parentage always suggest that it is the result of lucky
combinations of genes each manifesting the desirable effects. Mostly the animals will be
heterozygous for many genes and its regularity of inheritance is questionable due to
sampling nature of inheritance. On the other hand a poor animal from good parentage
does not have the good stock of genes. The offspring may not able to express itself fully
probably due to lack of few genes necessary for a successful combination. Therefore, it
will be able to inherit the good genes and most probably its mate will supplement the
few genes it lacks. So it may be preferred to a good individual of poor parentage.
In nutshell, pedigree is a record of an individual’s ancestors related to it through its
parents. Knowledge of the productivity of the ancestors is necessary if pedigree is said to
be useful. Such pedigrees are known as performance pedigrees. Ancestors more
closely related to the individual should receive most emphasis in pedigree appraisal. The
basis of pedigree selection is the fact that an individual gets half of its inheritance from
each of the parents and it is usual to expect offspring of outstanding parents to be of
higher genetic value than the average of the individual in the herd. Pedigree should be
used only as additional information to individual selection.
MODULE-14: BASES OF SELECTION - SIB SELECTION AND
PROGENY TESTING
Learning objectives
 progeny selection,
 use of progeny selection
 precautions of progeny selection and
 advantage and limitations of progeny selection.
SELECTION BASED ON PROGENY TESTING

 The idea of progeny testing is not new, having been advocated 2000 years ago
by Roman Varro. Robert Bakewell is reported to have used in the eighteenth
century by letting out bulls and rams on an annual basis. Then he could later
use those which proved to be outstanding transmitters.
o Individuality tells us what an animal seems to be,
o his pedigree tells us what he ought to be,
o but the performance of his progeny tells us what he is.”
 This progeny testing is used to rate a sire or dam’s breeding value. It attempts
to evaluate the genotype of an individual on the basis of its progeny’s
performance.
 It is the best way of determining the genetic make up of an individual. Each
parent contributes sample halves of genes to each offspring. Thus an effort to
evaluate an individual (usually a male) on the basis of one or a few offspring
can be misleading.
 Chance at segregation may result in any one or a few offspring receiving a
better or poorer than average sample of genes from the parents. Progeny
testing is a technique generally used for males because they are responsible for
more progenies in their lifetime than any one female.
 Use of progeny test is not a very practical preposition to establish the breeding
value of females, since the number of offspring per female is small. When the
individual produces sufficiently large number of offspring, the individual has
already completed its productive life and the need for selection will be already
over.
 It is very important that all of the progeny and not just a selected sample of the
progeny be included in the progeny test appraisal. Omitting the poor progeny
is unfair and misleading because, similar poor progenies are just as likely to be
produced among the next group of progeny.
 Progeny testing may be used in selection of traits expressed in both traits.
When heritability is low, fewer progenies are required to make the progeny
test.
 However the accuracy of progeny test is reduced when there is an
environmental correlation among progenies due to non-genetic factors. This
situation arises when several progeny tested sires are being compared, but
their progeny had been tested at different locations.
 Feeding and management also influences the progeny group differences. These
will reduce the accuracy of progeny testing. Progeny testing are conducted to
compare the performance of progeny of two or more parents.
 Usually sires rather than dams are progeny tested because generally sires
produce more progeny in a given season or year.
USE OF PROGENY TESTING
Use of progeny test depends upon
o Accuracy of the test.
o The number of sires to be tested during specified period of time.
 For greater accuracy greater numbers of offspring are needed. If more number
of offspring has to be produced, then large numbers of females have to be
mated, thereby reducing the number of bulls tested.
 Progeny testing is carried out based on the assumption that most of the
inheritance in the livestock is due to additive genetic effects. If there are
sizeable dominant and epistatic effects, then the following to be accounted i.e.
whether the offspring’s performance is due to additive genetic effects alone or
is due to dominant and epistatic effects.
 If some offspring of a male mated to certain set of females, perform better than
offspring of the same male mated to another set of females. Then a male and
female that produce better averages in the offspring will be chosen to exploit
dominant and epistatic effects over and above additive effects.
 In livestock breeding, progeny test based on more than five unselected
offspring usually reduces the chances of error considerably. With traits having
very low heritability, large number of offspring (10 or more) has to be used to
get a reliable progeny test. The rapid acceptance of artificial insemination and
the advancement of techniques for the freezing and storage of bovine semen
have greatly extended the use of outstanding progeny tested sires.
Points to be considered
 Test as many as sires possible (5 to 10 would be minimal)
 Make sure that dams are mated to sires at random, within age group is
possible.
 Produce as many progeny per sire as possible (10 to 15 progenies of either sex
for growth traits but up to 300 to 400 progeny is required for traits like calving
difficulty and fertility).
 No progeny should be culled until the end of the test.
 Offspring that are being tested are not a select group.
 Performance of an adequate sample of an animal’s progeny under normal
environmental conditions will give a true indication of its genotype than any
knowledge of individuality or pedigree.
PRECAUTIONS FOR PROGENY TESTING
Precautions to be taken to make progeny tests more accurate
 Dams mated to all sires on a given progeny test should be selected randomly.
 Feed all animals the same ration and in same manner to avoid bias.
 Compare different parental groups raised in as nearly the same environment as
possible.
 Compare the parent groups born during the same year or same season of the
year when possible.
 Include all healthy progeny of a particular parent in the test, if possible
whether they are inferior or superior. This tends to average the Mendelian and
environmental errors for each sire group.
 Pens should be rotated among progeny groups to reduce the pen effects.
 Larger the number of progeny tested per parent, within limits, the more
accurate the estimate of that parent’s probable breeding value.
 Errors like effects of year, season and location should be eliminated as far as
possible.
The accuracy of selection that is the correlation of the genotype of the parent with the
average genotype of its progeny may be calculated as:
PBV = h / 2 Ö n /1 + (n-1) t
Where,
h – square root of heritability
n – number of progeny per parent used in the average
t – ¼ h2 if progeny group is composed of half sibs and there is no environmental
correlations between sibs.
 Testing of progeny at several locations using artificial insemination and
adoption of comparison of performance with contemporary animals can
increase the accuracy.
ADVANTAGE AND LIMITATIONS OF PROGENY TESTING
Advantages
 For selecting sex limited traits.
 For selecting traits require sacrifice of the animal (carcass traits)
 For selecting traits expressed late in life
 For traits having low heritability value.
 For selection of animals that nick or combine well.
 For testing animals for recessive traits.
Limitations
 More number of animals must be progeny tested.
 It prolongs the generation interval. Hence it is time consuming and expensive
 Use of superior animals extensively once they have been located and errors due
to environment that are not standard for the progeny are more serious
limitations.
 Sires can be selected only when the progenies come for production and by the
time the sire may become old and useless. Therefore, the annual rate of genetic
gain is lowered.
 Hence it is time consuming and expensive
In conclusion, Progeny testing is estimating the breeding value of a sire based on the
average performance of its offspring. Each offspring receives a sample half of genes from
the sire. Therefore, the performance of large number of daughters will indicate the
breeding value of sire on progeny testing. Progeny testing is usually conducted for males
as more number of progenies can be produced for males and also proven bulls can be
extensively used for production of more number of progenies. The primary selection of
the bulls is based on the sibs’ average. The bulls with highest averages are selected and
included in the progeny testing. Then the bulls are used on many females to produce
many progenies. The performances of progenies are then studied to estimate the
breeding value of each bull. It is the best way of determining the genetic makeup of an
individual. The genetic principle behind progeny testing is that the more the number of
progeny are tested the greater the accuracy of assessment of the parents, since the errors
in sampling are reduced.
MODULE-15: METHODS OF SELECTION
Learning objectives
 tandem method,
 culling method and
 selection of index.
TANDEM METHOD
 Breeder selects and improves only one trait at a time until it reaches an
acceptable level, and then he shift to another and so on for a third. The
efficiency of this method is dependent on the genetic relationships among the
traits. If the two traits are favourably or positively correlated, selection for the
first trait will also automatically improve the other trait and vice versa.
 Here, the trait A was improved quickly in one generation, whereas B took more
time (two generations) and C took very much longer (few generations). A
remains stable when worked on B, and both A and B remained stable when
worked on C. Therefore the traits are assumed to be independent. On the other
hand if they are not independent, then the situation could be seen by the
dotted lines A’ whereas B went up, A came down i.e. See-saw effect caused by a
genetic antagonism between them. The efficiency depends on genetic
correlation between traits.
 It is easy method. This is a highly inefficient method as unless the traits
selected are genetically positively related. If they are not genetically related,
whatever achievement is made in the first trait is lost when attention is
directed to another trait. Therefore, the rate of net improvement becomes very
small. Since a very long period is involved in the selection practiced, the
breeder might change his goals too often or become discouraged and not
practice selection effectively.
 In general, the efficiency of this method is very low. If there is a positive
correlation, then the results may be desirable in the other trait also. If there is a
negative correlation, the efforts will be undesirable. Since very long time would
be involved in selection practice, the breeder may change one goal to another
and discourage one trait.
SIMULTANEOUS BUT INDEPENDENT CULLING METHOD
 In this method, selection may be practiced for two or more traits at a time. But
for each trait, a minimum standard (culling level) is set, so that every animal
must meet the minimum standards to be selected for the breeding purposes.
The failure to meet the minimum standard for any one trait makes the animal
to be rejected. Therefore, in actual practice, it is possible to cull some
genetically very superior animal when this method is used. The properties
selected for each trait will depend up on the total number of animals screened
for the breeding.
 This method reduces selection intensity of the traits to be selected. The
negative correlation among the traits will make the further reduction in
selection intensity. Selection based on independent culling method is easy to
perform but becomes complicated when more traits are considered and if there
is negative correlation between traits. Therefore, only few important traits
should be considered in this method.
ELECTION INDEX OR INDEX SELECTION OR TOTAL SCORE
METHOD
 It is the most effective method of selection. Selection index is a single
numerical value within the total scores given for each trait considered in the
selection. Each trait is weighted, by giving score and an individual trait score is
summed up to the total score for the each animal within the selection criteria.
The individual specification for a number of traits can vary greatly and is
combined into one value for the animal called a Total score or an Index.
The high merit in one trait can certainly be used to compensate the deficiencies
in other traits. An index is simply a means of putting a whole lot of different
information into one value. The information and the score should be fixed
based on
o Variation seen in each trait – the phenotypic standard deviation
o Heritability of the traits
o Phenotypic and genetic relationships (correlation) between the traits
o Relative economic value of the traits
 The aim in computing an index is to derive an estimate in which the various
traits are approximately weighted to give the best prediction of the animal’s
breeding value i.e. what it will produce when the animal breeds. An advantage
of this index is suppose if one component is missing then benefit can be
obtained by predicting the missing one from the others that are present.
 Index selection is predicted to be Ön times as efficient as independent culling
levels where n is the number of traits involved. The greater the number of
traits involved, the index becomes more reliable than the independent culling
method.
 In dairy cattle, milk production is the most important economic trait, whereas
the reproductive efficiency that is also important may not be as important in
magnitude as milk production. Hence, higher economic value should be given
to milk production and correspondingly lower economic value to the
reproductive efficiency.
I = b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + …….. + bnXn
Where,
I – Index value or genetic prediction
n – Number of traits of information
b1 to bn – coefficients obtained based on the relative importance of heritability of each
trait and genetic relationships of the traits concerned.
X1 to Xn – Measurement of each of the traits incorporated (phenotypic values)
 The animals are arranged based on index values and those with the highest
scores are kept for breeding purposes and the animals with lower index values
are eliminated from the breeding population. The net value of an animal is
dependent upon several traits that may not be of equal economic value or that
may be independent of each other. Hence, it is necessary to select more than
one trait at a time. The desired traits will depend upon their economic value.
 This method of selection leads to most efficient improvement in livestock
breeding. Selection indices are constructed with a view to making maximum
improvement in the total performance. All the characters selected are
combined into one figure.
 Index selection has been more widely used with sheep and swine than in beef
and dairy cattle. Large volume of accurate data of population is necessary to
provide information to compute the selection index. Indices computed from
inadequate or erroneous information can be ineffective in selection. A trait that
is highly heritable can be given adequate weightage than one with low
heritability.
 In conclusion, the selection index is a total score that includes all the
advantages and disadvantages of an animal for those traits considered for
selection. The amount of weightage given to each trait depends on their
relative economic value, heritability of the character and genetic correlation
between characters. A trait, which is highly heritable, can be given greater
score than a trait, which has a low heritability. The selection index method is
the most efficient (best method) among the three (Tandem, Independent
culling and Selection Index) methods because it results in better genetic
improvement. The index is the best estimate of an animal’s breeding value. The
only disadvantage is that the traits vary in importance from time to time and
the index built at one time will not be applicable for all times. Hence, it has to
be constructed and modified from time to time.
MODULE-16: RESPONSE TO SELECTION AND FACTORS
AFFECTING IT
Learning objectives
 response to selection,
 factors affecting genetic gain and selection differential
RESPONSE TO SELECTION
 The change produced by selection is the change of the population mean in the
offspring. This is called as the response to selection, symbolized by “R”. The
response to selection is the difference of mean phenotypic value between the
offspring of the selected parents and the whole of the parental generation
before selection. The response to selection is also called as the expected genetic
gain, symbolized by êG.
R or êG = h2 S where,
h2 = heritability
S = selection differential
R or êG/ year = h2 S / GI where,
h2 = heritability
S = selection differential
GI = generation interval
FACTORS AFFECTING GENETIC GAIN
The factors affecting the response to selection are heritability, selection differential and
generation interval. Maximum gain will result when the selection differential (S) and the
heritability (h2) are high and the Generation Interval is low.
 Heritability: The genetic gain depends on the h2 of the character in the
generation from which the parents are selected and if the h2 is high, the genetic
gain will also be more, because the environmental variation will be less.
 Selection differential: The average superiority of the selected parents is
called as selection differential, symbolized by “S”. It is defined as the difference
between the mean phenotypic value of the individuals selected as parents and
the mean phenotypic value of all the individuals in the parental generation
before selection.
S = (Ps - P) where,
Ps = mean of the
selected parents
P = mean of the
population
The selection differential may also be expressed in terms of phenotypic standard
deviation (standard deviation is the measure of variability) as,
S = i sp where
i = intensity of the
selection
sp = phenotypic
standard deviation
The intensity of the selection is also called as selection pressure and it is the mean
deviation of the selected individuals in units of standard deviation. The intensity of
selection is symbolized by “i”. It depends on the proportion of the individuals selected
and it can be determined from the tables of properties of normal distribution.
i = Selection differential / Phenotypic standard deviation
FACTORS AFFECTION SELECTION DIFFERENTIAL
 proportions of the animal selected for breeding; smaller the number larger the
selection differential,
 herd size; larger the herd size, smaller the proportions of animals selected,
 reproductive rate; in cattle selection differential will be less whereas in pigs, it
will be more because of more litter size and
 use of artificial insemination and frozen semen increases selection differential
or selection intensity in case of males and in females, super ovulation and
embryo transfer increases the selection differential or selection intensity.
The following table gives the percentage of males and females to be selected for
breeding to maintain a constant herd size for different species:
Species Percentage of animals to be selected
Females Males
Dairy 4-5 50 - 60
cattle
Beef cattle 4-5 40 - 50
Sheep 2-4 45 - 55
Swine 1-2 10 - 15
Chicken 1-2 10 - 15
Horse 2-4 40 - 50
o Generation interval: It is the time interval between generations and is
defined as the average age of the parents when the offspring is born.
This varies between species and selection procedure. Management
practices for early breeding in females reduces GI and breeding
practices like progeny testing increases the GI. The average generation
intervals for different species are:
Species Generation Interval (in years)
Males Females Average
Dairy 3-4 4.5 - 6.0 4-5
cattle
Beef cattle 3-4 4.5 - 6.0 4-5
Sheep 2-3 4.0 - 4.5 3-4
Swine 1.5 - 2 1.5 - 2.0 1.5 - 2.0
Chicken 1 - 1.5 1 - 1.5 1.0 - 1.5
Horse 8 - 12 8 - 12 8 - 12
o Accuracy of selection: The accuracy for selection is directly related to
the heritability of the trait. The heritability is high, the selection on
phenotype will permit an average estimation of breeding value. If
heritability is low, many errors will be made. Increased accuracy in
selection can be obtained by comparing the animals in controlled
environmental conditions. Correlation may be made for the age of the
individual, age of the dam and sex to remove non-genetic variations.
The techniques may increase the heritability of the trait by reducing the
environmental variation. When the accuracy of selection on individual is
low, accuracy can be increased by
 using additional measurements for the trait from the same
individual,
 using measurements of correlated traits and
 using measurements of relatives.
o Selection limit: When the selection is carried out continuously, the
response to selection will be more for a few generations, and then it
slows down and finally stops. When the response to selection has
stopped, the population is said to be at “plateau” or “selection limit”.
The main cause for this is fixation of favourable genes. This causes
reduction or absence of genetic variation. Therefore further
improvement depends on introduction of new genetic variation. The
new genetic variation can be introduced by cross breeding, mutation
and genetic engineering.
MODULE-17: CLASSIFICATION OF MATING SYSTEMS
Learning objectives
 systems of breeding and
 mating based on genetic relationship.
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING
There are only two ways in which the breeder can change the genetic properties of the
population.
 By selection: Choice of individuals to be used as parents.
 By controlled mating: Controlled mating of selected parents.
Although selection is the most important method for increasing the frequency of desired
genes, same genetic control over the population is provided by the mating system.
Mating animals which are alike in pedigree or visible characters tend to increase the
homozygosity. Mating unlike individuals will increase heterozygosity.
 Inbreeding is a system of mating where by the mates are more closely related
than the average members of the population.
 Grading: is the practice of using registered sires of a given breed on scrub or
native females generation after generation.
 Crossbreeding is the mating of pure bred animals from two different breeds.
 Out crossing is the mating of animals of the same breed but with no traceable
relationship for several generations back in the pedigree.
 Mating system based on phenotypic resemblance or dissimilarity
Mating system based on phenotypic resemblance. This is also known as
assortative mating. In this system mates are chosen on the basis of external
appearance in a particular character.
 Assortative mating: Mating based on phenotypic resemblance or
dissimilarity.
 Positive assortative: Mating of phenotypically similar individuals (i.e like
with like mating).
o Eg. Mating biggest with biggest ; Mating smallest with smallest.
 Negative assortative mating
o Mating between dissimilar individuals.
o Breeding best to worst.
Positive assortative mating tends to create more genetic, phenotypic variation than
would be found in comparable with random mating population,in the population
undergoing the assortative mating (Mating high X high, low X low) tends to spread the
distribution away from the centre towards the extreme. So, the phenotypic variation
caused by the assortative mating normally considered as draw back.
However increase in genetic variation can be beneficial from the selection point of view.
Greater the genetic variation faster the genetic change. Eg. To increase dairy milk yield,
mating the high producing cows to bulls with highest predicted performance.
Negative assortative mating or disassortative mating is mating like with unlike.
Best X Worst Tall X Dwarf.
Negative assortative mating tends to decrease the variation. That is intermediate types
are produced due to mating of such individuals. It is not good strategy if we want to
speed up directional genetic change. It reduces genetic variation, decrease response to
selection. Eg. In layers Rooster having high breeding value for egg size mated with hen
with small size eggs.
Properties of assortative mating
Sewall Wright (1921) studied and formulated same properties
 With complete + ve assortative mating complete homozygosity of population is
obtained but slowly
 Assortative mating based on external resemblance may had a population of
genetic composition may different from that reached by inbreeding based on
genetic relationship.
Eg. Metric character depend on 2 pair of genes with additive and equal effects,
assortative mating lead to 2 extreme types AABB, aabb But close inbreeding leads to
AABB, aaBB, Aabb, aabb (4) phenotypes.

MATING BASED ON GENETIC RELATIONSHIP
Mating based on genetic relationship
Eg. Mating
Brother x Sister
Parent x Offspring
It takes into account of the relationship of mates. This mating exerts its influence on all
the characters simultaneously. The coefficient of relationship between parent and
offspring is half. So when mated, the relationship exerts its influence on milk
production, age at first calving and other characters.
Mating system can be classified into two major groups.
 So far, we have studied how the breeder selects the parents for the next
generation. The next step is to decide how to breed them. Systems of breeding
do not create new genes. They sort out available genes into new patterns.
Success in animal breeding depends on the proportion of favourable genes
present in the foundation stock. Genes that are not present in the foundation
stock can be found in other populations or strains or breeds and can be
introduced through crosses.
Systems of breeding are classified as follows.
Mating system based on genetic relationship is divided into

1. Inbreeding
2. Out breeding
Inbreeding is defined as mating of animals more closely related to each other than the
average relationship with in the population concerned. Inbreeding includes matings like
parent – offspring, brother –sister, eg. Brother, half sister and among cousins and other
collateral relatives.
Inbreeding
Inbreeding is classified into two types
1. Close inbreeding
2. Line breeding
Out breeding
It is a form breeding where the mates are chosen on the basis of not being related.
1. Out crossing
2. Top crossing
3. Line crossing
4. Grading
5. Crossbreeding
6. Species hybridization
 Out crossing: It is usually applies only to matings with in a pure breeds. In two
herds or flocks within the same breed or separated for 4 or 5 generations and
the sire from one herd or flock is used in the another herd their amounts to out
crossing.
 Top crossing : This is a system of crossing which is normally used with in pure
breeds; It refers to the use of highly inbred male with females of base
population or non-inbred population. Top cross in dairy cattle usually refers to
the last sire in a pedigree. Top crossing also refers to the continued use of sires
to different families with in a breed.
 Line crossing : It usually refers to crossing of inbred lines within a specific
breed. It takes advantage of both increased homozygosity with in a line and
difference between lines.
 Grading: It is the continuous use of sire of one pure breed starting with
foundation of which were of another breed or non descriptive animals.
 Cross breeding: It is the mating of two individuals from different breeds.
Breeds represent tremendous resources of varying genetic material
 Species hybridisation: By crossing of two different species is called species
hybridization. The mule is a good example of a commercially important species
hybrid. Mare x Jackal ass = Mule
MODULE-18: INBREEDING, GENETIC AND PHENOTYPIC
EFFECTS OF INBREEDING
Learning objectives
 inbreeding,
 genetic and phenotypic effects of inbreeding,
 prepotency
INBREEDING
Inbreeding is the mating between animals, which are more closely, related each other
than the average relationship between all individuals in a population or inbreeding is
mating between animals related by ancestors. When the animals are considered as
closely related when they have one or more common ancestors in common, in the first 4
to 6 generations of their pedigree. Example: Sire-daughter, Son-daughter or Brother-
sister. In general, inbreeding refers to close breeding. Inbreeding is classified into two
types
 Close Inbreeding: Such as mating between sibs or between parents and
progeny in order to achieve inbred lines with relatively high degree of
homogenisity. In most of the time we use full sib mating method. The same
effect can be achieved by consistently back crossing the progeny to the younger
parents. Half sib mating is much slower, rich in homozygosity but it is also less
risky.
 Line breeding: It is a system of mating in which the relationships of an
individual or individuals are kept as close as possible to some ancestor. In
general line breeding is a milder form of inbreeding. As a general rule sire is
not mated to its daughters but half sib matings are made among the offspring
of the particular sire. Line breeding was used extensively in the past in
development of British breeds of cattle such as Angus, Hereford and
Shorthorn. The following points should be remembered while practicing line
breeding,
o Line breeding should be practiced in purebred population of high
degree of excellence, after identifying outstanding individuals.
o Line breeding is probably most useful when an out standing sire is dead
or not available for breeding purpose.
o To form new breeds, line breeding can be advocated.
Disadvantage of line breeding
 Line breeding tends to make gene good or bad, homozygous rapidly. Hence
choosing of a ancestor (sire) to line breed is very important. Those that are
definitely superior should alone be selected. Beside rigid selection, culling of
undesirable recessive is highly essential. Line breeding should be practised
only in herds distinctly superior to the general average of the breed.
GENETIC EFFECTS OF INBREEDING
Inbreeding makes more pairs of genes in the population homozygous irrespective of the
type of gene action involved. The consequences of homozygosity are:
 Inbreeding does not increased the number of recessive alleles in a population;
but merely brings to light through increased homozygosity.
 Inbreeding fixes characters in an inbred population through increased
homozygosity whether the effects are favorable or unfavorable.
 As a result of homozygosity, the offsprings of inbred parents are more likely to
receive the same genes from their parents than of offspring of non-inbred
parents. This is another way of saying that inbred parents are more likely to be
pre-potent than non-inbred parents.
 If overdominance exists (Aa is superior than AA or aa), inbreeding decreases
the overdominance by changing the Aa genotype to AA and aa.
PHENOTYPIC EFFECTS OF INBREEDING
When the animals are homozygous for a no. of traits, the regularity of inheritance is
assured (i.e it fixes the characteristics). Inbreeding reduces vigour is called inbreeding
depression. Increased inbreeding results in
 Reduced fertility,
 Reduced mothering ability,
 Reduced viability and growth rate
 Inbreeding if accompanied by selection may increase the phenotypic
uniformity.
PREPOTENCY
 Prepotency is the ability of the individual to stamp its characteristic on its
offspring to such an extent that they resemble their parents more closely than
in usual. It is the property of the characteristic and not the individual breed or
sex. When two individuals are mated one may have more influence than the
other on offspring. Similarly some lines and breeds are more pre-potent than
others. However prepotency can’t be passed on from one generation to another
unless it is possessed by both sires and dams.
 A high degree of homozygosity and possession of a high per cent of dominant
genes are the inherent qualities that will enable an animal to stamp its own
characteristic on majority of its offspring. A perfectly homozygous animals
produce only one kind of gametes and all the offspring will receive exactly the
same gene from each. Any genetic difference between the offspring would
depend entirely on the halving process and on number of different genes
received from the other parent. If the parent is homozygous for several
dominant gene all the offspring will resemble it irrespective of what they
received from other parent. Here prepotency is the maximum.
Measure of prepotency
 In breeding and increasing of homozygosity is the only means of mating
animals prepotent for characteristics. The more the animals are inbred the
more they become homozygous for a number of genes. The inbreeding
coefficient then is the best estimation of animal’s prepotency. Prepotency
however is not transmissible from parent to offspring.
Development of Strain
 A strain could be defined as a group of birds or animals which have been closed
for outside breeding and the herd or flock has been randomly mated with
intense selection for a particular trait or traits for 5 generations and give a
name. The description of the strain should always followed by a economic trait.
This is considerably milder form of inbreeding in which strain forms. When the
population of animals closed for outside breeding, the population becomes
closed flock. Estimate the genetic parameters, once the average performance of
the closed flock are known, rigid selection is followed to improve particular
trait in subsequent generations. The selected strain should have superior
breeding quality. In breeding point of view are more or less isolated from each
other. Since the populations are close from the entry of new animals,
homozygosity increases as a result of small population size. The superior strain
formed within the breed could cross among them for exploiting heterosis or
hybrid vigour.
Development of Line
 The line can be defined as a collection of animals, as a result of inbreeding or
more closely related to each other than the individuals in the strain. The line
should be always qualified by inbreeding coefficient. From the strain, the birds
are chosen at random. Full sib or half sib matings are taken for successive
generations. The progeny has a co-efficient of inbreeding for excess of 50%.
Then perform selection among the population and fix a particular trait in that
line which is homozygous for a particular trait.
Uses of Inbreeding
In spite of certain obvious disadvantages of inbreeding, there are certain instances
where it may be used as advantage of livestock production.
 The most practical use of inbreeding is to develop strains and lines that can be
used for crossing purposes to exploit heterosis.
 Inbreeding may be used to determine the actual genetic worth of an individual,
is done by mating to a sire with 25 to 35 daughters before it is used extensively
in AI programme.
 Inbreeding could be used as a practical way to select against the recessive
genes of economic importance. Such inbreeding brings out the hidden
recessive genes both recessive homozygous and heterozygous parents can be
identified and culled.
 Inbreeding may be used to form distinct families with in a breed especially the
selection is practiced along with it.
 To maintain genetic purity and thereby to increase prepotency
 To eliminate undesirable recessives. When a sire is mated to 20 of its
daughters and does not produce any recessive characters in the offspring, it
may concluded that the sire is not heterozygous for recessive characters.
 To develop inbred lines.
 To regroup the genetic material
 To produce uniform progeny
 To determine the type of gene action. If inbreeding effects are large, the type of
gene action is non – additive: if inbreeding effects are small , then the type of
action is additive.
Disadvantages of Inbreeding
 Undesirable traits appear with increasing frequency as intensity of inbreeding
increases (lethal and sub lethal).
 Growth rates in farm animals reduced by inbreeding.
 Inbreeding reduces the reproductive efficiency.
 Reduced vigour lower vitality due to inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression
The most striking observed consequence of inbreeding is the inbreeding depression. It is
the reduction in the mean phenotypic value shown by characters connected with
reproductive capacity or physiological efficiency. In general inbreeding tends to reduce
the fitness. Thus, characters that form an important component of fitness, such as litter
size show reduction on inbreeding. Whereas characters that are not closely related with
fitness show little or no change. Inbreeding depression for a single locus can be
expressed as follows.
MF = Mo - 2dpqF and for all loci concerned
it is, MF = Mo - 2 F pqd
Where,
Mo - Mean value of a population for a particular character before inbreeding.
MF - Mean value of the population for a particular character after inbreeding.
F - Inbreeding co.efficient
d - dominance, i.e heterozygote does not have a value average to that of homozygote
p - Frequency of one allele
q - Frequency of other allele
Therefore, inbreeding depression is – 2F pqd which depends on dominance (d),
inbreeding coefficient (F) and relative frequencies of alleles (p & q). Genes are at
intermediate frequency at the beginning of breeding show highest depression. Economic
traits like reproductive viability, milk yield and growth rate show inbreeding depression.
Characters like fat % and back fat thickness do not show much inbreeding depression.
Inbreeding is to be practised only when
 the herd is better than the average. I.e when the frequency of desirable genes
are more
 the herd has an outstanding sire
 the breeder knows the merits and demerits of inbreeding
 the herd is not maintained for commercial purpose.
MODULE-19: MEASURES OF INBREEDING
Learning objectives
 measurement of coefficient of relationship,
 inbreeding depression and
 coefficient of inbreeding.
MEASUREMENT OF COEFFICIENT OF RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between two animals is expressed as coefficient of relationship,
symbolised by “R “. It measures the probable portion of genes that are the same for two
individuals due to their common ancestors, over and above the base population.
Relationship may be two kinds.
1. Direct
2. Collateral
 Direct relationship: You are directly related to your father or mother. You and
your father have 505 common genes and you and your mother have 505
common genes.
 Collateral relationship: You and your cousin’s are collateral relatives because
you both have some common ancestors.
You and your cousin have the same grand parents C and D. The important step in
measurement of relationship is the number of generations between the animals studied
and that common ancestor.
The formula for relationship between individual X and Y is
Rxy =∑ [(1/2) n+n’ ]
Where
∑ = summation
½ = Halving of inheritance in each generation
n = No. of generations between X and the common ancestor or the no. of times the
halving process has undergone between X and common ancestor
n’ = No. of generations between Y and the common ancestor or the no. of times the
halving process has undergone between Y and common ancestor.
EXAMPLES
1. Relationship between son and father
Rxy = [(1/2)n+n’ ]
= [(1/2)1+0 ] = ½ or 50%

There is one generation between son and father and genetic material is halved once.
There is no generation beyond father and hence n’ is zero.
2. Relationship between son and grand father
Rxy = [(1/2)2+0 ]
= ½2 =1/4 or 25%
There are two generations between son or (X) and grand father © and n=2. There is no
generation beyond C and n’ = 0.
3. Relationship between brother / sister / brother and sister
First find the no. of common ancestors. In this example there are two common
ancestors, A and B.
 Relationship through A
Rxy = [(1/2)1+1 ]
= ½2 =1/4 or 25%
 Relationship through B
Rxy = [(1/2)1+1 ]
= ½2 =1/4 or 25%
sum of relationship = ½ or 50%
4. Relationship between first cousin
 Relationship through C
Rxy = [(1/2)2+2 ]=1/16 or 6.25
 Relationship through D
Rxy = [(1/2)2+2 ]=1/16 or 6.25
sum of relationship = 1/8 or 12.50%
5. Relationship between half first cousin
 Relationship through C only
Rxy = [(1/2)2+2 ]=1/16 or 6.25
6. Relationship between double first cousins
 Relationship through C = [(1/2)2+2 ]=1/16 = 6.25%
 Relationship through D = [(1/2)2+2 ]=1/16 = 6.25%
 Relationship through I = [(1/2)2+2 ]=1/16 = 6.25%
 Relationship through J = [(1/2)2+2 ]=1/16 = 6.25%
Sum of relationship = 25.00%
Direct and collateral relationship simultaneously
INBREEDING DEPRESSION
 A degree in the performance of inbred mostly in traits like fertility,
survivability and reduction in overall performance noticed in inbred is called
inbreeding depression. It is a manifestation of poor gene combination value,
which is direct result of increase homozygosity. Decline in performance of
inbred over the mean of their parents is also called inbreeding depression.
Decline is more pronounced in traits which are close to reproduction or fitness.
 Eg. Reduction in growth rate, reduced No. of ova, increase in early embryonic
mortality, increase in mortality.
COEFFICIENT OF INBREEDING
Inbreeding increases homozygosity and decreases heterozygosity. The average
percentage increase in homozygosity or decrease in heterozygosity in an inbred animal
in relation to an average animal of the same breed or population is known as coefficient
of inbreeding symbolised by ‘F’. It ranges from 0 to 100.
The degree of inbreeding inb any individual may be calculated by using the formula
Wright 1921.
Fx = [(1/2)n1+n2+1 (1+FA)]
Where,
Fx = Coefficient of inbreeding of X.
= Summation
n1 = No. of generation from the sire of X back to the same common ancestor
n2 = No. of generation from the dam of X back to the same common ancestor
FA = Coefficient of inbreeding of the common ancestor
When common ancestor is not inbred then
Fx = [(1/2)n1+n2+1]
To calculate the inbreeding coefficient the pedigree should be known. The pedigree can
be represented in two ways.
 Bracket form
 Path diagram (Arrow diagram)
In the arrow style, each common ancestor is included only once, with lines drawn to
each of his or her offspring in the pedigree. These lines represent the paths of
inheritance by which genes are transmitted.
To calculate the Fx
 Convert the bracket form of pedigree to path diagram
 Draw arrows from parents to offspring
 Besure that each individual appears only once in the path diagram
Full sib mating (Brother X Sister)
 Common ancestor n1 n2 contribution
 C 1 1 (1/2 )1+1+1 =( ½)3 = 12.5 %
 D 1 1 (1/2 )1+1+1 =( ½)3 = 12.5 %
 Sum = 25.0 %
Half – sib mating

 D 1 1 (1/2 )1+1+1 =( ½)3 = 12.5 %
 Fx = 12.5 %
Parent offspring mating Father X Daughter, Mother X Son

 A 0 1 (1/2 )0+1+1 =( ½)2 = ¼ = 25 %
The coefficient of inbreeding ( Fx = 25 or 12.5 or 25 % in the egs) means that the animal
“X” is 25 % or 12.5 % or 25 % less heterozygous than the animals in the herd.
Let us see an example with an inbred common ancesstor.
Common ancestor are
 B as sire of X and I
 B as sire of X and J
 E as dam of B and J
 F as dam of D and E
B ais the only common ancestor which is already inbred.
FB = (1/2) 1+1+! = (1/2)3 = 0.125 or 12.5%
By using formula
Fx = [(1/2)n1+n2+1 (1+FA)]
The coefficient of inbreeding Fx can be calculated as follows
MODULE-20: OUTBREEDING, GENETIC AND PHENOTYPIC

EFFECTS OF OUTBREEDING
Learning objectives
 out breeding
 out crossing
 top crossing
 line crossing
 back crossing
 grading/gradingup
 cross breeding and
 species hybridisation.
OUT BREEDING
Out breeding is the mating of animals which are less closely related to each other than
the average of the population. Its general effects are the opposite of those of inbreeding.
Out breeding increases the heterozygosity of the individual. The maximum practical
usefulness of out breeding systems is the production of animals for market. Out
breeding systems are broadly classified as follows:
1. Out crossing
2. Top crossing
3. Line crossing
4. Grading
5. Crossbreeding
6. Species hybridization
OUT CROSSING
Out crossing usually applies only to mating within a pure breed. If two lines or flocks
within the same breed are separated for four or five generations and the sire from one
herd is used in another herd that amounts to out crossing. The use of out crossing in
purebreds are
 When there is lack of selection response due to reduced genetic variability.
 To reduce inbreeding in a closed population.
 To introduce new genes with reference - colour, horn type, etc.
TOP CROSSING
 This is a system of crossing which is normally used within pure breeds. Top
crossing refers to the use of highly inbred males to the females of the base
population or non-inbred population. Top cross usually refers to the best sire
in a pedigree. Top crossing also refers to the continued use of sires to different
families within a pure bred, same breed or different breed.
LINE CROSSING
 Line crossing usually refers to crossing of inbred lines within a specific breed.
Line crossing takes advantage of both increased homozygosity within a line
and the difference between lines.
 Line crossing is mainly done to exploit heterosis or hybrid vigour.
BACK CROSSING
 It is the mating of a cross bred animal back to one of the pure parent races,
which were used to produce it. It is commonly used in genetic studies, but not
widely used by breeders. When one of the parents possess all or most of the
recessive traits, the back cross permits a surer analysis of the genetic situation
than the F2 does.
 A heterozygous individual of F1 when crossed with a homozygous recessive
parent the offspring group themselves into a phenotypic ratio of 1:1. On the
other hand if the F1 individual is crossed with the homozygous dominant
parent then all the offspring will be phenotypically alike.
GRADING / GRADINGUP
 Grading up is the continual use of sires of one pure breed starting with
foundation females which were of another breed or no particular breed at all
(Non-descript or Mongrel). Marked improvement in crosses if sires from a
particular breed (A) are repeatedly back crossed to another breed / non-
descript animals (B). Five generations are sufficient to raise the level of
inheritance of breed A to 96.9% (0.969) in the fifth generation. After five
generations of repeated back crossing to a particular breed, the animals after
the end of fifth generation become eligible to be registered as purebred.
Generation Level of pure bred blood of sire used %
Foundation stock 0
First generation 50
Second generation 75
Third generation 87.5
Fourth generation 93.75
Fifh generation 96.875
Sixth generation 98.4375
Seventh 99.23875
generation

CROSS BREEDING
 Cross breeding is mating of two individuals from different breeds. Breed
represents tremendous resources of varying genetic material. Cross breeding is
done. Cross breeding is done to exploit hybrid vigor or heterosis and to sell the
crossbred to market. Every time, the parental breeds have to be crossed for
producing market animal.
 Crossbreeding has been used in recent years to establish a broad genetic base
in the development of new breeds or synthetics: one or two crosses between
the two or more populations are made in order to produce a single population
of animals containing genes from each of the population involved. Once a
synthetic has been formed then the main aim is to improve it as rapidly as
possible by selection within it. For example: Santa Gertrudis, The Jamaica
Hope, the Norwegian Red and White, the Australian Milking Zebu, Hissardale,
Karan Swiss, Sunandhini, Taylor breed. The main guidelines to be followed in
crossing to produce a synthetic are:
o Ensure that the animals used in the original crossings have been
intensely selected in terms of relevant characters; it is of no use starting
a synthetic with inferior animals.
o Maximise variance in breeding values amongst the foundation animals
in the synthetics using as many unrelated animals as possible from each
of the contributing populations.
SPECIES HYBRIDISATION
Hybrids can occur where the species are closely related for the egg and sperm to result
in a viable embryo. Where the two species are very closely related, the hybrids may even
been partially or fully fertile. Some hybrids are bred for curiosity or public display,
others are bred by researchers involved in genetic researcher and a few occur naturally.
Chimeras are not the same as hybrids. Hybrids have intermediate features and each cell
is a mix of chromosomes from the parental species. Chimeras are a mix of genetically
different cells to form a mosaic animal.
Crossing the species boundary
 Speciation (one species evolving into two) is usually a slow process. It is
generally accepted that different species usually cannot mate and reproduce -
this is called "reproductive isolation". The exception was closely related
species which can produce hybrids, although those hybrids have reduced
fertility.
 Sometimes, one species can split into two through behavioural isolation.
Some individuals develop behaviour patterns which limit their choice of mates
e.g. they might be attracted to certain colours or might be active at different
times of day. Though they are fully capable of interbreeding with the other
group, their different behaviours keep them apart. If their habitat became
permanently overcast, those behaviour barriers would break down and they
would interbreed freely; their hybrids might become new species.
 Another way reproductive isolation occurs is when fragments of DNA
accidentally jump from one chromosome to another in an individual i.e.,
chromosomal translocation. The mutant individuals cannot reproduce
except with other mutant individuals - not much good unless the individual has
mutant siblings to mate with! There are also "master genes" which govern
general body plan (Hox genes) and those which switch other genes on and
off. A small mutation to a master gene can mean a sudden big change to the
individuals that inherit that mutation. Sometimes, those radical mutations can
"undo" generations of evolution so that two unrelated species can mate with
each other and produce fertile young (only seen in micro-organisms).
 In mammals, hybrid White-Tail/Mule Deer don't inherit either parent's
escape strategy (White Deer dash. Mule Deer bound) and are easier prey than
the pure-bred parents. Another example is seen in Galapagos Finches.
Healthy Galapagos Finch hybrids are relatively common, but their beaks are
intermediate in shape and less efficient feeding tools than the specialised beaks
of the parental species so they lose out in the competition for food.
Mechanisms for keeping species separate
 Physical separation: the species live in different geographic locations or
occupy different ecological niches in the same location and so never have the
chance to meet each other.
Temporal isolation: the species that mate during different seasons or
different time of day and cannot breed together.
 Behavioral isolation: members of different species may meet each other,
but do not mate because neither performs the correct mating ritual. Imprinting
by fostering the young of one species on a female of the other species can
overcome this in some cases.
 Mechanical isolation: copulation may be impossible because of
incompatible size and shape of the reproductive organs.
 Morphological isolation: copulation may be impossible because of the
difference in body size or shape.
 Gametic isolation: the sperm and egg may not fuse and hence fertilization
cannot occur; if it does occur then the embryo fails to get past the first few cell
division.
Haldan's rule
 Haldane's Rule states that in animal species whose gender is determined by
sex chromosomes, when in the first cross offspring of two different animal
species, one of the sexes is absent, rare or sterile, that sex is the heterogametic
sex. The "heterogametic sex" is the one with two different sex chromosomes
(e.g. X and Y); usually the male. The "homogametic sex" has two copies of one
type of sex chromosome (e.g. X and X) and is usually the female.
 Haldane's Rule for Hybrid Sterility states that a race of animals could
diverge enough to be considered separate species, but could still mate to
produce healthy hybrid offspring in a normal ratio of males and females. If any
of the hybrid offspring were sterile, the sterile offspring would be the
heterogametic offspring (males). If the heterogametic offspring was fertile, it
produced the normal 50:50 ratio of X and Y sperm.
 Haldane's Rule for Hybrid Inviability states that if the divergence
between the species became large enough to generate genic differences, but not
to prevent mating, then parental gene products may fail to co-operate during
development of the embryo, resulting in hybrid inviability (the hybrids are
aborted, stillborn or don't survive to maturity). In this case, the male to female
ratio of hybrid offspring is skewed with more homogametic offspring while the
heterogametic offspring (males) are absent or rare.
By crossing two different species, sometimes we get good individuals. The mule is a
good example of a commercially important species hybrid. Mare x Jackal ass = Mule,
She ass x stallion – Hinny. Male Mules are always sterile as for as it yet known. A few
cases of fertile mare mule have however reported, but they are very rare. Hinny is
generally inferior to Mule as a worth animals. Hinny is also sterile. Horse having 32
pairs and Ass 31 pairs. Mules comes to possess 63 chromosomes in all. The mare mules
have given birth to mule foal and horse foal when bred to Jack and stallion respectively.
The inference is that the mare follicles occassionally produce an egg containing nothing
but horse chromosomes, and all of the Ass chromosomes have been extruded in the
polar body. The fertile mare mules essentially function as mare as far as the genetics of
the egg is concerned. If all the horse chromosome where extruded in the polar body the
Mules will function genetically as assess. But no case of this sort has been reported. Pure
breeding of Mules as such also theoretically impossible.
 European cattle and American Bison when crossed produce sterile Males
and Fertile females. By Back crossing the females to Bison and Cattle attempts
are being made to form a new breed of cattle called cattallo.
 Male Jackals only mate with domestic bitches if the Jackal pups are raised by
a domestic bitch (to become imprinted on dogs). There is a psychological
barrier, but the offspring are fertile (pre-zygotic barrier, but no post-zygotic
barrier).
 Lions and Tigers must overcome behavioural (courtship) barriers, but
produce fertile female offspring and sterile male offspring (pre-zygotic and
post-zygotic barriers). Lions and leopards have some physical barriers
(size), but these are overcome if the lioness lies on her side to let the leopard
mount her; the male Leopons are sterile, though female offspring are fertile
(pre-zygotic and post-zygotic barriers). In these cases, pre-zygotic barriers are
overcome by rearing the two species together (in whales and dolphins this
occurs naturally).
Some cases seem to need additional rules! In Beefalo, Domestic cows may have an
immune response against Bison/Cow hybrid calves - this is a physiological barrier, but
does not prevent conception. Bison cows don't have this immune response against
hybrid calves and hybrid Beefalo males can be fertile. In some hybrids of domestic cats
with small wildcats, a proportion of hybrid males are claimed to be partially fertile
(incomplete post-zygotic barrier?) and though the hybrid females are fertile they may
not successfully raise their young - a psychological barrier, but one which does not
prevent mating/conception.
By crossing the two different species, sometimes good, visible individuals are produced.
The mule is a good example of species hybridisation.
Several other species hybrids have been produced. Some of them are
S.No. Hybrids Sire Dam Remarks
1 Hinny Stallion Jennet It is inferior to mule as a work
animal and is also sterile
2 Zebroid Zebra Horse Popular in tropics – docile –
better disease and heat
resistance
3 Cattalo Cattle Bison Bison is known as American
buffalo. Males are sterile and
females are fertile. domestic
bull/Bison cow crossings have
a lower infant mortality rate
(cow immune systems can
reject hybrid calves)
4 Beefalo American Domestic Beefalo have been back-
Bison Cattle crossed to Bison and to
domestic cattle; some of these
resemble pied Bison with
smooth coats and a maned
hump. The aim is to produce
high protein, low fat and low
cholesterol beef on animals
which have "less hump and
more rump". Although Bison
bull/domestic cow crossings
are more usual,
5 Pien niu Cattle Yak Found in Tibet.
6 Goep Goat Sheep Sheep and goat are not so
closely related. When crosses
are made between them
fertilization sometimes takes
place. However the embroys
die before parturition and are
resorbed or aborted.
7 Zubron Domestic Wisent Zubron was considered as a
cattle (European possible replacement for
Bison, domestic cattle as they were
Bison durable and resistant to many
bonasus). cattle diseases. They also
thrived on poor pasture, in
harsh weather and with
minimal husbandry. First
generation Zubron males are
infertile and cannot be used
for breeding, but the females
are fertile and may be bred
back (back-crossed) to either
Wisent or to domestic bulls.
Males from these back-crosses
are fertile.
8 Yakalo Bison Domestic In Nepal, Yak/Cow hybrids are
(American Tibetan Yak bred using Yak bulls on
"Buffalo") domestic cows or, less often,
domestic bulls on Yak cows.
The Yak-Cow females are
fertile, the males are sterile
and the meat is considered
superior to beef. In Nepalese,
the hybrid is called a Khainag
or Dzo (male)/Dzomo
(female). A Dzomo crossed
with either a domestic bull or
yak bull results in an Ortoom
(three-quarter-bred) and an
Ortoom crossed with a
domestic bull or yak bull
results in a Usanguzee (one
eighth bred).
9 Geep Goat Sheep Although often cited as a
embryo embryo hybrid, the famous "Geep" is
not a true goat/sheep hybrid,
but was a laboratory
experiment which fused a
sheep embryo with a goat
embryo (a type of animal
called a chimera). The geep is
a mosaic of mismatched goat
and sheep parts; the parts
which grew from the sheep
embryo are woolly while those
which grew from the goat
embryo are hairy. Each set of
cells kept their own species
identity instead of being
intermediate in type. It could
be fertile, but will produce
either goats or sheep
depending on whether its
reproductive organs grew from
the goat embryo or from the
sheep embryo.
10 Cama Camel Llama Llama is a hybrid
11 Iron Age American Tamworth Resemble early domestic pigs
Pigs wild hogs pigs

MODULE-21: CROSS BREEDING - METHODS OF CROSS

BREEDING
Learning objectives
 cross breeding and
 methods of cross breeding.
CROSS BREEDING
 Cross breeding is mating of two individuals from different breeds. Various
breeds represent tremendous resources of varying genetic material. Cross
breeding is done for any one of the following reasons.
o Complimentarity of different breeds.
o Cross breeding is done to exploit hybrid vigor or heterosis.
o Every time, the parental breeds have to be crossed.
 Wide genetic base for producing synthetics.
METHODS OF CROSS BREEDING
Single two way cross or Single cross (Click here to view the animation...)
 Two different breeds are crossed with each other to produce an F1 which is
useful for production purposes and not for breeding.

Breed A and Breed B : Straight bred
F1 progeny AB : Crossbred
Three way crosses (A,B, C) (Click here to view the animation...)
 The first generation crossbred females are crossed with females of the third
breed, then using the hybrid vigor of dam.
Double cross or Four way cross (Click here to view the animation...)
 There are four breeds are involved in this type of crossbreeding programme.
First two breeds are crossed to get F1 and second two breeds are crossed for
getting another F1 the both F1s are crossed to produce F2 which having 25% of
genes each from four different breeds, so all the different characters are
combines well. By inter-se mating the selected characters are fixed in the four
way cross
Systematic cross breeding

 Back cross (AB)
o Usually the F1 females are back crossed to one of the parent breeds. In
this cross, the maternal heterosis is exploited.
 Criss crossing (Reciprocal back crossing)

o Breeds A and B are crossed to produce F1 generation, then F1(AB)
females are back crossed to B and F1 (AB) males back crossed to breed A
and so on.
Three way rotational cross
 Commercially used in pig industry.
 Breeds A, B, C are crossed in tradition.
 Three way rotational crossing maintain a high degree of heterozygosity. For

three way rotation, frozen semen/sire can be used without maintaining
purebred population.
MODULE-22: HETEROSIS - GENETIC BASIS OF HETEROSIS
Learning objectives
 heterosis,
 breeding for heterosis and
 causes of heterosis.
HETEROSIS OR HYBRID VIGOUR
Crosses of animals from different strains or lines of the same breed, from different
breeds or from different species, result in offspring whose level of production is above
that of the average of the parents. The increased production may be due to increased
fertility, increased pre and post natal viability, faster and more efficient growth,
improved mothering ability etc. The increased level of performance as compared to the
average of the parents is known as heterosis or hybrid vigour. The heterosis can be
either positive or negative. Heterosis is the phenomenon in which progeny of crosses
between inbred lines or purebred populations exceed the average of the two parental
populations.
It is just the opposite of inbreeding depression.
Heterosis can be measured by using the formula
Heterosis (H) = [ (Mean of F1 offspring) - (Mean of parents) /Mean of
Parents ] x 100
Example: The mean litter size at weaning in pigs
Breed A = 7.0
Breed B = 8.0 Mean of A & B = 7.5
F1 offspring = 8.5
Heterosis = (8.5 - 7.5) / 7.5 = 1.0/7.5
= 0.13333
= 13.33%
Various types of heterosis are recognised in breeding.
 Parental heterosis (maternal and paternal)
 Individual heterosis referring to the non-parental performance.
 Heterosis is due to non-additive gene action.
Genetic basis of heterosis
The theories put forward to explain heterosis are
 Dominance Theory : It postulates that the parental lines are homozygous
dominant for different loci – when crossed produces progeny with dominant
gene at all loci.
 Overdominance Theory : It postulates that the heterozygote is superior to
either homozygotes (parents).
 Epistasis Theory : It postulates that gene interactions are responsible.
But in practice the heterosis is due to combination of dominance, overdominance and
epistasis in any proportion. However, the contribution of epistasis to heterosis is
negligible in crossbred of domestic animals.
Generally all the quantitative characters are governed by many genes and no animal is
likely to carry all of them in homozygous dominant state. In living organisms, dominant
genes are more often favourable than the recessive genes. Crossing of two different lines
or breeds has a greater chance of contributing different dominant genes to the progeny.
Since the offspring carries more dominant genes than the parents, it will be more
vigourous or productive. All the recessives (aa bb dd ee) except ‘cc’ are masked by the
dominant alleles. The degree of heterosis depends on the no. of dominant genes present
in the crossbred individual. Maximum heterosis could be obtained if animals carrying
all desirable homozygous dominant genes are used for crossing. It would never be
possible to have such animals. Eg. Two animals heterozygous for ‘n’ pairs of genes can
produce 3ⁿ types of offspring. If only seven pairs of genes are heterozygous, 3 7 or 2187
types of offspring. If 10 pairs of genes are heterozygous, 310 or 59049 types of offspring
are possible.
As the quantitative traits are polygenic in nature and the animals produce only a few
offspring, it is not possible to produce animals with perfect combination even after
many generations of selection. The chance is further reduced by other genetic factors
like undesirable recessives, linkage between desirable and undesirable genes and by
non-genetic factors like environment.
Formulae HF1 = dy2 and HF2 = 1/2 dy2
BREEDING FOR HETEROSIS
To exploit heterosis, lines or breeds with good nicking ability or combining ability are
crossed. The combining ability can be determined only by test crosses. A breeder
attempting to produce lines which will combine well with each other has to produce
large no. of lines. Then he can test them in crosses and find those which give best
results. This idea is expensive, time consuming and uncertain. As a general rule the lines
or breeds totally unrelated give better heterosis in crosses.
There are two types of combining ability
 General combining ability (GCA) is the mean performance of F1 expressed as a
deviation from the mean of all crosses and it is due to additive genetic variance.
 Specific combining ability (SCA) is the superiority of a particular cross over the
average GCA of the two lines and it is due to non-additive genetic variance.
CAUSES OF HETEROSIS
 Difference in gene frequency between two population for several generations.
 Dominance, overdominance and epistasis.
Complementarity is the second reason for cross breeding. This refers to the additional
profitability obtained from crossing two populations resulting not from heterosis but
from the manner in which two or more characters complement each other. E.g. Crossing
Angus carcass quality with Zebu Brahman (adaptability).
Complementarity is not heterosis. Complementarity is due to additive gene action. If
there is complementarity, the crossbred progeny are in midway between these two
breeds. Traits which show heterosis would rank above the average of parental breeds in
the crossbred progeny and often would be superior to either.
MODULE-23: SYSTEMS OF UTILIZATION OF HETEROSIS
Learning objectives
 systems of utilization of heterosis and
 genetic basis of heterosis.
SYSTEMS OF UTILIZATION OF HETEROSIS
Heterosis is a phenomenon in which the crosses of unrelated individuals often result in
progeny with increased vigour, much above their parents.
 The progeny may be from the crossing of strains, varieties or species.
 Hybrid vigour includes hardiness, greater viability, faster growth rate, greater
milk producing ability, fertility etc.
 One of the best-known examples for hybrid vigour is MULE, which is proven
for hard work in extreme climatic conditions.
GENETIC BASIS OF HETEROSIS
Heterosis is caused by heterozygosity of genes involving non-additive effects,
which mainly includes dominanace, over dominance and epistasis.
Dominance
 When several pairs of genes control one trait, one breed could be homozygous
dominant for several pairs and homozygous recessive for another pair (AA BB
CC dd) and another breed could be homozygous recessive for respective several
pairs and homozygous dominant for respective another pair(aa BB CC DD).
Assume that the recessive genotype contributes 1 unit and dominant genotype
contributes 2 units of phenotypic values. If these two breeds are crossed:
 This hybrid will be superior to either parent because of presence of at least one
dominant gene in all pairs of genes which affect the particular trait.
Over dominance
 For some pairs of genes, the heterozygotes may be more vigorous than either of
homozygotes. Here heterozygosity produces hybrid vigour. Consider the same
illustration given for dominance producing heterosis. Assume that recessive,
heterozygous and homozgous genotypes contribute 1, 2 and 1.5 units of
phenotypic values.
 The F1 hybrid generation, phenotypic variability is generally much less than

that exhibited by the inbred parental lines or strains or breeds. This shows that
heterozygotes are less influenced by environmental factors than the
homozygotes. This phenomenon is termed as “buffering”, which means that
the organisms’ development is highly regulated by genetics. Another term
often used in this connection is “homeostasis”, which means the steady stse in
the development of the organism within a normal range of environmental
fluctuations.
Epistasis
 To a lesser degree, interallelic interaction or epistasis can account for heterosis.
In dominance and over dominance, the heterosis is due to the interaction of
genes that are alleles. In epistasis, the interaction is between pairs of genes that
are not alleles.
Contribution of AaBb results in an interaction such that the presence of both A

and B gives a phenotype larger or in other words more desirable than would be
expected from average phenotypes of AAbb or aaBB.
Application of heterosis in animal breeding
 Not all traits in farm animals are affected to the same degree by heterosis.
Those traits expressed early in life, such as survival and growth rate to weaning
seem to be affected most. Feed-lot performance as measured by rate and
efficiency of gain after weaning is moderately affected. Heterosis has very little
effect on carcass traits. Traits, which show the greatest degree of heterosis are
the same ones which show the greatest adverse effects when inbreeding is
practiced. Highly heritable traits seem to be affected very little by heterosis;
whereas, those which are lowly heritable are affected to a greater degree. For
example, fertility and litter size in swine (heritability is 15 to 17%).
 The degree of heterosis depends on degree of genetic diversity of the parents.
Therefore, heterosis will be higher when breeds are crossed than lines within
the breeds are crossed. Crossing breeds having greater differences in genetic
backgrounds should give more heterosis than crossing breeds having similar
genetic backgrounds. This is because unrelated parents are less likely than
related parents to be homozygous for the same pairs of genes.
o Heterosis is much employed to produce commercial stock where the
individual merit is promoted, but the breeding value is lowered.
o The successful exploitation of heterosis depends upon how superior the
crosses are over the purebreds and whether it is worth considering the
lowering the breeding value of the individual and cost of replacement of
purebred stock.
 For these reasons, it is commonly practiced in poultry, swine and sheep where
the fertility is high and the cost of replacement of purebred stock is necessary
MODULE-24: SIRE EVALUATION
Learning objectives
 simple daughter average index,
 equiparent / Intermediate / Dairy bull index / Yapp’s Index,
 mount hope index,
 heizer’s index,
 gifford’s index,
 regression index or rice index,
 tomar index,
 corrected daughter average index / Krishnan’s index,
 dairy search index / Sundaresan index,
 contemporary and herd-mate comparison,
 best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP).
SIRE EVALUATION
 There is urgent need to increase the production in order to meet the demand
for the exploding population. This could be achieved by applying various
modern methodologies in selection and breeding of livestock. Increasing the
productivity through genetic improvement requires adequate identification
and intensive selection of genetically superior sires. About 93 per cent of the
total herd improvement comes from breeding of young bulls from tested sires
and only six per cent from selection of dams. With the advances in artificial
insemination and cryopreservation of semen, a sire has a potential of serving
3/4th million cows and producing 1/4th million progenies. Thus, selection of
bulls is of great importance in dairy herd improvement.
 For maximising the genetic gain by sire selection, it is essential that the
method of estimating breeding values of sires should be unbiased and efficient.
The breeding value refers to the average genetic effect of the genes passed on
by the individual to its offspring and is estimated to know whether the
individual is genetically superior to other individuals or not for the trait
concerned.
 A sire’s production transmitting ability can be estimated by mathematical
means and expressed as a single figure known as sire index. In other words, an
attempt to express what a sire would have produced, has he been a cow, is the
sire index of that bull.
SIMPLE DAUGHTER AVERAGE INDEX
 The simplest way to evaluate a bull is by his daughter’s production alone
(Edward, 1932). The fault with this method is that it does not consider the
probable contributions of the dam. It would be all right if all the bulls were
bred to average group of cows.
SI = Di = (1 / mi )Σ Dij
where,
Dij = yield of jth daughter of the ith sire
mi = number of dams mated to ith sire
 This index when used for ranking sires would be subject to bias if the levels of
production of dams allotted to different sires were unequal.
EQUIPARENT / INTERMEDIATE / DAIRY BULL INDEX / YAPP’S
INDEX
 This index (Yapp, 1925) is based on the principle that the two parents
contribute equally to the genetic make up of the progeny. This index
overestimates the breeding value of a sire mated to set of dams inferior on the
average and underestimates if dams happen to be superior on the average to
the general level of herd.
SI = 2D – M
where,
D = average yield of daughters of the sire;
M = average yield of dams mated to the sire
 In Yapp’s formula, the potential transmitting ability can be expressed in terms
of 4% fat corrected milk.
MOUNT HOPE INDEX
Goodale (1927) proposed the index and he suggested that in matting between animals of
unequal levels of milk production is on the average about 7 / 10 of the distance above
the level of the lower parent. While butter fat production is about 4 / 10 of the distance
above the lower level. To get this index, compute the average mature equivalent of milk
production of the dams of these daughters and take the difference between these
averages.

If the daughter’s average exceeds the dam’s average, add 3 /7 (0.4286) of the
difference to the daughter’s average to get the bull’s milk index figure.
 If the daughter’s average is less than the dam’s average, subtract 7 / 3 (2.333)
of the difference to the daughter’s average to get the bull’s milk index figure.
 If the daughter’s butter fat average exceeds the dam’s average, add three halves
or 1.5 of the difference to the daughter’s average to get the bull’s butter fat
index figure.
 If the daughter’s butter fat average is less than the dam’s average, subtract 2 /
3 or 0.6667 of the difference to the daughter’s average to get the bull’s butter
fat index figure.
Formula
 For milk yield
o S = D + (D - M) x 3/7 if D>M
o S = D - (M - D) x 7/3 if M>D
 For Butter fat %
o S = D + (D - M) x 3/2 if D>M
o S = D + (M - D) x 2/3 if M>D
HEIZER'S INDEX
 This index is used to determine the transmitting ability of individual bulls with
regard to milk production. This method is based on progeny selection.
Y=3/8X+3/4I+1/4B
Where,
Y - daughter’s average production
X - dam’s average production
I - sire’s index
B - Breed or Herd average
GIFFORD'S INDEX
 Gifford (1930) suggested that the bull index can be estimated from the daughters’
records ignoring the dams, provided the dams are not a selected group.
SI = 2P - H
where,
H = herd average;
P = daughters average
REGRESSION INDEX OR RICE INDEX

 Regression in the biological sense means the degree of relationship between
parents and offspring when used as a measure of inheritance. The regression
could move forward as well as backward or towards breed average. Rice has
proposed this index based on the fact that the overall regression of the
daughter’s records on those of their dams was approximately 0.5. This index
simply regresses the equal parent index half way.
Regression index = 0.5 (Equal Parent index) + 0.5 (Breed Average)
TOMAR INDEX
 This index depends on dam-daughter comparison and on simultaneous use of
the merits of the dams and the daughters over their contemporary herd
averages.
I = D + (De – Me)
Where,
De - daughter’s expected average = Ö D x daughter’s contemporary herd average
Me - dam’s expected average = Ö M x dam’s contemporary herd average
CORRECTED DAUGHTER AVERAGE INDEX / KRISHNA'S INDEX
 This index (Krishnan, 1956) corrects the daughters’ average for the influence of
different production levels of dams sired by different bulls on the basis of
regression of daughters’ records on dams. The term “b(M - A)” appearing in
the index is correction for the genetic superiority or inferiority of a set of dams
allotted to the sire over the herd average.
SI = D – b (M – A)
where,
D = daughter’s average; M = dam’s average; A = herd average
b = regression coefficient of daughters’ yield on dam’s yield
DAIRY SEARCH INDEX / SUNDARESAN INDEX
 Under Indian conditions, evaluation of bulls is made with information from a
very few daughters and from records subjected to serious environmental
differences. Sundaresan (1965) gave two methods one for sire evaluation at
farm level and another for key-village.
The farm method takes dam-daughter records in to consideration.
SI = µ + n / (n + 12) (D – CD) – b (M – CM)
For key-village level the dam’s record is not available so, he modified the formula as
SI = µ + n / (n + 12) (D – CD)
where,
µ = herd average; n = number of daughters per sire;
D = average of daughters; CD = average of contemporaries of daughters;
b = intra-sire regression of daughters on dam; M = average of dams;
CM = average of contemporaries of dams
CONTEMPORARY COMPARISON
 If changes in the environment conditions from time to time were of
significance, then the relevant records made at different times needed
adjustments. The value was based on the comparison of average of the
daughters of the bull with average of the contemporary daughters of the same
group but sired by different bulls. The difference between the two averages was
weighted for the number of heifers in each sire group. The contemporary group
will allow effective adjustment of major environment effects.
SI = µ + {n / n + k} (D - C)
where,
n = number of daughters;
C = average of daughters’ contemporaries;
k = ratio of error variance to sire variance
HERD-MATE COMPARISON
 This method (Henderson and Carter, 1957) compares each cow’s record with
the records of other cows milking in the same herd at the same time. The total
variation in age-adjusted milk production is due to sire (7%), herd (30%),
year/season (4%), sire X herd (2%), herd X year (14%) and residual (43%)
effects. The herd, year and season variations account for about 50% of the total
variation in milk production. This method eliminates the herd-year-season
variation from the estimate of the sire index.
PD = [(ni / (ni + 20)] {Di - 0.9 (HMi – A) – A}
where,
PD = predicted difference; ni = number of daughters at the ith herd-mate level
Di = average of the daughters at the ith herd-mate level
HMi = average of the herd-mates at ith herd-mate level
MODIFIED CONTEMPORARY COMPARISON
 Since only contemporaries of first calvers are considered, the herds less than
20 to 30 cows might not have any contemporary for comparison. However, the
comparison of progeny with contemporaries of all ages might improve the
accuracy of sire evaluation. But comparing cows in first lactation with older
cows that are survivors of culling for yield could be important sources of biases
in dairy sire evaluation.
MCA = [n1 X1 + W (Xi – Bias)] / (n1 + W)
where,
n1 = number of contemporaries of first lactation
X1 = average of the contemporaries of first lactation
Xi = average of the contemporaries of later lactation
W = weight given to later lactation herd-mates
Bias = adjustment for later lactation cows, being the survivors of culling
The bias is calculated as average within herd-year-season difference between first and
later lactation cows, adjusted for genetic trend
SI = A + {n / (n + k)} (D – MCA)
BEST LINEAR UNBIASED PREDICTION (BLUP)
 When the performance records are used as clues in selection index, it is
automatically assumed that the records have been adjusted previously for all
known sources of environmental bias using adjustment factors. This method
(Henderson et al., 1975) is mainly based on least-squares method. The basic
steps involved in BLUP estimates are as an expression (model) that describes an
individual’s performances in terms of all factors, that need to be taken into
account i.e., herd-year-season model will be
Yijk = µ + fi + sj + eijk
where,
Yijk = measurement on the kth progeny of the jth sire born in the ith herd- year- season
µ = over all mean
fi = effect of the ith herd- year- season
sj = effect on the jth sire born
eijk = residual error
BLUP is the best method for evaluating the breeding value of bulls and rank the sires
according to their genetic merit because of the following reasons:
 Corrects the data automatically for all known non genetic sources
 Estimates simultaneously all the factors concerned
 Uses available a priori information more efficiently and more flexibly
 Maximizes the correlation between predictor and predict
 Provides an estimate of response to selection for groups of animals born in
different years
 Accounts for complications such as non-random mating, genetic and
environmental trends over time, herd differences in the average breeding value
of dams and bias due to selection and culling
 Estimates also the breeding value of individual having no records.

MODULE-25: FIELD PROGENY TESTING

Learning objectives
 field progeny testing programme,
 strategy for field progeny testing programme and
 steps to be adopted in the field progeny testing program.
INTRODUCTION
India is traditionally an agricultural country and animal husbandry forms the backbone
of the livelihood security for more than 70 per cent of the population. Though the
growth of agricultural sector was found a negative 5.2 % in 2002-2003, however, during
2004-09 the agricultural growth in India is increased at about 4.4 % per year. This is
mainly because of livestock sector contributing steadily to the annual growth at the rate
of 4.0 -6.5 % and about 8-9 % of the total national exports and as a result, the Govt of
India has targeted about 4% growth in agriculture sector by 2012.
Genetic improvement of dairy animals involves
 Breeding goal of dairy animals
 Types of genetic resources
 Dairy animal breeding policy and programme
 Scientific interventions and human resources
 Performance recording
 Progeny Testing - Evaluation of breeding bulls (field and farm based)
 Use and dissemination of superior germplasm
 Exploiting the future animal breeding technologies
The current breeding policy recommended by the National Commission on Agriculture
(NCA) and adopted by the Central and State Governments was based on the important
considerations which were similar to those of the Scientific panel on Animal husbandry.
FIELD PROGENY TESTING PROGRAMME
 The Field Progeny Testing Programme of the Project Directorate on Cattle,
Meerut, India, has new dairy breed (Frieswal) by crossing 30 progeny tested
Holstein × Sahiwal bulls with approximately 24 000 females at 3 locations. The
new breed is expected to have 62% Holstein inheritance, and cows of the breed
should be able to yield 4000 kg milk in a mature lactation of 300 days.
STRATEGY FOR FIELD PROGENY TESTING PROGRAMME
 Bulls are considered to be the most important players for carrying out
organized breeding services, as the main objectives of breeding like
development of foundation stock, increase in productive capacity and
reproductive efficiency of the local stock through genetic upgradation cannot
be achieved without them. They are the reservoirs of the required germplasm
or genetic potentialities, which is transmitted to subsequent generations to
their offsprings. Once it is established in the offsprings or progenies no extra
cost is required to transmit these characters for further inheritance unlike in
case of environmental components like the managemental practices, which
needs constant investment.
 On other hand selection of breeding bulls is an important factor for attaining
the desired result. By observing only the body conformation, phenotypic
characters or pedigree records, it is not accurate to judge the genetic potential
of a bull. Progeny testing therefore, basing on the adequate information gives
an accurate estimate of breeding value for assessing the genetic potentialities
and is therefore preferred when the animal is used for breeding.
 Milk yield is the most important trait considered in selection programmes for
dairy cattle, though fat percentage is also measured routinely in some schemes.
Since the negative genetic correlation between milk yield and fat percentage
may result in the latter declining to low levels, it is usually monitored to
eliminate undesirable animals. Bull fertility is important, particularly in AI
bulls, while in the female reproductive performance is considered. Culling is
being done more for economic reasons than for genetic improvement.
 The principal method employed in progeny testing where the breeding value of
bulls is assessed on the performance of their daughters. The test depends for
its efficiency on a large progeny group per sire and on having each sire
represented in several herds. AI is necessary to separate environmental from
genetic effects. Milk yield records are usually restricted to those from first-
calving heifers since this gives the largest group of unselected daughters.
Young bulls that enter the progeny test are bred from the best progeny-tested
sires and selected dams. Each young bull is used on about 500 cows in milk-
recorded herds to ensure that first lactation records of at least 50 daughters are
obtained. Matings are done at random to ensure that the dam contribution to
progeny genotype is similar for all sire progeny groups.
 Though this type of selection programme appears to require a great deal of
infrastructural facilities, an efficient testing programme could operate even
with a simpler organization if recording is limited to that required for progeny
testing. Thus, we will operate the programme which tests 20 Crossbred bulls
annually on approximately 50 daughters per bull out of which a minimum of
30 can attain motherhood.
STEPS TO BE ADOPTED IN THE FIELD PROGENY TESTING
PROGRAM
1. Selection of Districts/Sub-Divisions/Blocks
 It has to be performed where the adequate breedable populations are available in
proposed area to carry out the programme. The farmers should actively
participate in this programme.
2. Selection of bulls for testing
 Several crossbred bulls (10 in first phase & 10 in next phase) of semen bank
donating semen. 2000 doses of semen per bull totaling, 20000 doses is to be
used in the field. The breedable crossbed cattle are to be identified for
insemination at random by the veterinary officer in a contiguous patch.
3. Orientation programme
 One orientation programme would be conducted at Head Quarters involving the
fields staff.
4. Identification of clusters in each block
 The chief district veterinary officers of the concerned districts in consultation
with the Veterinary Officer and the Veterinary Assistant Surgeon has to identify
some potential pockets for carrying out the test inseminations. The
environmental factors like animal population, type of animals, availability of feed
resources, farmers’ awareness, holding size etc. may be considered while
selecting the clusters.
5. Farmers’ awareness programmes
 Awareness for the farmers of the villages under the identified clusters of each
block is to be conducted at block level to sensitize them regarding the programme
for their involvement and cooperation to make the programme success.
6. Registration / Identification of dams (cows)
 The crossbred cows of each cluster are to be registered and identified for test
cross through AI with selected bulls. The detailed information of each dam like
name of the owner with address, occupation, skin color, age, no. of calvings
,health condition, production status etc are to be recorded for future references.
7. Maintenance of records
 Independent registers for the AI of the selected mothers and follow up and
thereafter the progeny born is to be maintained at Veterinary Dispensary for
monitoring of programme.
8. Follow up of inseminated cows
 The follow up of the inseminations are to be taken up regularly on per rectal
examination by the concerned Veterinarian. Periodic health control camps are to
be conducted to address the reproductive disorders to create awareness. The
database on the measures taken and insemination follow up should be
maintained properly. The comprehensive health care package for pregnant cows
covered under the programme will include vitamin, mineral supplement,
dewormer and FMD vaccination. Special camps are to be conducted for health
coverage of the inseminated cows. The monitoring reporting format and other
stationeries are to be developed and supplied to the field.
9. Detection and follow up of the progenies
 All the female calves born out of the inseminations are to be identified and
registered within 25 days of their birth. Moreover, the female progenies born out
of the insemination will be covered under special health care management upto
calving (3 years).
10. Organization of calf rallies or shows
 Rallies or shows are to be organized by the district authorities with support of the
Government and NGOs for public consciousness.
11. Organization of infertility treatment/HI camps
 In due course after attainment of the sexual maturity, the female progenies born
out of the test cross are to be observed for coming to heat and efforts are to be
made by the district authority to bring them into maturity for successful breeding
for all the animals.
12. Breeding the female progenies attaining maturity
 After attaining maturity the females are suitably out bred through AI with proven
bull semen and normal follow up is to be taken out as in case of the mother cows
till parturition.
13. Recording of milk
 An educated youth of the village concerned is to be identified and trained for
recording the milk yield of F1 mothers after 15 days of calving. The analysis of
SNF, Fat and Milk yield is to be followed as per the test period method for
judging the productive capability of the mothers.
14. Estimation of probable breeding value of sires
 Based on the milk yield, heritability and progeny per bull the breeding value of
each bull is estimated for its potentialities and ranked accordingly. Sires are to be
evaluated on the basis of their daughters 305 day milk yield in single / multiple
herds using the method as under.
Sire Index = m + { (2n / n+12)} x ( D – CD )
Where,
m = Overall average of daughters 305 days first lactation milk yield.
n = No. of daughters / sire. D= Daughters average 305 days first lactation milk yield and
CD = Contemporary daughters (over single or multiple herds ) average 305 days first
lactation milk yield.
 All the sires will be ranked on the basis of their sire index of which 20-30 % top
ranking bulls shall be selected for future use as proven bulls for production of
superior germplasm. This has ensured sustained maintenance and production of
improved germplasm on a large scale for use in cattle and buffalo improvement
programme and for establishing linkages with other institutions in India.
MODULE-26: SELECTION FOR COMBINING ABILITY

Learning objectives
 combining ability,
 selection for general combining ability,
 selection for general and specific combining ability,
 recurrent selection and
 reciprocal recurrent selection
COMBINIG ABILITY
 At the present state of knowledge, performance of two or more breeds or lines
in crosses is somewhat unpredictable. Some lines or breeds appear to
"combine well" whereas others do not. This can be determined only by test
crosses. There are two types of combining abilities viz., general combining
ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA). GCA is the mean
performance of the F1 offspring of a line with other lines and it is due to
additive genetic variance. SCA is the superiority of a particular cross over the
average GCA of the two lines and it is due to non-additive genetic variance.
GCA and SCA are expressed as variance and not as values.
 To estimate the combining ability of two or more lines, “diallel mating system”
is followed. In this system of crossing, all possible combinations of the lines are
produced. This mating scheme allows estimating the performance of the
individual combinations. The diagram below explains the diallel mating system
and the combining abilities of four lines, x1, x2, x3 and x4.
Line x1 x2 x3 x4 GCA
x1 x1x1 x1x2 x1x3 x1x4 x1
SCA: The diagonals elements
In symbols, the performance of a combination of lines is composed as follows:
G(x1x2) = GCA(x1) + GCA(x2) + SCA(x1x2)
where,
G(x1x2) denotes the genotypic value of the cross “x1x2”.
SELECTION FOR GENERAL COMBINING ABILITY
 For measuring the general combining ability, top crossing is followed. In top
crossing, individuals from the inbred lines to be tested are crossed with
individuals from the base population. The mean value of the progeny measures
the general combining ability of the line because the gametes of individuals
from the base population are genetically equivalent to the gametes of a random
set of inbred lines derived without selection from the base population. This
method is for comparing the general combining abilities of different lines and
to choose the lines most likely to yield the best cross among all the crosses that
would be made between the available lines.
SELECTION FOR GENERAL AND SPECIFIC COMBINING ABILITY
 The specific combining ability of a cross cannot be measured without making
and testing that particular cross. To get SCA, two lines should be developed
which differ in gene frequencies. Two methods of selection are available viz.,
recurrent selection and reciprocal recurrent selection.
 Both these systems involve progeny testing. Due to the increased generation
intervals, this would be expected to result in slower progress than other
breeding systems for characters moderate to high in heritability. They would
be expected to be more useful than other breeding systems only if
overdominance or other non-additive types of inter- or intra-allelic gene action
are important in heterosis.
RECURRENT SELECTION
 The principle of recurrent selection is developed out of convergent
improvement. In this a highly inbred line presumably homozygous at most loci
is selected as a tester. A large number of individuals are crossed with this line
and their progeny are evaluated. Those giving best progeny are subsequently
inter mated and a large number of their progeny are tested in the crosses on
the inbred tester. The cycle is repeated over and over. This is done to take
greater advantage of the interaction of genes and the resultant overdominance
by selecting inbred lines during their developmental process for the purpose of
better complementing each other.
 The success depends on the ability of the breeder to accumulate a greater
number of genes having additive effects in two different parental lines that
interact to greater advantage. If heterosis is largely dependent upon
overdominance, this procedure should result in the line selected on cross
performance becoming homozygous for different alleles than the inbred used
as the tester. In other words when tester is aa, the selected line would become
AA; the tester is BB, the selected line becomes bb etc.
 The application of recurrent selection to animal breeding appears to be more
difficult than its application to plant breeding because
o The overall effects of inbreeding are deleterious
o The degree of fertility is lacking. It depends on survivability
o More number of animals are required and it involves longer generation
interval and make this selection
RECIPROCAL RECURRENT SELECTION
 It is a system of selection for increasing the combining ability of two or more
lines or breeds that nick or combine well. Individuals in two lines are not
completely homozygous in opposite ways for all pairs of genes but that one
allele may be present at a high frequency in one line and at a low frequency in
other line. Crossing the lines and selecting the individual to reproduce each
pure line on the basis of the performance of their crossbred progeny make the
two lines more homozygous in opposite direction. It is a method of selection
between lines or families or breeds to take advantages of overdominance,
dominance, epistasis, or only additive effects.
 In farm animals, selection is usually carried out for more than one trait, since
one trait may be affected mostly by non-additive gene action and another by
additive gene action or both. Hence, it is to select and improve the best and
mating the best to best followed by crossing the improved lines or breeds to
take the advantage of hybrid vigour due to non-additive gene action.
 Randomly selected representatives of each of the non-inbred strains are
progeny tested in crosses with the other. Those individuals of each strain
having the best cross progeny are then intermated to propagate their respective
strains. Offspring from these within strain mating are again progeny tested in
crosses with the other and the cycle repeated.
 These systems are useful in breeds or strains in which their performance is
already high for highly heritable traits and in which it is desired to improve the
potential performance of their crosses for the low heritable traits related to
fertility and liveability e.g. litter size and early growth rate in swine.
MODULE-27: BREEDING METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT
OF DAIRY CATTLE AND BUFFALOES
Learning objectives
 importance of cattle and Buffalo in India,
 production of crossbred bulls,
 progeny testing,
 milk recording,
 draught cattle and buffaloes improvement.
IMPORTANCE OF CATTLE AND BUFFALO IN INDIA
 India possesses 27 acknowledged indigenous breeds of cattle and seven breeds
of buffaloes. Various central and centrally sponsored schemes are being
implemented for genetic improvement of cattle and buffalo with a view to
enhance the per capita availability of consumption of milk through increased
milk production. Efforts are also made to protect and preserve the indigenous
cattle and buffalo in their native tract, which are facing threat of extinction.
The elite animals are selected and registered on the basis of their performance
for production of superior pedigree bulls, bull mothers, frozen semen and
frozen embryos for future breeding improvements.
 The National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding envisages 100 per cent
grant in aid to implementing agencies. At present 28 , States and one UT are
participating in the project. Financial assistance to the tune of Rs. 398.36
crore has been released to these States upto 2007-08. During the financial year
2008-09 , against the RE of Rs. 89.70 crore, an amount of Rs. 87.37 crore has
been released.
 A Central Herd Registration Scheme for identification and location of superior
germ plasm of cattle and buffaloes, propagation of superior germ stock,
regulating the sale and purchase, help in formation of breeder's society and to
meet requirements of superior bulls in different parts of the country is also
being implemented. The Government of India has established Central Herd
Registration Unit in four breeding tracts i.e. Rohtak, Ahmedabad, Ongole,
Ajmer. A total of 92 Milk Recording Centres are functioning to register these
breeds of cattle viz. Gir, Kankrej, Hariana and Ongole and in Buffalo
Jaffrabadi, Mehsani, Murrah and Surti.
 The seven Central cattle breeding farms at Suratgarh (Rajasthan), Chiplima
and Semiliguda (Orissa), Dhamrod (Gujarat), Hessarghatta (Karnataka),
Alamadi ( Tamil Nadu) and Andeshnagar (Uttar Pradesh) are engaged in
scientific breeding programmes of cattle and buffaloes and production of high
pedigreed bulls for National Project for Cattle/Buffaio Breeding Programme
besides providing training to farmers and breeders. During 2008-09 , these
farms produced 346 bull calves and supplied 245 high pedigreed bulls for use
under Artificial Insemination Programme in various parts of the Country. 3 ,
711 persons were trained in farm management practices and demonstration of
scientific breeding. The CCBFS trained 2912 nos. of farmers in during farm
management.
 The Central Frozen Semen Production and Training Institute (CFSP&TI)
located at Hessarghatta (Bangaluru) is producing frozen semen doses of
indigenous, exotic and crossbreed cattle and Murrah buffalo bulls for use in
artificial insemination (A 1). The Institute also provides training in semen
technology to technical officers of the State Governments and acts as a Centre
for testing the indigenously manufactured frozen semen and Al Equipments.
The Institute produced 8.66 lakhs doses of frozen semen and provided training
to 227 persons in field of frozen semen technology and andrology during the
year 2008-09.
 In dairy cattle improvement we should aim for genetic improvement as a
priority. In dairy cattle, milk production and reproduction traits are sex-
limited and expressed only in cows. But due to higher replacement
requirements not much selection is possible among them. In the male, the
breeding value for its milk production potential can be estimated only through
female relatives such as dam, half sibs and daughters. Due to the requirement
of lesser number of bulls (<2 per cent) through artificial insemination (AI),
high intensity of selection can be achieved.
 The crossbreds already generated have to be consolidated so that they become
fairly homogeneous milk producing genotypes. The deterioration in
performance in the second generation crosses can be compensated and
productivity enhanced only through selection programs. Therefore, selective
breeding using proven Jersey and Holstein Friesian half bred bulls and
stabilizing the percentage of exotic inheritance around 50 is the immediate
task.
PRODUCTION OF CROSSBRED BULLS
 In India, for the supply of frozen semen, there are limited number of sperm
stations for cattle and buffaloes. In the cattle sperm stations Jersey, Holstein
Friesian and Jersey and Friesian crossbreds are maintained. The exotic bulls
have to be reduced and 50% Jersey crossbred bulls have to be substantially
increased to meet the growing demand. There is only limited scope for
sourcing Jersey crossbred bulls of high genetic merit from organized farms due
to the shortage of elite cows. The other practical approach is to generate
crossbred bull calves from the field by contract mating of elite crossbred cows
to proven half bred Jersey bulls.
 Crossbred bulls meant for natural service can be obtained by selecting bull
calves born to crossbred cows yielding more than 2500 kg, preferably in the
first lactation. Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) can be taken
up in respect of elite cows identified in the course of milk recording. This will
facilitate production of superior bulls for AI in addition to faster multiplication
of elite cows. For implementing all these programs, milk and performance
recording are essential.
PROGENY TESTING
 Sustained genetic improvement can be achieved only through continuous use
of bulls of high genetic merit evaluated through progeny testing. Progeny
testing is the estimation of breeding value of bulls by studying the average
performance of a number of its daughters. It has been established that in a well
run progeny testing programme the annual genetic gain is around one per cent.
Progeny testing is expensive and time consuming but, at the same time it is the
most accurate method for estimating the breeding value of the bull, which is
half the herd.
MILK RECORDING
 Milk recording has to be initiated for progeny testing and also to implement
any meaningful genetic improvement programme. To start with about 2000
cows in different agroclimatic regions can be involved and the number can be
increased in a phased manner. Individual animals have to be identified before
starting the milk recording. Once a month, two - time milk (morning and
evening) recording has to be done and 9 to 10 milk records are required for the
entire lactation. Owner recording with periodical verification by official agents
or contract recording through self-help groups may be done.
DRAUGHT CATTLE IMPROVEMENT
 Though there is a decline in the demand for draught animals, they do have a
critical role for ploughing (particularly in wet areas), transport of agricultural
produce and manuring the fields. The scenario is unlikely to change for another
decade or so and therefore the draught breeds have to be not only preserved but
also improved. Selective breeding of indigenous breeds has to be resorted to.
Wherever possible in addition to AI, natural service through licensed bulls may
be adopted. Criteria for selection of draught cattle have to be developed and
research on work physiology should be initiated. For the draught breeds
Breeders’ societies may be organized and registered. Active patronage by the
government and support of the non-government organizations is needed.
 Majority of local cattle is grouped under the category “non-descript” since they
are considered to have no distinct external features. They are found mostly in
resource poor areas and meet the draught power of the region. Hence
crossbreeding with exotics for increasing milk production may not be advisable.
One approach is to select bulls locally based on phenotypic features for draught
qualities and use them for natural service. The other approach is to introduce
Tharparkar, a dual purpose hardy breed into southern states for upgrading the
local cattle. This may improve milk production without affecting draught quality
and disease resistance.
IMPROVEMENT OF BUFFALOES
 Since long Murrah has been recommended as the breed of choice for
upgrading local buffaloes for increasing the milk production. In this process,
no base-line data have been collected regarding the reproduction and milk
production of local buffaloes. Progeny testing of Murrah bulls carried out by
the Milk federations under Dairy Herd Improvement Plan Actions may be
strengthened and expanded. Future bulls of Murrah for AI have to be
generated from the field by inseminating the semen of Murrah bulls of high
breeding value to elite local buffalo cows. This will facilitate incorporation of
some favorable genes from the local population. Licensing of buffalo bulls for
natural service has to be taken up on large scale since about 6 per cent of
breedable females alone are covered through AI. Simultaneously, AI coverage
of buffalo cows has to be increased by ensuring higher conception rate.
 Breeding record is the registering of information available on reproduction of
the animals. The record should be simple, accurate, complete, upto date,
understandable and easy to maintain.
IMPORTANCE OF RECORDS
Detailed information regarding the performance and reproduction of individual animals
and herd can be collected.
 Useful in evaluation of post management practices adapted in the farm.
 Useful in long term planning.
 Very important for day to day decision making.
Records that are maintained in a farm
 Pedigree and herd records
 Breeding record
 Production record
 Record for feed
 Health record
 Labour record
 Business record.
 Stock record
 Cow card
National Project for Cattle and Buffalo breeding (NPCBB)
 The government of India initiated action in the beginning of IX Plan towards
formulation of a comprehensive scheme for cattle and buffalo breeding in
consultation with State governments and other concerned agencies with an
aim to consolidate the gains achieved till VIII Plan period, to maximize returns
on investments, and to ensure sustainability of operations as well as quality in
breeding inputs and services. These efforts culminated in merger of the
ongoing centrally sponsored schemes on cattle and buffalo breeding, namely
Extension of Frozen Semen Technology & Progeny Testing Programmes (EFST
& PTP) and National Bull Production Programmes (NBPP) into a new centrally
sponsored National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB) which
aims at thorough re-organization and reorientation of the cattle and buffalo
breeding operations in the country. The objectives of the project include
establishment of appropriate institutional structures to channel and supply
high quality breeding inputs and services; setting up national standards for
bulls, semen, semen laboratories and AI services to guarantee quality
assurance; training of inseminators and professionals based on nationally
accepted curriculum and hands- on practices and regulating and strengthening
breeding system in area covered by natural service as well as fostering breeders
organizations. Most of the states have participated in implementation of the
project.
MODULE-28: OPEN NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEM
Learning objectives
 structure of ONBS,
 closed nucleus breeding system and
 cooperative group breeding system (CGBS).
INTRODUCTION
 Screening of population to identify superior individuals can be very helpful in
establishing a central nucleus, where genetic improvement can be further
generated by selection based on measured production. The nature of a group
breeding scheme is such that it is the interest of all its members to secure the
highest possible genetic level and the highest rate of genetic progress for the
nucleus. This is a strong motive for the individual farmers to contribute
superior females to the nucleus both at the initial screening and at later stages
(Open nucleus system). The rate of genetic progress may thus be increased by a
further 10 – 15%.
 Open Nucleus Breeding Schemes (ONBS) should be effected in different
regions to monitor and augment the production performances of different
breeds of cattle and buffaloes in India. The ONBS concept comprises a nucleus
herd established under controlled conditions to facilitate selection. The
nucleus is established from the best animals selected from the base population.
These are then recorded individually and the best animals are selected to from
the elite herd of the nucleus. The elite females and superior sires are then
mated and the resulting offspring are reared, recorded and the males among
them are evaluated and such elite group of males with high breeding values can
be used in the farmers herd for genetic improvement. By this, greater genetic
improvement can be made in large population of cattle and buffaloes in their
home tract.
STRUCTURE OF ONBS
 The structure is in the form of a pyramid. It consists of three-tier
multiplication systems, namely the nucleus tier, multiplier tier and the
commercial tier.
Nucleus tier
 It is composed of top parental breeding stock. It consists of 10 – 15% of total
breed population and these are selected exclusively on their breeding value.
This tier acts as selector and supplier of replacement male and female breeding
stock for itself and for multiplier tier at farm level and commercial tier at field
level. It is stationed at a particular place with all necessary inputs of land, feed,
labour and favourable environment.
Multiplier tier
 This is constituted by about 30-40 percent of breed population. It acts as
multiplier and tester population. It exclusively receives stud males and
sometimes breeding females from the nucleus herd with the sole purpose of
producing sufficient number of breeding animals therby satisfy the demands of
herds in the commercial tier.
Commercial tier
 This is constituted by about 40 – 60 percent of breed population and
generated using males and females that are produced under multiplier herds
with the intention of increasing the production and the genetic improvement.
It acts as terminal tier of hierarchical breeding structure.
 ONBS concept involves introduction of superior quality females to the sire
breeding nucleus, like semen stations from other tiers of breeding. Although
bulls are considered as the chief architect genetic improvement in cattle and
buffaloes due to high selection intensity and advent of AI and frozen semen
technology the expected genetic gain is limited. This is overcome by ONBS to
some extent where both males and females contribute to the total annual
genetic gain in this system. The expected genetic gain may be increased by 10 –
15 per cent.
CLOSED NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEM
 The direction of the gene flow in traditional system is always one sided i.e from
nucleus tier to multiplier and then to the commercial tier. And never back to
nucleus tier from commercial tier. This system is known as Closed Nucleus
Breeding System (CNBS ).
 Generally superior breeding females – daughters born to sires of nucleus tier
in the multiplier or commercial tier are selected based on their genetic merit
and breeding values and in turn transferred to the nucleus tier for breeding as
replacer such that the nucleus tier is opened for the external source of superior
genes and the system is called Open Nucleus Breeding System(ONBS). The
gene flow occurs in both directions – from the nucleus tier to commercial tier
via multiplier tier and back to the nucleus tier.
 The nucleus tier consists of bulls selected based on their pedigree. Best bulls
are selected based on their genetic superiority and used for producing best
animals. The females from the commercial tier are selected based on their
genetic merit and transferred to multiplier herd and nucleus tier for breeding.
The nucleus tier is opened for the receipt of elite females from the downward
tiers as replacer. Thus the ONBS raises the possibility of introducing
commercially bred, non pedigreed animals into pedigree herds of nucleus.
 The major disadvantage of this system is the disease control that have a major
influence. So the breeders maitain their units under closed breeding system by
adopting strict quarantine and biosecurity measures.
COOPERATIVE GROUP BREEDING SYSTEM (CGBS)
 Majority of our farmers usually maintain only one or two cows or buffaloes and
so keen interest is evinced in cooperative breeding systems especially in dairy
sector. So that maximum selection intensity can be achieved. In this direction
NDDB and state level Milk federations have already established bull mother
farms and they are in the process of procuring young bull calves born to elite
cows under field conditions and raising them as future breeding bulls.
In principle the CGBS adopted a sire breeding nucleus to breed replacement
sires for itself and the associated field level herds. Cows or buffaloes
replacements are reared in both the nucleus and associated herds at field level.
Genetic gain
 Realization of actual genetic gain depends upon the high selection pressure,
which is applied on initial screening of both cows and bulls besides, population
size and continuation of selection of cows and bulls within the nucleus as well
as exchange rate of females and males from the contributor herds and nucleus
unit.
MODULE-29: BREEDING METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF
SHEEP
Learning objectives
 breeding methods for improvement of sheep,
 selelction and breeding,
 Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme (ONBS) and
 economic traits in sheep to be considered for improvement.
BREEDING METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP
 Sheep rearing is a traditional occupation of rural people in desert, hilly and
mountain regions of the country, where agriculture farming is limited due to
harsh climatic conditions. The ability of sheep to thrive on sparse vegetation of
community grazing lands and convert into meat and wool on least input make
favourable venture for livelihood security and source of income among socio-
economic weaker sections of society in the country. In situation of drought and
famine sheep act as liquid assets, which can be cashed easily to meet financial
requirement. India possesses 59.0million sheep, they contribute 229 million kg
mutton, 51 million kg wool and 56.3million kg of skin beside 29 million kg of
manure. Sheep husbandry is contributing an income of Rs 1200crore in form of
meat, wool, skin, milk and manure to the nation. At present 100million kg wool
is required for manufacturing of carpet and woollen garments in the organized
sector.
 The country is importing 50 million kg wool from Australia and New Zealand to
meet the demand of industry. Mutton is an important produce from sheep has
great demand in the country especially in the Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh states. About 70% of earning in sheep rearing comes from meat. To meet
the growing demand of meat and wool in the country, there is an urgent need to
increase the productivity per sheep by better feeding, breeding and health
management. There is ample scope of increasing meat and wool production from
sheep owning to availability of vast genetic diversity and population distributed
in different regions of the country.
 In near future sheep husbandry will continues to play an important role in
ensuring nutritional security and economic sustenance of people either as main
or subsidiary occupation. The need of an hour is to maintain sustainability in
production with eco-system conservation. The major challenges before sheep
husbandry are shrinkage of grazing land, declining genetic resources, increasing
disease risk, pollution and human health issues, emerging infectious and non-
infectious diseases due to changing agro-climatic and social perspective, lack of
infrastructure for production and processing of animal produce and inadequate
market and transport facilities for animals and animal produce in the rural areas.
Biotechnological approaches for conservation of genetic resources, improvement
of feed and fodder resources and its utilization, disease diagnosis and control
organised marketing structure and organic farming for achieving eco-friendly
sustainable production and ensuring safer meat and wool for human
consumption are some of the issues need focus in research programmes. The
institute has developed low input technologies suitable for enhancing flock
productivity in the rural areas for sheep farmers. These technologies should be
made available to end users through effective extension network involving
government, NGO’s and development agencies.
SELECTION AND BREEDING

 As there is existence of distinct breeds of sheep, selection within local breeds
preserve the essential adaptation characteristics to the environment. Breeding
programmes in sheep are to be concentrated on growth, body weight and
improved reproductive efficiency. Tropical breeds acquired the adaptability
characters through natural selection and hence the selection and breeding
programmes should rely mainly on the improvement of adapted breeds.
Hence, only pure breeding/Selective breeding should be carried out in the
breeding tract to improve the performance.
OPEN NUCLEUS BREEDING SCHEME (ONBS)
nucleus. There is a strong motive for the individual farmers to contribute
further 10 – 15%.
breeds of sheep in Inida. The ONBS concept comprises a nucleus herd
established under controlled conditions to facilitate selection. The nucleus is
established from the best animals selected from the base population. These are
then recorded individually and the best animals are selected to form the elite
herd of the nucleus. The elite females and superior sires are then mated and
the resulting offsprings are reared, recorded and the males among them are
evaluated and such elite males with high breeding values can be used in the
farmers flock for genetic improvement. Already an all India Coordinated
scheme on “Network Project on Sheep Improvement” is in the field for genetic
improvement in large population of sheep in their home tract.
 For development of sheep in the field, breed registries or breed societies for
sheep in key areas of the breeding tract and / or co-operatives can be started
and strengthened and linked to the organisations. This kind of participatory
sheep Development Programme would cover larger area and population,
there by bringing the benefit and achieving the goal of sustainable production.
Various co-operative Zones can be created and the small ruminant population
can be improved through Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme (ONBS).
 Some sheep flocks are often small in size and that limits the speed of genetic
improvement they can achieve. However, this constraint can be overcome
through co-operative breeding schemes such as sire referencing schemes
where flocks are linked together genetically by sharing a few rams in common.
With these links established, the genetic merit of sheep in separate flocks can
then be directly and accurately compared. This is one of the best strategies to
select and use those “reference rams” shared across flocks to facilitate quick
rates of genetic gain while minimizing inbreeding.
 Under nucleus breeding system, the nucleus flock should be maintained in the
home tract of the respective breed of sheep. The nucleus may contain either the
farm bred rams or the elite rams chosen from among the farmers flocks. The
nucleus (either a Government District Farm or University Farm) should have
sufficient breeding stock to satisfy the demands from the herds or farmers
flocks.
 Under the nucleus (for a particular breed improvement), 3 to 5 cooperating
units (Government Institutions / University Centres/ NGOs/ Self help groups)
are to be engaged in monitoring the breeding and improvement plans,
depending up on distribution of flocks and feasibility in coverage. Each
cooperating unit should have a large sizeable farmers flocks (100 farmer’s
units) covering wide area in the breeding tract. Under this scheme, a total of
300 to 500 farmer flocks are covered and genetic improvement could be made
in larger populations. In addition, the cooperating centres have to make
detailed recording of performance to study the impact of the programme and
change the rams among the farmers flock once in a year to avoid inbreeding.
Recommendations
 Pure breeding/selective breeding of sheep breeds in their respective breeding
tract.
 Genetic improvement of field stock through network project/Open Nucleus
Breeding Scheme (ONBS)/participatory sheep breeding programme.
 Critical documentation of distinct populations for their identity and for
recognising them as breeds. Conservation of vulnerable breeds based on
population dynamics, establishment of elite nucleus stocks of sheep and in-situ
preservation in organized farms.
 Marketing of products through village cooperatives in an organized manner.
ECONOMIC RAITS IN SHEEP TO BE CONSIDERED FOR
INPROVEMENT
 Tupping % = (Number of ewes mated / Number of ewes allowed to ram ) x 100
 Lambing% = (Number of ewes lambed / Number of ewes allowed to ram) x
100
 Weaning% = (Number of lambs weaned / Number of lambs born) x 100
 Twinning% = (Number of twin births / Number of births) x 100
 Preweaning mortality% = (Number of lambs died till weaning / Number of
lambs at birth) x 100
GOAT
Learning objectives
 breeding methods for improvement of sheep,
 selelction and breeding and
 Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme (ONBS)
.
BREEDING METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF GOAT
 Goats play vital role by significantly contributing to the production of meat,
skin and manure, also to the provision of rural employment, especially in
ecologically difficult areas. India is having highly diversified physical features
and agro ecological conditions. Based on rainfall, irrigation pattern and other
physical, ecological and social factors, the state is classified into several distinct
agroclimatic zones and each possessing distinct breed/breeds of goat.
SELECTION AND BREEDING
 As there is existence of distinct breeds of goat, selection within local breeds
preserve the essential adaptation characteristics to the environment. Breeding
programmes in goats are to be concentrated on growth, body weight and
improved reproductive efficiency. Tropical breeds acquired the adaptability
characters through natural selection and hence the selection and breeding
programmes should rely mainly on the improvement of adapted breeds.
Hence, only pure breeding/Selective breeding should be carried out in the
breeding tract to improve the performance.
OPEN NUCLEUS BREEDING SCHEME (ONBS)
Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme (ONBS)
nucleus. There is a strong motive for the individual farmers to contribute
further 10 – 15 per cent.
breeds of India. The ONBS concept comprises a nucleus herd established
under controlled conditions to facilitate selection. The nucleus is established
from the elite animals selected from the base population. These are then
recorded individually and the best animals are selected to form the elite herd of
the nucleus. The elite females and superior sires are then mated and the
resulting offsprings are reared, recorded and the males among them are
evaluated and such elite males with high breeding values can be used in the
farmers flock for genetic improvement.
 For development of goat in the field, breed societies for goat in key areas of the
breeding tract and / or co-operatives can be started and strengthened and
linked to the organisations. This kind of participatory goat Development
Programme would cover larger area and population, there by bringing the
benefit and achieving the goal of sustainable production. Various co-operative
zones can be created and the small ruminant population can be improved
through Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme (ONBS).
 Some goat flocks are often small in size and that limits the speed of genetic
improvement they can achieve. However, this constraint can be overcome
through co-operative breeding schemes such as sire referencing schemes
where flocks are linked together genetically by sharing a few bucks in common.
With these links established, the genetic merit of goat in separate flocks can
then be directly and accurately compared. This is one of the best strategies to
select and use those “reference bucks” shared across flocks to facilitate quick
rates of genetic gain while minimizing inbreeding.
There is considerable opportunity for greater use of improved breeding stock through:
 Increasing the number of recorded flocks
 Improving the dissemination of high merit breeding stock through wider use of
AI
 Further use of comprehensive recording and sire referencing schemes
 Establishment of elite nucleus stock of goat breeds in their respective breeding
tract
Exotic breed generally show poor adaptability and require major alterations of the
management and feeding systems to produce satisfactorily. Although there are many
examples of failure, the possibility of utilizing some of their genes in suitable
crossbreeding programmes should not be entirely ruled out.
However, efforts are still going on to upgrade the local non-descript goats using
improved breeds in their locality. “At no point, crossbreeding of goat should be
resorted”. Introduction of exotic breed should be avoided to prevent the genetic
dilution and uniqueness of the specific breeds rather up gradation of local goats can be
done using improver breeds.
Benefits of the co-operating units
 To monitor breeding activities
 To record the performance characteristics in detail
 To monitor the health and surveillance of the disease
 Further, village co-operative can hold control over marketing and organize the
farmers collectively to fetch better price for their stock
Marketing should be promoted only through the co-operative societies in order to avoid
the problems of middlemen, thereby increasing the profit to the produces/farmers.
Recommendations
 Pure breeding/selective breeding of goat breeds in their respective breeding
tract.
 Upgrading the non-descript goat population using improver breeds.
 Genetic improvement of field stock through network project/Open Nucleus
Breeding Scheme (ONBS)/participatory goat breeding programme.
 Critical documentation of distinct populations for their identity and for
recognising them as breeds. Conservation of vulnerable breeds based on
population dynamics, establishment of elite nucleus stocks of goats and in-situ
preservation in organized farms.
 Marketing of products through village cooperatives in an organized manner.
SWINE
Learning objectives
 breeding methods for improvement of swine and
 reproductive and growth traits in swine
BREEDING METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF SWINE
 As per Livestock census 200 7, the pig population in the country was 11 . 60
million of local and cross bred/exotic pigs. Exotic breeds like white Yorkshire,
Hampshire and Landrace are maintained at these farms. There are about 158
pig breeding farms in the country run by the State Governments/UTs. Efforts
are being made in consultation with Planning Commission and other appraisal
agencies to initiate Integrated Piggery Development Scheme under Macro
Management Scheme during 11 th Five Year Plan.
 Pig production, among other species has a high potential to contribute to high
economic gain. The pigs have high fecundity, high feed conversion efficiency,
early maturing, short generation interval and relatively small space
requirement. They are providing about 40% of meat consumed in the world
market, and by-products like pig dung as manure and bristle for brush
industry. It is produced under a variety of production systems ranging from
simple backyard pigs, pigs living on garbage belts to family operated farms or
large scale integrated pig industries with sophisticated bio-safety measures.
 Pigs are widely distributed in all the eco-regions of the country and is an
important occupation of the rural society especially the tribal masses. People of
certain ethnic groups prefer to keep pigs, especially black ones, for festivals
and ceremonial purposes. Interestingly, these ethnic groups are mainly
concentrated in the North-Eastern Region where almost 28% of the country's
total pig population exists. According to FAO records, India's pig population is
13.84 million (FAOSTAT, 2009) and it constitute 1.47% of world pig
population and our piggery sector is gaining slow but steady momentum
during the past years. Majority of our pig population is held by marginal and
small farmers . Further, the average pig population per thousand human
populations is about 11.5. Among Indian states, Uttar Pradesh has the
maximum number of pigs with about 17% of the total pigs followed by Assam
(~12%), West Bengal (~10%) and Jharkhand (~8%). In south India, Kerala is
having maximum population. Nowadays, pig husbandry is developing fast near
metropolitan cities because of multi-ethnic population lives in concentration
having urge to take pork in their menu. Hence, development of piggery should
be concentrated more for proving quality protein to the needy people.
 Even though, pig rearing is an important occupation of the rural society
specially to the tribal people of the country and 13.84 million (FAO stat, 2009)
of pigs which constitutes 1.47% of world’s pig population but still there exists a
high demand of the pork in the tribal area of the country in general and NE
Region in particular where 28% of country’s pig population is available. In
spite of aptitude of the people towards pig rearing and the sizable pig
population, the NE Region has to procure pork from outside the region valued
roughly at 20 crores every year. This scenario is basically due to the bulk of the
pig population (~75%) being from non-descript type known for their stunned
growth and poor production.
 In the present era of globalization, the country needs to concentrate on
systematically exploring its strength so that it could become a player in global
trade of agriculture and allied sector. This upcoming need could perhaps be
fulfilled by revolutionizing pork production in the country encasing the
positive aptitude of the people towards quality and profitable pig farming. This
again could only be done through skill up-gradation of the pig farmers on
quality, quantity and profitable mode of production.
 The potential of the piggery sector needs to be exploited as this can play a key
role in providing sustainable employment and livelihood security to the
farmers in their own locations and preventing migration of people to urban
areas. It is necessary to take efforts to minimize the cost of production through
nutritional interventions. Micro environment needs to be taken care of to
protect them against thermal stress under tropical climate. Incidence of
diseases due to improper management at different stages is another problem to
be countered. Moreover organized marketing is not yet well established in our
country. Pig industry is following Western technology which is not cost
effective. The farmers are in need of innovative technological interventions to
improve the productive performance of pigs. Hence, exploring and identifying
different management techniques with regard to breeding, housing, feeding,
health care, post harvest technology and marketing to bring about sustainable
pig farming both in rural and commercial units is need of the hour.
REPRODUCTIVE AND GROWTH TRAITS IN SWINE


POULTRY
Learning objectives
 breeding methods for improvement of poultry,
 scope of poultry farming in India.
BREEDING METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF POULTRY
 Poultry egg and meat are important sources of high quality proteins, minerals
and vitamins to balance the human diet. Specially developed breeds of egg type
chicken are now available with traits of quick growth and high feed conversion
efficiency. Depending on the farm-size, layer (for eggs) farming can be main
source of family income or can provide income and gainful employment to
farmers throughout the year. Poultry manure has high fertilizer value and can
be used for increasing yield of all crops
Breeding methods for improvement of poultry
 The term poultry although very often used as synonymous to chicken, includes
a number of avian species such as chicken, turkey, geese, guineafowl, peafowl
etc., Poultry development in the country has shown steady progress over the
years, primarily due to research and development schemes of Government as
well as effective marketing & management by organized private sector.
 India, with poultry population of 489 million and estimated more than 532
billion eggs production, ranks among the top three countries in egg production
in the world. During 1980-81 , egg production reached double-digit billion
figures ( 10 billion numbers) and has increased over 5 times currently. Per
capita availability has, during this period, also increased nearly 3 times from a
mere fifteen numbers per person per annum to forty-two per annum.
 The broiler production is growing at the rate of nearly 8-10% every year and
growth in production of poultry/chicken meat increased from mere 0.12
million metric tonnes in 1981 to 2.2 million metric tonnes presently. The
annual per capita availability of eggs and chicken meat has also increased from
a mere 10 eggs and 146 grams in 1970 s to around 42 eggs and 1.6 Kgs
respectively presently.
 India's share of the world trade in poultry and poultry products is very small.
However, the country has come a long way during the last decade increasing its
value of exports from nearly Rs. 11 crores in 1993-94 to around Rs. 441 crores
during 2007-08. Poultry Sector, besides providing direct or indirect
employment to nearly 3 million people is a potent tool for subsidiary income
generation for many landless and marginal farmers and also provides
nutritional security especially to the rural poor.
 To provide necessary services to the farmers of the country region-wise, four
regional centres have been restructured on the principle of one-window service
to the farmers. In these regional Central Poultry Development Organizations
( CPDOs) located at Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Mumbai and Hessarghatta,
training is also being imparted to the farmers to upgrade their technical skills.
To monitor the production potential of various stocks in the country, the
Central Poultry Performance Test unit at Gurgaon is conducting one layer and
two broiler tests in a year.
 Recently Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs approved the Centrally
Sponsored Scheme. "Poultry Development" from third year of XI Five Year
Plan i.e. 2009-10 , at a total outlay of Rs. 150 crore. The Centrally Sponsored
Scheme combines three components viz., 'Assistance to State Poultry Farms',
(which is a continuing component) and two new components 'Rural Backward
Poultry Development and 'Poultry Estates'. The administrative approval and
scheme guidelines are being issued.
 The Scheme through its 'Assistance to State Poultry Farms' component aims at
strengthening existing State poultry farms so as to enable them to provide
inputs, mainly in terms of providing improved stocks suitable for rural
backyard rearing. The 'Rural Backyard Poultry Development' component is
expected to cover the needy Below Poverty Line section of society to mainly
enable them to gain supplementary income and nutritional support.
Entrepreneurship skills are expected to be improved through pilot component
of 'Poultry Estates' which is meant primarily for educated, unemployed youth
and small farmers with some margin money, for making a profitable venture
out of various poultry related activities in a scientific, and bio-secure cluster
approach.
 India and the neighbouring countries in the east are considered to be the
original home of the well-known Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus) from which
the present day domestic birds have descended. The fowl population of India
can be classified into two types - desi/indigenous and improved/exotic.The
birds are raised mostly by the rural folks as a backyard enterprise. About 18
breeds of fowl have been documented. The status of most of these breeds
except Aseel, Kadaknath,
 Kashmir Faverolla, Miri and Nicobari is not known.
 Most of the present day populations are commercial hybrids involving White
Leghorn, Cornish, Barred Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red and Black
Australorp. Some crossbred strains of fowl have been developed to use them
for rural poultry production. Some of these are Giriraja, Vanaraja, Krishna–J,
Yamuna, Kalinga Brown, Dhanraja, Mrityunjay, Cari Gold, Debendra,
Nandanam-I, Girirani, Athula, Gramalakshmi, Gramapriya. Vanaraja.
SCOPE OF POULTRY FARMING IN INDIA
 Poultry industry which provides cheap source of animal protein has taken a
quantum leap in the last three decades evolving from a near backyard practice
to a venture of industrial promotion. Poultry is one of the fastest growing
segments of the agricultural sector in India today. While the production of
agricultural crops has been rising at a rate of 1.5 to 2 percent per annum that of
eggs has been rising at a rate of 8 percent per annum. India is on the world
map as one of the top five egg producing countries with 55.6 billion eggs
produced during 2008.
 The poultry sector in India has undergone a paradigm shift in structure and
operation. This transformation has involved sizable investments in breeding,
hatching, rearing and processing. Farmers in India have moved from rearing
non-descript birds to rearing hybrids which ensures faster growth, good
liveability, excellent feed conversion and high profits to the rearers. High
quality chicks, equipment, vaccines and medicines are available. Technically
and professionally competent guidance is available to the farmers. The
management practices have improved and disease and mortality incidences are
reduced to a great extent. The industry has grown largely due to the initiative
of private enterprise, minimal government intervention, considerable
indigenous poultry genetic capabilities and adequate support from the
complementary veterinary health, poultry feed, poultry equipment and poultry
processing sectors. The industry has created direct and indirect employment
for 3 million people.
Duck
Duck rearing is prevalent among weaker sections of rural population which provides
them supplementary and steady income on daily basis besides providing them nutrition
duck eggs for family consumption and engaging family labour in their leisure hours to
look after Duck unit thus, generates rural employment.
Gujarat State has several hectares of land under in land water ponds or water holes
particularly in South Gujarat region and tribal communities keep duck for production of
duck eggs and duck meal, which are considered to be poorman’s poultry productions
available at affordable prices.
Over 10 million duck population exists in the country and ranks 2 nd in the world after
Indonesia. Around 600 million duck eggs valued at Rs. 180 crore are being produced
and are being consumed in the rural area, Kerala, West-Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh
are the Staes where duck are predominant.
 Ducks suppliment their feed by foraging. They eat fallen grains in harvested
paddy fields, insects, shails, earth worms, small other fishes etc.
 Duck rearing does not require elaborate housing like poultry. Ducks are more
hardy well suited for weaker section where level of management is moderately
scientific.
 Marshy, riverside, wet land and barren moors are excellent areas for duck
farming. Duck cum fish farming can be integrated.
 Ducks lay 95% to 98% eggs in early morning before 9.00 am after which the
flock can be taken for foraging to nearby ponds by the duck farmer or his
family members.
 Khaki Campbell is best egg producing breed in ducks. Animal Husbandry
Department of Govt of Gujarat from their Duck breeding farms at Mandvi in
Surat district can supply 3 months old duck lings at Rs. 130 per duck ling.
 Indian breeds of ducks are Indian Runner, Nageshwari, Sythetemete,
Kuttanadu Chara and Chemballi. Khaki Campbel – a synthetic breed is being
used as an improver breed.
Quail
 Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) is the domesticated version of
common wild quail (Coturnix coturnix). Indian subspecies of quail, viz. Rain,
Grey and Button quail collectively known as ‘Bater’ has distinct popularity as
game bird. Quails are seen in diversified colour varieties. Commonly seen
plumage is a mixture of different shades of brown with some black patterns.
Besides the cultural and religious considerations for animal keeping, all the
breeds of different domestic livestock and poultry species are contributing
significantly to food and agriculture in terms of milk meat, wool, fibre, egg,
manure, fuel and draft power. Variations in regional demand for animal
products have influenced the use of different AnGR.
Economic traits in poultry
 Egg production
MODULE-33: CONSERVATION OF GERMPLASM
Learning objectives
 conservation of germplasm,
 reasons and motives for conservation,
 categories of domestic population,
 status of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) in India,
 breeds requiring conservation,
 In-situ and Ex-situ conservation,
 Ex-situ / Cryogenic preservation.
CONSERVATION OF GERMPLASM
 Indian subcontinent is globally recognized as one of the Mega Centre of
biodiversity of animals and plants. India is bestowed with rich domestic animal
genetic resources at present which are intricately associated with the social,
cultural and traditional values of the region to which they belong and serve as
vital source for food, fibre, draught power, manure and provide much needed
self employment to small and marginal farmers and weaker sections of the
society.
Historical perspective of conservation
 The need for conservation of animal genetic resources was expressed for the
first time in 1959 in Chicago in a joint symposium on germplasm for plant and
animal breeders. Conservation of poultry genetic resources was a major issue
at second European Poultry Conference held at Bolagna in 1964. The FAO
organized several study groups to discuss problems of animal genetic resources
especially for cattle, pigs and poultry in Rome (1966, 1968), Copenhagen
(1971), Nouzilly (1973) and a pilot study in 1975.
 In 1985 FAO, under the responsibility of the Commission on Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture, introduced an expanded Global Strategy for the
Management of Farm Animal Resources. In 1992, it launched a special action
programme for the Global Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources
(AnGR) with a framework to stimulate national participation in the global
effort to implement conservation activities. National and regional focus points
played an important role in stimulating and coordinating these actions. The
Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) is used to collect
information on breeds and conservation activities and it offers the opportunity
to retrieve guidelines for conservation activities.
 In 1992, the Second United Nations Conference on the Environment in Rio de
Janeiro recognised the importance of farm animal genetic resources in Agenda
21 and in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Nearly all countries
have signed this convention, bringing about political and social awareness of
national animal genetic resources and activities to conserve them in several
countries. The CBD included farm animal genetic variation as a component of
overall biological diversity and also recognized the sovereignity of each country
on its own genetic resources, which implied also the obligation to conserve the
AnGR.
 In 1998, this programme got a new impetus in the first session of the Inter-
Governmental Working Group on Animal Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture. This working group recommended to the Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture that FAO should continue to shape more
clearly the framework and further develop the framework and that it should
co-ordinate the development of a country-driven Report on the State of the
World's Animal Genetic Resources.
Conservation
 It is defined as the management of human use of the biosphere for the greatest
sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to
meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Thus, conservation is
positive embracing preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization,
restoration and enhancement of the natural environment.
Preservation
 Preservation is the part of conservation by which a sample of animal genetic
resource population is designated to an isolated process of maintenance, by
providing an environment free of human forces which might bring about
genetic changes.
REASONS FOR CONSERVATION
 Breeds with specific qualities like disease resistance, heat tolerance, etc.
 Future requirements of type and quality of animal produce ( meat, milk, skin,
draught power).
 Breeds with unique physiological traits are of great values as they provide
missing links in the genetic history, eg. study of blood group, biochemical
polymorphism etc.
 To evaluate magnitude of genetic change due to selection, maintenance of
sample as controlled population is very much essential.
 Variety of population is an asset for research workers in biologiacal evaluation,
behavioural studies, etc.
 Diverse population for excellent teaching materials.
 To take care of existence of different creation of the nature of posterity.
 Valuable material of nature and culture.
 Preservation with diverse sizes, colors and other morphological features, for
aesthetic reason.
MOTIVES SFOR CONSERVATION
 To avoid the loss of genetic materials which would be valuable for future
production requirements (historical, socio-economic status)
 To avoid the loss of genetic material viz., breeds before adequate evaluation
has been carried out.
Each breed may have valuable genes. The gene bank materials are to be studied as
reference points such as blood types and enzyme proteins. The most common
conservation methods in use are frozen semen banks and frozen embryos. The live
conservation of herds is also adopted.
CATEGORIES OF DOMESTIC POPULATION
EXTINCT: No possibility of restoring the population, no purebred males or
females can be found.
 CRITICAL: Close to extinction, genetic variability reduced below that of
ancestral population.
 ENDANGERED: In danger of extinction, because of the number is too small to
prevent genetic loss through inbreeding. Preservaion must be enacted.
 INSECURE: Population number is decreasing rapidly
 VULNERABLE: Some disadvantages effects endanger the existence of the
population.
 NORMAL : Population not in danger of extinction.
Vulnerability of uniparous populations
S. Status No. of Breeding females
No.
1 Normal more than 10000
2 Insecure 5000 to 10000
3 Vulnerable 1000 to 5000
4 Endangered 100 to 1000
5 Critical less than 100
Population size of a breed for its status (thousands)
Specie Normal Insecur Vulnerabl Endangere Critical
s e e d
Cattle 25 15-25 5-15 2-5 <2.0
Buffalo 30 20-30 10-20 5-10 <5.0
STATUS OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES (AnGR) IN INDIA

 India possess a total of 30 breeds of cattle, 10 buffalo breeds, 42 sheep, 20
goats, 8 camel, 6 horse and 18 poultry breeds in addition to other species like
pigs, donkey, mithun, yak, turkey, ducks, etc. A wide variety of agro-ecological
zones (20 nos. and 60 sub-zones) existing in India has helped to develop these
large number of breeds of various livestock species including poultry for the
benefit of local people under different farming systems. This genetic diversity
of domesticated livestock and poultry breeds was the net result of the evolution
over millions of years in association with man’s intervention within specific
ecological niche to suit the local needs and they are well adapted to their native
ecology.
 The share of India in terms of number of breeds is 7.75 per cent of the total
world cattle breeds, 26.39 per cent of buffalo breeds and 8.26 per cent of goat
breeds (FAO, 1995), while the population size was to the tune of 16.25 percent
of the total world cattle population, 56.88 percent of buffaloes, 16.69 per cent
of goats and 5.71 per cent of sheep (FAO, 2002). Around 58.64 percent of total
buffalo population, 46.83 per cent of cattle, 26.38 per cent of goat and 22.50
per cent of camel’s population of Asia are found in India (FAO, 2002).
 All these livestock species are generally large but contain (i) a small percentage
of recognized indigenous breeds with specific breed characteristics and (ii) a
very large proportion of non-descript native animals, which do not conform to
any specific breed characteristics in the native ecology and constitutes around
80% of total livestock population. The last category of animals have been found
to utilize all available natural resources (pasture lands, barren and uncultivable
waste lands), crop residues and low quality grains to a greater extent in
comparison to the recognized indigenous breeds of livestock including poultry,
but with low input and low output relationship.
Number of breeds of livestock species including poultry
Specie World Asia & India India % of World % of
s Pacific (FAO) ICAR * Asia*
Cattle 787 190 61 30 7.75 32.11
Buffalo 72 57 19 15 26.39 33.33
Sheep 920 226 59 42 6.41 26.11
Goat 351 126 29 20 8.26 23.02
Pig 353 157 3 3 0.85 1.91
Ass 77 17 3 3 3.90 17.64
Horse 384 72 9 6 2.34 12.50
Camel 56 14 8 14.29 57.14
Chicken 606 72 18 2.97 25.00
(Source: World Watch List, FAO, 1995); * with respect to FAO number.
Current status of indigenous animal germplasm in the country
 In the absence of planned efforts to conserve and maintain pure breed
populations, indiscriminate breeding within the native stocks as well as
crossbreeding of native with exotics has been continued over the last four
decades resulting in production of crossbreds, hybrids and graded ones of
unknown genetic makeup. It has been estimated that nearly 80 per cent of
indigenous animals are non-descript and practically useless for resource
development. Animal Genetic Resources in the country have not been properly
documented and created databases in order to evaluate their total utility vis-a-
vis sustainability in the respective agro-ecological and production systems.
BREEDS REQUIRING CONSERVATION

The livestock census is being carried out breed-wise and not breed wise. It is,
therefore, extremely difficult to know the exact number of animals of a
particular breed in the native tract except the number of animals of a species in
the area. A large proportion of animals are non-descript even in the breeding
tract of a descript breed which has created problems in determining the
numbers of animals of a particular breed. On the basis of the information
gathered from various sources, the breeds of different livestock species
showing serious decline in their numbers and needing urgent conservation
efforts are presented below:
Breeds requiring immediate conservation
Specie Breed Population Breeding Tract
s (Approx.)
Cattle Punganur 75 Chittor (A.P.)
Vechur < 150 Kottayam (Kerala)
Buffalo Toda 3530 Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu)
Goat Jamnapari < 10,000 Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh
Sheep Nilgiri < 1000 Nilgiri (T.N.)
Bhakarwal < 1000 Jammu & Kashmir
Poonchi < 1000 Jammu & Kashmir
Gurej < 1000 Jammu & Kashmir
Karnah < 1000 Jammu & Kashmir
Horse Zanskari < 1000 Ladakh
Spiti < 1000 Spiti (H.P.)
Camel Bacterian (Double 72 Ladakh
humped)
Poultry All indigenous breeds < 1000 each
Concept of conservation
 The concept of conservation has developed from increasing consciousness of
the human interference with his environment and its adverse affect on the
natural flora and fauna resulting in a number of wild species becoming extinct
and disappearing from their habitat on earth. In the case of farm livestock, the
situation is not so severe. However, there is a concern about reduction in
genetic variability of the existing number of species, number of breeds within
species and genetic variability within breeds. It is aimed at maintaining the
genetic variability for high productivity to meet the needs and aspirations of
future generations.
Mechanism of conserving livestock genetic resources
 Conservation is an effective process initiated by man in preventing the total
loss or in arresting the mutilation of endangered species of animals / plants in
their natural habitat. Once genetic resources have been identified and
characterized, two basic conservation methods are followed viz., in- situ and
ex-situ conservation.
IN-SITU CONSERVATION
 In-situ conservation requires establishment of live animal breeding farms and
their maintenance within their production systems and native ecology. In-situ
conservation strategies emphasize use of indigenous cattle genetic resources by
establishing and implementing breeding goals and strategies for animal
sustainable production systems. In any such programme, the success depends
upon the participation of the farmer for which he needs support and
incentives. However, it is difficult to organize the farmers for conserving the
breeds that are no more economical to them. In the case of breeds that are no
more economically viable but their conservation is necessary for future
generations, under such circumstances, the only alternative would be to bring
them under government farms.
 The major limitation of live animal conservation (in-situ) is the number of
animals selected and maintained in its environment. While fixing the number
for preservation of a breed, the cost of maintenance, availability of animals and
rate of inbreeding should be taken into account. With small population size,
the effective population size decreases and the genetic structure of the
population is affected due to inbreeding and random drift. Many models are
now available which reduce inbreeding to a minimum, but random drift over
long periods may lead to a population very different in genetic composition
from the initial one. Besides, genotype x environment interaction also poses a
serious threat on genetic structure of the population, which needs to be taken
care of effectively.
 In-situ conservation involves a large infrastructure of land, buildings, feed and
fodder resources, water supply, labour, technical and supervisory manpower,
etc. Therefore, a new establishment for in-situ conservation of farm cattle
genetic resources are quite costly and even the maintenance of existing ones is
cumbersome. It is useful to evaluate different options for self-sustaining
population. However, economic incentives are essential in the period of in-situ
conservation to reach self-sustainability. Therefore the costs need to be
estimated for each ecosystem separately.
 In case of preservation of small populations, to prevent undesirable effects of
inbreeding and random drift, FAO suggested a mating ratio of 5 males and 25
females, but a ratio of 50 males and 250 females is recommended in case of
traits with low heritability. When preservation is through cryogenic methods,
semen from 25 unrelated males should be frozen and embryos from 35
different matings must be ensured for embryo freezing.
Advantages
 Live animals can be evaluated and improved over years.
 Genetic defects, if any, could be eliminated
 Live animals are always available for immediate use.
 The expenditure of live animal maintenance is compensated from its produce.
Disadvantages
 Many no. of animals are to be maintained
 If small population is to be maintained considering cost of maintenance,
inbreeding may result.
EX-SITU CONSERVATION
 Ex-situ conservation techniques are further categorized into two groups viz.,
o Ex-situ cryopreservation of genetic materials: In the form of haploid
cells (spermatozoa, oocytes), diploid cells (in-vivo and in-vitro embryos,
somatic cells) and DNA
o Ex-situ live: The maintenance of live animals of a breed outside its
production system and native ecology (herds maintained in naturally
protected / reserved areas and farms, in zoos).
 Ex-situ live method excludes the present socio-economic value, because in
this conservation strategy the breed is removed totally from its socio economic
considerations. Besides it will also not attract cultural and historical value as
well as ecological value. Ex-situ conservation however, continues to provide
powerful and safe tools for conserving the AnGR being threatened /
endangered and facing extinction. It is the storage of genetic resources, which
the farmers are currently not interested in using.
 Ex-situ conservation is based on the use of live animal populations wherever
practicable, supported by cryo-preservation where technology exists or can be
developed and combining within-country gene banks with global repositories.
Interested governments, non-governmental organizations, research
institutions and private enterprises should be encouraged to maintain in-vivo
samples of breeds at risk, with national inventories being established and kept
up to date so that the genetic resources are readily available for use and study.
 Because of random drift and possible gene x environment interactions, ex-situ
methods are generally preferred over in-situ. Ex-situ conservation is
comparatively more convenient, economical and easy with the application of
modern reproductive technologies.
EX-SITU / CRYOGENIC PRESERVATION
It includes semen preservation, oocyte preservation, embryo preservation, preservation
of ovaries, embryonic stem cell and nuclei, production of embryos in-vitro, embryo-
splitting, transgenesis, DNA libraries. In-situ and ex-situ conservation schemes are
complementary and not mutually exclusive, with their application for a particular
animal genetic resource depending on farmers’ current use of it and its comparative
uniqueness. Furthermore, frozen germplasm can play an important role in the support
of in-situ breed development schemes.
Advantages
 Easily done without any change in the genetic structure.
 Resource requirement for in-situ preservation is quite large as compared to
cryogenic methods.
Limitations
 Ex-situ preservation using frozen semen delays the restoration of a breed.
 An important danger faced by a breed restored from cryogenic is from the
important changes in the environment like germs , climate, etc. that have taken
place over the years.
Future strategies
 There is need to cope with the diversity of agro-ecological settings and socio-
economic resource endowments of the producers and to resolve the location
specific livestock conservation and propagation. With this objective in view
research programmes specific to agro-ecological zones for characterization and
evaluation of livestock and poultry breeds are to be planned and refinement in
production system need to be proposed. We should ensure stability and
sustainability on war footing, besides containing potentially adverse impacts
on the natural resource base and environment. There is also need to promote
the multi-disciplinary location specific and participatory modes of operation
through enhanced linkages between research institution and in all network and
conservation programmes.
MODULE-34: CURRENT LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY BREEDING
PROGRAMMES IN STATE AND COUNTRY
Learning objectives
 livestock policy objectives of india,
 cattle and buffalo breeding policy of india and
 cattle breeding policy in different states.
LIVESTOCK POLICY OBJECTIVES OF INDIA
 To augment production of milk, eggs, chicken meat and other animal foods
and increase availability of animal proteins in human diet.
 To encourage livestock production through small holders with low input
system.
 To expand organised dairying through synergisation of co-operative and
private sector efforts with a focus on quality and hygienic control.
 To increase production of quality carpet and coarse wool while making efforts
for developing fine wool.
 To enhance participation of women in livestock development programmes and
increase nutritional support and supplementary income to rural farmers.
 To encourage conservation of animal bio-diversity and protection of
indigenous breeds of livestock and poultry while restricting cross breeding to
low producing stock.
 To promote avenues for export of livestock and livestock products by adopting
measures towards supportive fiscal policy as well as hygiene and quality
standards consistent with global trade regime.
 To control and eradicate communicable animal diseases pests and to increase
health cover facilities for optimizing livestock production.
 To augment feed and fodder resources for sustaining livestock and increasing
production.
CATTLE AND BUFFALO BREEDING POLICY OF INDIA
 A reorientation of cattle and buffalo breeding policy would be attempted with
area specific approach backed up by appropriate programs addressing our
concerns for indigenous cattle breeds and draught animal power. A similar
approach has been adopted in the National Project on Cattle and Buffalo
Breeding.
 Indigenous cattle breeds accepted by common farmers shall be further
developed through region specific and breed specific programs aimed at
selection in the breeding tracts and supply of improved quality germplasm on
demand by farmers. The states shall be directed to specifically delineate the
areas of native breeds of cattle, record their numbers breed wise and sex wise
and encourage farmers to conserve them in their home tracts.
 Formation of breed associations for improvement of indigenous breeds shall be
encouraged. Such associations shall be involved in production of quality male
stock. An effective mechanism for providing disease free quality breeding bulls
and quality semen for artificial insemination will be put in place. Breeding
services would be provided at the farmers’ door.
 For sheep breeding also an area specific approach shall be adopted for effecting
qualitative and quantitative improvement in carpet and coarse wool and
developing fine wool. Breeding of sheep and goats will aim at increasing body
weight, reproductive efficiency and control of mortality, besides improvement
in milk yield in goats. Main focus will be on selection of rams and bucks and
their distribution with backup by suitable programs. In high altitude areas
support for breeding of Yaks and mithuns shall continue. Breeding of rabbits
for fur and broiler purpose shall be encouraged in suitable areas. Preservation
and development of pack animals – horses, mules, donkeys and camels - shall
also be considered.
 The indigenous breeds of livestock and poultry are essentially the products of
long term natural selection and are better adopted to withstand tropical
diseases and perform under low and medium input. Many of these breeds may
have useful genes for fast growth, prolificacy and small size. Such utility genes
and breeds shall be identified, conserved and utilized. In recent time,
international actions have been oriented towards conservation of animal
genetic resources. India being a signatory to many such international
agreements, the country will have specific policy focus on conservation of
indigenous breeds of livestock and poultry. State will take up the responsibility
of conserving such threatened breeds through appropriate programmes.
CATTLE BREEDING POLICY IN DIFFERENT STATES

S.No State/UT Breed Breeding Policy
1 Anhra Ongole Selective breeding in Ongole: grading
Pradesh up, non–descript with Ongole
Malvi Selective breeding Malvi in pockets,
grading of Malvi with Tharparkar and
Deoni
Hallikar Selective breeding in Hallikar; grading
up of nondescript with Hallikar
Non- Grading up, with Ongole, Tharparkar
descript and Deoni cross breeding with Jersy
and Holstein
2 Arunachal Local cattle Grading up, with Hariana and
Pradesh Redsindhi cross breeding with Jersy
3 Assam Local cattle Grading up, with Hariana and
Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
4 Bihar Local cattle Grading up, with Tharparkar Hariana
and Redsindhi; cross breeding with
Jersy
5 Chattisgarh Local cattle Grading up, with Tharparkar Hariana
and Shaiwal; cross breeding with Jersy
and Holstein
6 Gujarat Gir, Kankrej Selective breeding in Gir and Kankrej;
grading up, non–descript with Gir and
Kankrej; cross breeding with Jersy and
Holstein-Friesian
7 Goa Local cattle Grading up, with Redsindhi; cross
breeding with Jersy
8 Haryana Hariana Selective breeding
Shaiwal Selective breeding
Non- grading up, non–descript with
descripit Hariana, Shaiwal, Tharparkar; cross
breeding with Jersy and Holstein-
Friesian.
9 Himachal Local cattle Grading up, with Hariana and
Pradesh Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
10 Jammu & Local cattle Grading up, with Hariana and
Kashmir Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
11 Jharkhand Local cattle Grading up, with Tharparkar Hariana
and Redsindhi; cross breeding with
Jersy
12 Karnataka Deoni Selective breeding
Krishna Selective breeding
Valley
Khillari Selective breeding
Amrit Mahal Selective breeding
Hallikar Selective breeding
Non- grading up, non–descript with
Descript Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
and Holstein-Friesian.
13 Kerala Local cattle grading up, non–descript with
Redsindhi, Kangayam and Tharparkar;
cross breeding with Jersy and
Holstein-Friesian.
Crossbreds Selective breeding with F1 cross bred
bulls obtained from progeny tested
either jersy or Holstein bulls
14 Madhya Nimari Selective breeding
Pradesh Malvi Selective breeding
Kenkatha Selective breeding
Non- Grading up, with Gir, Tharparkar,
descript Hariana Shaiwal and Ongole; cross
breeding with Jersy and Holstein
15 Maharashtra Khillari Selective breeding
Dangi Selective breeding
Gaolao Selective breeding
Nimari Selective breeding
Non- Grading up, with the breeds of the
descript region and Hariana; cross breeding
with Jersy and Holstein
16 Manipur Local cattle Grading up, with Red sindhi; cross
breeding with Jersy
17 Meghalaya Local cattle Grading up, with Red sindhi; cross
breeding with Jersy
18 Mizoram Local cattle Grading up, with Hariana; cross
breeding with Jersy
19 Nagaland Local cattle Grading up, with Hariana; cross
breeding with Jersy
20 Orrisa Local cattle Grading up, with Red sindhi and
Hariana; cross breeding with Jersy
and Holstein
21 Punjab Local cattle Grading up, with Shaiwal and
Hariana; cross breeding with Holstein
Friesian and Jersy
22 Rajasthan Nagori Selective breeding
Malvi Selective breeding
Rathi Selective breeding
Non- Grading up, with Hariana, Gir,
descript Tharparkar and Rathi; cross breeding
with Jersy and Holstein Friesian
23 Sikkim Siri Selective breeding
Local cattle Grading up, with Hariana; cross
breeding with Jersy
24 Tamilnadu Kangayam Selective breeding
Umblachery Selective breeding
Bargur Selective breeding
Non- Grading up, with Native breeds; cross
descript breeding with Jersy in plains and
Holstein Friesian in hilly areas
25 Tripura Local cattle Grading up, with Tharparkar; cross
breeding with Jersy
26 Uttar pradesh Kenkatha Selective breeding
Non- Grading up, with Hariana, Shaiwal,
descript Tharparkar and Red sindhi; cross
breeding with Jersy and Holstein
Friesian

EXERCISE-1: BREEDS OF CATTLE & BUFFALO AND
MEASUREMENT OF THEIR ECONOMIC TRAITS
Exotic dairy breeds
JERSEY
 Tract : Originated on the Island of Jersey in the English Channel
 Body size : Smaller in size
 Colour : Reddish grey to brown colour with darkening in certain areas of the
body
 Body weight : Bulls: 350 - 500 kg Cows: 300-450 kg
 Milk yield : 4,500 kg per lactation
 Fat content : 4.5%
 Age at first calving : 26 - 30 months
 Calving interval : 13 - 14 months
 Typical characters : Compact, wedge shaped medium sized body, light dished
head, protruding eyes, straight top line.
HOLSTEIN FRIESIAN
 Tract : Originated from the northern part of Netherlands, West Frieze land and
north Holland
 Body size : Largest of the dairy breeds
 Colour : Black and white markings clearly defined. Solid black, solid white,
black in switch, black belly, black encircling leg touching hoof, black and white
inter mixed. Colour other than distinct black and white are disqualification.
 Body weight : Bull: 800 to 900 kg Cow: 550 to 650 kg
 Milk yield : 6000 - 7000 kg.
 Age at first calving : 27 to 30 months
 Typical characters : Black and white colour, wedge-shaped heavy body, long
and narrow head, large chest, large capacious udder with prominent milk vein
BROWN SWISS
 Tract : Switzerland
 Body size : Fairly large in size. Medium milk producer
 Colour : Light brown to grey in colour.
 Body weight : Bulls: 700 - 800 kg Cows: 500 - 600 kg
 Milk yield : 5000 - 5500 kg
 Fat content : 4%
 Age at first calvin g : 28 - 30 months
 Calving interval : 13-14 months
Typical characters : Large, wedge shaped body, broad and dished forehead,
thick and loose skin. Dual purpose breed for milk and beef
RED DANE
 Tract : Baltic Islands of Denmark
 Body size : Fairly large in size
 Colour : Red in colour; bulls have darker shade of red
 Milk yield : 5000 - 5500 kg
 Fat content : 4.1 %
 Typical characters : Red body colour
INDIAN CATTLE BREEDS
 India has 30 indigenous breeds of cattle in addition to the vast cattle
population which comes under the non-descript category. There are 3 major
types of cattle breeds as per their utility
o Milch breeds: Sahiwal, Gir, Rathi and Red Sindhi (few animals only at
organized farms)
o Dual-purpose breeds: Deoni, Gaolao, Hariana, Kankrej, Krishna Valley,
Mewati, Ongole and Tharparkar.
o Draught breeds: Amritmahal, Bachaur, Bargur, Dangi, Hallikar,
Kangayam, Kenkatha, Kherigarh, Khillari, Malvi, Nagori, Nimari,
Ponwar, Umblachery, Red Kandhari and Siri.
 Vechur and Punganur are the dwarf breeds. The population of some breeds like
Nagori, Hariana, Ponwar, Kherigarh, Mewati, Hallikar, etc. is declining mainly
due to mechanization of agriculture. In addition to these, there exist some
stable populations in different regions that significantly contribute to the food
and agriculture production of that region. These are Alambadi, Binjharpuri,
Ghumsuri, Pullikulam, Kumauni, Ladakhi, Malnad Gidda, Mampati, Manipari,
Motu, Red Purnea, Shahabadi, Gangatiri, ThoTho, and Tarai. There are no wild
relatives of cattle in India. Some of the crossbred strains developed are
Sunandini, Frieswal, and Karan-Fries. Except Sunandini, the population of
other strains is small.
DAIRY BREEDS OF INDIA
GIR
 Tract : Gir hills and forests of Kathiawar, Rajapudanam, Baroda of Gujarath
and Northern section of Maharastra
 Colour : Mottling in various shades of red to black; white with a few spots of
colour; entire red is also seen. Well defined patch of colour, often of different
shape is seen on sides of the barrel
 Body weight : Bulls - 500 kg Cows - 350 kg
 Horns : Curved downward and backwards, then upwards and inwards taking
a spiral inward sweep ending in a fine taper, giving a half-moon appearance
 Milk yield : 2100 kg
Fat content : 4.4%
Age at first calvin g : 51 months
Calving interval : 17 months
Typical characters : Long and protruding forehead, pendulous frontward
turned ears, always hanging from the base
 Utility : Cows good milkers; Bullocks used extensively for work; Best beef
breed.
SAHIWAL (LOLA)
 Tract : Montgomery District of Punjab (Pakistan), Punjab, Hariyana
 Body size : Heavy breed with symmetrical body and loose skin
 Colour : Reddish dun or pale red with some white patches. In males, colour
darkens towards the extremities
 Body weight : Bulls: 500 - 600 kg Cows: 300 -400 kg
 Horns : Short and thick and do not exceed three inches in length. Loose horns
are common in females
 Milk yield : 2,200 kg
 Calving interval : 15 months
 Typical characters : Muzzle is lighter colour in contrast to Red Sindhi,
which has dark coloured muzzle. Animals are large, deep, fleshy and lethargic,
loose skin, voluminous dewlap
 Utility : Good milkers. Lethargic and slow workers
RED SINDHI
 Tract : Western Sind, Karachi, and Hyderabad districts of Pakistan
 Body size : Medium sized and compact animal
 Colour : Deep dark red, variation from tan yellow to almost dark brown. Bulls
are darker than cows and their extremities are almost black. White markings
on the forehead, a little sprinkling of white along dewlap and underneath
barrel
 Body weight : Bulls: 450 -500 kg Cows: 300 - 350 kg
 Horns : Thick at the base and emerge laterally and curve upward
 Age at first calvin g : 44 months
 Typical characters : Red colour. Compact body with round dropping
quarters, muzzle dark colour, thick horn, heavy hump, pendulous udder
 Utility : Cows for good milk and bullocks for both road and field work
DRAUGHT BREEDS OF INDIA
AMIRTHMAHAL
 Tract : Mysore of Karnataka
Colour : Mostly white in colour; shades of grey varying from almost white to
nearly black with white grey marking; muzzle, feet and tail are usually black
 Body weight : Bulls: 300-500 kg Cows: 250-400 kg
 Horns : Emerge from top to the poll, fairly close together in an upward and
backward direction and terminate in sharp point
 Typical characters : Head is well shaped, long and tapering towards the
muzzle. Forehead bulged out slightly;
 Utility : Cows are poor milkers; bullocks are good workers
HALLIKAR
 Tract : Mysore district of Karnataka
 Body size : Medium sized, compact body and muscular in appearance
 Colour : Grey or dark grey
 Body weight : Bulls - 340 kg Cows - 200 kg
 Horns : Long and straight, bend forward and slightly inward toward the tips
which are black and sharp
 Typical characters : Forehead is prominent giving lightly bulgy appearance
and furrowed in the middle; face is long and tapering towards the muzzle;
sheath small and tucked up with the body
 Utility : Good draught animals
KANGAYAM
 Tract : Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu
 Body size : Moderate size with compact body
 Colour : Grey or white. Males have black or very dark colour on the head,
hump, neck and quarters. Calves are red in colour at birth and change to grey
at the age of 3-4 months
 Horns : Spread apart, nearly straight with a slight curve backwards
 Milk yield : 600 -700 kg
 Typical characters : Broad forehead, black muzzle, short and erect ears,
bright and elliptical shaped eyes; stout and thick horns; short, stout legs with
strong hooves; tight naval flap
 Utility : Good for ploughing and carting
UMBLACHERY
 Tract : Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu

Body size : Small and compact body with well ribbed barrel

Colour : Dark grey in colour;

Body weight : Bulls - 250 kg Cows - 200 kg

Horns : Small, curving outwards and inwards sometimes spreading laterally

Milk yield : 300 kg

Fat content : 5 %

Age at first calvin g : 53 months

Calving interval : 15 months

Typical characters : Small, broad fore head, sometimes with a slight groove
in the middle; muzzle is broad and black in colour; medium sized and erect
hump; all legs have white markings below the hocks like socks
 Utility : Draught animals
PUNGANUR
 Tract : Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh
 Body size : Short with tight skin; short legs and long body
 Colour : White or grey or light brown to dark brown
 Horns : Black, small and crescent shaped; stumpy in males and longer in
females
 Typical characters : Short stature; comparatively tighter skin; extensive
hanging dewlap; concave and broad forehead; medium hump in males; tail
long touching the ground
 Utility : Used for carts and races
VECHUR
 Tract : Vechur in Kottayam district of South Kerala
 Body size : Extremely small in size and have compact body
 Colour : Light red, black or fawn and white
 Horns : Small, thin and curving forward and downward
 Fat content : 5 - 7.5%
 Typical characters : Short legs; small body size and light red in colour; long
head with narrow face; prominent hump in males; small sheath tucked up with
the body; long tail almost touching the ground
 Utility : Dual purpose
DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS OF INDIA
THARPARKAR (White Sindhi )

Tract : Semi-arid desert tract of South West Sind, Tar desert and Kutch area
of Pakistan and India.
 Body size : Medium size
 Colour : White or light grey. Bulls, usually white grey. Cows and bullocks,
white grey and become white with age
 Body weight : Bulls: 500 to 600 kg Cows: 400 to 450 kg
 Horns : Medium sized, emerge laterally in straight line from the poll and
curve upwards and inwards
 Typical characters : Short straight and strong limbs, broad poll, slightly
convex fore head, long back
 Utility : Bullocks for work; Cows for good milk
HARIANA
 Tract : Haryana, Punjab, Delhi and U.P
 Body size : Compact and well built body
 Colour : White or light grey with dark grey head, neck, hump and quarters in
the bull
 Body weight : Bulls: 350 to 500 kg Cows: 300 to 400 kg
 Horns : Stumpy, horizontal or slightly curved upwards and inwards
 Fat content : 4.3 - 5.3%
 Typical characters : Compact graceful appearance body, long and narrow
face, stumpy horns, short tail - reaching just below the hocks
 Utility : Dual purpose breed, primarily reared for bullocks
ONGOLE (Nellore)
 Tract : Nellore and Guntur Districts of Andhra Pradesh
 Body size : Long body and short neck
 Colour : White; In males, dark grey markings on the head, neck and hump
and black points on the knees, pasterns of fore and hind legs; muzzle black;
black eye lashes and black ring rounds the eyes
 Body weight : Bulls: 400-600 kg Cows: 400-500 kg
 Horns : Short, stumpy, growing outwards and backwards
 Typical characters : Large, heavy and muscular body; broad forehead;
horns - thick at the base and stumpy; well developed hump
 Utility : Cows are average milkers and bullocks are good draught animals
DEONI
 Tract : North Western and Western Andhra Pradesh
 Colour : Black and white or red and white in irregular patches and spots
distributed over the body
 Horns : Similar to Gir. Takes an outward and backward curve
 Typical characters : Forehead prominent and slightly bulged; ears
moderately long, pendulous and hanging almost perpendicularly with the
inner surface visible from the front; massive hump; heavy dewlap and
pendulous sheath
 Utility : Bullocks good for heavy work. Cows- Average milkers
KANKREJ
 Tract : Southeast of Kutch and north Gujarath
 Body size : Heaviest of Indian breeds
 Colour : Silver grey or Iron grey or even steel black. Fore quarters, hump,
hindquarters are darker than the barrel. Black markings on all legs
 Body weight : Bulls 500-600 kg Cows 300- 500 kg
 Horns : Lyre-shaped horns, thick growing outward then upwards turning
inwards towards the body and tip bent forwards
 Typical characters : Lyre-shaped horns; forehead dished in the centre;
powerful body, straight back, well developed hump
 Utility : Good milkers and draught animals
RATHI
 Tract : North and West of Alwar in Rajasthan
 Body size : Medium size with symmetrical body
 Colour : Similar to Hariana, white or grey in colour. Usually brown with white
patches all over the body, but complete black or brown with white patches also
seen markings on all legs. Face is broad and slightly dished. Smaller head,
moderate size with flat forehead.
 Body weight : Males: 400 kgs. Females: 300 kgs.
 Horns : Medium, curving outward, upward and inward.
 Milk yield : 1500 kgs per lactation
 Typical characters : Developed from the mixture of Sahiwal. Brown with
white patches.
 Broad and slightly dished face. Large naval flap. Also known as Rath. Naval
flap - large. Hump: large in males. Dewlap - voluminous. Comparatively short
tail. Tail is fine and tapering to a black switch
 Utility : Good for medium plough work - Cows moderate milkers.
IMPORTANT BREEDS OF BUFFALOES
India possesses the richest source of germplasm of buffalo and the best dairy breeds are
domesticated in north-western region of the country. There are 10 recognised breeds of
riverine buffaloes (2N = 50) in India. These include large sized breeds – Murrah, Nili-
Ravi and Jaffarabadi; and medium sized – Mehsana, Marathwada, Nagpuri,
Pandharpuri, Bhadawari, Surti and Toda. Murrah is the best dairy breed and is most
sought after. There also exist a number of buffalo populations, which have not been
defined as breeds. The local varieties need to be assessed, defined and recognized.
Though number of buffalo breeds has not decreased, but the population of breeds like
Bhadawari, Nili-Ravi and Toda is declining.
MURRAH
 Tract : Punjab and Delhi province
 General characters : Deep massive frame with a comparatively light head
and neck. Short and tightly curved horns. Well developed udder. Long tail
reaching the fetlock ending in a white switch.
 Colour : Jet black with white markings on the tail, face and extremities
 Horns : Short turning upwards and curving inwards in a spiral form.
 Ears : Short, thin and alert. Dewlap: Absent. Naval flap : Small
 Hoof : Black generally.
 Weight : Males: 400 - 800 kgs. Females : 300 - 700 kgs.
 Milk yield : 1500 - 2000 kgs per lactation.
 Age at first calving : 44 months
 Utility : Good milch breed.
 Typical characters : Massive body, jet black in colour, broad hip. Curled
horns, hence named as Murrah. Also called as Delhi buffalo referring to the
centre of origin.
NILI - RAVI (PANCHA KALYANI)
 Tract : Sutlej Valley of Punjab state. Parts of Montgomery District of West
Pakistan
 General characters : Medium size, deep and low set frames. Head small,
elongated bulging at the top and is depressed between eyes. Frontal bones
prominent, neck not so thin as in the Murrah. Body massive and barrel shaped.
 Colour : A brown colour is not uncommon and black colour is often
associated with white spots in the forehead. White hocks, White tip of tail, Skin
is usually jet black and pliable.
 Horns : Small and coiled tightly
Weight : Males: 450 - 600 kg Females: 400 - 450 kg
Milk yield : 1500 - 1850 kg
Fat content : 5 - 8%
Age at first calving : 45 months
Calving interval : 16 months
Utility : Males used for heavy draught
Typical characters : White markings on forehead, muzzle and legs; Coiled
horn; Wall eyes
JAFFARABADI
 Tract : Saurashtra region of Gujarath
 General characters : Heaviest Indian breed of buffalo
 Colour : Black
 Horns : Long, emerge out compressing the head, go downward, sideways,
upward, inward forming a ring like structure. Makes eyes to look small
 Weight : Males - 1000 kg Females - 700 kg
 Utility : Females - good milkers Males - good draught animals
 Typical characters : Fore head is very prominent, broad and convex; Heavy
body and black in colour. Horns emerged out compressing head giving study
eye appearance.
MEHSANA
 Tract : Mehsana town in Gujarath
 General characters : Developed by cross between Murrah and Surti.
Medium sized with low set deep body
 Colour : Black
 Horns : Generally sickle shaped
 Weight : Males: 400 to 600 kg Females : 300 to 600 kg
 Utility : Persistent milk producer
 Typical characters : Medium in size with low set deep body, black in colour
and with sickle shaped horns; fore head is wide with a slight depression in the
middle
SURTI
 Tract : Vadodara and Surat districts of Gujarath
 General characters : Lighter in body weight compared to heavy breeds.
Animals are of medium size having a straight back
 Colour : Varies from rusty brown to silver grey

Horns : Flat, medium length and sickle shaped

Ears : Medium in size with reddish colour inside

Weight : Males-500 kg Females - 380 kg

Milk yield : 1300 kg

Fat content : 7.5 - 8.3%

Age at first calving : 56 months

Calving interval : 20 months

Typical characters : Smaller in size; black or brown in colour; sickle shaped
horns; two white bands below the neck; tail long, thin and ending in a white
tuft
NAGPURI
 Tract : Vidarbha region of Maharashtra
 General characters : Dual breed of buffalo; also known as Berari buffalo
 Colour : Black with white patches on the face , legs and tail
 Horns : Long flat, curved and carried back on the side of the neck nearly to
shoulders
 Weight : Males: 400 - 500 kg Females: 300 - 400 kg
 Typical characters : Black coloured with long horns; short tail with white
switch
TODA
 Tract : The Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu
 General characters : Medium size and long body with deep chest
 Colour : Fawn at birth and changes to grey, light grey (cream) and dark grey.
In adults the coat colour is fawn and ash-grey
 Horns : Long, set wide apart outward forming a characteristic crescent shape
or semi circle. Thick at the base and tapering and sharp at the tip
 Weight : Male: 380 kg Female: 380 kg
 Age at first calving : 40 - 47 months
 Typical characters : Ash-grey in colour. A band of dense hair covers the
skin. Medium in size with crescent shaped horns. Named after the Toda tribe
of the Nilgiris
MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF CATTLE AND
BUFFALO
The genetic improvement of dairy animals depends on animal breeding technologies. In
most of the developing countries including India the animal breeding technologies are
neither advanced nor widely adopted because of considerable geographical variation in
environment, fragmented farming mostly at a subsistence level, substantial livestock
genetic diversity, lack of awareness of rural households and many other problems
directly and indirectly associated with the genetic improvement of animals. As a result,
in spite of some important genetic resources available in the country, the productivity of
dairy animal in general is very low in India in comparison to the dairy animals of
developed countries. Thus, the reasoning for genetic improvement of dairy cattle and
buffaloes would be critically differentiated in institutional / organised herds and field
condition in our situation.
Measurements of economical traits are important to know the improvement in a
particular character in any farm animal. The following economical traits are important
in cattle and buffalo.
 Age at first calving: Age of a cow or buffalo in days at the time of first
calving.
 Lactation length: Number of days in milk from the date of calving to the
date of drying or cessation of milk production (the order of lactation should be
indicated as I, II, III etc.).
 Lactation milk yield: Milk yield in kg from the date of calving to the date of
drying or cessation of milk production (the order of lactation should be
indicated as I, II, III etc.).
 305-day milk yield: Milk yield in kg from the date of calving to 305th day of
lactation. If the lactation length is less than 305 days, the milk yield for the
lactation period is considered as 305-day milk yield. When the lactation length
is more than 305 days, milk yield for the lactation is converted to 305 days
using correction factor.
 180-day milk yield : Milk yield in kg from the date of calving to 180th day of
lactation.
 Peak yield: Highest daily milk yield in kg during the lactation period.
 Average daily milk yield: Average daily milk yield in kg calculated by
dividing the lactation milk yield by the lactation length.
 Average fat percentage: Average of fat tests done with milk samples drawn
during lactation at fortnightly intervals.
 Dry period: Number of days from the date of drying to the date of next
calving (the order of dry period should be indicated as I, II, III etc.).
 Service period: Number of days from the date of calving to subsequent
service resulting in conception.
 Calving interval or inter-calving period: Number of days from the date
of one calving to the date of next calving (the order of calving interval should
be indicated as I, II, III etc.).
 Conception rate: Number of services required per conception. It should be
calculated for I calving, II calving etc.
 Breeding efficiency : Overall reproductive efficiency of the animal expressed
as percentage. It is calculated by using a formula given by Tomar (1965).
Breeding efficiency (%) (for cows) =( (No. of calving intervals X 365) +
1020 /Age at first calving + Sum of calving intervals ) X 100
Breeding efficiency (%) (for buffaloes) =( (No. of calving intervals X 365) +
1040 /Age at first calving + Sum of calving intervals ) X 100

LIST OF REGISTERS TO BE MAINTAINED IN A CATTLE OR
BUFFALO FARM
 Birth register
 Youngstock register
 Adultstock register
 Livestock account register
 Milk recording register
 Feed register
 Weighment register
 Insemination register
 Disposal register
 Mortality register
 Veterinary register
 Index card (bull card / cow card)
EXERCISE-2: BREEDS OF SHEEP AND MEASUREMENT OF
THEIR ECONOMIC TRAITS
Exotic sheep breeds
Merino
 This breed, known from as early as the twelfth century, was developed in Spain
and is believed to have been originally brought from Phoenicia and Carthage
with possibly some African sheep inheritance also mixed. The characteristic of
this breed is the fine wool fleece, beautifully crimped. The inner fleece is kept
soft and pliable by a coating of wool oil on the surface which forms a dark
protective covering with dust. Merinos were imported into America in 1801. It
has spread very widely in the semi-arid climates of the United States, USSR,
South America, Argentina, France and Germany. Rams weigh about 60-80 kg
and ewes about 45-60 kg. Good ewes shear 7 to 9 kg of wool1 and rams 10 to 14
kg of wool in a year. This breed is medium sized with a short-head. Ewes have
no horns but rams have horns, turning towards the head.
Rambouillet
 This breed was formerly called French Merino. This originated at Rambouillet
in France from 1785 by importations of Merino sheep from Spain. These were
developed into larger sheep with heavier fleece. This breed was imported into
America in 1840. Modern Rambouillet is a large rugged breed with wide heads
and well balanced horns curving backward and outward in rams. Rams weigh
about 100-140kg and ewes about 70-100kg. The animals have good
conformation for mutton. Average annual yield of fleece is about 5 kg of long
fleece with a clean wool percentage of about forty.
Corriedale
 The Corriedale was developed in New Zealand and Australia during the late
1800s' from crossing Lincoln or Leicester rams with Merino females. The
breed is now distributed worldwide, making up the greatest population of all
sheep in South America and thrives throughout Asia, North America and South
Africa. Its popularity now suggests it is the second most significant breed in the
world after Merinos. The Corriedale is a dual-purpose sheep. It is large-
framed, polled with good carcass quality. The Corriedale produces bulky, high-
yielding wool ranging from 31.5 to 24.5 micron fibre diameter. The fleece from
mature ewes weigh from 4.5-7.7 kg with a staple length of 9-15 cm. The yield
percent of the fleece ranges from 50 to 60 percent. Mature rams will weigh
from 80-125 kg, ewe weights range from 60-80 kg. The breed is found in most
sheep areas of Australia, but mainly in the temperate, higher rainfall zones
supporting improved pastures.
Dorset
 The Merino sheep were brought into Southwest England and were crossed with
the Horned Sheep of Wales, which produced a desirable all-purpose sheep
which met the needs of that time. Thus began a breed of sheep which spread
over Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and most of Wales and were called Dorset (two
varieties namely horned and polled). Dorset is a white sheep of medium size
having good body length and muscle conformation to produce a desirable
carcass. The fleece is very white, strong, close and free from dark fiber. Dorset
fleeces average 2.25-4 kg in the ewes with a yield of between 50% and 70%.
The staple length ranges from 6-10 cm with a numeric count of 46's-58's. The
fibre diameter will range from 33.0 to 27.0 microns. Dorset ewes weigh from
70 to 90 kg at maturity, some in show condition may very well exceed this
weight. Dorset rams weigh from 100 to 125 kg at maturity. The ewes are good
mothers, good milkers and multiple births are not uncommon.
Suffolk
 The Suffolk is the result of crossing Southdown rams on Norfolk Horned ewes.
Today's Suffolk derives its meatiness and quality of wool from the old original
British Southdown. The Norfolk Horned sheep, now rare, were a wild and
hardy breed. Mature weights for Suffolk rams range from 110-160 kg, ewe
weights vary from 80-110 kg. Fleece weights from mature ewe are between
2.25-3.6 kg with a yield of 50 to 60 percent. The fleeces are considered medium
wool type with a fiber diameter of 25.5 to 33.0 microns and a spinning count of
48 to 58. The staple length of Suffolk fleece ranges from 5-8.75 cm.
Karakul
 This is a fur bearing breed of sheep, native to Bokhara, situated between
Pakistan and Afghanistan in central Asia. The name is derived from the area
Karakul (black lake) which is very unfavourable for raising livestock. This
breed originated by crossing the two different breeds of this area. This was
imported into the United States in 1909. The modern Karakul is a medium-
sized breed, rams weighing about 80-90 kg and ewes about 60-70 kg. This
produces light white fleece of low-grade averaging about 3 kg per year. The
breed is poor in mutton quality. The chief virtue of this breed is the fur pelt of
the baby lambs. The pelt is taken from a prematurely born lamb or Iamb killed
within a short time after birth.
SHEEP BREEDS OF INDIA
 There are 40 breeds of sheep in India. A sizeable population of sheep is
nondescript due to inter-mixing of breeds. These breeds can be classified on the
basis of major product i.e. apparel wool (3 breeds), carpet wool (11 breeds), meat
and carpet wool (13 breeds), and meat (13 breeds). Some of the sheep breeds are
known for their unique characteristics like Magra for lustrous wool; Changthangi
for fine wool; Garole for high fecundity; Chokla and Pattanwadi for best carpet
quality wool; Mandya for mutton; and Marwari, Decanni, Hassan, Jaisalmeri and
Chokla for their hardiness and capability to travel long distances. Some other
population groups like Kheri and Munjal in Rajasthan, Biangi in Himachal
Pradesh and Dumba in Gujarat are also available. Bharat Merino, Avikalin,
Avivastra, Avimanns, Nilgiri Synthetic, Patanwadinsynthetic, Kashmir Merino
and Indian Karakul are synthetic breeds developed in India.
 Attempts have been made to define and document some of the important breeds
of sheep under ad-hoc research scheme financed by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. Such efforts were mostly based on the exterior phenotype,
shape and length of ears, length and direction of horns, fleece type, body colour
and tail length, etc. There was little serious consideration to body weight, body
measurements, population and flock size and its structure, prevalent
management practices, productivity status and problems associated with their
conservation and further development. The efforts of Acharya, R.M. (1982) to
define some of the existing breeds are based on consideration of agroclimatic
regions and the type of sheep found therein and adult body weights and linear
biometry on representative samples of sexes, and production performance, both
published and unpublished and personal surveys. Based on variable agro-climatic
conditions and over places and type of sheep found in them, the following four
different regions regrouped from 15 agro-climatic zones are distinguishable over
the country.
NORTH-WESTERN REGION
This region comprises the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat and the
plains of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Important breeds of sheep found in this
region are Chokla, Nali, Pugal, Marwari, Malpura, Sonadi, Jaisalmeri, Patanwadi,
Muzaffarnagri, Jalauni and Hissardale. This region is the most important in the country
for carpet wool production. The morphology and other characteristics of different
breeds found in this region may be described as under.
Chokla (Syn. Chapper and Shekhawati)
 It is distributed over Churu, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, and the border areas of
Bikaner, Jaipur and Nagaur districts of Rajasthan. Animals true to the breed
type are found in Sikar and Churu districts. Chokla are light to medium-sized
animals. Their face is generally devoid of wool and is reddish brown or dark
brown in colour, which may extend up to the middle of the neck. The skin is
pink. The ears are small to medium in length (7.77+0.09 cm) and tubular. Both
the sexes are polled. The coat is dense though Chokla is perhaps the finest
carpet-wool breed; most Chokla wool is now being diverted to the worsted
sector for scarcity of fine apparel-wool in the country.
Nali

It is distributed in Ganganagar, Churu and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan
and southern parts of Hisar and Rohtak districts of Haryana. Nali are medium
sized animals. Their face colour is light brown and the skin colour pink. Both
sexes are polled. Ears are large and leafy; tail is short to medium in length and
thin. Fleece is white coarse, dense and long stapled. Forehead, belly and legs
are covered with wool. The total population of Nali in its native place in
Rajasthan was 0.845 million (1972 census). The March and September clips
are yellow but the September clip is golden yellow in colour.
Marwari
 Deriving its name from its home tract in Marwar, the breed resembles black-
headed Persian sheep but it is of small size and has good fleece yield. It is
distributed in Jodhpur, Jalore, Nagaur, Pali and Barmer districts extending up
to Ajmer and Udaipur districts of Rajasthan and the Heoria region of Gujarat.
The animals are medium sized with black face, the colour extending to the
lower part of neck, ears extremely small and tubular. Both sexes are polled.
Tail is short, medium and thin. Fleece is white and not very dense. The total
Marwari sheep population in Rajasthan and Gujarat as per 1972 census was
4.367 million in 1977 it was 5.018 million. The breed is being improved
through selection for fleece weight and carpet quality. Surplus male lambs are
not retained for breeding but are slaughtered between 6 and 8 months of age.
Magra
 Formerly known as Bikaneri, is also known as Bikaneri Chokla and Chakri.
Although the breed is largely found in Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Churu districts
of Rajasthan, animals true to the breed type are found only in the eastern and
southern parts of Bikaner districts. The animals are medium to large in size.
White face with light brown patches around the eyes is the characteristics of
this breed. Skin colour is pink. Ears are small to medium and tubular. Both
sexes are polled. Tail is medium in length and thin. Fleece is of medium carpet
quality, extremely white and lustrous and not very dense. The total Magra
sheep populations in the area was 0.32 million (1972 census). According to the
1977 census it was 0.84 million. The most important strain of Magra (Bikaneri
Chokla) has flock with extremely white and lustrous fleece and found only in
few villages around Bikaner. Their fleece is good carpet quality. The breeding
programme involves improving this breed through selection; however, there is
much crossing with other breeds in the vicinity.
Jaisalmeri
 Deriving its name from its home tract at Jaisalmer, the breed is largely
distributed in Jaisalmer, Barmer and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan. Pure
specimens are also found in south-western Jaisalmer, extending up to north-
western Barmer and southern and western Jodhpur .The animals are tall and
well built with black or dark brown face, the colour extending up to the neck,
typical Roman nose, long drooping ears, generally with a cartilaginous
appendage. Both sexes are polled. The tail is medium to long. The fleece colour
is white, of medium carpet quality and not very dense. This is the largest breed
in body size of Rajasthan, which produces quality carpet-wool. There is need
for conserving this breed. The total sheep population in the Jaisalmeri
distribution area according to the 1972 and 1977 census was 0.313 and 0.728
million respectively.
Pugal
 Its name has originated from the Pugal area of Bikaner district, its home tract.
It is also distributed over Bikaner and Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan, but pure
specimens are available only in the north-western border of the two districts.
Fairly well built, animals have black face, with small brown strips on either
side above the eyes; lower jaws are of typically light brown colour. The black
colour may extend to neck. Ears are short and tubular. Both sexes are polled.
Tail is short to medium and thin. The fleece is of medium carpet quality but
not very dense. The total sheep population in the Pugal distribution area was
too small, 0.146 million (1972 census) while according to the 1977 census it was
0.293 million. Considering these small numbers, there is need for conservation
of this breed. The breeding policy involves improving this carpet wool breed
through selection for greasy fleece weight and carpet quality.
Malpura
 Though very similar to Sonadi, it is better in wool production and quality and
in body size probably due to better environmental and nutritional conditions in
the Malpura tract in comparison to that in the home tract of Sonadi at Jaipur,
Tonk, Sawaimadhopur and adjacent areas of Ajmer, Bhilwara and Bundi
districts in Rajasthan. The animals are fairly well built with long legs with face
light brown. Ears are short and tubular, with a small cartilaginous appendage
on the upper side. Both sexes are polled. Tail is medium to long and thin.
Fleece is white, extremely coarse and hairy. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.
The total sheep population of Malpura according to the 1972 and 1977 census
was 1.018 and 0.899 million respectively. The milk production averaged 64.50
kg in a lactation period of 90 days. Tupping and lambing percentages in the
spring and autumn seasons, are 61.54, 96.23% and 88.7, 32.7% respectively.
The dressing percentage on the live weight basis at 6 months ranged from
40.90 to 49.49.
Sonadi
 Mainly found in Udaipur and Dungarpur districts of Rajasthan, it also extends
to northern Gujarat. The animals are fairly well built somewhat smaller to
Malpura with long legs, light brown face with the colour extending to the
middle of the neck, ears large, flat and drooping and generally have a
cartilaginous appendage. Tail is long and thin. Both sexes are polled. Udder is
fairly well developed. Fleece is white, extremely coarse and hairy. Belly and
legs are devoid of wool. Its population, according to the 1972 and 1977 census
was 1.76 and 1.667 million respectively.
Patanwadi (Syn. Desi, Kutchi, Kathiawari, Vadhiyari and Charotari)
 The breed includes distinct strains
o non-migratory, red faced animals with small bodies, yielding relatively
finer fleeces. These are typical Patanwadis and are located in north-
eastern Saurashtra,
o migratory type, with larger body and long legs, typical Roman nose and
long tubular ears. This variety, producing coarser fleeces, is found in
western and northern Gujarat and
o the meat type, with big body, low stature and coarser fleeces, found in
south eastern areas around Palitana. It is distributed in coastal plain
region of Saurashtra and Kutch district and sandy loamy areas of Patan,
Kadi, Kalol, Sidhapur and Chanssama taluks of Mehsana district of
Gujarat. The 1972 and 1977 census contained 0.895 and 0.827 million
Patanwadi sheep in its habitat.
Muzaffarnagri
 Also known as Bulandshahri, it is vastly available a Muzaffarnagar,
Bulandshahr, Saharanpur, Meerut, Bijnor and Dehradun district of Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Delhi and Haryana. Pure specimens are found in
Muzaffarnagar district. The animals are medium to large in size, face lines
slightly convex. Face and body are white with occasional patches of brown or
black, ears and face occasionally black. Both sexes are polled. Males sometimes
contain rudimentary horns. Ears are long and drooping. Tail is extremely long
and reaches fetlock. Fleece is white, coarse and open. Belly and legs are devoid
of wool. In 1972 its population was 0.455 million whereas according to surveys
carried out in 1973-74 by the U.P. State Government, Muzaffarnagri sheep
numbered only 10,989 i.e. 0.11% of the total population. As the breed is one of
the heaviest, largest and very well adapted to irrigated areas; its gradual
decline in number necessitates conservation.
Jalauni
 It is distributed over Jalaun, Jhansi and Lalitpur districts of Uttar Pradesh.
The animals are medium sized with straight nose line. Both sexes are polled.
Ears are large, flat and drooping. Tail is thin and medium in length. Fleece is
coarse, short-stapled and open, generally white. Belly and legs are devoid of
wool. According to the 1972 census its population was 0.179 million. The Uttar
Pradesh Government is presently engaged in upgrading Jalauni with Nali to
improve its wool yield and quality. Although Jalauni does not very much differ
from Nali in body size and in general appearance, Nali crosses show
improvement in fleece production as reflected by fleece weight, staple length
and quality.
Hissardale
 The breed was synthesized in the earlier part of the century at the Government
Livestock Farm, Hisar (Haryana) through crossing Australian Merino rams
with Bikaneri (Magra) ewes by stabilizing the exotic inheritance to about 75%.
The animals are small with short legs, giving them a low set appearance and
leaf-like medium sized ears. Most animals are polled. Colour is predominantly
white, although some brown or black patches can also be observed. A small
flock of Hissardale is located at the Government Livestock Farm, Hisar. The
rams were earlier distributed primarily to the hilly regions of Kulu, Kangra etc.
SOUTHERN PENINSULAR REGION
This region (semi-arid in central peninsular and hot humid region along the coast)
comprises of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and has
19.53 million (47.78%) sheep producing 9.68 million kg (28.0%) wool of which 9.22
million kg is below 36s, mostly coloured and extremely coarse and hairy and only about
0.06 million kg (Nilgiri wool) is above 48s. The important breeds of this region are
Deccani / Bellary, Nellore, Mandya, Mecheri, Ramnad white, Madras Red, Coimbatore,
Hassan, Triruchi black and Nilgiri. About 50% of the population of sheep in this region
does not produce any wool and the rest produce very coarse, hairy and coloured fleeces.
Most of the sheep except Nilgiri, of this region are of meat type.
Deccani
 The breed is spread over the greater part of the Central Peninsular region,
comprising the semi-arid areas of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
Karanataka. It covers the major part of Maharashtra especially the Pune
Division, parts of Kurnool, Mehboobnagar, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Anantpur,
Warrangel and the entire districts of Medak and Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh
and Bihar, Bijapur, Gulbarga and Raichur districts in Karnataka. The animals
are medium sized, predominantly black with white markings. White and
brown/fawn animals are also seen. In a survey in Maharashtra, 54.92%
animals were completely black. 21% black with white or brown spots. Rams are
horned but ewes are polled. Ears are medium long, flat and drooping. Tail is
short and thin. Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open. Belly and legs are
devoid of wool. According to the 1972 census the total Deccani sheep in the
area were 5.106 million.
Bellary
 This breed is not very different from Deccani. Animals found to the north of
the Tungabhadra River are called "Deccani" and those to the south of it
"Bellary". Mostly found in Bellary district of Karnataka, the animals are
medium sized with body colour ranging from white through various
combinations of white and black to black. One third of the males are horned,
females are generally polled. Ears are medium long, flat and drooping. Fleece
is extremely coarse, hairy and open. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.
Nellore
 Based on coat colour, three varieties of this breed are: "Palla" completely white
or white with light brown spots on head, neck, back and Iegs; "Jodipi"(also
called 'Jodimpu') are white with black spots particularly around the lips, eyes
and lower jaw but also on belly and legs, and "Dora" are completely brown. The
animals are relatively tall with little hair except at brisket, withers and breech.
The rams are horned but the ewes are almost always polled. The ears are long
and drooping. The tail is short and thin. 86% of the animals carry wattles.
Nellore district and neighbouring areas of Prakasam and Ongole districts of
Andhra Pradesh predominantly contain this breed.
Mandya (Syn. Bannur and Bandur)
 This breed is found in Mandya district and bordering Mysore district of
Karnataka. Relatively small animals are white in colour but in some cases their
face is light brown which may extend to the neck. Possess a compact body with
a typical reversed U-shape wedge from the rear. Ears are long, leaf-like and
drooping. Tail is short and thin. A large percentage of animals carry wattles.
Slightly Roman nosed. Both sexes are polled. Coat is extremely coarse and
hairy. Their population as per 1972 census was 0.372 million and as per 1977
census, 0.329 million. The actual number of the breed is too small. There is
high incidence of cryptorchidism in Mandya, possibly due to selection of
animals for meaty conformation. Being the best meat breed of the country, it
calls for conservation, though its body weight, weight gain, feed conversion
efficiency and carcass yield are not very superior to most other breeds.
Hassan
 This breed is localised to Hassan district of Karnataka. These are small sized
animals with white body and light brown or black spots. Ears are medium-long
and drooping. 39% of the males are horned, females are usually polled. Fleece
is white, extremely coarse and open, legs and belly are generally devoid of
wool. Their population as per 1972 census was 0.233 million and as per 1977
census, 0.260 million.
Mecheri
 Also known as Maiylambadi and Thuvaramchambali in Coimbatore district, it
is mostly found in Mecheri, Kolathoor, Nangavalli, Omalur and Taramangalam
Panchayat Union areas of Salem district and Bhavani taluk of Coimbatore
district of Tamil Nadu. These are medium sized animals, light brown in colour.
Ears are medium sized. Both sexes are polled. Tail is short and thin. Body is
covered with very short hair, which is not shorn. Their population as per 1972
census was 0.956 million and as per 1977 census, 0.917 million.
Kilakarsal (Syn. Keezhakkaraisal, Karuvai, Keezha Karauvai, Ramnad
Karuvi and Adikarasial)
 The breed is found in Rarnnathpuram, Madurai, Thanjavur and Rarnnad
districts of Tamil Nadu. Their population as per 1972 and 1977 census was
0.181 million and 0.173 million, respectively.
Vembur
 This is also called Karnadhai. The animals are tall. Their colour is white with
irregular red and fawn patches all over the body. Ears are medium sized and
drooping. Tail is thin and short. Males are horned but ewes polled. The body is
covered with short hair, which is not shorn. The breed is found in Vembur,
Kavundhanapatty, Achangulam and some other villages of Pudur panchayat
Union and Vilathikulam Panchayat areas of Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu.
The total sheep population in the Vembur breed distribution area, according to
the 1972 census was 0.262 million and according to the 1977 census, 0.251
million.
Coimbatore
 This is also called Kurumbai. It is widely available in Coimbatore and Madurai
districts of Tamil Nadu and bordering areas of Kerala and Karnataka. The
animals are of medium size and white colour with black or brown spots. Ears
are medium in size and directed outward and backward, tail is small and thin.
38% of the males are horned but the females are polled. Fleece is white, coarse
hairy and open. The total sheep population in the Coirnbatore area according
to the 1972 census was 0.500 million and as per 1977 census, 0.475 million.
Nilagiri
 Evolved during the 19th century, the breed has originated from a crossbred
base and contains an unknown level of inheritance of Coimbatore (the local
hairy breed) and Tasmanian Merino, Cheviot and South Down exotic breeds. It
is localised to Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu. The animals are medium sized. Their
body colour is generally white with exceptionally brown patches on face and
body. Face line is convex, giving a typical Roman nose. Ears are broad, flat and
drooping. Males have horn buds and scars but the females are polled. The tail
is medium and thin. The fleece is fine and dense. According to the 1972 census
the Nilgiri breed totalled 8,000 and as per 1977 census, 7,677. Well adapted to
the conditions of the Nilgiri hills, the breed produces fine fleece but there is
little organized shearing and marketing of wool. The breed is mostly
maintained for manure by tea planters and other flock owners.
Ramnad White
 This breed is distributed over Ramnad district and adjoining areas of
Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. The animals are medium sized,
predominantly white though some animals have fawn or black markings over
the body. The ears are medium sized and directed outward and downward.
Males have twisted horns but females are polled. Tail is short and thin. The
total Ramnad sheep population in the area according to the 1972 census was
0.782 million and as per 1977 census, 0.750 million.
Madras Red
 It is distributed in Chengalpet and Madras districts of Tamil Nadu. The
animals are medium in sized. Their body colour is predominantly brown whose
intensity varies from light tan to dark brown. Some animals have white
markings on the forehead, inside the thighs and on the lower abdomen. Ears
are medium long and twisted horns and the ewes are polled. Their body is
covered with short hair, which is not shorn. The total sheep population in the
Madras Red distribution area according to the 1972 and 1977 census was 0.595
million and 0.571 million respectively.
Tiruchi Black
 Also known as Tiruchi Karungurumbai, the breed is largely found in
Perambalur and Ariyalur taluks of Tiruchi district, Kallakurichy taluk of South
Arcot district, Tirupathur and Tiruvannamalai taluks of North Arcot district
and Dharampuri and a portion of Krishnagiri taluk of Dharampuri district of
Tamil Nadu. These are small sized animals with completely black body. Males
are horned but ewes polled. Ears are short and directed downward and
forward. Tail is short and thin. Their fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open.
The total sheep population in the Tiruchi Black distribution area was 0.520
million and 0.499 million according to the 1972 and 1977 census respectively.
Kenguri
 This is also known as Tenguri. It is found in hilly tracts of Raichur district
(particularly Lingasagar, Sethanaur and Gangarati taluks) of Kamataka. These
are medium sized animals. Their body colour is mostly dark brown, but colours
ranging from white to black with spots of different shades are also not
uncommon. Males are horned, while the females are generally polled.
Although their exact number is not known, but their population is too small.
EASTERN REGION
 This region (hot and humid) includes Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam and
other eastern states and has 3.48 million (8.5%) sheep, producing 1.4 million kg
(2%) of wool, primarily of below quality. This region has no distinguished breeds
of its own except in the case of Bihar where Shahabadi and Chottanagpuri breeds
are found. The sheep in this region are primarily of meat type but for Arunachal
Pradesh, which has a small number of better wool sheep. The quality of wool
produced by the sheep of this region in general is small and extremely coarse,
coloured and of hairy quality.
 Chottanagpuri
 This breed is found in Chottanagpur , Ranchi, Palarnau, Hazaribagh, Singbhmn,
Dhanbad and Santhal Parganas of Bihar and Bankura district of West Bengal.
These are small light weight animals, light grey and brown in colour which
possess small ears parallel to the head. Tail is thin and short. Both sexes are
polled. Fleece is coarse, hairy and open which is generally not clipped. The total
sheep population in the Chottanagpur area was 0.647 million according to the
1972 census and 0.524 million as per 1977 census.
 Shahabadi
 This is also known as plain type sheep. It is distributed in shahabad, Patna and
Gaya districts of Bihar. These are medium sized leggy animals. The fleece colour
is mostly grey, sometimes with black spots. Ears are medium sized and drooping.
Tail is extremely long and thin. Both sexes are polled. Fleece is extremely coarse,
hairy and open; legs and belly are devoid of wool. The total population in the
Shahabadi distribution area according to the 1972 census was 0.333 million and
as per 1977 census, 0.596 million.
 Balangir
 This is distributed over North-western districts of Orissa, Balangir, Sarnbalpur
and Sundargarh. These are medium sized animals of white or light brown or of
mixed colours. A few animals are black also. The ears are small and stumpy.
Males are horned and females polled. Tail is medium long and thin. Fleece is
extremely coarse, hairy and open. Legs and belly are devoid of wool. The total
population in the Balangir distribution area was 0.316 million (1972 census).
 Ganjam
 This breed is distributed in Koraput, Phulbani and part of Puri district of Orissa.
These are medium sized animals with coat colour ranging from brown to dark
tan; some have white spots on the face and body. Ears are of medium size and
drooping. Nose line is lightly convex. Tail is medium long and thin. Males are
horned but females polled. Fleece is hairy and short which is not shorn. The total
population in the Ganjarn distribution area was 0.3 million (1972 census).
 Tibetan
 This breed is distributed in Northern Sikkim and Kameng district of Arunachal
Pradesh. These are medium-sized animals, mostly white with black or brown face
and brown and white spots on the body. Both sexes are horned. The nose line is
convex, giving a typical Roman nose. The ears are small, broad and drooping. The
fleece is relatively fine and dense. The belly, legs and face are devoid of wool. The
total number of Tibetan sheep in the area was about 30,000. Tibetan sheep
produce excellent, lustrous carpet-quality wool, which was available in plenty to
the Indian states bordering Tibet when the Indo-Tibetan border was open.
However, after its closer in 1962, little Tibetan wool is available from Tibet.
 Bonpala
 This is found in southern Sikkim. Their number is about 16,000. The animals are
tall, leggy and well-built. Fleece colour ranges from complete white to complete
black with a number of intermediary tones. Ears are small and tubular. Both
sexes are horned. Tail is thin and short. Fleece is coarse hairy and open. Belly and
legs are devoid of wool.
NORTHERN TEMPERATE REGION
 This region comprises of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hilly parts
of Uttar Pradesh and has approximately 3.69 million (9.04% of the country’s
sheep population) sheep. They produce about 3.08 million kg wool (8.27% of the
country's wool production) of which 0.77 million kg is of 36 to 46 quality, suitable
for carpets. The rest 2.32 million kg is of 48 and above standard and is suitable
for apparel and superior quality carpets. The important breeds of this region are
Rampur Bushair, Kashmir Vally, Gurez, Karnah and Gaddi. Around 1/3rd of
sheep in Jammu and Kashmir and about 15-20% in other parts of this region are
expected to be the crosses of native breeds with exotic fine wool breeds. They
have been named as Kashmir Merino in Jammu and Kashmir. The description of
various breeds of this region is as under:
 Gaddi
 Also known as Bhadarwah, the breed is distributed in Kishtwar and Bhadarwah
tehsils in Jammu provinces of Jammu and Kashmir state, Hamirpur, Ramnagar,
Udhampur and Kulu and Kangra valleys of Himachal Pradesh and Dehradun,
Nainital, Tehri Garhwal and Chamoli districts of Uttar Pradesh. These are
medium sized animals, usually white, although tan, brown and black and mixture
of these are also seen. Males are entirely horned but females to the extent 10 to 15
% are horned. Tail is small and thin. The fleece is relatively fine and dense. Total
sheep population in the Gaddi distribution area was 0.686 million as per the 1972
census and according to the 1977 census, 0.804 million.
 Rampur Bushair
 This is distributed in Simla, Kinnaur, Nahan, Bilaspur, Solan, Lahul and Spiti
districts of Himachal Pradesh and Dehradun, Rishikesh, Chakrota and Nainital
districts of Uttar Pradesh. These are medium sized animals. The fleece colour is
predominantly white, but brown, black and tan colour is also seen on the fleece in
varying proportions. The ears are long and drooping. The face line is convex,
giving a typical Roman nose. The males are horned but most of the females are
polled. The fleece is of medium quality and dense. Legs, belly and face are devoid
of wool. The total sheep population in the Rampur Bushair distribution area
according to the 1972 census was 0.550 million.
 Bhakarwal
 The breed has derived its name from a nomadic tribe which rears these sheep.
Due to its entirely migratory nature, there is no distinct home tract of this breed.
These are medium sized animals, with a typical Roman nose. The animals are
generally white, although coloured fleeces are also occasionally observed. All
animals are spotted, fawn or grey. Rams are horned and the ewes polled. Ears are
long and drooping. Tail is small and thin. Fleece is coarse and open. The adult
ewes weigh between 29 and 36 kg, and rams as much as 55 kg. In adult females at
withers is around 62 cm, body length 65 cm and chest girth 82 cm. The sheep are
shorn thrice a year and the total annual wool produced ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 kg
per animal. The wool quality is from 36 to 40 with fibre diameter varying from 6
to 38.
 Poonchi
 This breed is distributed in Poonch and part of Rajouri districts of Jammu
provinces. The animals are similar in appearance to Gaddi except being lighter in
weight. Animals are predominantly white in colour, including the face but spotted
sheep varying from brown to light black are also seen. Ears are medium long. Tail
is short and thin. Legs are also short, giving a low-set conformation. The weight
of the adult ram ranges from 35 to 40 kg and that of a ewe from 25 to 30 kg. Wool
is of medium to fine quality, mostly white in colour. Sheep are shorn three times
a year which produce between 0.9 to 1.3 kg greasy wool sheep per year. Fibre
length ranges between 15 to 18 cm and the fibre diameter between 22 and 30 µ.
 Karnah
 This is distributed in Karnah, a mountainous tehsil in North Kashmir. These are
generally large animals. The rams have large curved horns and a prominent nose
line. Wool is generally white in colour. The sheep are shorn twice a year, in spring
and autumn which produce between 1.0 to 1.5 kg of wool per animal per year.
Staple length ranges from 12 to 15 cm and the average fibre diameter between 29
and 32 µ.
 Gurez
 The breed is distributed in the Gurez area of Northern Kashmir. A largest of the
sheep breeds of Jammu and Kashmir, generally white in colour, although some
animals are brown or black or have brown or black spots. A small proportion of
the animals have small, pointed horns. Tail is thin and short. Fleece is generally
coarse and hairy. Ears are long, thin and pointed. The annual greasy-fleece
weight ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 kg per animal.
 Kashmir Merino
 This breed has originated from crosses of different Merino types (at first Delaine
Merinos, and subsequently Rambouillet and Soviet Merinos) with predominantly
migratory native sheep breeds, viz. Gaddi, Bhakarwal and Poonchi. The level of
inheritance in the crossbred animals included in Kashmir Merino predominantly
varies between 50 - 75% but may vary from very low to almost 100% Merino. As
the animals are highly diversified because of a number of native breeds lived, no
definite description of the breed can be given. Some flocks of Kashmir Merino are
maintained at the state farms.
 Changthangi
 This beed is distributed in the Changthang region of Ladakh. The animals are
strongly built. large framed with good fleece cover of an extraordinarily long
staple. Animals are usually shorn twice a year, generally in May/June and
September/October but in some cases shearing is done only once a year, in
July/August Greasy-wool production ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 kg per animal per
year. The wool is of a good carpet / medium apparel quality.
MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SHEEP
Sheep rearing acts as a major source of livelihood for majority of landless agricultural
labourers and supplements their meagre income. Besides meat and skin, a small income
is also derived through penning which is a very common practice followed to fertilise the
fields. Out of all the rural poverty alleviation programmes implemented, sheep rearing is
giving best results. The calculations of the following economical traits are important in
sheep for successful running of the sheep farm. They are
 Age at first lambing : Age of a ewe in days at the time of first lambing.
 Tupping percentage : Number of ewes mated to the number of ewes put to
ram.
 Lambing percentage : Number of ewes lambed to the number of ewes put to
ram.
 Weaning percentage : Number of lambs weaned to the number of ewes put
to ram.
 Twinning percentage : Number of twin births to the total number of births
(total number of ewes lambed).
 Lambing interval: Number of days from the date of one lambing to the date
of next lambing (the order of lambing interval should be indicated as I, II, III
etc.).
 Birth weight : Weight of a lamb in kg at birth (weighed within 24 hours).
 Weaning weight : Weight of a lamb in kg at 90 days of age (weaning).
 Weight at market age : Weight of a lamb in kg at the market age of 180, 270
or 365 days. Usually for Indian sheep, 9th month weight is called as market
weight.
 Growth rate
o Pre-weaning growth rate : Daily weight gain in grams from the date of
birth to date of weaning.
(Weaning weight (90th day) – Birth weight ) / 90
o Post-weaning growth rate : Daily weight gain in grams from the date
weaning to date of marketing
Weight at market (180, 270 or 365 days) – Weaning weight
Age at market (180, 270 or 365 days) – 90
o Pre-weaning mortality : Number of lambs died from birth to 90th day
(weaning) to the number of lambs born alive.
o Post-weaning mortality : Number of lambs died from weaning to 365
days to the total number of lambs weaned.
o Adult mortality : Number of adult sheep died during the year to the
number at the beginning of the year.
WOOL CHARACTERISTICS
 Fleece weight
o Grease fleece weight : Weight of raw fleece in kg shorn in a year (usually
first shearing at six months and then annually).
o Clean fleece weight : Weight of clean fleece in kg derived from raw
fleece.
 Fibre thickness or fineness of wool: Average diameter of a wool fibre in
microns.
 Fibre density : Average number of wool fibres per square centimetre area.
 Staple length: Length of a wool fibre in centimetre obtained by measuring the
natural staple without stretching the crimp.
 Medullation percentage: Number of medullated fibres to the total number of
fibres examined.
LIST OF REGISTERS TO BE MAINTAINED IN A SHEEP FARM
 Birth register
 Weighment register (Young stock and adult stock)
 Ram performance register
 Ewe performance register
 Wool register
 Mating register
 Feed register
 Index card (ram card / ewe card)
EXERCISE-3: BREEDS OF GOAT AND MEASUREMENT OF THEIR
ECONOMIC TRAITS
Exotic goat breeds
Saanen
 The Saanen dairy goat originated in Switzerland, in the Saanen Valley. Saanen
does are heavy milk producers and usually yield 3-4 percent milk fat. It is
medium to large in size, weighing approximately 65kg with rugged bone and
plenty of vigor. Saanens are white or light cream in color. Ears should be erect
and alertly carried, preferably pointing forward. The face should be straight or
dished. The breed is sensitive to excessive sunlight and performs best in cooler
conditions. The provision of shade is essential and tan skin is preferable.
Toggenburg
 The Toggenburg is a Swiss dairy goat from Toggenburg Valley of Switzerland.
They are also credited as being the oldest known dairy goat breed. This breed is
medium size, sturdy, vigorous, and alert in appearance. Slightly smaller than
the other Alpine breeds. Does weight is 55kg. Colour is solid varying from light
fawn to dark chocolate with no preference for any shade. Distinct white
markings and varying degrees of cream markings are acceptable. The ears are
erect and carried forward. Facial lines may be dished or straight, never roman.
Toggenburgs perform best in cooler conditions. They are noted for their
excellent udder development and high milk production, and have an average
fat test of 3.7 percent.
Alpine
 Alpine is a breed of goat that originated in the Alps. There are varieties of
Alpine namely French Alpine and British Alpine. No distinct colour has been
established, and it may range from pure white through shades of fawn, grey,
brown, black, red, bluff, piebald, or various shadings or combinations of these
colours. Both sexes are generally short haired, but bucks usually have a roach
of long hair along the spine. The beard of males is also quite pronounced. The
ears in the Alpine should be of medium size, fine textured, and preferably
erect. Mature females weigh not less than 60 kg. Males weigh not less than 75
kg. Alpine females are excellent milkers and usually have large, well-shaped
udders with well-placed teats of desirable shape. These are hardy, adaptable
animals that thrive in any climate while maintaining good health and excellent
production.
Angora
 The Angora goat originated in the district of Angora in Asia Minor. Angora
stock was distributed to different countries. The most valuable characteristic of
the Angora as compared to other goats is the value of the mohair that is
clipped. The average goat shears approximately 2.4 kg of mohair per shearing
and are usually sheared twice a year. They produce a fiber with a staple length
of between 12 and 15cm. The mohair is very similar to wool in chemical
composition but differs from wool in that it is has a much smoother surface
and very thin, smooth scale. Consequently, mohair lacks the felting properties
of wool. Mohair is very similar to coarse wool in the size of fiber. It is a strong
fiber that is elastic, has considerable luster, and takes dye very well. Mohair
has been considered very valuable as an upholstering material for the making
of covering materials where strength, beauty, and durability are desired. The
market valuation of mohair fluctuates more than does that of wool, but, in
general, satisfactory prices are obtained for the clip. During depressed times,
the market has favored fine hair and because fine hair is normally shorn from
young goats, selection for fertility has also become increasingly important.
Both sexes are horned. The bucks usually have a pronounced spiral horns,
whereas, the horn of the female is comparatively short, much smaller, and has
only a very slight tendency to spiral. The Angora goat is a small animal as
compared to sheep, common goats, or milk goats. Mature bucks weigh from 80
to 100 kg but do not reach their maximum weight until after five years of age.
Does weight ranges from 30 to 50 kg. The Angora goat is not as prolific as
other goats and twins are not the usual birth.
Boer
 The Boer is an improved indigenous South African breed with some infusion of
European, Angora and Indian goat breeding many years ago. The Boer goat is
primarily a meat goat. It is a horned breed with lop ears and showing a variety
of color patterns. The Boer goat is being used very effectively in South Africa in
combination with cattle due to its browsing ability and limited impact on the
grass cover. The mature Boer male weighs between 110-135 kg and Boer
females between 90 and 100 kg. Performance records for this breed indicate
exceptional individuals are capable of average daily gains over 200 g/day in
feedlot. More standard performance would be 150-170 g/day. A kidding rate of
200% is common for this breed. Puberty is reached early, ususally about 6
months for the males and 10-12 months for the females.
GOATS BREEDS IN INDIA
 Diversity in goats, represented by 20 breeds, is related with the geography and
ecology of the region, environmental variations, production system and genetic
potential of the breed. Goats of temperate Himalayan region(Changthangi and
Chegu) possess the finest quality under-coat called cashmere or pashmina. The
goat breeds found in north and north-western region viz. Jamunapari,
Marwari, Zalawadi, Beetal, Kutchi, Sirohi, Barbari, Mehsana, Surti, Jhakrana
and Gohilwadi are large in size and primarily used for meat and milk purpose.
In the southern and peninsular part of India, goats with dual production of
meat and milk viz. Sangamneri, Osmanabadi, Kanai Adu and Malabari are
found. The highly prolific meat breeds (Ganjam and Black Bengal) are found in
the eastern region. Some other populations are also found in different parts of
India like Andaman Feral goat, Barren goat, Teressa (A & N Islands); Bidari
(Karnataka); Assamese hill goat (Assam) and Attapady Black (Kerala). Wild
relatives of domesticated goat include Markhor, Himalayan Ibex, Himalayan
Tahr and Nilgiri Tahr.
BARBARI
 Distribution
 District of Rajasthan, Etah, Agra and Aligarh districts of Uttar Pradesh, and
Bharatpur. The total goat population in the Barbari distribution area, according
to the 1972 census, was 0,444 m, of which 0,028 m adult males and 0,270 m
adult females. Officials of the State Animal Husbandry Department state that
Barbari goats true to breed number only about 30000. The breed, quite
important for milk and meat, is a dwarf breed highly suited for rearing under
restrained and stall-feeding conditions. In addition to being a good milkier, it is
highly prolific. Considering the number of animals reported, there is serious need
for undertaking conservation measures. It was observed in personal surveys that
most males are castrated early in life and fattened for slaughter at religious
festivals, and that a sizeable number of non-descript goats are kept for milk
production by owners who maintain Barbaris, as all the milk of the latter is
allowed to be suckled by their kids to ensure good growth.
 Breed characteristics
Adult males Adult females
Body weight 37.85 22.56
Body length 70.45 58.68
Height at withers 70.67 56.18
Chest girth 75.53 64.31
 Conformation
 Small animals, with compact body. The orbital bone is quite prominent, so that
eyes appear bulging. There is wide variation in coat color, but white with small
light brown patches, is the most typical. Ears are short, tubular, almost double)
with the slit opening in front, erect, directed upward and outward. Both sexes
have twisted horns, medium in length and directed upward and backward; horn
length: 11.17 cm. Bucks have a large thick beard.
 Reproduction
Days
Age at first kidding 648
Kidding interval 348
Service period 70
Kidding percentage 70.2
(%)
Litter size: (%)
Singles 49.64
Twins 49.32
Triplets 1.04
Quadruplets
 Performance
Milk
Lactation yield (Kg) 107.120
Lactation length 150.13
(days)
Meat (kg.)
At birth 1.739
At weaning 6.661
6 months 7.800
9 months 12.566
12 months 14.517
BENGAL
Individuals of this breed are sometimes distinguished by color as Black, Brown, Gray
and White Bengal. Personal surveys suggest that the breed could be separated into two
types, one found in the hot humid plains of West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and the
other in the sub-temperate and humid uplands and plains of Assam and other
northeastern States. The latter were earlier known as Assam Plain and Assam Hill goats,
depending on their location but are not substantially different from the former.
Distribution
Distributed throughout all eastern and northeastern India, from Bihar through
northern Orissa to all West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya. T he total Bengal-type goat population in the States of West Bengal, Bihar
and Orissa, according to the 1972 census, was 14.164 m, of which 2.198 m adult males
and 6.257 m adult females. In Assam and other northeastern States, the goat population
was 1.501 m, of which 0.304 m adult males and 0.543 m adult females.
Breed characteristics
West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa

Assam and other North-estern region

Conformation
Small animals. The predominant coat color is black; brown, gray and white are also
found, the former two sometimes with black markings along the back and on the belly
and extremities. In a survey of 230 goats in Assam, 96 were completely black, 51
completely white, 11 brown, 45 white with black markings, and 17 brown with black
markings. In another survey in Bihar, the proportion of gray to brown was 35:65. The
hair coat is short and lustrous. The nose line is slightly depressed. Both sexes have small
to medium horns, directed upward and sometimes backward; average horn length: 6.4
cm (range: 5.8 to 11.5 cm). Beard is observed in both sexes. The ears are short, flat and
carried horizontally; average ear length: 13.8 cm (range: 11.5 to 14.1 cm).
Reproduction
(%)
Litter size: (%)
Singles 44.6
Twins 51.3
Triplets 4.1
Performance
Milk
Lactation yield (Kg) 58
Lactation length (days) 118
Meat (kg.)
At birth 1.31
At weaning 6.09
6 months 8.80
9 months 12.60
CHIGU
Distribution
Lahaul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh, arid Uttar Kashi, Chamoli, Pithoragarh
districts of Uttar Pradesh, bordering Tibet. Mountainous ranges with the altitude
varying from 3500 to 5000 m. The area is mostly cold and arid.
Conformation
Medium-sized animals. The coat is usually white, mixed with grayish red. Both sexes
have horns, directed upward, backward and outward, with one or more twists. These
goats are not very different in conformation from Changthangi.
Reproduction
Days
Age at first kidding 615.8
Kidding interval 272.8
Service period
Kidding percentage (%) 65.4
Litter size: (%)
Singles 99.2
Twins 0.8
Performance
Meat (kg.)
At birth 2.10
At weaning 8.41
6 months 12.17
9 months 14.75
12 months 18.46
Hair
Average fiber length (cm) 5.9
Average production (g) 120.31
Average fiber diameter (µ) 11.77
GADDI
Distribution
Chamba, Kangra, Kulu, Bilaspur, Simla, Kinnaur and lahaul and Spiti in Himachal
Pradesh and Dehradun, Nainital, Tehrigarhwal and Chamoli hill districts in Uttar
Pradesh. The total goat population in the Gaddi distribution area, according to the 1972
census, was 0.770 m, of which 0.125 m adult males and 0.468 m adult females.
Conformation
Medium-sized animals. Coat color is mostly white, but black and brown and
combinations of these are also seen. Both sexes have large horns, directed upward and
backward and occasionally twisted. Ears are medium long and drooping. The nose line
is convex. The udder is small and rounded, with small teats placed laterally. The hair is
white, lustrous and long. Flock size ranges from 20 to 500.
Reproduction
Essentially single, twinning occurs in only 15 to 20% of births.
Performance
Milk (g.) 380
Hair
Average fleece yield per clip 300
(g)
Medullation (%) 74.48
GANJAM
Distribution
Southern districts of Orissa: Ganjam and Koraput. The total goat population in the
Ganjam distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was 0.448 m, of which 0.056 m
adult males and 0.103 m adult females.
Conformation
Tall, leggy animals. The coat may be black, white, brown or spotted, but black
predominates. Hairs are short and lustrous. Ears are medium sized; ear length: 14.50 +-
0.15 cm. Both sexes have long, straight horns, directed upward; horn length: 20.9+-
0.33 cm. Tail is medium-long. The average flock contains 84.5 +- 37.5 individuals range:
20 to 500, of which 2.9 adult males, 59.8 adult females and 21.8 young.
Reproduction
Days
Service period 218.6
Kidding percentage (%) 82
Litter size: (%)
Singles 98.4
Twins 1.6
Performance
Milk
Lactation length (days) 141.6
Meat (kg.)
At birth 2.31
At weaning
6 months 9.52
9 months
12 months 11.69
JAMNAPARI
The name is derived from the location of the breed beyond the river Jamna (Jamna Par)
in Uttar Pradesh. [A distinct strain.cal1ed Ramdhan (also known locally as Kandari Ka
Khana) originated from a cross between a doe from the Alwar region in Rajasthan and a
Jamnapari buck; it has a typical nose shape, even more like a parrot mouth than is
usual1y observed in the true breed. The strain is known to have better milk production
and growth, but its flocks are very limited in number.
Distribution
Agra, Mathura and Etawa districts in Uttar Pradesh and Bhind and Morena districts in
Madhya Pradesh. However the pure stocks are found only in about 80 villages in the
vicinity of Batpura and Chakar Nagar in Etawa district. The total goat population in the
Jamnapari distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was 0.58 m. However,
officials of the Animal Husbandry Department of Uttar Pradesh state that the total
number of pure-bred Jamnapari does not exceed 5000; these are located mostly in the
Chakar Nagar area, between the Jamna and Chambal ravines. There is a serious need for
conservation, multiplication and further improvement of the breed, considering the
extremely small numbers of pure-bred animals remaining. Jamnapari is one of the
largest goats in India; it has been extensively utilized to upgrade indigenous breeds for
meat and milk, and has been taken to neighboring countries for the same purpose.
Conformation
Large animals. There is a great variation in coat color, but the typical coat is white with
small tan patches on head and neck. The typical character of the breed is a highly convex
nose line with a tuft of hair, yielding a parrot mouth appearance. The ears are very long,
flat and drooping; ear length: 26.79 cm. Both sexes are horned; horn length: 8.69 cm.
Tail is thin and short. A thick growth of hair on the buttocks, known as feathers,
obscures the udder when observed from behind. The udder is well developed, round,
with large conical teats. The average flock contains 16.0 (range 8 to 41) of which 0.25
adult males 8.65 adult females and 7.1 young.
Reproduction
Days
Service period 101
Litter size: (%)
Singles 56.2
Twins 43.1
Triplets 0.7
Quadruplets
Breeding: Flocks are pure-bred. Selection in bucks is based on dam's milk.
Performance
Milk
Lactation length 191
(days)
Meat (kg.)
At birth 4.27
At weaning 12.11
6 months 15.56
9 months 24.00
12 months 29.65
Hair (g per year)
MARWARI
Distribution
Marwari region of Rajasthan, comprising Jodhpur, Pal, Nagaur, Bikaner, Jalore,
Jaisalmer and Barmer districts. The breed also extends into certain areas of Gujarat,
especially Mehsana district. The total goat population in the Marwari distribution area,
according to the 1972 census, was 3.914 m, of which 0.072 m adult males and 2.484 m
adult females.
Conformation
Medium-sized animals. Predominantly black with long shaggy hair coat. In about 5% of
individuals, white or brown patches are also observed. Beard is present in both sexes.
Ears are flat, medium in length and drooping; ear length: 16.38 + 0.20 cm. Both sexes
have short, pointed horns, directed upward and backward; horn length: 10.10 + 0.18 cm.
Tail is small and thin. Udder is small and round, with small teats placed laterally.
Average flock size: 46.0 to 48.0 (range: from l0 to 100) containing 0.6 adult males, 36.4
adult females and 11.0 young.
Reproduction
Kidding 52.5
percentage
Singles Generally
Breeding
Pure breeding. Breeding males are selected on size and hair production; on, mostly from
within the flock. The Animal Husbandry Department of the Government of Rajasthan
has introduced cross-breeding with Jamnapari; to increase milk production.
Performance
Milk
Lactation yield (kg) 91.39
(days)
Meat (Kg)
At birth 2.29
At weaning 6.00
6 months 8.70
9 months 13.70
12 months 16.25
Hair (g. per year) 302.9
MEHSANA
Distribution
Banaskantha, Mehsana, Gandhi Nagar and Ahmedabad districts of Gujarat. The total
goat population in the Mehsana distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was
0.736 m, of which 0.030 m adult males and 0.530 m adult females.
Body length 71.2 68
Chest girth 76.9 73
Conformation
Large animals. The coat is black, with white spots at the base of the ear. Nose line is
straight. The hair coat is long and shaggy. Ears are white, leaf-like and drooping; ear
length: 15.8 cm. Both sexes have slightly twisted horns, curved upward and backward
horn length: 11 cm .The udder is well developed; the teats are large and conical. The
average flock contains 54.7 individuals (range: 20 to 300), of which 0.7 adult males,
39.4 adult females and 14.6 young.
Reproduction
(%)
Litter size: (%)
Singles 89.7
Twins 10.3
Breeding
Pure breeding. Males are selected primarily on body size.
Performance
Milk
Lactation yield 1.32
(Kg)/day
Lactation length (days) 197
Hair (g per year) 210
MALABARI
Distribution
Calicut, Cannannore and Malapuram districts of Kerala. The total goat population in the
Malabari distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was 0.389 m, of which 0.028
m adult males and 0.193 m adult females.
Conformation
Medium-sized animals. Coat color varies widely from completely white to completely
black. 31% of the goats have long hair. Males and a small percentage of females (13%)
are bearded. Both sexes have small, slightly twisted, horns, directed outward and
upward. Ears are medium-sized, directed outward and downward; ear length: 16.20 +-
0.17 cm. Tail is small and thin; tail length: 13.16 +- 0.06 cm. Udder is small and round,
with medium-sized teats. The average flock contains 5.44 individuals (range: 1 to 15), of
which 0.40 bucks, 2.02 does and 3.02 kids. Two thirds of flocks do not maintain a
breeding male.
Reproduction
Days
Age at first 609.9
kidding
Litter size: (%)
Singles 50.5
Twins 42.4
Triplets 6.6
Quadruplets 0.5
Breeding
Pure breeding except in very limited areas near Mannuthy, where cross-breeding with
Alpine and Saanen has been undertaken by the Kerala Agricultural University. The
cross-breeds showed improvement both in reproduction and milk production.
Performance
Milk
(days)
Meat (kg.)
At birth 1.63
At weaning 5.76
6 months 8.73
9 months 11.41
12 months 14.12
KUTCHI
Distribution
Kutch district in Gujarat. The total goat population in the Kutch district. According to
the 1972 census was 0.402 m. of which 0.018 m adult males and 0.298 m adult females.
Conformation
Large animals. The coat is predominantly black but a few white, brown and spotted
animals are also found. The hair is coarse and long. The nose is slightly Roman. The ears
are long, broad and drooping; ear length: 22.0 +- 0.26 cm. Both sexes have short, thick
horns, pointed upward; horn length: 10+- 0.19 cm. The udder is reasonably well
developed; teats are conical.
Flock structure: The average flock contains 83.3+- 14.5 individuals (range: 30 to 300),
of which 2.4 adult males, 70.3 adult females and 10.6 young.
Reproduction
(%)
Litter size: (%)
Singles 84.1
Twins 15.2
Triplets 0.7
Performance
Milk
Lactation yield (Kg)/day 1.84
Hair (g per shorn) 229.3 twice a year
KANNAIADU
Distribution
Ramnathapuram and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu. Numbers: The total goat
population in the Kannaiadu distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was 0.604
m, of which 0.093 m adult males and 0.295 m adult females.
Conformation
All animals, predominantly black or black with white spots. Ears are medium-long; ear
length: 15.67+- 0.13 cm. Males are horned; females are polled. Tail is medium-sized and
thin; tail length: 15.77 +- 0.47 cm. Udder is small and round, with small teats placed
laterally. The average flock contains 17 individuals (range: 2 to 40 (61), of which 1 buck,
11 does and 6 young.
Reproduction
Kidding percentage 80-85
(%)
Litter size: (%)
Singles 90
Twins 10
Performance
Animals are maintained for meat purposes and are not milked.
JHAKRANA
Distribution
Jhakrana and a few surrounding villages near Behror, in the Alwar district of Rajasthan.
The number of anima1s of this breed is rather small. As it is restricted to a very limited
area. Considering that it is a good indigenous dairy breed, there is need for its
conservation.
Conformation
Large animals. The coat, predominantly black with white spots on ears and muzz1e, is
short and lustrous. Face line is straight. Forehead is narrow and slightly bulging. The
breed is quite similar to Beetal, the major difference being that Jhakrana is longer. Ear
length is medium: 13.8 + 0.19. Udder is Plarge, with large conical teats. The average
f1ock consists of 14.2+- 2.1 individuals; (range: 5 to 34), including 0.05 adult males,
Reproduction
Litter size:
(%)
Singles 57
Twins 41
Triplets 2
Breeding
Pure breeding. Males are se1ected on the basis of their dam's mi1k yield. Breeding bucks
are generally produced from within the f1ock. Owners of small f1ocks who do not
maintain a buck utilize services of the buck from a neighbor's f1ock.
Performance
Milk
SIROHI
Distribution
Sirohi district of Rajasthan.The breed also extends to Palanpur in Gujarat. The total goat
population in the Sirohi; distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was 0.295 m,
of which 0.007 m adult males and 0.204 m adult females.
Conformation
Compact, medium-sized animals. Coat color predominant1y brown, with 1ignt or dark
brown patches; a very few individuals are completely white. Most animals are wattled.
Ears are f1at and 1eaf-like. medium-sized and drooping; ear length: 18.8 + _0.6 cm (15).
Both sexes have smal1 horns curved upward and backward; horn 1ength: 7.7 ~ 0.15 cm
(144). Tail is medium in length and curved upward; tai1 1ength: 16.7 ~ 0.14 cm (153).
Udder is smal1 and round with small teats placed laterally. Average f1ock size is 60
(range: 10 to 200) containing 1 adult male, 42 adult females and 17 young.
Reproduction
Kidding 89.3%
percentage
Litter size
Singles 91.5%
Twins 8.5%
Breeding
Generally pure breeding. Males are selected on size from within flocks. There is some
introduction of Marwari for increasing hair production.
Performance
Milk
(days)
Meat
At birth 2.82
At weaning 9.92
6 months 13.48
9 months 16.95
12 months 21.27
SANGAMNERI
Distribution
Poona and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra. The total goat population in the
Sangamneri distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was 5.692 m, of which
0.396 m adult males and 3.439 m adult females.
Conformation
Medium-sized animals. Body color may be white, black or brown, with spots of the other
colors. Ears are medium-sized and drooping; ear length: 15.89+- 0.62 cm. Both sexes
have horns, directed backward and upward length: 12.36 +- 0.58 cm. Tail is thin and
short; tail length: 15.72 + -0.32 cm (33). The hair coat is extremely coarse and short. The
average flock contains 30.5+- 12.63 individuals (range: 6 to 91), of which 1.0 adult male,
Reproduction
Days
Age at first kidding 422.2
Service period 155.6
Litter size: (%)
Singles 69.9
Twins 30.0
Triplets 0.5
Breeding: Pure breeding. Males are selected on dam's milk yield.
Performance
Milk
Lactation length 165
(days)
Meat (kg.)
At birth 1.86
At weaning 7.09
6 months 10.06
9 months 13.44
12 months 17.33
Hair (g per clip) 250-300
OSMANABADI
Distribution
Latur Tuljapur and Udgir taluks of Osmanabadi district of Maharashtra. The total goat
population in the Osmanabadi distribution area. accoriding to the 1972 census, was
0.219 m. of which 0.020 m adult males and 0.119 m adult females.
Conformation
Of animals surveyed 73% were black and the rest were white, brown or spotted. Ears are
medium long; ear length: 18.0 +- 0.10 cm. Most males (89.5%) are horned; females may
be horned or polled, in almost equal proportions. Tail is medium long and thin; tail
length: 16.6 +- 0.10 cm (210). The udder is small and round with small teats placed
laterally. The average flock contains 10.73 individuals (range:1 to 65) of which 0.28
adult males; 6.56 adult females and 3.89 young.
Reproduction
(%)
Litter size: (%)
Singles 70.5
Twins 29.0
Triplets 0.5
Quadruplets
Breeding: Pure breeding. There is little selection.
Performance
Milk
Lactation yield (Kg)/day 0.5-1.5
Lactation length 3-5
(months)
Meat (kg.)
At birth 2.39
At weaning 7.34
6 months 11.07
9 months 15.12
ZALAWADI
Distribution
Surendranagar and Rajkot districts in Gujarat. The total goat population in the Zalawadi
distribution area according to the 1972 census was 0.341 m. of which 0.013 m adult
males and 0.256 m adult females.
Conformation
Large animals. Coat is black and contains long coarse hair. Ears are long, wide, leaf-like
and drooping; ear length: 19.0 +- 0.20 cm. Both sexes have long twisted horns, pointed
upward; horn length: 1673 +- 0.2 cm. The udder is well developed, with large conical
teats. The average flock contains 41.5 individuals (range: 10 to 60), of which 0.9 adult
males, 28.7 adult females and 11.9 young.
Reproduction
Days
Litter size: (%)
Singles 82.1
Twins 17.9
Performance
Milk
Lactation yield (Kg)/day 2.02
Hair (g per year) 245.3
BEETAL
Distribution
Throughout the States of Punjab and Haryana. True-bred animals are however found
in the districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Ferozepur in Punjab. The total goat
population in the Beetal distribution area, according to the 1972 livestock census, was
0.159 m, of which 0.014 m adult males and 0.084 m adult females. The goat
population of Punjab has shown a marked decline. Surveys carried out by the Division
of Dairy Cattle Genetics of the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) showed that
both the number of flocks and the number of goats per flock have decreased, primarily
owing to an increase in irrigated cultivated areas and the shortage of natural
vegetation available for browsing. Beetal is a good dairy breed, second to Jamnapari in
size but is superior to it in that it is more prolific and more easily adaptable to different
agro-ecological conditions and to stall-feeding. Jamnapari is more sensitive
Body length 85. 70.42
Conformation
Large animals. Variab1e coat color, predominantly black or brown with white spots of
differing sizes. In a survey conducted by NDRI in the home tract of the breed, 92.6%
animals were b1ack and 7.4% brown. The coat is short and 1ustrous. The face 1ine is
convex, with typical Roman nose but not as prominent as in Jamnapari. Ears are long
and f1at, curled and drooping ear length: 24.8 t 0.65 cm (18) Both sexes have thick,
medium-sized horns, carried horizontally with a slight twist directed backward and
upward; horn length: 11.95 t 0.76 cm. Tail is small and thin. The udder is 1arge and
well developed, with large conical teats. The average flock contains 21.06 + 1.92
individuals, of which 1.5 adult males, 11.7 adult females and 7.8 young.
Reproduction
Days
Service period 160
Kidding 176
percentage
Litter size: (%)
Singles 40.66
Twins 52.6
Triplets 6.52
Quadruplets 0.22
Breeding
Pure breeding. Breeding males are generally selected on the basis of their dam's milk
yield. The services of a buck of a neighboring owner are commonly utilized when a
flock does not possess a buck.
Performance
Milk
Lactation yield 177.38
Meat(Kg)
At birth 2.80
At weaning 9.26
6 months 12.18
9 months 15.42
12 months 21.83
CHANGTHANGI
Distribution
Changthang region of Ladakh, at altitudes above 4000 m. The goat population in this
region, according to the 1972 census, was approximately 0.04 m.
Climate: A cold arid region. Average annual precipitation: 9.26 cm, distributed
throughout the year, with maximal during January/April. Summer and winter
temperatures are extreme (+40 ° C to -40 ° C). Most cultivation takes place along the
rivers.
Conformation
Medium-sized animals. Half of the animals are white, the remainder black, gray or
brown. Both sexes have horns, generally large (range: 15 to 55 cm), turning outward,
upward and inward to form a semi-circle, but a wide variation exists in both shape and
size. The flock size ranges from 200 to 300 in flocks belonging to migratory shepherds.
In the stationary flocks, it is between 10 and 15.
Reproduction: In farmers' flocks: kidding percentage: 65%. Under farm conditions:
kidding percentage: from 80 to 90%.
Performance
Meat (kg.)
At birth 2.18
3months 7.76
9 months 9.18
12 months 11.80
Hair
Average fiber length (cm) 4.94
Scouring yield (%) 65.28
MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF GOAT

Goat is known as ‘Poor man’s cow’ in India and is a very important component in dry
land farming system. Marginal or undulating lands unsuitable for other types of animals
like cow or buffalo, goat is the best alternative. With very low investments goat rearing
can be made in to a profitable venture for small and marginal farmers. The following
economical traits are important in goats for their improvements as well as successful
profitable running of a goat farming. They are
 Age at first kidding : Age of a doe in days at the time of first kidding.
 Lactation length: Number of days in milk from the date of kidding to the date
of cessation of milk production (the order of lactation should be indicated as I,
II, III etc.).
 Lactation milk yield : Milk yield in kg from the date of kidding to the date of
cessation of milk production (the order of lactation should be indicated as I, II,
III etc.).
 150-day lactation milk yield : Milk yield in kg from the date of kidding to 150 th
day of lactation. If the lactation length is less than 150 days, it is taken as 150
days milk yield.
 Kidding interval: Number of days from the date of one kidding to the date of
next kidding (the order of kidding interval should be indicated as I, II, III etc.).
 Incidence of multiple birth : Number of multiple births (twins, triplets,
quadruplets etc.) to the total number of births (total number of does kidded).
 Birth weight : Weight of a kid in kg at birth (weighed within 24 hours).
 Weaning weight : Weight of a kid in kg at 90 days of age (weaning).
 Weight at market age : Weight of a kid in kg at the market age of 180, 270 or
365 days. Usually for Indian goats, 9th month weight is called as market weight.
 Growth rate
o Pre-weaning growth rate : Daily weight gain in grams from the date of
(Weaning weight (90th day) – Birth weight )/90
o Post-weaning growth rate : Daily weight gain in grams from the date of
Weight at market (180, 270 or 365 days) – Weaning weight / Age at market
(180, 270 or 365 days) – 90
o Pre-weaning mortality : Number of kids died from birth to 90th day
(weaning) to the number of kids born alive.
o Post-weaning mortality : Number of kids died from weaning to 365 days
to the total number of kids weaned.
o Adult mortality : Number of adult goats died during the year to the
LIST OF REGISTERS TO BE MAINTAINED IN A GOAT FARM
 Birth register
 Weighment register (Youngstock and adultstock)
 Milk recording register
 Buck performance register
 Doe performance register
 Mating register
 Feed register
 Index card (buck card / doe card)
EXERCISE-4: BREEDS OF SWINE AND MEASUREMENT OF
Breeds of pigs
Pigs are estimated to have been domesticated in the Neolithic period during B. C. 2500-
2400. The domestic breeds were developed from the wild forms in Europe, India and
East Asia independently. There are 3 types of indigenous pigs known, Desi (mostly
black in colour and smaller in size) Ghori and Ankamali. Some locally known
populations are: Nicobari pigs and Andaman wild pigs (A & N Islands), Doom (Assam),
and Ghungroo (West Bengal).
Exotic pig are used for crossbreeding as well as breed substitution in India. The exotic
breeds used in India are: Large white Yorkshire, Landrace, Duroc, Berkshire and
Hampshire
Large White Yorkshire
This breed originated in Yorkshire in England. It has been classified into three distinct
types - large, medium and small. They have been developed from Leicester pigs of
Robert Bakewell. These animals moved into the United States in 1893. This is a good
bacon breed which has been recently developed for lean meat. They are white in colour
with small ears tilting to the front. They have broad face with a medium dish.
Landrace
This was developed in Denmark about 1895, by crossing English pigs on native pigs
especially for the bacon industry. The Landrace has some Chinese pig inheritance. They
are white in colour and have a long narrow body.
Duroc
This breed originated in the eastern United States. This is also a breed developed out of
crossing pigs imported from Africa, Spain and Portugal. They were formally called
Duroc Jersey. Subsequently, some Tamworth inheritance also entered into crossing.
They are light golden to dark red in colour. The body is or medium length with tall legs.
Adult boars weigh about 450 kg and sow about 350 kg.
Berkshire
This breed has been developed in Berkshire county in South-central England from
crosses of old English hog with sows of Chinese and Siamese origin. The English hog
was a descendent of the European wild boar Sus scrofa. Pigs of this breed are large, long
bodied, heavy-boned animals which stand on long legs and have arched narrow back
they weigh about 500 kg. They are very famous for lean meat. As a breed, they were
established in 1816. They were imported into United States as early as 1823. They have
black coat with white feet and white stripes on the face. They have a dished face.
Indian breeds of pigs
 Andaman and Nicobari pigs
 Ankamali
 Doom
 Ghori
 Ghungroo
MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SWINE

Pigs convert inedible feeds, forages, certain grain byproducts obtained from mills, meat
by products, damaged feeds and garbage into valuable nutritious meat. Most of these
feeds are either not edible or not very palatable to human beings. Pig grows fast and is a
prolific breeder, farrowing 10 to 12 piglets at a time. It is capable of producing two litters
per year under optimal management conditions. The carcass return is quite high i.e.,
60-80 per cent of live body weight. With a small investment on building and equipment,
proper feeding and sound disease control programme the farmer can profitably utilize
his time and labour in this subsidiary occupation. The faeces of pigs is used as a manure
to maintain soil fertility. The following economical traits are taken in to account for
profitable pig farming.
 Litter size at birth : Number of piglets born in a litter.
 Litter size born alive : Number of piglets born alive in a litter.
 Litter size at weaning : Number of piglets weaned per litter at 56th day.
 Birth weight : Weight of a piglet in kg at birth.
 Litter weight at birth : Weight of all piglets of a litter in kg at birth.
 Weaning weight : Weight of a piglet in kg at 56 days of age (weaning).
 Litter weight at weaning : Weight of all piglets of a litter in kg at weaning.
 Weight at market age : Weight of a piglet in kg at the market age of 154 or
210 days.
 Growth rate
o Pre-weaning growth rate : Daily weight gain in kg from the date of
(Weaning weight (56th day) – Birth weight) / 56
o Post-weaning growth rate : Daily weight gain in kg from the date of
(Weight at market (154 or 210 days) – Weaning weight ) / (Age at market
(154 or 210 days) – 56 )
 Feed efficiency
o Weaning to 154 days : Weight of feed consumed in kg for producing
one kg of live weight from weaning to 154 days.
o Weaning to 210 days : Weight of feed consumed in kg for producing
one kg of live weight from weaning to 210 days.
o Pre-weaning mortality : Number of piglets died from birth to 56th
day (weaning) to the total number of piglets born alive.
o Post-weaning mortality : Number of piglets died from weaning to
154 or 210 days to the total number of piglets weaned.
o Adult mortality : Number of adult pigs died during the year to the
LIST OF REGISTERS TO BE MAINTAINEDIN A SWINE FARM
 Birth register
 Farrowing and growth record
 Service register
 Boar performance register
 Sow performance register
 Feed register
EXERCISE-5: BREEDS OF POULTRY AND MEASUREMENT OF
Breeds of poultry
Modern domestic breeds are considered to be the descendants of the jungle fowl found
in India and its neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Burma, China, Java, Sumatra and
Malaysia. Four species of wild or jungle fowl are known, viz. Gallus gallus (red jungle
fowl), Gallus lafayettii (Ceylon jungle fowl), Gallus sonneratii (grey jungle fowl) and
Gallus varius (Javan jungle fowl). The relative contribution of these few species to the
formation of modem domestic breeds still remains controversial. While some believe
that all the present-day domestic breeds of poultry have originated from red jungle fowl
(Gallus gallus) others are of the opinion that 2 or more of the 4 existing wild species of
fowl are responsible for the same.
Fowls are often classified based on the purpose for which they are developed such as egg
type, meat type and dual purpose (for both egg and meat), but it is mostly on the basis of
their origin. According to the latter, the birds are classified into the following major
classes: American, Asiatic, English and Mediterranean. A breed refers to a group of
domestic fowls with a common ancestry, and having similarity in shape, conformation,
growth, temperament, shell colour of egg and breeds true to type. Variety is a
subdivision of breed and within a breed there may be several varieties. The term variety
is used to distinguish fowls having the characteristics of the breed to which they belong
but differing in plumage colour, comb type, etc., from other groups of the same breed. A
breed or a variety may have several strains or lines identified by a given name and
produced by a breeder through at least 5 generations of closed flock breeding. Several
strains within a breed or variety phenotypically may look alike but often differ in their
production performance depending upon their breeding history.
American class
Dual-purpose Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red and Wyandotte are
the most popular American breeds. The American breeds are characterized by yellow
skin, clean shanks free from feathers, red ear lobes and, except Lamona, lay brown-
shelled eggs.
 Plymouth Rock: Plymouth Rock is a much sought after American breed
because of its egg size and fleshing properties. Barred and White Plymouth
Rocks are very popular. Other varieties are Buff, Silver-pencilled, Partridge,
Columbian and Blue. White Plymouth Rock with a long body of good depth
and a broad and prominent breast is especially favoured for broiler production.
The breed has a single comb. Standard weights (kg): Cock 4.3; hen 3.4;
cockerel, 3.6; pullet, 2.7.
 Rhode Island Red: Dual-purpose breed developed in Rhode Island in America,
contains varying amounts of Malay games, Red Shanghasis, Brown Leghorn,
Cornish and Wyandotte’s blood. Single and Rose comb are the 2 common
varieties. Some Single-comb Rhode Island Red strains are still very popular for
commercial production of brown-shelled eggs. The most common colour is red
buff; white and brown varieties are also found. The characteristic features of
the breed are long body, broad and deep breast carried well forward, flat back
with red eyes and red ear lobes. Legs and feet are deep yellow but may show
brown colour. The male is dark red with black tail and shows black in both
primary and secondary feathers of the wing when open. The female is even red
with wing and tail marking as in male. Neck hackle shows little black marking
at the base. Standard weights (kg): Cock, 3.8; hen, 2.9; cockerel, 3.4; pullet,
2.5.
Asiatic class
Brahma, Cochin and Langshan, the 3 recognized Asiatic breeds which are virtually
extinct now, are characterized by large body with heavy bones, feathered shanks, red ear
lobes and yellow skin (except Black Langshan in which the skin is pinkish white). They
are classed as broody and poor layers. These Asiatic breeds have contributed
significantly to the development of American breeds.
 Brahma: Brahma originated in the Brahmaputra Valley of India and is well
known for its massive, well-feathered and proportioned body. Pea comb is one
of the breed characteristics. Light, Dark and Buff are the most common
varieties. Buff Brahma has plumage pattern similar to that of Columbian
Plymouth Rock except that golden buff or buff is replaced by white. Its buff
feathers are on shank and on the outer toe of each feet. Standard weights (kg) :
Light Brahma-cock, 5.4; hen, .4.3; cockerel, 4.5; and pullet, 3.6. Dark Brahma-
cock, 4.9; hen, 3.6; cockerel, 4.0; and pullet,3.1.
 Cochin: Cochin also known as "Sanghai fowl" originated in Sanghai (China). It
is characterized by massive appearance, thickly feathered shanks, single comb
and cushion-like structure at the base of the tail. The popular varieties are Buff,
Partridge, White and Black. Standard weights (kg): Cock, 4.9; hen, 3.8;
cockerel, 3.61 pullet, 3.1.
Mediterranean class
The Mediterranean breeds of Italian origin include Leghorn, Minorca, Andalusian,
Spanish and Ancona. They are light bodied and are developed for high egg production.
The Mediterranean breeds are characterized by white ear lobes, relatively large combs,
non-broodiness, early maturity and white-shelled eggs.
 Leghorn: Leghorn is characterized by compact and light body, uniform
blending, pretty carriage, long shanks, small head with well set rose or single
comb and early maturity. Popular varieties are White, Brown and black, of
which White Leghorn is the most popular for its excellent laying performance.
Standard weights (kg): White Leghorn: Cock, 2.6; hen, 2.0; cockerel, 2.2;
pullet, 1.8 .
English class
The breeds of English origin are mostly utility breeds noted for their excellent fleshing
properties. With the exception of Cornish, all the English breeds have white skin and red
ear lobes. English breeds except Dorking and Red Cap lay brown-shelled eggs. All are
classed as broody, but this defect can be gradually eliminated by selective breeding.
 Cornish: Cornish, originally known as the Cornish Indian Game, appears to
have been developed in England about the middle of the nineteenth century
from crossings involving the Aseel, the Malay and English game breeds. It is
noted for its close and compact feathering and heavy flesh with distinctive
shape. Its breast is very deep and broad, giving the shoulders great width. All
Cornish birds have pea comb. Standard weights (kg): Of the dark and white
varieties are: Cock, 4.5; hen, 3.4; cockerel, 3.6; pullet, 2.7. The standard
weights (kg) of the white-Iaced red variety are: Cock, 3.6; hen, 2.7; cockerel,
3.1; pullet, 22.
Australorp
 This breed originated from the Black Orpington and was developed in
Australia. It is more upstanding and less massive in appearance than the Black
Orpington. It has been evolved as a layer bird. The back is rather long, with a
gradual sweep to the tail. The body has good depth, but the feathering fits more
closely to the body than it does in Orpington. The comb is single, beak is black,
and shanks and toes are black or lead-black. The bottom of feet and toes are
pinkish-white. The plumage is lustrous and greenish-black in all sections. The
under-colour is dull black.
 Standard weights (kg): Cock, 3.8; hen, 2.9; cockerel, 3.4; pullet, 2.5.
INDIAN BREEDS
A large number of fowls of different sizes, shapes and colours, resembling the jungle
fowls, are found all over India. Those with Chittagong, Aseel, Langshan or Brahma
blood, are bigger in size and better in meat quality than the common fowls. Some Indian
fowls resemble the Leghorn in size and shape, but are poor layers. One variety resembles
the Sussex or Plymouth Rock in shape, but is smaller, lays fairly well and is more
common in the eastern parts of the country .The common country hen, the desi is the
best mother for hatching, a good forager but a poor layer. There are only 4 pure breeds
of fowls indigenous to India. They are Aseel, Chittagong, Busra and Kadaknath.
Aseel
 Aseel is noted for its pugnacity, high stamina, majestic gait and dogged fighting
qualities. The best specimens of the breed, although rare, are encountered in
parts of Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The most popular
varieties are Peela (golden red), Yakub (black and red), Nurie (white), Kagar
(black), Chitta (black and white spotted), Java (black), Sabja (white and golden
or black with yellow or silver), Teekar (brown) and Reza (light red). Although
poor in productivity, they are known for their meat qualities. Broodiness is
very common; the hen is a good sitter and efficient mother. They possess small
and firmly set pea combs. Wattles and ear lobes are bright red. The beak is
short. The face is long and slender, and not covered with feathers. The eyes are
compact and well set. The neck is long, uniformly thick but not fleshy. The
body is round and short with a broad breast, straight back and close-set strong
tail root. The general feathering is close, scanty and almost absent on the
breast. The plumage has practically no fluff and the feathers are tough. The tail
is small and drooping. The legs are strong, straight, and set well apart.
Standard weights (kg): Cock, 4 to 5; hen, 3 to 4; cockerel, 3.5 to 4.5; pullet, 2.5
to 3.5.
Kadaknath
 The original name of the breed seems to be "Kalamasi", meaning a fowl with
black flesh. These are bred by tribals in Jhabua and Dhar districts in western
Madhya Pradesh. The eggs are light brown. The adult plumage varies from
silver and gold-spangled to bluish-black without any spangling. The skin, beak,
shanks, toes and soles of feet are slate-like in colour. The comb, wattles and
tongue are purple.
 Most of the internal organs also show intense black colouration which is
pronounced in trachea, thoracic and abdominal air-sacs, gonads and at the
base of the heart and mesentry. Varying degrees of black colouration are also
seen in the skeletal muscles, tendons, nerves, meninges, brain, etc. The blood
is darker than normal blood. The black pigment is due to the deposition of
melanin.
 This is a rather small-bodied bird with cocks weighing about 1.5 kg and hens
1.0 kg. The flesh, although repulsive to look at, is delicious. It lays about 80
eggs per year. It is resistant to diseases in its natural habitat in free range but is
susceptible to Marek's disease under intensive rearing conditions.
Chittagong
 It is also known as the Malay. It is found mostly in eastern India. It is a large
bird. The cock measures sometimes 75 cm from beak to toe. It is a dual-
purpose breed with poor mothering ability .The adult birds are very strong,
hardy and quarrelsome. They have a small pea comb resembling a small lump
of tiny warts. The head is long. Beak is long and yellow. The wattles are red and
hardly visible in the hen. The ear lobes are small, usually red and at times
admixture with a little white. The eyebrows are prominent and over-hanging.
The breast is broad, deep and fleshy; the shoulder is broad with slight narrow
loins. The wings project at the shoulders and are carried high. The legs are
yellow and feather-less. The plumage is close to the body, firm, short and
glossy. Standard plumage colour is lacking, but the buff, white, black, dark
brown and grey varieties are recognized.
 Standard weights (kg): Cock, 3.5 to 4.5; hen, 3 to 4.
Busra
 This is a small to medium-sized bird and is found in small numbers in some
parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The body conformation is typical of layers.
It is deep bodied, light feathered and alert. There is wide variation in body
colour. It is a poor layer and is not much resistant to parasitic and other
diseases.
COMMON BREEDS OF DUCK
Indian Runner
 This birds are found in some of the states in India, but they are bred pure in a
very few places. The birds are white in colour. They carry their body in a
noticeable upright position. The Indian Runner is widely used for crossing with
the heavier breeds to improve their laying capacity. The egg is white in colour,
average weight of an egg is over 56 grams.
Khaki Campbell
 Khaki Campbell is the most popular breed, generally bred for profitable egg
production in India. The colour of the drake is black at the neck and back. The
duck is of Khaki colour which develops into grey when one year old. The ducks
start laying eggs at about six months' age. The maximum numbers of eggs are
laid during the second year. The birds are generally sold when four years old. The
eggs are of white colour. The average weight of an egg is nearly 70 grams.
MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF POULTRY

Poultry egg and meat are important sources of high quality proteins, minerals and
vitamins to balance the human diet. Specially developed breeds of egg type chicken are
now available with traits of quick growth and high feed conversion efficiency.
Depending on the farm-size, layer farming can be main source of family income or can
provide income and gainful employment to farmers throughout the year. Poultry
manure has high fertilizer value and can be used for increasing yield of all crops
Poultry industry which provides cheap source of animal protein has taken a quantum
leap in the last three decades evolving from a near backyard practice to a venture of
industrial promotion. Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural
sector in India today. While the production of agricultural crops has been rising at a rate
of 1.5 to 2 percent per annum that of eggs has been rising at a rate of 8 percent per
annum. India is on the world map as one of the top five egg producing countries with
55.6 billion eggs produced during 2008 (FAO).
The poultry sector in India has undergone a paradigm shift in structure and operation.
This transformation has involved sizable investments in breeding, hatching, rearing and
processing. Farmers in India have moved from rearing non-descript birds to rearing
hybrids which ensures faster growth, good liveability, excellent feed conversion and high
profits to the farmers. High quality chicks, equipment, vaccines and medicines are
available. Technically and professionally competent guidance is available to the farmers.
The management practices have improved and disease and mortality incidences are
reduced to a great extent. The industry has grown largely due to the initiative of private
enterprise, minimal government intervention and considerable indigenous poultry
genetic capabilities, adequate support from the complementary veterinary health,
poultry feed, poultry equipment and poultry processing sectors. The industry has
created direct and indirect employment for 3 million people. The layer farms have to
concentrate on the following economical traits.
Layers
 Hatch weight : Weight of a chick in grams at hatching.
 Weight at 20 weeks : Weight of a chick in grams at 20 weeks of age.
 Age at maturity : Age in days from the date of hatch to the date of first egg.
 Weight at maturity : Weight of a bird in grams on the day of first egg.
 Age at maturity in flocks without trapnesting : Age in days of a flock
when
o the first egg in the flock was laid or
o 30 per cent production (on hen-day basis) is reached or
o 50 per cent production (on hen-day basis) is reached
 Egg production at 40 weeks : Number of eggs laid by a pullet from the date
of first egg to the completion of 40 weeks of age.
 Egg production at 72 weeks : Number of eggs laid by a pullet from the date
of first egg to the completion of 72 weeks of age.
 Hen-day production at 40 weeks of age
Total number of eggs laid by a flock up to 40 weeks/ Number of hen-days )/
Number of hen-days x 100
Total number of eggs laid by a flock up to 40 weeks /Number of hens housed
at 20 weeks X Number of days X 100
 Hen-day production at 72 weeks
Total number of eggs laid by a flock up to 72 weeks /Number of hen days X
100
Total number of eggs laid by a flock up to 72 weeks / Number of hens
housed at 20 weeks X Number of days X 100
 Livability (0-20 weeks) : Number of hens alive at 20th week to the number
of chicks housed at the start (0 day), expressed as percentage.
Number of hens alive at 20th week / Number of chicks housed at 0 day x 100
 Livability (20 to 72 weeks) : Number of hens alive at 72nd week to the
number of hens housed at 20th week, expressed as percentage.
Number of hens alive at 72nd week / Number of hens housed at 20th week x
100
 Feed efficiency (feed conversion ratio) : Feed consumed in kg to produce
a dozen eggs.
 Egg weight or egg size : Average weight of three consecutive eggs in grams
laid during 40 weeks of age.
 Hatchability
o Fertility : Percentage of fertile eggs to the total eggs set for hatching.
o Hatchability : Percentage of chicks hatched to the total number of fertile
eggs set for hatching (or) percentage of chicks hatched to the total
number of eggs set for hatching
BROILERS
Broilers are the most preferred ones under poultry meat category. Many private
companies are involved with farmers in contract farming for boiler production. So
marketing is no longer a problem. A broiler is a young chicken of below eight weeks of
age, weighing 1.5 to 2 kgs body weight, with tender and soft meat. The measurements of
the following economical traits are important for making profitable broiler farm.
 Hatch weight : Weight of a chick in grams at hatching.
 Fortnightly weights up to 8 weeks : Weight of a chick in grams at 2, 4, 6
and 8 weeks of age.
 Feed efficiency : Feed consumed in kg to produce one kg live weight at 6 or 8
weeks of age.
 Livability (0-8 weeks) : Number of chicks alive at 8th week to the number of
chicks at the start (0 day), expressed as percentage.
Number of chicks alive at 8th week / Number of chicks housed at 0 day x 100
LIST OF REGISTERS MAINTAINED IN A POULTRY FARM
 Chick register
 Feed register
 Hatchery register
 Egg collection and disposal register
 Trap nest record
 Pen records (Brooder, Grower, Layer)
EXERCISE-6: BREEDS OF HORSE AND ASS

Breeds of horses
Arabian
 The Bedouin tribes of the desert, believing the horse to be a gift from God, told
many romantic tales of the Arabian's beginnings. One such legend claims God
fashioned the desert south wind into a creature who "shall fly without wings".
The Bedouins developed horses with strength, courage and stamina required
for survival, and for the speed and responsiveness needed to win the tribal
skirmishes.
 The Arabian's head has a characteristic dished profile with a prominent eye,
large nostrils and small teacup muzzle. Itss gracefully arched neck rises out of a
long sloping shoulder and broad chest. A short, strong back and high trail
carriage complete the picture. Arabian horses are seen in grey, chestnut, bay
and roan and an occasional solid black. Although some individuals will vary,
most are between 14.2 and 15.2 hands in height and weigh between 800 and
1,000 pounds.
Australian Stock Horse
 The Australian Stock Horse evolved through selective breeding in response to
the demands of the environment. The history of the breed began in 1788 with
the arrival of the First Fleet (name of the ship) which brought the first horses
to the colony of N.S.W., as the whole of Eastern Australia was then known.
These horses were of English Thoroughbred and Spanish stock; later
importations included more Thoroughbreds , Arabs and Timor and Welsh
Mountain ponies.
French Saddlebred (Cheval de selle français, French Saddle Horse, French
Warmblood)
 Developed in the 1950's from halfbreds, including Anglo-Norman and its
derivatives Charentais, Charolais, Vendeen and also Corlais, the French
Saddlebred is a light riding horse found throughout France.
Mongolian
 The origin of this breed is Mangolia. Mongolian horse is one of the most
important and numerous breeds found among the indigenous horse breeds of
China. They are distributed widely throughout the Northeast, North China and
the Northwest, mainly in the high plains and highland areas. It is a dual-
purpose horse, used primarily for riding and carting, but is also used for meat
and milk production. The average wither height of males is 128 cm, females
127 cm, but body size varies with environmental conditions.
Palomino
 The modern day Palomino Horse has a golden horse, who was the choice of
ancient emperors, kings and queens, the beloved steed in Greek mythology, the
subject of artists' canvas, the pride of Queen Isabella's Spanish court, the
treasured mount of ancient tribes and companion of the Conquistadors, is still
with us today. These horses were tamed by the Indians of the Southwest,
rediscovered by today's horse lover, made a star on the "Silver Screen" and
exhibited at horse shows throughout the world. Palomino horses are found
among the finest bloodlines of breeds; their appeal is international. Horse
enthusiasts who own Palomino geldings and spayed mares with unknown
parentage may also apply for registration based on color and conformation
standards.
Przewalski (sha-val-ski) (Asiatic Wild Horse, Mongolian Wild Horse,
Mongolian Tarpan, Taki)
 The Przewalski horse (Equus przewalski poliakov) is the last remaining wild
species of horses. All other horses are either domesticated or descended from
horses which were once domesticated. Until the mid-1990's the Przewalski was
extinct in the wild, exterminated by hunters. Through efforts of the Przewalski
Foundation in the Netherlands and breeding preserves in Askania Nova,
Ukraine, in 1992 two combined breeding groups of Przewalski horses were
reintroduced to Mongolia with the ultimate plan to reintroduce the animals to
the open steppe.
 Some breeders feel strongly that the Przewalski horse is the ancestor of all
modern breeds. Others point out that it is a different species from the
domesticated horse, having 66 chromosomes as compared to the 64 of the
domestic horse. They further point out that while crosses between the
Przewalski and domestic horses result in a fertile hybrid, the offspring has 65
chromosomes. Subsequent crosses result in 64 chromosomes and bear little
resemblance to the Przewalski. Przewalski's horse is similar to the domestic
horse though it has a smaller, more robust build, and upright mane, and a low-
set tail. The most common colors are sandy tan, dun, and reddish bay. The
horses have a dorsal stripe, a shoulder stripe, barring in their legs, and lighter
coloring on their muzzles and bellies.
Quarter Horse
 The principle development of the Quarter Horse was in the southwestern part
of the United States in Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, eastern Colorado, and
Kansas. Some breed historians have maintained that it is the oldest breed of
horses in the United States and that the true beginning of the Quarter Horse
was in the Carolinas and Virginia. These were small blocky horses, probably of
Spanish extraction, which the planters secured from the Indians, and which
were adapted for a variety of uses
INDIAN BREEDS OF HORSES
There are 6 important breeds of Indian horses namely Kathiawari, Marwari, Bhutia,
Manipuri, Spiti and Zanskari. Kathiawari is well known for its pace and speed, and
possesses good endurance power. Manipuri breed is used for polo, racing and military
transport.
 Kathiawari
 Marwari
Marwari
 An elegant medium height, strong horse with track record of bravery and
loyalty in the battle fields of medieval period. Now famous for traveling long
distances, have strong feet and hoof, has his home in the area called "Malani"
which is part of Barmer district of Marwari, in the villages namely Nagar,
Gudha, Jasol, Sindhari, Bakhasar and some areas of Sanchor Tehsil. These
areas are said to be the nucleus of the breed Marwari Horse. The nearby Pali
and Jalore districts have some famous breeders of Marwari breed. The others
who are fond of Marwari Horse have taken it to the districts of Udaipur,
Jaipur, Ajmer and even to Gujarat and Kathiawar and to other states. The
horse stock, of the breed is maintained for breeding, travel, marriage
ceremonies and personal interest. A good number of Marwari Horse can be
seen in fairs of Pushkar, Tilwara and Nagaur.
 It is difficult to exactly trace the origin of true Marwari horse with precision but
undoubtedly it has connections with "Arab" and may have mixed with
Turkmenian breed the horses of Alexander's army which were of this breed.
However by selective breeding for the need of the warriors of the middle ages
was evolved a breed which can survive well in difficult arid terrain. Their
growing demand was in battle field of a indigenous breed for that the Marwari
breed was evolved. A breed which could withstand intense heat and cold, could
cover long distances with speed, and has hard strong hoof and feet.
Characteristics
 Head: The head is refined, relatively long and wide between eyes, with a
medium muzzle and a shallow firm mouth.
 Face: Long flat, broad with light forehead.
 Ears: The medium sized ears are curved inward at the tips and often touching
the length varying from 9 to 15 cm located 90 degree axis and can rotate 180
degrees.
 Eyes: Large eyes, set widely and reflect intelligence and a placid disposition.
 Nose: Spacious, slightly Roman, the nostrils are full and sensitive.
 Jaws: Well developed jaws imply great strength.
 Neck: The head joins the neck at about 45 degree angle, proportionate with
good musculature, the neck blends into sloping shoulders. It is clean at the
throat.
 Shoulders: Long, set at an angle of about 45 degree, well muscular, the slopes
of shoulder blends into the withers.
 Withers: Medium high, well defined, the wither are same height or are
slightly higher than croup (about 1 to 2 cm high)
 Chest: Broad, deep chested, wide round girth the muscling on the inside of the
forearm gives the appearance of inverted "V."
 Back: The short saddle back is powerful. The barrel or girth is deep with well
sprung ribs. The underline or belly is longer than the back and does not cut
high into the flank.
 Rear Quarters: They are broad deep and heavy, well muscular, the croup is
long slope gently from hip to the tail set. The hip muscle extends down into
stifle.
 Stifle: The stifle is deep; when viewed from rear extends out below the hip and
above the gaskin. When viewed from the rear the stifle is the widest part of the
animal.
 Gaskin: It is wide and shows related thickness both inside and outside when
seen from rear.
 Hock: The hock is broad, clean, strong low set and free of excess tissue. The
muscling lies well into the hock joint. There is no play or give in the hock joint
except directly forward.
 Cannon: The cannon bones are short with hock and knee joints low to the
ground. The cannon bones both front and rear show a perpendicular position
and appear quite broad when viewed from side. The tendon, back and below
the knees and hocks appear sharply separated from the bone and from each
other.
 Ankle Pastern & Hoof: The ankle is well formed and strong to withstand
shock and strain, the medium length pastern denote strength. They have a
slightly forward slope about 45 degrees, viewed from either the front or rear.
The legs cannons and pastern are straight. The hoof if oblong. Its size balances
with the overall size of the individual animal, it has overall same slope at the
pastern. The sole and the wall are very strong. They are seldom shod except in
hills and on metal roads.
 Average Height: 155 cm Stallion-(145 to 169 cm); 153 cm Mares-(142 to 163)
cm
 Average shank measurement: 20.5 cm Stallions and 20.0 cm Mares.
 Colors: A wide variety of colors is observed in Marwari breed horses. The
most prevalent body colors are dark brown, bay, chestnut, dun, gray, flea-
bitten gray, skewbald, pie bald.
BREEDS OF DONKEY
Three distinct types of donkeys: Indian donkeys, Indian wild and Kiang are available in
India. Grey colour predominates but black, white and even piebald colours are also seen.
Indian wild donkeys are available in Rann of Kutch. Kiang is available in Sikkim,
Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh, and is dark red brown with white underparts. Various
types of donkeys have not been evaluated and characterized.
Miniature
 Miniature donkeys are native to the Mediterranean islands of Sicily and
Sardinia. They are identified as either Sicilian or Sardinian donkeys according
to their ancestry, although the two types do not differ. They have been
extensively bred with each other and with animals of unidentified ancestry in
the United States to produce a distinctively American breed of donkeys, which
we call the Miniature Mediterranean Donkey. According to all information that
can be aquired these donkeys are nearly extinct in the land of their origin and
have been brought to their current state of being an excellent breed by
breeders in the United States who have bred for years for size, disposition and
conformation. Size: up to 36" tall
Characteristics
 The Miniature Mediterranean Donkey is by nature one of the friendliest and
most affectionate animals of its type. They are very tame and gentle. They are
also easier to manage in everyday life than some donkeys simply because they
are smaller. They love their owners and seek attention. They do this with
friendly nudges and brays and funny little sounds designed to get you to pay
attention to them. The miniature donkey is extremely intelligent and docile
and is easily trained. Geldings or jennets make the best pets. Jacks enjoy
braying and may become excited in the presence of the females.
 The size of these donkeys varies from 26 inches, which is considered
extraordinarily small, to 36 inches at the withers. An average height would be
about 33-34 inches. In general the smaller the donkey the more valuable it is
accounted to be. Other things that make a donkey valuable are good body and
leg conformation and one of the more unusual colors such as spotted, white,
sorrel, "chocolate" (dark brown) or black. Gray-dun, the various shades of gray
with the dorsal stripe and cross is the most common color of these donkeys.
 Conformation of the animals is supposed to be that of a small, compact, well
rounded animal standing on four straight strong legs with all parts in
symmetry and balance. The average donkey will weigh from 250 to 450 pounds
with most animals being in the lower weight ranges. The hair ranges from flat
to curly to long and shaggy and in texture from smooth to wiry. The hair coat is
shed out much later in the summer than that of the horse and serves to protect
the donkey from the weather and the flies. Almost all of these donkeys will
have a "cross". The cross is a dorsal stripe of darker hair down the length of the
back crossed by a shoulder stripe across the top of the body at the withers and
showing down the shoulders.
 Most of the donkeys will have darker markings on the ears, the tip of the tail
and around the feet. Some have "Garters" or stripes ringing the legs as well. A
few of the donkeys have "collar button" markings, which are dots of black hair
on the neck just below the place where the head joins the neck. The registry
calls a donkey the color of the body and assumes a lighter colored nose, belly
and inside of the legs. If the animal has a dark nose and/or belly that is noted
on the registration certificate. A dark nose is called "dark muzzle" and if no
parts of the body show the light "points" the donkey is said to have "no light
points". The dark points are found in all donkeys but are not too common, the
light points being the norm. Life expectancy for well cared for miniature
donkeys is around 30-35 years so they are truly a lifetime pet.
Poitou (baudet de Poitou, Poitevin, French)
 The origins of the Poitou are a bit vague. It is said that the donkey and the
practice of mule breeding was introduced to the Poitou region of France by the
Romans. The two breeds, Poitou (donkey) and Mulassier (horse) seemed to
have been developed side by side for the sole purpose of producing mules of
exceptional quality.
 The Poitou is noted for its large size. The Andalucian ass is the only other
European breed of compariable size. Early breeders of these animals selected
for large ears, head and leg joints. The belief was that jacks with these features
would result in exceptionally large and strong mules. As a result, the ears of
some individuals of the Poitou are so large that they are carried horizontal.
 By standard, a Poitou should stand between 1.35 m and 1.50 m at the withers.
His coat is black or brown with a grey underbelly and a white nose and eye
rings. A Poitou must never have a cross upon his shoulders and back. The head
is quite large and long, set on a strong neck. The withers are unobtrusive and
the back flat and long. The croup is short and the haunches round. The limbs
are strong with large joints and loose movement. The feet of a Poitou are larger
than those of other donkey breeds and covered with the long hair of the legs.
The ears should be large and open, again, covered in long hair. The actual coat
of a Poitou Donkey is longer and softer than that of other donkey breeds. When
the animal is left ungroomed, it will often retain the long hair of its youth
which becomes matted and tangled, growing down into a great coat.
EXERCISE-7: BREEDS OF RABBIT, CAMEL, YAK AND MITHUN
Breeds of rabbit
India does not have indigenous rabbit breeds (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and the Hispid
hare (Caprolagus hispidus) is the nearest related species. There are three major types of
Indian hare. The black napped hare (Lepus nigricollis nigricollis) is found in most parts
of the country, major concentration being in Southern India. The other variety of Indian
hare is rufous-tailed hare (Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus). Their distribution ranges
from Himalayas to river Godavari. The desert hare (Lepus nigricollis dayanus) is found
in Western desert zone of India. Rabbits have been imported from other countries and
reared under various agro-climatic regions. The various rabbit breeds available in India
are New Zealand White, Soviet Chinchilla, Grey Giant, and White Giant for meat and
fur, and Russian, British and German Angora for hair.
Newzealand White
 This breed was evolved in England. Fur is white and skin is albino. The eye
colour is red due to the absence of melanin pigment. Adult weight is 4.5 to 5
kg. Meat and furskin are the main products. New Zealand rabbits are available
in three colours white , red , and black . Although, cross breeding can result in
many different combinations of these three basic pigmentations. There are
efforts with certificates of development on a blue and broken variety. The Red
has bright golden red fur with a slightly harsher fat. One of the larger breed of
rabbit, it can weigh anywhere from 9 to 12 lb (3-5kg). New Zealands are a
breed that can be used for meat, pelts, show, and laboratory uses. Some adult
New Zealands does can be more aggressive than males although not all females
are aggressive. The aggressiveness is caused from not being pregnant. The New
Zealand rabbit is a commercial breed.
Soviet Chinchilla
 This breed was evolved in erstwhile USSR. Adults weigh 4.5 to 5 kg. Though
this breed is reared for meat its fur is a fancy in fur crafts.
Grey Giant
 This breed is also a native of erstwhile USSR. Adults weigh 4.5 to 5 kg. Due to
the resemblance of its fur with that of hare, it is often mistaken as hare. It is
also reared for meat and fur skin.
White Giant
 White Giant also originated in the erstwhile Soviet Union. It is almost similar
in appearance to Newzealand White. Colour of the fur is white while that of the
eyes and skin is red. The length of hind limbs as well as body size is larger than
that of New Zealand White.
Angora
 Angora is a very ancient breed of small rabbit weighing around 3 kilograms. It
is a wool type rabbit with white fur. Annual wool yield recorded is between
300-1000g in 3 to 4 clippings.
The Himalayan
 The Himalayan is an old breed long-known in Asian countries in the region of
the Himalayan Mountains . It is more widely distributed throughout the world
than any other rabbit breed, and has been known by more names, such as the
Chinese, Russian, Egyptian, and the Black Nose. They are known for their
gentle temperament, and make great pets for a first-time rabbit owner — or
anyone who wants a rabbit that is content to sit in their lap sometimes. Like a
Himalayan cat , the Himalayan rabbit is white with dark points on the nose,
ears, tail and feet. The Himalayan is born white but gets the spots as it grows.
The breed also has a slender, cat like body. The original variety had Black
points, but later breeders created the Blue, Chocolate, and Lilac varieties. They
are born all white, but their markings come in as they age. Delicately built, they
always have pink or blue eyes. The Himalayan is the only breed classified as
cylindrical — long bodied like a cylinder or tube. When shown, the judge
judges this breed posed in a "stretched out" position.
BREEDS OF CAMEL
The camel in India are single humped (Camelus dromedaries) although a very small
number (about 100) of double-humped camel (Camelus bactrinus) are also present.
Camel are used for transportation and agricultural operations. There are a total of 9
breeds (Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, Marwari, Mewari, Sindhi, Shekhawati, Mewati
and Malvi)
Bikaneri
 This breed has been developed by selective inter-breeding of Sindhi (reddish
colour), Baluchi (head and stop), Afghan (hair on eyes, ears and throat) and
indigenous camels. It is a multipurpose breed but the camels of this breed have
been classified as baggage type due to their higher potential to carry loads.
They have a slight dome shaped head. The forehead has well marked
depression above the eyes, known as “stop”. The ‘stop’ causes the nose to tilt
upwards with the forehead, this gives an alert, intelligent and dignified look.
Some camels of this breed have a luxuriant growth of black hairs on their
eyebrows, eyelids and ears, they are called as ‘JHEEPRAS’ in local dialect.
 The coat colour of this breed varies from dark brown to light brown and from
light red to dark red. The chest pad or pedestal is well developed and placed
between angles of elbow and is about 10-cm in diameter. The camels of this
breed are of good height, strong in build and of active habits. Neck is medium
sized, fairly erect, with a marked curve giving a graceful carriage to the head.
Nostrils are slit and placed obliquely, muzzle and chin are small and tight
Shoulders are strong, broad and well set to the chest. Adult body weight is
about 613 Kg with males weighing 670 Kg and females 556 Kg.
Jaisalmeri
 The ‘Jaisalmeri’ camels have been developed from the Tharparkar camels of
the adjoining Sindh area of Pakistan. Jaisalmeri breed is well known for racing
potential. They are shorter and lighter than Bikaneri camels. No distinct “stop”
and no hairs on eyebrows, eyelids and ears (JHEEPRAS). Mostly are light
brown in colour. Have a thin skin and short hairs on body. Small head well
carried on a thin neck and prominent eyes. Adult body weight is about 568 Kg
with males weighing 580 Kg. and females 556 Kg.
Kachchhi
 Kachchhi breed is well known for milk production. Camels of this breed are
heavy, dull in appearance and are said to be ugly looking. No distinct “STOP”
and no hairs on eyebrows, eyelids and ears (JHEEPRAS). The Kachchhi camels
are stouter and little shorter than Bikaneri. They have strong hindquarters,
heavy legs, hard and thick pads and coarse body hairs. Adult body weight is
about 575 Kg with males weighing 638 Kg and females 512 Kg.
Double humbed (Bacterian camel)
 A small population exist in Nubra valley, Ladakh. The humps are plump and
pliable. During the late winter when pastures are scanty, the humps collapse.
Skull bone is comparatively shorter and wider than dromedary camel. The
body of the camel is short and stout. The body color varies from light brown to
dark brown. Long hairs grow on the top of the head, along lower part of the
neck, hump and legs. The adult body weight varies from 450 to 550 kg. The
male animals are heavier than female.
YAK BREEDS
No breeds have been identified in Indian yaks. Indian yaks can be classified into distinct
types viz. Ladakhi, Himachal, Sikkim and Arunachal types. Wild yak (Bos mutus) is
found in Changthang valley of Ladakh.
According to the (Chinese) Provincial annals of livestock breeds, there are 12 officially
recognized breeds of domestic yak in China: the Jiulong yak and Maiwa yak in Sichuan,
Tianzhu White yak and Gannan yak in Gansu, Pali yak, Jiali ("Alpine") yak and Sibu yak
in Tibet, Huanhu yak and Plateau yak in Qinghai, Bazhou yak in Xinjiang and
Zhongdian yak in Yunnan, and one other, the "Long-hair-forehead yak" in Qinghai -
which does not, however, meet all the criteria used to define a yak breed. Among these,
the Plateau yak, Maiwa yak, Jiulong yak, Tianzhu White yak and Jiali ("Alpine") yak are
also included in the publication Bovine breeds in China.
Plateau yak of Qinghai
 This yak, now classified as a breed, is found on the cold highland pasture of
southern and northern Qinghai province where the wild yak distribution
overlapped with it, particularly in former times. Crossing between them is thus
assumed to have taken place. Its population numbers around three million.
The Plateau yak of Qinghai looks similar to the wild yak in body conformation.
Among domestic yak breeds it stands tall, has a relatively large body weight
and big head. Both sexes are horned. Similar to wild yak, it has greyish-white
hair, down its back and around the muzzle and eye sockets. It adapts well to
the cold and humid climate at high elevation.
Huanhu yak of Qinghai
 This breed is found in the transitional zone around the Qinghai Lake in
Qinghai province where the grasslands are predominantly semi-arid and
consist of meadow pasture and neighbouring areas consist of dry Gobi and
semi-Gobi pastures. It is believed that herds of this strain were domesticated
and transferred to this area by the Qiang people, the predecessors of the
present Tibetans, and by the Tufan people, beginning 10 000 years ago up
through their later migrations. Around 310 A.D., Mongolian immigrants used
Mongolian cattle to hybridize with the local yak to improve the relatively low
productivity of the animals. Accordingly, the Huanhu yak, numbering about
one million, contains some remnants of cattle blood from the time of its
origins, and this may account for some of its differences from the Plateau yak.
Compared to the Plateau yak, the Huanhu has a relatively smaller body size
and finer structure, a wedge-shaped head, a narrower and longer nose that is
mostly concave in the middle, a smaller but broad mouth, a thinner neck,
deeper chest, narrower buttock, longer legs and smaller, but strong solid feet
with a hard base to them. Most of the animals are hornless; those with horns
have a fine, long and slightly curved set of horns. The colours are varied, but
the majority is black-brown.
Tianzhu White yak of Gansu
 The Tianzhu White breed is found in Tianzhu county of Gansu province, which
is located in the eastern end of the Qilian mountains and the northern edge of
the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Because the white yak hair is easily dyed into
different colours, it has been highly valued in local markets. On account of this,
herdsmen who had migrated from Qinghai started to select and breed pure
white herds about 120 years ago. A more intensive breeding programme
started in 1981. Currently, there are around 60 000 of the white individuals.
The breed has a medium body size and fine structure, a well-developed
forepart but a less-developed rear part and strong but short legs. And there are
big differences in size between the two sexes. Compared to the females, the
males have larger heads with a wider forehead, longer and coarser horns with a
visible contour, a larger mouth and broader muzzle, thinner lips, smaller nose
and a coarser neck.
Gannan yak of Gansu
 Yak raising in the Gannan Tibetan autonomous prefecture of Gansu bordering
Sichuan and Qinghai, for long has been based on the same yak from the
Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Frequent exchange of breeding animals continues.
There are about 700 000 animals of this breed. It has a strong body
conformation and well-developed muscles, a relatively large skull, a short, wide
and slightly protruding forehead, a long and concave nose with externally
expanded muzzle, a square mouth with thin lips, horned (48 - 97 per cent) or
hornless, small ears, round eyes, a well-developed chest and belly and short,
strong legs with small feet. Black is the predominant colour. The males have
longer and coarser horns with wider distance between the bases and a stronger
neck than the females.
Pali yak of Tibet
 This breed is mainly found in Yadong county of Shigatse prefecture of the
Tibetan Autonomous Region, which borders Western Bhutan and India. It has
a strong and well-developed body conformation that is rectangular, a short
skull with a wide forehead, a big round mouth with thin lips, small eyes, broad
muzzle, small nose, a short, strong neck, a deep wide chest and large heart
girth, a large belly and short, strong legs with small solid feet. Most of the
animals have horns with wide bases. Black is the dominant body colour.
Sibu yak of Tibet
 This breed is found in Medrogungkar county (approximately 92°40'E;
29°120'N) in the South Eastern Lhasa municipality of Tibet. It has a large head
with externally expanded horns, a rectangular-shaped body conformation with
a straight back.
Jiali (Alpine) yak of Tibet
 This breed is found in the Jiali (Lhari in Tibetan) county of the Nakchu
prefecture of Tibet at the southern edge of the Nyenchen Thangla mountains.
It has a relatively large body shape with a deep and wide chest, and it is mostly
horned. Compared to the females, males have coarser and stronger horns with
a wide distance between the bases. Females have a thinner neck, straighter
back, a larger belly and shorter legs than the males.
Jiulong yak of Sichuan
 This breed belongs to the Jiulong county of Sichuan province, which is located
on the South Eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. It has a long history
of development, but today's herds are the descendants of a relatively small
population that survived a severe outbreak of rinderpest some 150 years ago.
The population now numbers around 50 000 animals. The Jiulong yak has a
large body height and body size, with a deep and wide chest and a medium-
sized head. The breed is horned. rales, compared to females, have a shorter
head but with a wider forehead and wider-based horns, bigger eyes, thinner
lips and well-developed teeth, a finer neck, straighter back and shorter legs.
Females have a relatively long neck. Black is the predominant colour.
Maiwa yak of Sichuan
 This breed numbering around 600 000 animals, belongs to Hongyuan county
of Sichuan province, which borders Gansu and Qinghai provinces The breed
originated from almost the same locality as the present-day Jiulong yak.
However, it was taken by a migratory tribe to its present habitat, passing
through southern Qinghai, in the 1910s. During that migration, matings
occurred with other domestic yak on route and with wild yak when it first
settled in Hongyuan, when wild yak were still known to come down from
Qinghai. The resulting infusions of genes are thought to have improved the
original type. The better pasture and ecological environment of the new habitat
assisted its development. It has a medium-sized head and a wide flat forehead,
straight back, a well-developed belly, a long body with short legs and small
solid feet. Most of the animals are horned. Black accounts for 64.2 percent of
the population's colouring.
Bazhou yak of Xinjiang
 This breed is found mainly in Hejing county in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region. Their presence dates to 1890 when around 60 animals were brought
from Tibet another 176 animals were introduced in 1920. In the late 1980s,
some breeding bulls were purchased from the Datong Yak Farm in Qinghai to
refresh the blood. There are now about 70 000 Bazhou yak. This breed has a
large rectangular body, a heavy head, a short and wide forehead, big round
eyes, small ears, a broad muzzle and thin lips, a wide chest, large belly and
strong legs with small, solid feet. The majority (77.3 percent) have fine, long
horns. Black is the main colour, but some are black and white, brown or grey
and white.
Zhongdian yak of Yunnan
 This breed is found in the Zhongdian and Deqin counties in the very northern
part of Yunnan province, at the southern end of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau
where it borders Tibet and Sichuan. In general, the Zhongdian yak has had
frequent exchanges of blood with yak in Sichuan. There are about 20 000
animals of this breed. It has a strong body conformation, large round eyes,
small ears, a wide forehead, a deep chest, straight back, well-developed legs
with large feet and a short tail. Both sexes have horns. There is relatively large
variation in body size. The majority of the animals are black (62.4 percent), a
black-and-white colouring is found among 27.5 percent of them, while the rest
are black with white-spots on the forehead, legs and tail.
A new strain of Datong yak in Qinghai
 This is the only improved yak population developed deliberately by crossing
wild yak bulls with domestic yak females with the intention of creating a new
breed of yak. The development is taking place on the Datong Yak Farm in
Qinghai. For this purpose, one wild yak bull captured in the Kunlun mountains
and two in the Qilian mountains (with an altitude of more than 5 000 m) were
taken to Datong Yak Farm and trained for semen collection between 1983 and
1986.
MITHUN
 Mithun (Bos frontalis), the domesticated free-range bovine species, is an
important component of the livestock production system of North-Eastern
hilly region of India. This unique bovine species is believed to be domesticted
more than 8000 years ago. Mithun is primarily reared as meat animal and
highly preferred among the tribal people of North-Eastern region of India.
Mithun is also used as a ceremonial animal and plays important role in
economical, social and cultural life of the tribal people of North-East. Besides,
it is now established that superior quality milk and hide can be obtained from
mithun. National Research Centre on Mithun was established by ICAR in the
year 1988 in the state of Nagaland to conserve, propagate and improve this
species for future use.
 There are three distinct types of mithuns viz. Nagami, Zosial and Arunachali.
Nagami mithuns are mostly found in the Zunheboto district of Nagaland and
the Ukhrul district of Manipur; Zosial are found in Mizoram and Arunachali in
Arunachal Pradesh. Mithun is used primarily as a sacrificial animal and
regarded as social status symbol. Wild Gaur (Bos Gaurus) is present in wild life
sanctuaries.
A
Accuracy
A measure of the strength of the relationship between true values and estimates of them, varying
from 0 to 1. Breeding values of animals, for example, are estimated from phenotypic records, and
there is sometimes very little information (for example a parent's performance record) available
and thus the accuracy is low, e.g. 10 Breeding values of some dairy sires are estimated with high
accuracy, e.g. 99 because there is substantial information (thousands of daughters with
performance records) on the "performance" of that sire's genes.
Adaptation
The adjustment of an animal to changing environmental conditions.
Additive genetic correlation (rBVx, BVy)
The measure of association between the breeding value for one trait (BVx) and the breeding value
for another trait (BVy), ranging from -1 to +1. The genetic basis for an additive genetic correlation
between two traits is pleiotropy and linkage. The additive genetic correlation between birth weight
and weaning weight of beef cattle is about +.6. See Pleiotropy and Linkage.
Additive genetic effects
The effect of an allele on animal performance, independent of the effect of the other allele at a
locus. These effects of the two alleles at a locus add up (thus "additive"). Alleles at a locus may
have other effects (dominance, epistasis), so that there are not genes that have just "additive"
effects and other genes with only "dominance" effects. Additive genetic effects can be inherited,
other genetic effects such as dominance and epistasis are the result of allele combinations that are
lost between generations. The additive genetic effect that an animal has for a trait is equal to its
breeding value.
Additive genetic variance
A measure of the variability among animals in their breeding values, e.g the additive genetic
variance for weaning weight of beef cattle is 190 kg2
Allele
Alternative form of a gene occupying the same locus on a chromosome. A member of a pair, or
series of hereditary factors which may occupy a given locus on a specific chromosome, e.g. the
allele for white face coat pattern in Herefords, and the allele for solid colour, are two alleles for
coat pattern in cattle.
Allozymes
:
Enzymes differing in electrophoretic mobility as a result of allelic differences in a single gene. As
with other markers (e.g. microsatellites) allozyme variation in a population is an indication of
genetic variation.
Artificial insemination (A.I.)
The use of semen collected from males, either in fresh or frozen form, to breed females (frozen
semen is thawed before use!). A.I. is commonly used in dairy cattle and is less commonly used with
beef cattle. It is also used increasingly in swine.
Artificial selection
Is the selection by man and not by nature. Selection of animals to become parents of the next
generation using criteria that are defined by humans. See also Natural selection.
Assortative mating
Mating between individuals that look or perform alike.
Atavism
The reappearance of a character after it has not appeared for one or more generations. (A
throwback).
Autosomes
:
Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes, Chromosome pairs which are alike in both sexes.
Backcrossing
Cross between an F1 and either of its parents, Mating a hybrid to a breed that the hybrid is already
composed of, e.g. breeding a Jersey crossbred cow with Pure Jersey bull.
Breed
A group of animals within a species having a common origin and identifying characters that
distinguish them as belonging to a breeding group.
Breed complementarity
Breeds complement one another when they excel in different traits, and their cross results in
desired performance in a variety of traits, sometimes expressed in different generations. In
livestock used for meat production, for example, breeds that excel in growth and carcass traits are
often used as the male parent breed in a crossbreeding program with a female parent breed that
excels in maternal traits and reproduction.
Breeder
Owner of the dam at the time of service.


Breeding objective
A general goal for a breeding program, a notion of what constitutes the best animal. See also
Selection criterion.
Breeding value
The value of an individual as a parent. The effects of an animal's genes that can be passed on to
offspring. Because one-half of an animal's genes are passed to offspring, one-half of an animal's
breeding value is also passed on (see Transmitting ability). Breeding value can be determined for a
genotype at a single locus, but it is also calculated for polygenic, quantitative traits (i.e. most
economically important traits). Breeding values are available for breeding stock of many of our
agricultural species of animals, and are used to make selection decisions. Breeding values are
reported in units of trait measurement and are often expressed as deviations from the current
population average. A dairy bull may have an Estimated Breeding Value (EBV) for milk production
of +1000 kg and is expected to have daughters which have the genetic capability to produce 500 kg
more milk in a lactation than the current population average.
Categorical variables
Variables which take on discrete values only. An example is calving ease in cattle where the ease of
calving is recorded as Unassisted, Easy pull, Hard pull and Surgical. Though occurring in discrete
categories the underlying genetic control may be polygenic, as is the case for calving ease; or
controlled by a single locus, as is the case for a trait such as horns and polledness.
Chi-square
:
A statistical test of goodness of fit of experimental data to expectation. Used in genetics to

determine if an observed distribution of phenotypes conform to theoretical expectation, or to
chance.
Chromosome
One of a number of long strands of DNA and associated proteins present in the nucleus of every
cell. The nomenclature used for most species is numeric, with chromosome number 1 being
visually the largest chromosome, e.g. swine have 19 pairs of chromosomes with 18 pairs of
autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. The gene for Porcine stress syndrome has been
mapped to chromosome #6 (Grimm et al. 1994). See autosomes and sex chromosomes.
Clones or clonal line
A group of genetically identical individuals.
Coefficient of variation
The phenotypic standard deviation of a trait expressed as a percent of the mean, used to assess
the relative variability of a trait, e.g. the coefficient of variation for growth rate from 200 to 365
days of age in cattle is about 10%; the coefficient of variation of litter size in swine is about 20%.
Collateral
A related individual from a common ancestor.


Common ancestor
An ancestor that appears on both sire and dam’s side of the pedigree
Common environment
Environment in which all the animals in a population are maintained.
Composite (synthetic breed)
A breed made up of two or more component breeds and designed to benefit from hybrid vigour
without crossing with other breeds.
Conformation
Visual or measurable variation in shape or body proportions of animals. Sometimes assessed with
a subjective scoring system as in type scores for dairy cattle.
Conservation
Maintenance of livestock to retain adequate numbers for further breeding and to prevent decline
in numbers or extinction.

Contemporary group
A group of animals that experience a similar environment with respect to the expression of a trait.
Contemporaries express their performance in the same location and time, are of the same sex and
similar age, and are managed alike. An example of a contemporary group is the group of bulls of
the same breed at a bull test station in the province, tested in the 1997-98 test year.
Continuous variables
Variables which vary continuously, e.g. animal weight, or milk production. See Normal distribution.
Correlation (rxy )
A measure of the degree of association between two variables (x and y), varying between -1 and
+1. A correlation of 0 means there is no association. In animal genetics one correlation of interest
is the correlation between phenotypes for two traits expressed by animals, i.e. the phenotypic
correlation. The phenotypic correlation between protein production and fat production in milk of
dairy cows is about +.8. See also additive genetic correlation, environmental correlation and
phenotypic correlation.
Covariance
The covariance between x and y, sometimes written as Cov(x,y). It is a measure of how two
variables vary together. The covariance is used to calculate correlation and regression coefficients.
Crossbreeding
:
Mating systems in which two or more breeds are combined, usually in a systematic fashion to
make use of heterosis and breed complementarity, e.g. three-breed terminal crossbreeding
systems are common in beef cattle and in swine production.
Crossing over
A reciprocal exchange of DNA segments between members of a pair of chromosomes
Culling
Removal of parent animals from the breeding herd.
Dam
The mother of an individual
Deleterious alleles
Genes which in their homozygous state (and sometimes in their heterozygous state as well) have
undesirable effects on the individual's viability or usefulness.
Diploid
:
Organisms or cells which have two members of each type of chromosome. All higher animals are
diploid (the 2n condition). There is a variety of "ploidy" conditions in plants and in lower animals --
some are haploid (one copy of each chromosome) while others may have more than two members
of each chromosome type, e.g. tetraploids have four chromosomes of each type (4n).
Direct genetic effects
The effect of an individual's genes on its performance. This term is used when referring to traits
that have both direct genetic effects and maternal effects on the expression of the trait, e.g. birth
weight of mammals has a direct component (due to growth capacity of the youngster) and a
maternal component (due to the uterine environment provided by the mother).
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that forms the genetic code.
Dominance
Dominance is the gene that masks the expression of the other. An interaction between alleles at a
single locus so that in heterozygous animals the effect of one allele is greater than the other. The
allele with the greater effect is considered to be dominant over the other allele. See Partial
dominance and Overdominance.
Dominance genetic effects
:
The effect that an allele has on animal performance which depends upon the genotype at the
locus. For example the "a" allele may have a different effect on animal performance in "aa"
animals than in "Aa" animals. See Additive genetic effects.
Dominance genetic variation
Variability among animals due to the dominance genetic effects of their genes.
Effective population size (Ne)
The size of a population as reflected in its rate of inbreeding. This can be quite different from the
actual population size, particularly when the number of male parents or female parents is low in
each generation (as in the case of some agricultural animals where artificial insemination is
common and the number of male parents is very small).
Environmental correlation (rExEy)
A measure of the strength of the relationship between environmental effects on one trait (Ex) and
environmental effects on another trait (Ey), e.g. the environmental correlation between fat
production and protein production by dairy cows is .9, indicating that many of the same
environmental factors (nutrition, etc.) influence both traits.
Environmental effect (E)
The effect of external, non-genetic factors on an animal's performance. There are a number of
types of environmental effects, for example, permanent, temporary, systematic and contemporary
group.
Environmental variance
Variance among animals due to differences in animals in their environmental effects. Depending
on the trait there may be environmental variances due to a various causes -- permanent,
temporary, etc.
Epistatic genetic variation
Variation in animal performance as a result of epistatic genetic effects.
Estimated Breeding Value (EBV)
An estimate of an animal's breeding value, using information on the animal's own performance,
and often the performance of relatives, primarily progeny. EBV's are usually less than perfect in
accuracy (see Accuracy), except for a number of dairy sires whose EBV's have an accuracy of .99
(nearly perfect), because they have thousands of daughters whose performance records are used
to calculate the sire's EBV.
Expected Progeny Difference (EPD)
A term used primarily by the beef cattle industry to describe transmitting ability or one-half of an
animal's breeding value for a trait. A beef sire may have an EPD of -2 pounds (most beef data is
reported using the imperial system) for birth weight indicating that its calves are expected to be 2
pounds lighter than the genetic average at birth. See this Canadian Web site for a listing of EPD's
for beef sires. (Choose "Beef Sires") EPD's for American beef cattle use a "zero" based on historical
base populations so require care in interpretation
F1
The first generation (First filial generation) of crosses between two unrelated populations.
F2
The offspring of mating F1 individuals among themselves.
Fitness
The ability of an individual (and its corresponding genotype and phenotype) to contribute offspring
to the next generation. Refers to the ability to survive (or to be selected as a parent) as well as the
number of offspring.
Fixation
The point at which the frequency of a particular allele becomes 1.
Flock
:
Group of birds or sheep
Gamete
A sex cell, an egg or sperm cell.
Gene
The basic physical unit of heredity consisting of a DNA sequence at a specific location on a
chromosome. The product of the gene is usually a polypeptide of some form involved with
structural or regulatory activities in cells.
Gene frequency or allele frequency
The relative frequency of a particular allele in a population.
Gene map (or linkage map or chromosome map)
A diagram showing the chromosomal location of specific genetic markers and genes of interest.
Generation length (L)
:
The amount of time required to replace one generation with the next. In some populations
generations occur at discrete intervals of time, e.g. the annual weeds in my garden go through one
generation each year. In most farm animal populations the generations overlap so that parents
may coexist in the same herd with their offspring who are also parents. Another definition is "the
average age of parents when the offspring which will replace them are born". Generation lengths
are typically 4-6 years in beef cattle as an example. Generation lengths are often different for
males and females.
Genetic correlation
See Additive genetic correlation.
Genetic marker
A gene or DNA fragment used to identify alleles at linked loci. See also Allozymes, Haplotypes and
Microsatellites.
Genome
The total genetic composition of an individual inherited with chromosomes. A haploid set of
chromosomes with the genes they carry.
Genotype
This can be used in two different ways: First, it may be used to indicate the total genetic make-up
of an individual. OR Second, it may refer to the combinations of alleles present at one, or a few loci
in an individual.

Genotype by environment (G x E) interaction
The situation where the performance of genotypes changes from environment to environment.
The most serious G x E interaction to concern animal breeders is where the change in the
performance of a set of genotypes is such that they change in rank from one environment to
another, e.g. the best performing genotype in environment 1 is the poorest performing genotype
in environment 2.
Genotypic value (G)
The total effect of an animal's genes (additive, dominance and epistasis) on its performance for a
trait.
Germ plasm
Genetic material in the form of live animals, semen, ova or embryos
Grade
An animal that is not a purebred but commonly showing characteristics of a particular breed.
Grading up
The continued use of purebred males on grade females


Half sib
Half brothers or half sisters.
Half-bred
F1 cross between two parent breeds.
Haplotype
A set of alleles at a closely linked group of loci, so closely linked that the allelic set behave almost
as one allele in terms of inheritance. The Rh blood group system in humans, for example has three
tightly-linked loci, C, D, and E, with two or more alleles (C, c, etc.) at each locus; common
haplotypes are CDe, cde and cDE. The CDE and cdE haplotypes are rare. Individuals with a
genotype, CDE/cdE, are thus very uncommon. Individuals who are cde/cde are the commonest Rh
negative genotype.
Herd Book
Official record book to record the various breeds of cattle and hogs.
Herdmates
:
Individuals within the same herd that do not have the same sire, but their records are made under
similar environmental conditions and at approximately at the same time.
Heredity
The transmission of genetic or physical traits from parents to their offspring.
Heritability (h2)
Two definitions; narrow and broad sense.
The narrow sense definition of h2 is the most commonly used with agricultural animals: A measure
of the strength of the relationship between performance (phenotype), and breeding values for a
trait in a population, ranging from 0 to 1. This is often measured as the ratio of additive genetic
variance to phenotypic variance, or as twice the regression coefficient relating offspring
performance to parent performance. The heritability of milk production in dairy cattle is about .25
or so.
The broad sense definition of h2 is as follows: the proportion of phenotypic variation that is of
genotypic origin (i.e. due to all genetic effects, i.e. additive, dominance and epistatic effects).
Heterosis or hybrid vigour
The difference in performance of crossbred animals relative to the average performance of the
parental breeds. The genetic basis for hybrid vigour is heterozygosity, and the dominance effects
associated with heterozygous loci; hybrid animals have more heterozygous loci than their
purebred parents. Heterosis is often reported as a percentage, e.g. heterosis for growth traits
seldom exceeds 5%, indicating that the crossbred group will exceed the average performance of
the parental breeds by 5%.

Heterozygote or heterozygous genotype
Considering one locus, an animal that has functionally different alleles at the locus. Hybrid animals
tend to have a higher proportion of their loci in a heterozygous condition than their purebred
parents.
Homozygote or homozygous genotype
Considering one locus, an animal that has functionally identical alleles at the locus. Inbred animals
tend to have a higher proportion of their loci in a homozygous condition than non-inbred animals.
Inbreeding
A mating system or process in which related parents are mated to produce offspring.
Inbreeding coefficient (Fx)
A measure of the level of inbreeding in an individual, x: 1. The probable proportion of an

individual's loci that contain alleles that are identical by descent (originated in the same ancestor),
and thus in the homozygous state. Used in this sense the inbreeding coefficient is not an absolute
measure of homozygosity, but will be relative to the base group of animals used in calculation of
the coefficient. 2. The probability that both alleles at a locus are identical by descent.
Inbreeding depression
:
The reverse of hybrid vigour -- a decrease in the performance of inbreds, most noticeably in traits
like fertility. The genetic basis for this is the increased homozygosity of such individuals, and the
resultant loss in dominance effects, and possibly the expression of deleterious recessive alleles in
their homozygous state.
Independent culling levels
In selecting animals for a number of traits, minimum standards are set for each trait. Selected
animals must have trait levels above all minimums. This is not as effective as using a selection
index of multiple traits for selecton.
Index
A computed assessment of an animal’s genetic value based on a number of traits.
Indicator trait
A trait that may not be of importance in itself, but is used in selection to improve some genetically
correlated trait which may be much more difficult, or expensive to measure, e.g. type or
conformation traits in dairy cattle are used as indicators of longevity.
Karyotype
The chromosomal constitution of an individual, arranged based on centromere position and length
of the chromosomes.

Key equation
The equation relating the rate of genetic change resulting from selection to four factors: Accuracy
of selection, selection intensity, genetic variation and generation length.
Lethal gene
The gene that causes death of an individual that possesses it.
Line
A group of related animals within a breed.
Line breeding
The mating of individuals within a particular line; a mating system designed to maintain a high
degree of relationship to a highly regarded ancestor without causing high levels of inbreeding.
Linecross
An offspring produced by crossing two or more inbred lines.

Linkage
The occurance of two or more loci of interest on the same chromosome. Linkage is a very
important consideration in the use of genetic markers in selection programs. A genetic marker
must be fairly tightly linked to a locus that affects a trait, or the pairing of the marker allele at the
linked locus and the desired allele at the locus of interest will be lost quickly (in a few generations).
Linkage can be a reason for a spurious genetic correlation between traits, which disappears when
linkage groups break up through recombination.
Livestock Registry Association
Organisation that has been formed for the purpose of keeping a record of ancestry of individuals
within a breed and to promote the breed.
Locus
The specific location of a gene on a chromosome.
Major gene
A gene that has a major influence upon a trait. There are several instances of this discovered so far
for economically important traits in farm animals. See, for example, the paper by Rothschild et al.
(1994) where a major gene affecting litter size in pigs (the Estrogen Receptor gene (ESR)).
Marker assisted selection

:
Selection for specific alleles (which affect a trait of interest) using genetic markers.
Maternal effects
The effect of a dam of an individual on its performance through the dam's provision of an
environment in which the offspring performs. This is a very important component in the early
growth of mammalian species because of the early dependence of the offspring on its mother for
nutrition, among other things. There are also genetic and environmental determinants of maternal
ability, e.g. milk production by beef cows is a component of the maternal enviroment provided to
the calf; milk production is affected by the cow's genes as well as the environment in which she
lives. Even non-mammalian species may have important maternal effects. In poultry, the size of
the egg (which is determined by the hen) plays a role in the early growth and survival of the chick.
Mean
An arithmetic average which can be calculated from continuous variables by dividing the sum for a
set of data by the number of observations. For categorical data where the categories have numeric
values, the mean can be easily calculated by taking a weighted average of the categories
(weighting each category's value by the number of observations in the category).
Meiosis
One of the steps in sex cell formation in which the nucleus divides, leaving one copy of each
chromosome in each sex cell.
Mendelian sampling
:
The random sampling of parental genes caused by segregation and independent assortment of
alleles during germ cell formation.
Microsatellite
DNA or genetic markers of a specialized nature where the DNA sequence is highly repetitive. A
sequence repeats of a very simple sequence such as AG may exist as AGAGAGAGAGAG, etc.; or a
three-nucleotide series such as AAG as AAGAAGAAGAAGAAGAAG, and so on. These are called
satellite DNA because of how the DNA appears in a density gradient while being analyzed.
Microsatellites are widely used as markers in agricultural animals. One of the advantages of
microsatellites is that at a given locus they will be highly polymorphic, with many alleles (more
than 10 in some cases); they are thus useful in assessing genetic diversity of livestock.
Migration
The movement of individuals into or out of a population. One of the forces responsible for change
in gene frequency.
Mongrel
A crossbred that is unacceptable or unplanned.
Most Probable Producing Ability (MPPA)
A prediction of producing ability. See Producing ability.


Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET)
Production of multiple eggs by a female (usually in cattle), as a result of hormonal injection,

followed by transfer of eggs into recipient females. This process is part of a technique to increase
the rate of genetic change in populations
Mutation
The ultimate source of genetic variation. In a general sense it could include all genetic changes,
including visible chromosomal abnormalities (inversions, translocations), polyploidy (multiple sets
of chromosomes), and changes in DNA at the molecular level. In a restricted sense mutation refers
to changes in DNA at the molecular level. This is a force which is responsible for change in gene
frequency, though the mutation rate is very low. The mutation rate in polypeptides in humans has
been estimated to be of the order of 10-6, i.e. one in 1,000,000. At the DNA level the mutation rate
would be about 10-8 changes per nucleotide per generation. If the haploid genome in man
contains 3 x 109 nucleotides, this implies that there are about 30 new nucleotide mutations per
human gamete (Hartl and Clarke 1989).
Natural selection
Selection that occurs in nature independent of human control.
Natural service
Natural mating

Nicking
The production of progenies that are superior to the parents who produce them.
Normal distribution
The distribution of observations that appears graphically as a bell-shaped curve. The horizontal axis
represents the level of performance of animals, or their breeding values, etc., and the height of the
curve represents the relative frequency of observations. What this means is that for a normal
distribution, we expect most observations to cluster near the mean and extreme values far away
from the mean are rare (compare this to the case of a uniform distribution, where the
observations are equally likely over the relevant range, e.g. in a wheel of fortune, all positions are
equally likely). Most continuous variables that we measure on animals are normally-distributed.
Offspring
The young of both sexes produced by parents.
Outbreeding
The mating of unrelated individuals.
Outcross
:
Mating of individuals within a particular breed that are not closely related.
Overdominance
A form of dominance where the performance of the heterozygote exceeds that of the best
homozygote.
Parthenogenesis
Production of an individual from an unfertilised egg.
Partial dominance
A form of dominance where the performance of the heterozygote is intermediate between the
two homozygotes, but more closely resembles the performance of the homozygous dominant
type.
Pedigree
A list of names or numbers of ancestors of an animal or Registration certificate
Performance test
:
Method of evaluating an individual based on its own performance.
Permanent environmental effect (Ep)
An environmental effect unique to each animal which permanently affects the expression of a
repeated trait.
Phenotype
The observed appearance or performance of an individual for a trait.
Phenotypic correlation (rPx,Py)
A measure of the association between performance in one trait (Px) and performance in another
trait (Py). See also Correlation, Additive genetic correlation and Environmental correlation.
Phenotypic selection
Selection based on phenotypes of individuals.
Phenotypic selection differential (S)
:
The difference between the average performance of individuals selected to be parents and the
average performance of all potential parents, expressed in units of the trait.
Phenotypic value (P)
A performance record; a measure of an animal's performance for a trait.
Phenotypic variance
The variance of individual performance for a trait in a population, e.g. the phenotypic variance of
weaning weight in beef cattle is about 625 kg2 .
Plateau
Level reached after a period of selection when no further progress is apparent.
Pleiotropy
Where a gene or genes affect more than one trait. This is the basis for the genetic correlation
between traits.
Polled
:
Without horns.
Polygenic trait
A trait affected by many genes, with no one gene having a large influence.
Polymorphic
Where DNA or genes have at least two forms or alleles in the population.
Population
A group of intermating individuals. This term can be used to refer to all animals in a breed, an
entire species or even a single herd or flock.
Population genetics
The study of factors affecting gene and genotype frequencies in a population.
Prepotent
The ability of the parent to stamp its characteristics on their offspring so that they resemble that
parent.

Producing ability (PA)
The performance potential of an individual for a repeated trait. PA includes the effects of the
animal's genotype, as well as the animal's permanent environmental effect. See Most Probable
Producing Ability.
Progeny
Offspring.
Progeny test
Records on a number of progeny of an individual are used to estimate the breeding value of an
individual.
Punnett square
A two-dimensional square used to determine the possible zygotes from a mating.
Qualitative trait
A trait in which the phenotypes show discontinuous expression, e.g. presence or absence of horns;
red or black coat colour.
Quantitative trait
A trait in which the phenotypes show continuous (numerical) expression. See Continuous
variables.
Quantitative trait locus (QTL)
A locus that affects a quantitative trait.
Random mating
A system of mating in which mates are chosen at random.
Recessive
A gene whose phenotypic expression is masked by its own dominant allele.
Recombination
The formation of a new combination of alleles at linked loci as a result of crossing over.

Recombination loss
A loss in epistatic effects as a result of breaking up of the linked loci in advanced generations in
interbreeding hybrids (i.e. F2, F3, etc.).
Regression or Regression coefficient (by.x)
The average change in one variable, y, per unit change in another variable, x.
Relationship coefficient
The probable proportion of one individual's genes that are identical by descent to genes of a
second individual.
Repeatability (r)
There are at least two usages for this term that are quite different so be careful that you know how
it is being used. 1. A measure of the strength of association between repeated records
(phenotypes)of an animal, ranging from 0 to 1. The basis for this association is that each record
that is expressed by an animal will have the same genotypic effects and permanent environmental
effects; this makes them similar. Repeated records will not be identical, however, because of
temporary environmental effects and herd environmental effects which will be different for each
expression of the trait by an animal. Repeatability is used in various formulae, including formulae
to estimate Producing Ability and formulae to estimate Breeding Values. The repeatability of milk
production is about .50 or so. 2. It is used to refer to the accuracy of EBV's or EPD's in publications
of dairy sire genetic merit.

Repeated trait
A trait which can be expressed repeatedly by an animal throughout its life, e.g. milk production in a
lactation expressed by dairy cattle.
Replacement rate
The rate at which newly selected individuals replace existing parents in a population. This can be
between .1 and .2 for females in beef cattle herds
Response to selection
The rate of change in the mean breeding value of the population caused by selection.
Retained heterosis
Hybrid vigour remaining in later generations of hybrids (F2, F3, etc.). Retained hybrid vigour is
commonly expressed as a proportion of the F1 (maximum) hybrid vigour. This is important in the
development of composite breeds.
Seedstock
Breeding stock.

Segregation
The separation of paired alleles at loci during germ cell formation.
Selection
The process which determines which individuals become parents, how many offspring they
produce, and how long they remain in the breeding population.
Selection criterion
An EBV, EPD, phenotypic value, selection index, or other piece of information forming the basis for
selection decisions.
Selection differential
The difference between the average selection criterion of those individuals selected to be parents
and the average selection criterion of all potential parents, expressed in units of the selection
criterion.
Selection index
A linear combination of phenotypic information and weighting factors used for genetic prediction.

Selection intensity ( i )
The selection differential expressed in standard deviation units
Show ring
Refers to the place of exhibiting animals on a competitive basis.
Sib
Brother or sister of an individual.
Sire
Male parent
Skewed
A distribution that is distorted and has only one tail.
Standard deviation
:
The square root of variance, and just like variance, gives a measure of population diversity. It is
expressed in the same units as the trait is measured in.
Temporary environmental effect (Et)
An environmental effect that influences a single performance record of an animal but does not
permanently influence the animal's performance potential for the repeated trait.
Test cross
A mating designed to reveal the genotype of an individual for a locus or a small number of loci.
Throughbred
The name of an English breed of racing horse.
Trait
Any observable or measurable characteristic of an animal.
Transgenic
:
An individual that has received genetic material by gene transfer.
Transmitting ability
One-half of an animal's breeding value.
True value
An unknown underlying attribute which affects animal performance, e.g. breeding value,
dominance genetic effect, epistatic genetic effect, permanent environmental effect, temporary
environmental effect, etc. We are interested in estimating some of these for the animals that are
candidates for selection (such as breeding value and producing ability).
Truncation selection
Selection of animals, where animals above a given level in the selection criterion are selected and
those below it are rejected.
Variable
Any quantity that can take on different numerical values. See Continuous variables and Categorical
variables.

Variance
It is the statistical terminology that indicates the amount of variation within population A measure
of variation in a population. See phenotypic variance and Additive genetic variance.
Zygote
A cell formed from the union of male and female gametes, thus having the full complement of
genes, half from the female parent, half from the male parent
QUESTION BANK
Define/ Explain the following
1. Animal Breeding
2. Positive assortative mating
3. Negative assortative mating
4. Tupping percentage
5. Inbreeding coefficient
6. Relationship coefficient
7. Back crossing
8. Inbreeding depression
9. Pedigree
10. Prepotency
11. Genetic gain
12. Heterosis
13. Selection differential
14. Realised heritability
15. ONBS
16. CNBS
17. Sire Index
18. Selection Index
19. Selection
20. Mating
21. Breeding
22. Sire
23. Dam
24. Progeny
25. F1 Generation
26. Arrow diagram
27. Trait
28. Hybrid vigour
29. Common ancestor
30. Offspring
31. Average Daily weight Gain
32. Breeding value
33. Full sib
34. Truncation
35. Selection
36. Generation interval
37. Animal Breeding
38. Contemporaries
39. Line breeding
Write Short Notes
1. History of Animal Breeding
2. Domestication of livestock
3. Disadvantages in cross breeding program
4. Line breeding
5. Effects and uses of cross breeding
6. Prepotency
7. Performance records
8. Genetic gain
9. Inbreeding
10. Classification of cattle breeds of India
11. Exotic cattle breeds used for cross breeding program in India
12. Buffalo breeds of India
13. Short notes on Yak
14. Short notes on Mithun
15. Classification of poultry breeds
16. Short notes on Tandem method of selection
17. Short notes on Natural selection
18. Pedigree selection
19. Progeny testing
20. Family selection
21. Selection Index
22. Inbreeding depression
23. Heterosis
24. Open Nucleus Breeding System (ONBS)
25. Classification of breeding system
26. Method of conservation of germplasm
27. Strain breeding
28. Genotypic and Phenotypic effect of Inbreeding
29. Three way rotational cross
30. Grading up
31. Species Hybridization
32. Robert Bakewel
33. Selection limit
34. Tandem method of selection
35. Survival of fittest
36. Selection index.
37. Individual Selection
38. BLUP
39. Dairy Search Index
40. Accuracy of selection
41. Independent culling method
42. Krishnan’s index
Write Essay
1. Define heterosis. List out theories connected with heterosis. Discuss the advantage of
heterosis and breeding plans to exploit heterosis.
2. What do you understand by Nucleus Breeding Scheme? Discuss different types of
breeding schemes and its application in animal improvement.
3. What is inbreeding? List out the effects of inbreeding. Discuss about the usefulness of
4. inbreeding in animal breeding.
5. Classify mating system and explain different types of Assortative mating.
6. Explain the different types of cross breeding and its application in animal breeding.
7. Classification of cattle breeds in India, explain about the milch breeds in India
8. Buffalo breeds in India and its importance in milk production
9. Economic traits of cattle and buffalo
10. Economic traits in sheep and goat
11. Economic traits in pig
12. Economic traits in poultry
13. Explain selection and Methods of selection
14. Selection for combining abilities
15. Explain about Sire evaluation and its importance
16. Progeny testing scheme and its advantages and disadvantages
17. Explain about Outbreeding, different methods and its uses.
18. Measurement of inbreeding coefficient and relationship coefficient
19. Breeding methods for improvement of cattle
20. Breeding methods for improvement of buffalo
21. Breeding methods for improvement of sheep
22. Breeding methods for improvement of goat
23. Breeding methods for improvement of swine
24. Breeding methods for improvement of poultry
25. Conservation of germplasm
26. Current livestock breeding policy of India and different states.
27. Write in detail about various methods to estimate the sire index.

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AGB 211 2nd yr 1st sem

MODULE-1: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL BREEDING AND

HISTORY OF ANIMAL BREEDING

LANDMARKS IN ANIMAL BREEDING

Taxonomic classification of Sheep Taxonomic classification of Goat

Taxonomic classification of Taxonomic classification of

Taxonomic classification of Fowl Taxonomic classification of

Taxonomic classification of Taxonomic classification of

Taxonoic classification of rabbit and camel

Taxonomic classification of Taxonomic classification of

ECONOMIC TRAIT OF LIVESTOCK FOR MILK (QUALITY)

ECONOMIC TRAITS OF BUFFALO FOR MEAT/ CARCASS

MODULE-7: ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SHEEP AND GOAT AND

SHEEP PRODUCTION IN INDIA

ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SWINE

SELECTION BASED ON PROGENY TESTING

Mating system based on genetic relationship is divided into

 Common ancestor n1 n2 contribution

 Common ancestor n1 n2 contribution

MODULE-20: OUTBREEDING, GENETIC AND PHENOTYPIC

MODULE-21: CROSS BREEDING - METHODS OF CROSS

Systematic cross breeding

 Criss crossing (Reciprocal back crossing)

 Three way rotational crossing maintain a high degree of heterozygosity. For

 The F1 hybrid generation, phenotypic variability is generally much less than

Contribution of AaBb results in an interaction such that the presence of both A

REGRESSION INDEX OR RICE INDEX

MODULE-25: FIELD PROGENY TESTING

MODULE-26: SELECTION FOR COMBINING ABILITY

SELECTION AND BREEDING

MODULE-32: BREEDING METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF

STATUS OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES (AnGR) IN INDIA

Assam and other North-estern region

MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF GOAT

MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SWINE

MEASUREMENT OF ECONOMIC TRAITS OF POULTRY

EXERCISE-6: BREEDS OF HORSE AND ASS

The adjustment of an animal to changing environmental conditions.

Additive genetic correlation (rBVx, BVy)

Additive genetic effects

Additive genetic variance

Artificial insemination (A.I.)

Mating between individuals that look or perform alike.

Owner of the dam at the time of service.

A statistical test of goodness of fit of experimental data to expectation. Used in genetics to

Clones or clonal line

A group of genetically identical individuals.

A related individual from a common ancestor.

Environment in which all the animals in a population are maintained.

Composite (synthetic breed)

A reciprocal exchange of DNA segments between members of a pair of chromosomes

Removal of parent animals from the breeding herd.

The mother of an individual

Direct genetic effects

Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that forms the genetic code.

Dominance genetic effects

Dominance genetic variation

Effective population size (Ne)

Environmental correlation (rExEy)