Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

Chapter 7
COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL
REVIEW QUESTIONS
7.1 What is numerical control?
Answer: As defined in the text, numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable
automation in which the mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are
controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric data.
7.2 What are the three basic components of an NC system?
Answer: The three components are (1) part program of instructions, (2) machine control
unit, and (3) processing equipment (e.g., machine tool) that accomplishes the operation.
7.3 What is the right-hand rule in NC and where is it used?
Answer: The right-hand rule is used to distinguish positive and negative directions for the
rotational axes in NC. Using the right hand with the thumb pointing in the positive linear
axis direction (+x, +y, or +z), the fingers of the hand are curled in the positive rotational
direction for the a, b, and c axes.
7.4 What is the difference between point-to-point and continuous path control in a motion
control system?
Answer: Point-to-point systems move the worktable to a programmed location without
regard for the path taken to get to that location. By contrast, continuous path systems are
capable of continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes, thus providing control of
the tool trajectory relative to the workpart.
7.5 What is linear interpolation, and why is it important in NC?
Answer: Linear interpolation is the capability to machine along a straight-line trajectory that
may not be parallel to one of the worktable axes. It is important in NC because many
workpiece geometries require cuts to be made along straight lines to form straight edges and
flat surfaces, and the angles of the lines are not parallel to one of the axes in the coordinate
system.
7.6 What is the difference between absolute positioning and incremental positioning?
Answer: In absolute positioning, the workhead locations are always defined with respect to
the origin of the NC axis system. In incremental positioning, the next workhead position is
defined relative to the present location.
7.7 How is computer numerical control (CNC) distinguished from conventional NC?
Answer: CNC is an NC system whose machine control unit is a dedicated microcomputer
rather than a hard-wired controller, as in conventional NC.
7.8 Name five of the features of a computer numerical control that distinguish it from
conventional NC.
Answer: The features identified in Table 7.2 are (1) storage of more than one part program,
(2) program editing at the machine tool, (3) fixed cycles and programming subroutines, (4)
adaptive control, (5) interpolation, (6) positioning features for setup, (7) acceleration and

7-1

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deceleration calculations when the cutter path changes abruptly, (8) communications
interface, and (9) diagnostics to detect malfunctions and diagnose system breakdowns.
7.9 What is distributed numerical control (DNC)?
Answer: Distributed numerical control is a distributed computer system in which a central
computer communicates with multiple CNC machine control units. It evolved from direct
numerical control in which the central computer played the role of the tape reader,
downloading part programs one block at a time. In a modern distributed NC system, entire
part programs are downloaded to the MCUs. Also shop floor data is collected by the central
computer to measure shop performance.
7.10 What are some of the machine tool types to which numerical control has been applied?
Answer: NC has been applied to nearly all material-removal machine tools types, including
lathes, boring mills, drill presses, milling machines, and cylindrical grinders. Other CNC
metalworking machines mentioned in the text are punch presses, metal-bending presses,
welding machines, thermal-cutting machines, tube-bending and wire-bending machines, and
wire EDM machines.
7.11 What is a machining center?
Answer: As defined in the text, a machining center is a machine tool capable of performing
multiple machining operations on a single workpiece in one setup. The operations involve
rotating cutters, such as milling and drilling, and the feature that enables more than one
operation to be performed in one setup is automatic tool-changing.
7.12 Name six part characteristics that are most suited to the application of numerical control.
Answer: The six part characteristics identified in the text are the following: (1) batch
production, (2) repeat orders, (3) complex part geometry, (4) much metal needs to be
removed, (5) many separate machining operations on the part, and (6) the part is expensive.
7.13 Although CNC technology is most closely associated with machine tool applications, it has
been applied to other processes also. Name three examples.
Answer: The non-metalworking NC applications listed in the text are (1) rapid prototyping
and additive manufacturing, (2) water jet cutters and abrasive water jet cutters, (3)
component placement machines, (4) coordinate measuring machines, (5) wood routers and
granite cutters, (6) wood cutting lathes, (7) tape laying machines for polymer composites,
and (8) filament winding machines for polymer composites.
7.14 What are four advantages of numerical control when properly applied in machine tool
operations?
Answer: The text lists the following advantages: (1) nonproductive time is reduced, (2)
greater accuracy and repeatability, (3) lower scrap rates, (4) inspection requirements are
reduced, (5) more-complex part geometries are possible, (6) engineering changes can be
accommodated more gracefully, (7) simpler fixtures, (8) shorter manufacturing lead times,
(9) reduced parts inventory, (10) less floor space, and (11) operator skill requirements are
reduced.
7.15 What are three disadvantages of implementing NC technology?
Answer: Four disadvantages are identified in the text: (1) higher investment cost because
NC machines are more expensive than conventional machine tools, (2) higher maintenance
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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

effort due to greater technological sophistication of NC, (3) part programming is required,
and (4) equipment utilization must be high to justify the higher investment, and this might
mean that additional work shifts are required in the machine shop.
7.16 Briefly describe the differences between the two basic types of positioning control systems
used in NC?
Answer: The two types of positioning control systems used in NC systems are open loop
and closed loop. An open-loop system operates without verifying that the actual position
achieved in the move is the same as the programmed position. A closed-loop system uses
feedback measurements to confirm that the final position of the worktable is the location
specified in the program.
7.17 What is an optical encoder, and how does it work?
Answer: An optical encoder is a device for measuring rotational speed that consists of a
light source and a photodetector on either side of a disk. The disk contains slots uniformly
spaced around the outside of its face. These slots allow the light source to shine through
and energize the photodetector. The disk is connected to a rotating shaft whose angular
position and velocity are to be measured. As the shaft rotates, the slots cause the light
source to be seen by the photocell as a series of flashes. The flashes are converted into an
equal number of electrical pulses.
7.18 With reference to precision in a positioning system, what is control resolution?
Answer: Control resolution is defined as the distance separating two adjacent addressable
points in the axis movement. Addressable points are locations along the axis to which the
worktable can be specifically directed to go. It is desirable for control resolution to be as
small as possible.
7.19 What is the difference between manual part programming and computer-assisted part
programming?
Answer: In manual part programming, the programmer prepares the NC code using a low-
level machine language. In computer-assisted part programming, the part program is written
using English-like statements that are subsequently converted into the low-level machine
language.
7.20 What is postprocessing in computer-assisted part programming and CAD/CAM part
programming?
Answer: Postprocessing converts the cutter location data and machining commands in the
CLDATA file into low-level code that can be interpreted by the CNC controller for a
specific machine tool. The output of postprocessing is a part program consisting of G-
codes, x-, y-, and z-coordinates, S, F, M, and other functions in word address format. A
unique postprocessor must be written for each machine tool system.
7.21 What are some of the advantages of CAD/CAM-based NC part programming compared to
computer-assisted part programming?
Answer: The text lists the following advantages of CAD/CAM part programming: (1) the
part program can be simulated off-line to verify its accuracy; (2) the time and cost of the
machining operation can be determined; (3) the most appropriate tooling can be
automatically selected for the operation; (4) the CAD/CAM system can automatically
insert the optimum values for speeds and feeds; (5) in constructing the geometry or the tool
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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

path, the programmer receives immediate visual feedback on the CAD/CAM monitor; (6)
the CAD database containing the part design can be used to construct the tool path rather
than redefining the part geometry; and (7) some of the steps in the tool path construction
can be automated.
7.22 What is manual data input of the NC part program?
Answer: Manual data input is when the machine operator manually enters the part program
data and motion commands directly into the MCU prior to running the job.
PROBLEMS
Answers to problems labeled (A) are listed in the Appendix at the back of the book.
CNC Machining Applications
7.1 (A) A machinable grade of aluminum is to be milled on a CNC milling machine with a 25-
mm diameter four-tooth end mill. Cutting speed is 100 m/min and feed is 0.075 mm/tooth.
To program the machine tool, convert these values to (a) rev/min and (b) mm/min,
respectively.
v 100
Solution: (a) N = = = 1273 rev/min
π D 25π (10−3 )
(b) Feed rate in mm/min fr = Nntf = 1273(4)(0.075) = 382 mm/min
7.2 A cast iron workpiece is to be face milled on a CNC machine using cemented carbide inserts.
The cutter has 12 teeth and its diameter is 100 mm. Cutting speed is 180 m/min and feed is
0.08 mm/tooth. To program the machine tool, convert these values to (a) rev/min and (b)
mm/min, respectively.
v 180
Solution: (a) N = = = 573 rev/min
π D 100π (10−3 )
(b) Feed in mm/min fr = Nntf = 573(12)(0.008) = 55 mm/min
7.3 An end milling operation is performed on a CNC machining center. The total length of travel
is 800 mm along a straight path. Cutting speed is 1.5 m/s and chip load is 0.09 mm. The end
mill has two teeth and its diameter = 12.5 mm. Determine (a) feed rate in rev/min and (b)
time to complete the cut.
v 1.5
Solution: (a) N = = = 38.2 rev/sec = 2292 rev/min
π D 12.5π (10−3 )
fr = Nntf = 2292(2)(0.09) = 412.6 mm/min
L+ A
(b) Tm = , where L = length of cut, A = allowance for overtravel (A = cutter diameter)
fr
800 + 12.5
Tm = = 1.97 min
412.6
7.4 A turning operation is to be performed on a CNC lathe. Cutting speed = 2.2 m/s, feed = 0.25
mm/rev, and depth of cut = 3.0 mm. Workpiece diameter = 90 mm and length = 550 mm.
Determine (a) rotational speed of the workpiece, (b) feed rate, and (c) time to travel from one
end of the part to the other.

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2.2(60)
Solution: (a) N = = 467 rev/min
90π (10−3 )
(b) fr = Nntf = 467(0.25) = 116.7 mm/min
(c) Tm = 550/116.7 = 4.71 min
7.5 A CNC drill press drills four 10.0 mm diameter holes at four locations on a flat aluminum
plate in a production work cycle. Although the plate is only 12 mm thick, the drill must
travel a full 20 mm vertically at each hole location to allow for clearance above the plate and
breakthrough of the drill on the underside of the plate. Time to retract the drill from each
hole is one-half the feeding time. Cutting speed = 0.5 m/sec and feed = 0.10 mm/rev.
Coordinates of the hole locations are: Hole 1 at x = 25 mm, y = 25 mm; hole 2 at x = 25 mm,
y = 150 mm; hole 3 at x = 150 mm, y = 150 mm; and hole 4 at x = 150, y = 25 mm. The drill
starts out at point (0,0) and returns to the same position after the work cycle is completed.
Travel rate of the table in moving from one coordinate position to another is 600 mm/min.
Owing to acceleration and deceleration, and time required for the control system to achieve
final positioning, a time loss of 3 sec is experienced at each stop of the table. All moves are
made so as to minimize total cycle time. If loading and unloading the plate take 20 sec (total
handling time), determine the time required for the work cycle.
0.5(60)
Solution: Drilling operations: N = = 955 rev/min
10π (10−3 )
Feed rate fr = Nf = 955(0.10) = 95.5 mm/min
For each hole, feeding time = 20/95.5 = 0.21 min
Retraction time of drill at each hole 0.21/2 = 0.105 min
Total time/hole = 0.315 min
For four holes, Tm = 4(0.315) = 1.26 min
Workpart and axis system with tool path is shown below:

y (25,150)
(150,150)

(25,25) (150,25)

x
(0,0) (150,0)

Total distance traveled = 252 + 252 + 125 + 125 + 125 + 252 + 1502 = 562.43 mm
562.43 5(3)
Time to move between positions = + = 1.19 min
600 60
Cycle time = Th + Tm + move time = 20/60 + 1.26 + 1.19 = 2.78 min
Analysis of Open Loop Positioning Systems
7.6 (A) One axis of the worktable in a CNC positioning system is driven by a ball screw with a
7.5-mm pitch. The screw is powered by a stepper motor which has 200 step angles using a
3:1 gear reduction (three turns of the motor for each turn of the ball screw). The worktable is
7-5

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

programmed to move a distance of 400 mm from its present position at a travel speed of
1200 mm/min. (a) How many pulses are required to move the table the specified distance?
(b) What is the required motor rotational speed and (c) pulse rate to achieve the desired table
speed?
Solution: (a) Angular rotation of screw to move 300 mm As = 360(300)/6 = 18,000°
Total angular rotation of motor to move 300 mm Am = 3(18,000) = 54,000°
Number of motor revolutions = 54,000/360 = 150 rev
Number of pulses to motor np = 150(200) = 30,000 pulses
(b) Motor rotational speed Nm = (1200 mm/min)/(7.5 mm/rev) = 160 rev/min
(c) Pulse frequency fp = (160 rev/min)(200 pulses/rev)/60 = 533.33 Hz
7.7 One axis of an open-loop positioning system is driven by a stepper motor, which is
connected to a ball screw with a gear reduction of 2:1 (two turns of the motor for each turn
of the screw). The ball screw drives the positioning table. Step angle of the motor is 3.6°, and
pitch of the ball screw is 6.0 mm. The table is required to move along this axis a distance of
600 mm from its current position in exactly 25 sec. Determine (a) the number of pulses
required to move the specified distance, (b) pulse frequency, and (c) rotational speed of the
motor to make the move.
Solution: (a) Number of step angles ns = 360/3.6 = 100 steps/rev = 100 pulses/rev
Total angular rotation of screw to move 600 mm As = 360(600)/6 = 36,000°
Total angular rotation of motor to move 600 mm Am = 2(36,000) = 72,000°
Number of motor revolutions = 72,000/360 = 200 rev
Number of pulses to motor np = 200(100) = 20,000 pulses
(b) Pulse frequency fp = 20,000/25 = 800 pulses/sec = 800 Hz
(c) Motor rotational speed Nm = 200 rev/25 sec = 8 rev/sec = 480 rev/min
7.8 A stepper motor with 50 step angles is coupled to a leadscrew through a gear reduction of
5:1 (5 rotations of the motor for each rotation of the leadscrew). The leadscrew has 1.25
threads/cm. The worktable driven by the leadscrew must move a distance = 40.0 cm at a feed
rate = 90 cm/min. Determine (a) the number of pulses required to move the table, (b)
required motor speed, and (c) pulse rate to achieve the desired table speed.
Solution: (a) With 1.25 threads/cm, pitch p = 1/1.25 = 0.8 cm = 8.0 mm
Angular rotation of screw to move 40 cm As = 360(400)/8 = 18,000°
Total angular rotation of motor to move 40 cm Am = 5(18,000) = 90,000°
Number of motor revolutions = 90,000/360 = 250 rev
Number of pulses to motor np = 250(50) = 12,500 pulses
(b) Motor rotational speed Nm = (900 mm/min)/(8 mm/rev) = 112.5 rev/min
(c) Pulse frequency fp = (112.5 rev/min)(50 pulses/rev)/60 = 93.75 Hz
7.9 A component placement machine takes 0.5 sec to position a component onto a printed circuit
(PC) board, once the board has been positioned under the placement head. The x-y table that
positions the PC board uses a stepper motor directly linked to a ball screw for each axis (no
gear reduction). Screw pitch = 5.0 mm. The motor step angle = 7.2°, and the pulse frequency
= 400 Hz. Two components are placed on the PC board, one each at positions (25, 25) and
(50, 150), where coordinates are mm. The sequence of positions is (0,0), (25, 25), (50, 150),

7-6

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

(0,0). Time required to unload the completed board and load the next blank onto the machine
table = 3.0 sec. Assume that 0.25 sec is lost due to acceleration and deceleration on each
move. What is the hourly production rate for this PC board?
360
Solution: ns = = 50 steps/rev
7.2
f p (400)(5.0)
Given rg = 1.0, vt = p = = 40 mm/sec
ns 50
Time to move from (0, 0) to (25, 25) = (25 mm)/(40 mm/sec) = 0.625 sec
150 − 25
Time to move from (25, 25) to (50, 150) = = 3.125 s
40
Time to move from (50, 150) to (0, 0) = (150 mm)/(40 mm/sec)= 3.75 s
Cycle time Tc = 3.0 + (0.625+0.25+0.5) + (3.125+0.25+0.5) + (3.75+0.25) = 12.25 sec
60 × 60
Cycle rate (assumed equal to production rate) Rc = = 294 units/hr
12.25
7.10 Two stepper motors are used in an open loop system to drive the leadscrews for x-y
positioning. The range of each axis is 550 mm. The shafts of the motors are connected
directly to the leadscrews (no gear reduction). The leadscrew pitch is 5.0 mm, and the
number of step angles on each motor is 120. (a) How closely can the position of the table be
controlled, assuming there are no mechanical errors in the positioning system? (b) What are
the required rotational speeds of each stepper motor and corresponding pulse train
frequencies to drive the table at 300 mm/min in a straight line from point (x = 0, y = 0) to
point (x = 330 mm, y = 220 mm)?
Solution: (a) Table position can be controlled to (5 mm)/120 = 0.04167 mm
(b) Travel speed vt = 300 mm/min from (x = 0, y = 0) to (x = 330 mm, y = 220 mm)
Angle = tan-1(220/330) = 33.69°
vtx = 300 cos 33.69 = 249.6 mm/min
Nmx = rgvtx/p = 1(249.6)/5 = 49.92 rev/min
fpx = Nmxns/60 = 49.92(120)/60 = 99.8 Hz
vty = 300 sin 33.69 = 166.4 mm/min
Nmy = rgvty/p = 1(166.4)/5 = 33.3 rev/min
fpy = Nmyns/60 = 33.3(120)/60 = 66.6 Hz
7.11 (A) The two axes of an x-y positioning table are each driven by stepper motors connected to
ball screws with a 4:1 gear reduction (four turns of the motor for each turn of the ball screw).
The number of step angles on each stepper motor is 100. Each screw has a pitch = 7.5 mm
and provides an axis range = 600.0 mm. There are 16 bits in each binary register used by the
controller to store position data for the two axes. (a) What is the control resolution of each
axis? (b) What are the required rotational speeds of each stepper motor and corresponding
pulse frequencies to drive the table at 800 mm/min in a straight line from point (20, 20) to
point (350, 450)?
Solution: (a) CR1 = p/rgns = 7.5/(4 × 100) = 0.01875 mm
CR2 = L/(2B – 1)= 400/(216 – 1) = 400/65,535 = 0.0061 mm
CR = Max{0.01875, 0.00610} = 0.01875 mm
(b) vt = 800 mm/min from (20, 20) to (300, 450)

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Δx = 300 − 20 = 280 mm, Δy = 450 − 20 = 430 mm

Angle A = tan-1(430/280) = 56.93°
vtx = 800 cos 56.93 = 436.54 mm/min
Nmx = rgvtx/p = 4(436.54)/7.5 = 232.8 rev/min
fpx = Nmxns/60 = 232.8(100)/60 = 388 Hz
vty = 800 sin 56.93 = 670.40 mm/min
Nmy = rgvty/p = 4(670.4)/7.5 = 357.55 rev/min
fpy = Nmyns/60 = 357.55(100)/60 = 595.9 Hz
Analysis of Closed Loop Positioning Systems
7.12 In a CNC milling machine, the axis corresponding to the feed rate uses a dc servomotor as
the drive unit and a rotary encoder as the feedback sensing device. The motor is geared to a
leadscrew with a 10:1 reduction (10 turns of the motor for each turn of the leadscrew). If the
leadscrew pitch is 6 mm, and the encoder emits 60 pulses per revolution, determine (a) the
rotational speed of the motor and (b) pulse rate of the encoder to achieve a feed rate of 300
mm/min.
Solution: (a) Nm = rgfr/p = 10(300)/6 = 500 rev/min
(b) fp = frns/60p = 300(60)/60(6) = 50 Hz
7.13 A dc servomotor is used to drive one of the table axes of a CNC milling machine. The motor
is coupled to a ball screw for the axis using a gear reduction of 8:1 (eight turns of the motor
for each turn of the screw). The ball screw pitch is 7.5 mm. An optical encoder attached to
the screw emits 120 pulses per revolution of the screw. The motor rotates at a top speed of
1000 rev/min. Determine (a) control resolution of the system, based on mechanical limits of
each axis, (b) frequency of the pulse train emitted by the optical encoder when the
servomotor operates at full speed, and (c) travel rate of the table at the top speed of the
motor.
p
Solution: (a) CR1 = = 7.5/(120×8) = 0.0078 mm
ns rg
(b) Ns = Nm/rg = 1000/8 = 125 rev/min
fp = nsNs = 120(125/60) = 250 Hz
(c) vt = 60pfp/ns = 60(7.5)(250)/120 = 937.5 mm/min
Check: vt = Nsp = 125(7.5) = 937.5 mm/min
7.14 (A) The worktable of a CNC machine tool is driven by a closed-loop positioning system
which consists of a servomotor, leadscrew, and rotary encoder. The leadscrew pitch = 8 mm
and is coupled directly to the motor shaft (gear ratio = 1:1). The encoder generates 200
pulses per leadscrew revolution. The table has been programmed to move a distance of 350
mm at a feed rate = 450 mm/min. (a) How many pulses are received by the control system to
verify that the table has moved the programmed distance? What are (b) the pulse rate and (c)
motor speed that correspond to the specified feed rate?
Solution: (a) np = xns/p = 350(200)/8= 8750 pulses
(b) fp = frns/60p = 450(200)/60(8) = 187.5 Hz
(c) Nm = fr/p = 450/8 = 56.25 rev/min

7-8

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7.15 A CNC machine tool table is powered by a servomotor, ball screw, and optical encoder. The
ball screw has a pitch = 6.0 mm and is connected to the motor shaft with a gear ratio of 16:1
(16 turns of the motor for each turn of the screw). The optical encoder is connected to the
ball screw and generates 120 pulses/rev of the screw. The table must move a distance of 250
mm at a feed rate = 300 mm/min. (a) Determine the pulse count received by the control
system to verify that the table has moved exactly 250 mm. Also, what are (b) the pulse rate
and (c) motor speed that correspond to the specified feed rate?
Solution: (a) np = xns/p = 250(120)/6 = 5000 pulses
(b) fp = fr ns /60p = 300(120)/60(6) = 100 Hz
(c) Nm = rg fr /p = 16(300)/6 = 800 rev/min
7.16 A dc servomotor coupled to a leadscrew with a 4:1 gear reduction is used to drive one of the
table axes of a CNC milling machine. The leadscrew has 1.5 threads/cm. An optical encoder
attached to the leadscrew emits 100 pulses/rev. The motor rotates at a maximum speed of
800 rev/min. Determine (a) the control resolution of the system, expressed in linear travel
distance of the table axis and (b) the frequency of the pulse train emitted by the optical
encoder when the servomotor operates at maximum speed.
Solution: (a) p = 1/1.5 = 0.6667 cm = 6.667 mm
CR1 = p/nsrg = 6.667/(100×4) = 0.0167 mm
(b) fr = Nmp/rg = 800(6.667)/4 = 1333.3 mm/min
fp = frns/60p = 1333.3(100)/60(6.667) = 333.3 Hz
7.17 A milling operation is performed on a CNC machining center. Total travel distance = 430
mm in a direction parallel to one of the axes of the worktable. Cutting speed = 1.25 m/s and
chip load = 0.05 mm. The end milling cutter has four teeth and its diameter = 20.0 mm. The
axis uses a dc servomotor whose output shaft is coupled to a leadscrew with a 5:1 gear
reduction (five turns of the motor for each turn of the leadscrew). The leadscrew pitch is 6.0
mm. An optical encoder which emits 80 pulses per revolution is attached to the leadscrew.
Determine (a) feed rate and time to complete the cut, (b) rotational speed of the motor and
(c) pulse rate of the encoder at the feed rate indicated.
Solution: (a) Spindle N = v/πD = 1.25/π20(10-3) = 19.89 rev/s = 1193.4 rev/min
fr = Nfnt = 1193.4(0.05)(4) = 238.7 mm/min
Tm = (L + A)/fr, where A = allowance for tool overtravel (let A = tool diameter)
Tm = (430 + 20)/238.7 = 1.89 min
(b) Nm = rgfr /p = 5(238.7)/6 = 198.9 rev/min
(c) fp = frns/60p = 238.7(80)/60(6) = 53.04 Hz
7.18 A dc servomotor drives the x-axis of a CNC milling machine table. The motor is coupled to a
ball screw, whose pitch = 7.5 mm, using a gear reduction of 8:1 (eight turns of the motor to
one turn of the ball screw). An optical encoder is connected to the ball screw. The optical
encoder emits 75 pulses per revolution. To execute a certain programmed instruction, the
table must move from point (x = 202.5 mm, y = 35.0 mm) to point (x = 25.0 mm, y = 250.0
mm) in a straight-line path at a feed rate = 300 mm/min. Determine (a) the control resolution
of the system for the x-axis, (b) rotational speed of the motor, and (c) frequency of the pulse
train emitted by the optical encoder at the desired feed rate. (d) How many pulses are emitted
by the x-axis encoder during the move.

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

Solution: (a) CR1x = p/nsrg = 7.5/(75×8)= 0.0125 mm

(b) Move from (202.5, 35.0) to (25.0, 250.0) at fr = 200 mm/min
Δx = 25.0 − 202.5 = -177.5, Δy = 250.0 − 35.0 = 215.0
Angle A = tan-1(215/-177.5) = 129.54°
frx = 300 cos 129.54 = 300(-0.6366) = -190.99 mm/min
Nmx = rgfrx/p = 8(-190.99)/7.5 = -203.7 rev/min
(c) fp = frxns/60p = 190.99(75)/60(7.5) = 31.83 Hz
(d) Angle of rotation As = 360Δx/p = 360(177.5)/7.5 = 8520°
np = Asns/360 = 8520(75)/360 = 1775 pulses
Precision of Positioning Systems
7.19 (A) A two-axis positioning system uses a bit storage capacity of 16 bits in its control
memory for each axis. To position the worktable, a stepper motor with step angle = 3.6° is
connected to a leadscrew with a 6:1 gear reduction (six turns of the motor for each turn of the
leadscrew). The leadscrew pitch is 7.5 mm. The range of the x-axis is 600 mm and the range
of the y-axis is 500 mm. Mechanical accuracy of the worktable can be represented by a
Normal distribution with standard deviation = 0.002 mm for both axes. For each axis of the
positioning system, determine (a) the control resolution, (b) accuracy, and (c) repeatability.
Solution: (a) For each axis, ns = 360/3.6 = 100 step angles
CR1 = p/nsrg = 7.5/(100×6) = 0.0125 mm for both axes
600 600
x-axis: CR2 = 16 = = 0.0091 mm
2 − 1 65,536 − 1
CRx = Max {0.0125, 00091} = 0.0125 mm
y-axis: CR2 = 500/65,535 = 0.0076 mm
CRy = Max {0.0125, 00076} = 0.0125 mm
(b) x-axis: Accuracy = CRx + 3σ = 0.0125/2 + 3(0.002) = 0.01225 mm
y-axis: Accuracy = CRy + 3σ = 0.0125/2 + 3(0.002) = 0.01225 mm
(c) Repeatability = ± 3σ = ± 3(0.002) = ± 0.006 mm
7.20 Stepper motors are used to drive the two axes of a component placement machine used for
electronic assembly. A printed circuit board is mounted on the table and must be positioned
accurately for reliable insertion of components into the board. Range of each axis = 700 mm.
The lead screw used to drive each of the two axes has a pitch of 3.0 mm. The inherent
mechanical errors in table positioning can be characterized by a Normal distribution with
standard deviation = 0.005 mm. If the required accuracy for the table is 0.04 mm, determine
(a) the number of step angles that the stepper motor must have, and (b) how many bits are
required in the control memory for each axis to uniquely identify each control position.
Solution: (a) Accuracy = CR/2 + 3σ = CR/2 + 3(0.005) = 0.04 (as specified)
Assume CR = CR1
CR1/2 = 0.04 - 0.015 = 0.025 mm
CR1 = 0.05 mm
CR1 = p/nsrg
Rearranging, ns = p/CR1, since rg = 1
ns = 3/0.05 = 60 steps/rev

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

(b) For the mechanical errors to be the limiting factor in control resolution, CR2 ≤ CR1.
CR2 = L/(2B − 1)
Rearranging, 2B − 1 = L/CR2 = 700/0.05 = 14,000 positions
2B = 14,001
B ln 2 = ln 14001
0.6931 B = 9.5469, B = 13.77 → 14 bits
7.21 An open loop positioning system uses a stepper motor connected to a ball screw with a 4:1
gear reduction (four turns of the motor for each turn of the ball screw). The stepper motor
has a step angle of 7.2°. The ball screw pitch is 5 mm. Mechanical inaccuracies can be
described by a normal distribution whose standard deviation = 0.005 mm. The range of the
worktable axis is 500 mm. What is the minimum number of bits that the binary register must
have so that the mechanical drive system becomes the limiting component on control
resolution?
Solution: Number of step angles ns = 360/7.2 = 50
CR1 = p/nsrg = 5/(50×4) = 0.025 mm
For the mechanical errors to be the limiting factor in control resolution, CR2 ≤ CR1.
CR2 = L/(2B − 1)
Rearranging, 2B − 1 = L/CR2 = 500/0.025 = 20,000 positions
2B = 20,001
B ln 2 = ln 20001
0.6931 B = 9.9035 B = 14.29 → 15 bits
7.22 The positioning table for a component placement machine uses a stepper motor and
leadscrew mechanism. The design specifications call for a table speed of 0.3 m/s and an
accuracy of 0.05 mm. The pitch of the leadscrew is 8.0 mm, and there is no gear reduction.
Mechanical errors in the motor, gear box, leadscrew, and table connection are characterized
by a Normal distribution with standard deviation = 0.00333 mm. Determine (a) the minimum
number of step angles in the stepper motor and (b) the frequency of the pulse train required
to drive the table at the desired maximum speed.
Solution: (a) Accuracy = CR/2 + 3σ
0.05 = CR/2 + 3(0.00333) = CR/2 + 0.01
0.05 − 0.01 = 0.040 = CR/2
CR = 0.080 mm
Assume CR = CR1
CR1 = 0.080 = p/ns = 8/ns
ns = 8/(0.08) = 100 step angles
(b) fp = vtns/p = (0.3)(100)/(8.0×10-3) = 3,750 Hz
7.23 The two axes of an x-y positioning table are each driven by a stepper motor connected to a
leadscrew with a 10:1 gear reduction. The number of step angles on each stepper motor is
60. Each leadscrew has a pitch = 6 mm and provides an axis range = 300 mm. There are 16
bits in each binary register used by the controller to store position data for the two axes. (a)
What is the control resolution of each axis? (b) What are the required rotational speeds and
corresponding pulse train frequencies of each stepper motor in order to drive the table at 500
mm/min in a straight line from point (30, 30) to point (100, 200)?
Solution: (a) CR1 = p/rgns = 6/(10×60) = 0.01 mm

7-11

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

L 300 300
CR2 = = 16
B
= = 0.00458 mm
2 − 1 2 − 1 65,535
CR = Max{0.01, 0.00458} = 0.01 mm
(b) vt = 500 mm/min from (30, 30) to (100, 200)
Δx = 100 − 30 = 70 mm, Δy = 200 − 30 = 170 mm
Angle A = tan-1(170/70) = 67.62°
vtx = 500 cos 67.62 = 190.38 mm/min
Nmx = rgvtx/p = 10(190.38)/6 = 317.3 rev/min
fpx = Nmx ns/60 = 317.3(60)/60 = 317.3 Hz
vty = 500 sin 67.62 = 462.34 mm/min
Nmy = rgvty/p = 10(462.34)/6 = 770.6 rev/min
fpx = Nmy ns /60 = 770.6(60)/60 = 770.6 Hz
NC Manual Part Programming (Appendix A7)
7.24 Write the part program to drill the holes in the part in Figure P7.24. The part is 12.0 mm
thick. Cutting speed = 100 m/min and feed = 0.06 mm/rev. Use the lower left corner of the
part as the origin in the x-y axis system. Write the part program in the word address format
using absolute positioning. The program style should be similar to Example A7.1.
Solution: At the beginning of the job, the drill point will be positioned at a target point
located at x = 0, y = 0, and z = + 10. The program begins with the tool positioned at this
target point. Feed is given as 0.06 mm/rev. Rotational speed of drill is calculated as follows:
N = v/πD = 100/(π×10×10-3) = 3183 rev/min
NC part program code Comments
N001 G21 G90 G92 X0 Y0 Z010.0; Define origin of axes.
N002 G00 X040.0 Y025.0; Rapid move to first hole location.
N003 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.06 S3183 M03; Drill first hole.
N004 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N005 G00 Y100.0; Rapid move to second hole location.
N006 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.06; Drill second hole.
N007 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N008 G00 X100.0; Rapid move to third hole location.
N009 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.06; Drill third hole.
N010 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N011 G00 X160.0; Rapid move to fourth hole location.
N012 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.06; Drill fourth hole.
N013 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N014 G00 X125.0 Y060.0; Rapid move to fifth hole location.
N015 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.06; Drill fifth hole.
N016 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N017 G00 X200.0 Y040.0; Rapid move to sixth hole location.
N018 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.06; Drill sixth hole.
N019 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N020 G00 X0 Y0 M05; Rapid move to target point, stop spindle.
N021 M30; End of program, stop machine.

7.25 The part in Figure P7.25 is to be drilled on a turret-type drill press. The part is 15.0 mm
thick. Three drill sizes will be used: 8 mm, 10 mm, and 12 mm, which are to be specified in
the part program by tool turret positions T01, T02, and T03. All tooling is high speed steel.

7-12

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

Cutting speed = 75 mm/min and feed = 0.08 mm/rev. Use the lower left corner of the part as
the origin in the x-y axis system. Write the part program in the word address format using
absolute positioning. The program style should be similar to Example A7.1.
Solution: At the beginning of the job, the drill point will be positioned at a target point
located at x = 0, y = 0, and z = + 10. The program begins with the tool positioned at this
target point. Feed is given as 0.08 mm/rev. Rotational speeds for the three drill diameters are
calculated as follows:
For the 8 mm drill, N = 75/(8π x 10-3) = 2984 rev/min
For the 10 mm drill, N = 75/(10π x 10-3) = 2387 rev/min
For the12 mm drill, N = 75/(12π x 10-3) = 1989 rev/min
NC part program code Comments
N001 G21 G90 G92 X0 Y0 Z010.0; Define origin of axes.
N002 G00 X025.0 Y025.0 T01; Rapid move to first hole location, 8 mm drill.
N003 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.08 S2984 M03; Drill first hole.
N004 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N005 G00 X150.0; Rapid move to second hole location.
N006 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.08; Drill second hole.
N007 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N008 G00 X175.0; Rapid move to third hole location.
N009 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.08; Drill third hole.
N010 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N011 G00 X100.0 Y075.0 T02; Rapid move to fourth hole location, 10 mm drill.
N012 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.08; Drill fourth hole.
N013 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N014 G00 X050.0; Rapid move to fifth hole location.
N015 G01 G95 Z-20.0 F0.08; Drill fifth hole.
N016 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N017 G00 X050.0 Y075.0 T03; Rapid move to sixth hole location, 12 mm drill.
N018 G01 G95 Z-22.0 F0.08; Drill sixth hole.
N019 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N020 G00 X0 Y0 M05; Rapid to target point, stop spindle rotation.
N021 M30; End of program, stop machine.

7.26 The outline of the part in the previous problem is to be profile milled using a 30 mm
diameter end mill with four teeth. The part is 15 mm thick. Cutting speed = 150 mm/min and
feed = 0.085 mm/tooth. Use the lower left corner of the part as the origin in the x-y axis
system. Two of the holes in the part have already been drilled and will be used for clamping
the part during profile milling. Write the part program in the word address format with TAB
separation and variable word order. Use absolute positioning. The program style should be
similar to Example A7.2.
Solution: As stated, two of the holes drilled in Problem 7.25 will be used to clamp the
workpart for milling the outside edges. The part will be fixtured so that its top surface is 40
mm above the surface of the machine tool table, and the x-y plane of the axis system will be
defined 40 mm above the table surface. As given, a 30 mm diameter end mill with four teeth
will be used. The cutter is assumed to have a side tooth engagement length of 40 mm.
Throughout the machining sequence the bottom tip of the cutter will be positioned 25 mm
below the part top surface, which corresponds to z = -25 mm. Since the part is 15 mm thick,
this z position will allow the side cutting edges of the milling cutter to cut the full thickness

7-13

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

of the part during profile milling. Cutting speed is specified as 150 m/min. Rotational speed
of the cutter is
N = 150/(30π x 10-3) = 1592 rev/min
Given a feed f = 0.085 mm/tooth, feed rate is
fr = 1592(4)(0.085) = 541 mm/min
Cutter diameter data has been manually entered into offset register 05. At the beginning of
the job, the cutter will be positioned so that its center tip is at a target point located at x = -50,
y = -50, and z = + 10. The program begins with the tool positioned at this location.
NC part program code Comments
N001 G21 G90 G92 X-050.0 Y-050.0 Z010.0; Define origin of axes.
N002 G00 Z-025.0 S1592 M03; Rapid to cutter depth, turn spindle on.
N003 G01 G94 G42 Y0 D05 F541; Bring tool to starting y-value, start cutter offset.
N004 G01 X200.0; Mill lower part edge.
N005 G01 Y050.0; Mill right straight edge.
N006 G01 X150.0; Mill horizontal step above two 8 mm holes
N007 G17 G02 X125.0 Y075.0 R025.0; Circular interpolation around arc.
N008 G01 X125.0 Y100.0; Mill vertical step above arc.
N009 G01 Y025.0; Mill top part edge.
N010 G01 X0 Y050.0; Mill angled edge at left of part.
N011 G01 Y0; Mill vertical edge at left of part.
N012 G40 G00 X-050.0 Y-050.0 Z010.0 M05; Rapid to target point, cancel offset, spindle stop.
N013 M30; End of program, stop machine.

7.27 The outline of the part in Figure P7.27 is to be profile milled, using a 20 mm diameter end
mill with two teeth. The part is 10 mm thick. Cutting speed = 125 mm/min and feed = 0.10
mm/tooth. Use the lower left corner of the part as the origin in the x-y axis system. The two
holes in the part have already been drilled and will be used for clamping the part during
milling. Write the part program in the word address format with TAB separation and variable
word order. Use absolute positioning. The program style should be similar to Example A7.2.
Solution: As stated, the two holes will be used to clamp the workpart during milling. The
part will be fixtured so that its top surface is 40 mm above the surface of the machine tool
table, and the x-y plane of the axis system will be defined 40 mm above the table surface. As
given, a 20 mm diameter end mill with two teeth will be used. The cutter is assumed to have
a side tooth engagement length of 30 mm. Throughout the machining sequence the bottom
tip of the cutter will be positioned 20 mm below the part top surface, which corresponds to z
= -20 mm. Since the part is 10 mm thick, this z position will allow the side cutting edges of
the milling cutter to cut the full thickness of the part during profile milling. Cutting speed is
specified as 125 m/min. Rotational speed of the cutter is
N = 125/(20π x 10-3) = 1989 rev/min
Given a feed f = 0.10 mm/tooth, feed rate is
fr = 1989(2)(0.10) = 398 mm/min
Cutter diameter data has been manually entered into offset register 05. At the beginning of
the job, the cutter is positioned so that its center tip is at a target point located at x = -50, y = -
50, and z = + 10. The program begins with the tool positioned at this location.
NC part program code Comments
N001 G21 G90 G92 X-050.0 Y-050.0 Z010.0; Define origin of axes.
N002 G00 Z-020.0 S1989 M03; Rapid to cutter depth, turn spindle on.

7-14

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 Ch07 CNC-4e-A&S 04-12, 04-17-2013

N003 G01 G94 G42 Y0 D05 F398; Bring tool to starting y-value, start cutter offset.
N004 G01 X075.0; Mill lower horizontal edge of part.
N005 G01 X150.0 Y043.02; Mill angled edge at 35 degrees.
N006 G01 Y070.0; Mill vertical edge at right of part.
N007 G01 X080.0; Mill horizontal edge leading to arc.
N008 G17 G02 X050.0 Y100.0 R030.0; Circular interpolation around arc.
N009 G01 Y125.0; Mill vertical step above arc.
N010 G01 X0; Mill top part edge.
N011 G01 Y0 Mill vertical edge at left of part.
N012 G40 G00 X-050.0 Y-050.0 Z010.0 M05; Rapid to target point, cancel offset, spindle stop.
N013 M30; End of program, stop machine.

7-15

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