CHAPTER 4

FRICTION

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Law of Dry Friction

4.1.2 The Limiting Angle of Friction

4.1.3 The Inclined Plane

4.2 Applications of Friction – Screw Threads

4.2.1 Friction In Vee Threads

4.3 Application of Friction – Friction Clutch

4.3.1 Analysis of Clutch

PROBLEMS - FRICTIONS, SCREW THREADS

AND CLUTCH
4.1 Introduction

Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface of

one object comes into contact with the surface of another

When one surfaces slides with over another, a force is

introduced, this acts to retard the motion. This resistive force is
known as force of “friction”.

Friction force exist due to most surfaces are not free from
ridges and depressions. This creates an imperfect smooth surface that
produces friction when it slides with another surface.

The friction force acts tangentially to the surfaces of two

bodies at the point of contact and acts in the opposite direction to
that of the relative motion.

Friction is required for the successful operation of carom, wall

climbing, bowling, brake, belt and rope drives, friction clutches,
rolling of wheels on road and so on.
There are two forms of dry friction, kinetic and static.

Static friction

If you try to slide two objects past each other, a small amount of
force will result in no motion. The force of friction is greater than the
applied force.

Kinetic friction

If you apply a little more force, the object "breaks free" and
slides, although you still need to apply force to keep the object
sliding. You do not need to apply quite as much force to keep the
object sliding as you needed to originally break free of static friction.
 Mini-quiz to check your understanding

1. Is friction required when you are sleeping?

No, because you are not awake or doing anything

Scientists are not certain since the person is not awake

Yes, because without friction you could not roll over

2. What is the most common way to reduce

friction?
Lubrication

Warning signs

Eliminate the motion

3. Do you want to increase or decrease friction

when riding a bicycle?
Increase, because you don't want to go too fast

Both, because you want to be able to stop but yet peddle

easily

Decrease, because you don't want to peddle too

hard4.1.1Law of Dry Friction

 RN

Direction of
motion F
A

Figure 4.1

From Figure 4.1, let F be the force required to slide block A on surface
B, which is tangential to the surface of contact, RN is the normal reaction
force between the surfaces in contact. By law of dry friction,
FRN

F  RN ………………….……….. (1)

where  is coefficient of friction.

This concludes that;

1. Friction force is independent of shape and area of the

contacting surface.

2. The friction force directly proportional to normal force

between surfaces of contact.

3. The friction force depends on the nature of the surfaces of

contact (  ). Some of the values of  between various
surfaces.
 Material 
Wood on wood 0.45
Leather on metal 0.3 – 0.5
Cast iron on cast iron 0.16
Metal on wood 0.2 – 0.6
Glass on glass 0.4
Mild steel on cast iron 0.24
Table 4.1

Surfaces µ
Steel on steel 0.74
Glass on glass 0.94
Ice on ice 0.10
Teflon on Teflon 0.04
Tire on concrete 1.00
Tire on wet road 0.60
Tire on snow 0.30

4.1.2 The Limiting Angle of Friction

 RN
R
RN

P F  RN

W=mg W=mg

Figure 4.2

In the case where the surface of contact between A and B is

without any fluid or lubricant (dry friction), body A of weight W is at
rest on horizontal plane B as in Figure 4.2(a).

RN
R
RN

P F  RN
 Let P the force applied on block A as in Figure 4.2(b).

 There will be no relative motion until magnitude of P  F  RN

acting opposite to the direction of motion.

 In the limiting case, when motion is just about to start, body A will
be in equilibrium under action of three forces P, RN and R
i.e the reaction of B on A.
F F F RN
 The inclination tan        = ……….(2)
RN W mg RN

Where  is the limiting angle of friction.

If tan   , body A will start to move over the surface of B.
If tan   , body A will not move over the surface B.
For an inclined plane  as in Figure 4.3, weight of body A can be
resolved into components:

W sin   mg sin  and W cos   mg cos 

The body A will begin to slide down the plane only when:
mg sin   RN  mg cos 
tan   but from (2),
tan   thus tan  tan
   ………………………..……. (3)
R
RN


F  RN
A


 W=mg

Figure 4.3
4.1.3 The Inclined Plane
Some of the various forces acting on a body on an inclined plane are
examined;

a) Motion Up the Plane

(i) Neglecting friction
(ii) Considering Friction

b) Motion Down the Plane

(iii) Neglecting friction

(iv) Considering Friction

Let  = limiting angle of friction for the contact surface

 = Angle of inclination of plane to the horizontal
 = Inclination of applied force to the vertical (W)
P0 = Force required moving the body up the plane
(neglecting friction)
P = Force acting on the body parallel to the plane with
uniform velocity
R = Resultant reaction force
RN = Normal reaction force
W = Weight of the body
 = Coefficient of friction
a) Motion Up the Plane

(i) Neglecting friction

RN P0

P0
Direction of
motion
A
   W

RN 

W=mg 

(a) (b)
Figure 4.4

The body is in equilibrium under the force triangle in Figure

4.4(b). Applying sine rule from Figure 4.4(b);

P0 W

sin  sin     ………….………… (4)
(ii) Considering Friction
RN P

R

Direction of
motion P
A W

F  RN      

 
W=mg 

R

(a) (b)
Figure 4.5

The friction force F is acting in the direction opposite the

direction of motion of body as in Figure 4.5(a). The resultant
force R is inclined at angle  with normal reaction RN . From
triangle of forces in Figure 4.5(b), applying sine rule thus

P W

sin     sin      ……….……….. (5)
b) Motion Down the Plane

For the Figure 4.6(a), a case is taken where    , so that additional

force P (when considering friction) or P0 (when neglecting friction)
has to be applied to initiate the down-sliding of the body with uniform
velocity. The force polygon for motion down the plane without
friction is shown in Figure 4.6(a).

RN
P0
P


 
A
Direction of motion  W

RN 


W=mg 

Figure 4.6(a)

If neglecting friction force, applying sine rule;

P0 = W .
Sin α Sin ( θ – α )

P0 sin 

W sin     …….…………..….(6)
 R 180       
RN
P
P

F  RN
R
A
Direction of motion 
W
 
W=mg 


Figure 4.6(b)

From Figure 4.6(b), by considering friction force, the sine rule is;
. P = W .
Sin ( ø – α ) Sin [ 180 – { θ ( ø – α )}]

P sin    

W sin180        ……..………. (7)

Note: For the case    , the direction of P is such that it lowers the body down the plane at
uniform speed since W  P .
Example 1
A body of mass W resting on a horizontal plane requires a pull of
150N to remove the block. The force P is inclined at an angle 20˚ to
the plane. The body also requires a push of 200 N inclined at an
angle 20˚ to remove the block. Find the friction coefficient, µ and the
weight of the body.

Solution
For 1st Case:
Pull force = 150 N
RN
P=150N Resolve horizontally
F 20˚
F  150 cos 20  140.95 N
Resolve vertically,
W=mg W  RN  150 sin 20  RN  51.30
For 2nd Case:
RN
Push force = 200 N
P=200N
F
20˚ Resolve horizontally
F  200 cos 20  187.93 N
Resolve vertically,
W=mg
RN  W  200 sin 20  W  68.40
Using formula F  RN for both cases;

For 1st case: 140.95   W  51.30 …………………….. (1)

For 2nd case: 187.93   W  68.40 …….…..…………... (2)

Solve simultaneous equations by divide 1 with 2,

140.95  W  51.30

187.95  W  68.40

This results with W  410.40 N and   0.39

#
Example 2
A body of mass m is initially at rest on a α = 40˚ inclined plane. The
coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane is
µ=0.2. If the body slides down the plane until it reaches a speed of
15m/s, what distance along the plane does the body slide at that
speed.

Solution
The free body diagram of the block and the plane is;

Resolve vertically and horizontally to get;

RN  mg cos 40 ……………………………. (1)
∑F=ma mg sin 40  RN  ma ……………………………. (2)

RN

Direction of motion
F  RN

mg sin 40 

40 
40  m

Put (1) into (2) to get 

mg sin 40   mg cos 40  ma 
Thus acceleration, a  4.8 m/s2 by assume gravity is 9.81 m/s2.
From your secondary school knowledge, v  u  2as
2 2

with v  15 m/s, u  0 and a  4.8

152  0  24.8s
Thus distance of the plane, s  23.44 meters #
Find new distance, Snew if inclined plane angle α increased by 50%. ( Snew = 14.58 m )
Example 3
A body has weight 500 N is been pulled by a force P up a steady
inclined plane at 20˚ to the horizontal. The coefficient of friction
between the body and the plane is 0.2 and the force P is applied
parallel to the inclined plane;
a) calculate the force P needed to pull up at the load along the
plane.
b) Find also the work done in handling it a distance of 10 m
along the plane.
c) Find also the work done if the weight moving down at same
distance. (770 Nm )
d) Find out new inclined plane angle to let it freely moving
down . (11.3°)

Solution
Draw the free body diagram of the problem;
Resolve along the plane,
500 sin 20  F  P
171.01  RN  P ……………………..………….(1)
RN

Direction of motion
P

F  RN
20 
500 N

Resolve vertically to the plane,

RN  500 cos 20  469.85 N…….………………….(2)
Put (2) in (1) to get; P  171.01  0.2(469.85)  264.98 N
The force required is P  264.98 N

264.9810  2649.80 Nm.

Work done, W= P x s =
#
4.2 Applications of Friction – Screw Threads

 the screw - a generic name applied to a setscrew,

leadscrew, bolt, stud or other component equipped with
an external thread,

 The distance between similar points on adjacent threads is

the thread's pitch.

 the nut - refers to any component whose internal

thread engages the screw, such as the nut of a nut & bolt
or a large stationary casting with a tapped hole into which
a stud is screwed,
 screw

nut
p’

d
Figure 4.7

Consider a screw thread system in Figure 4.7 where the nut

rotates and the screw is fixed. Let W the axial force against which the
screw is turned. Let P the tangential force at the mean thread radius to
turn the nut. The thread is the plane inclined at angle  .
Let d = mean thread diameter
p = pitch
p'
Then tan   …………....……………….. (8)
d

Turning the nut on the screw is equivalent to moving the load W up or

down the inclined plane by means of horizontal force P applied at the
mean thread radius.
(i) Motion Up the Plane

Motion up the plane is done by raising the nut up the screw. The
triangle force is

RN tan   tan 
R P  W tan     W
  1  tan  tan 
Since tan  
P
   tan 
P W …………………. (9)
1   tan 
W
Torque is given by

d 
T  P  ………………… (10)
2

R w
(ii) Motion Down the Plane (case    )

Motion down the plane is done by lowering the nut down the
screw. The forces at the thread are;
tan   tan 
P  W tan     W
1  tan  tan 

Since tan  
R


  tan 
P
 P W …….………. (11)
1   tan 
Torque is given by
W
d 
T  P  …………..… (12)
2
Efficiency of Screw Threads

For motion up the plane, efficiency is the ratio of work done by W to

the work done by P.

Wp W tan  d tan 

   ………… (13)
P  d W tan   d tan   
Where; tanα=p’/πd
P=W tan(α+  )

For motion down the plane is the same term as (13).

Wp tan 
  .………. (14)
P  d tan   

d
For maximum efficiency, then 0
d
4.2.1 Friction In Vee Threads

RN Figure beside shows a section of a Vee

W
Thread Screw type. In Vee Thread screw, the
normal reaction force RN is increased due to
Screw the axial component of the weight W.

W
RN  ..…..………. (15)
cos 
Nut

This increased the friction force at ratio of

sec  : 1 between a Vee Thread and a flat
surface.
From the relation of F  RN and tan   thus
W W tan tan 
F  RN    , so   ….……………… (16)
cos  cos  cos 

Let P be the force applied at the mean radius of a screw thread.

For motion up the plane thus from equation;

tan   tan 
P  W tan     W for flat thread
1  tan  tan 

tan 
 tan 
P  W tan     W
cos 
W
tan   cos  tan  
for vee thread…..(17)
 tan   cos   tan  tan 
1    tan 
 cos  

The procedure is similar for motion down the plane.

tan   tan 
P  W tan     W for flat thread
1  tan  tan 

tan 
 tan 
cos  tan   cos  tan 
P  W tan     W W for vee thread……..(18)
 tan   cos   tan  tan 
1    tan 
 cos  
Example 1
A threaded screw has a mean diameter of 60 mm and pitch of 13 mm.
Given that the coefficient of friction between the nut and screw is 0.2.
Assuming the load to rotate with the screw,
(i) Determine the torque required on the screw to raise a load of 25 kN.
(ii) Find the percentage efficiency.
(iii) If a Vee thread of   10 is used to replace the present screw, what is the
torque required on the screw and its efficiency.
Solution
Given d  0.06 m, p '  0.013 ,   0.2 , W  25000 N
p' 0.013
From tan     0.069
d  0.06

Force to raise the load up on the screw

P W
tan   tan 
 25000
0.069  0.2  25000 0.269 
  , P  6819.10 N
1  tan  tan  1  0.0690.2  0.9862 
(-3230N)

d   0.06 
(i) Torque required; T  P   6819.10   204.57 Nm.
2  2 
(-96.91)

(ii) Efficiency in raising the load up the plane

Wp ' 250000.013
%   100  25%
Pd 6819.100.06 
(53.37%)

(iii) Using Vee thread, the required torque

P W
cos  tan  tan   25000 cos100.069   
cos   tan  tan   cos10  0.069  
 
 0.26795 
P  25000   6898.8 N
 0.971 
 0.06 
Torque required, T  6898.8   206.96 Nm
 2 
250000.013 325
Efficiency     0.249
6898.80.06  1300.39
Percentage efficiency  %  24.9%

#
4.3 Application of Friction – Friction Clutch

Clutch is a mechanical device used in automobiles to engage or

disengaged the driving and driven shaft instantaneously using a clutch
pedal operated by the driver.

Clutch is situated between the engine crankshaft and gearbox.

The stopping of vehicles can be done with the use of clutch even
when the engine still running.

This permits the changing of gears since the engine crankshaft

and transmission system can be disconnected.

There are different types of clutch used today such as Friction

clutch, Centrifugal clutch, Conical Spring Clutch, Electromagnetic
clutch, Vacuum Clutch and Hydraulic Clutch.

However, in this section, discussions are limited to Friction

Clutch type only. Friction clutch can be classified as plate, cone or
centrifugal clutch type.

Basic clutch
i) Single Plate Clutch

It is the most common type of clutch used in automobiles. It consists

of only one plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft as in
Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8 (a) clutch disengaged, disk not touching flyweel Figure 4.8 (b) clutch engaged, disk touching flyweel
ii) Multi Plate Clutch

Multi plate clutch is a clutch that consists of multiple clutch

plates. Friction between clutch plates will increase with the number of
contact surface of clutch plate, thus higher torque can be transmitted
to the driven shaft. Applications of multi plate clutch are such as in
heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars, trucks and cranes. Multi plate
clutch normally assembled in a drum and the driver and driven plate
clutch are firmly pressed by a strong coil springs. Figure 4.8(b) shows
an example of a multi plate clutch.

Figure 4.8(b)

In a multi clutch plate the number of contact surface of the clutch

plate is given by

n  n1  n2  1
Where n1 = number of disc at the driving shaft
n2 = number of disc at the driven shaft
4.3.1 Analysis of Clutch

Consider two flat annular surfaces in Figure 4.9, maintained in

contact by a thrust force W. Let T is the torque transmitted, r1 is the
outer radius and r2 is the inner radius of the surfaces.

W W
r1

r2

dr
r

Figure 4.9

Consider an elemental ring of radius r and thickness dr;

Area of elemental ring = 2πr x dr
Load of the ring, W = P x 2πrdr
r1

Total load on the ring = W   2rpdr

r2

Friction force on the ring, F = RN  W   2rpdr 

Moment on the ring = F x r

=  2rpdr r 

Total moment on the ring = T   p2r dr

r1
2

r2
1. Assume uniform pressure at all contact surface (new clutch plate)
 r 2  r22 
 
r1

W   2prdr  2p 1   p r12  r22

r2  2 

 r13  r23 
r1

T   2pr dr  2p 2

r2  3 

T
2
3
p r13  r23  
2  r13  r23 
   2
W p r12  r22  
3  r1  r22 


The total torque transmitted at the clutch plate before it slips is;
2  r13  r23 
T  W  2 2  for new clutch plate -------(15)
3  r1  r2 

For a worn clutch plate, a uniform wear theory can be

applied

For uniform wear condition, wear α pressure x radius,

that is pr  k =constant.

r1

W   2kdr  2k r1  r2 

r2

 
r1

T   2krdr  k r12  r22

r2

The total torque transmitted at the clutch plate before it slips is;
W
T  r1  r2  Worn out clutch plate…….. (16)
2
Example 1

A plate clutch has three discs on the driving shaft and two discs on the driven shaft,
providing four pairs of contact surfaces each of 240 mm external diameter and 120 mm
internal diameter. Assuming uniform pressure, find the total spring load pressing the plates
together to transmit 25 kW at 1575 rev/min using,   0.3 . If there are six springs each of
stiffness 13 kN/m, and each of the contact surfaces has worn away by 1.25 mm, what is the
maximum power that can be transmitted at the same rev/min, assuming uniform wear and
have same coefficient of friction.

Solution

Total torque transmitted at speed of 1575 rev/min

P 2500060
T   151.6 Nm.
 2 1575

But for uniform pressure, as with equation (15), but now with 4 pair of contact surface
 r13  r23 
T  4W  2
2
2
3  r1  r2 
 0.12 3  0.06 3 
151.6  40.3W 
2
3
 0.12  0.06 
3
3

Total thrust force i.e the total spring load pressing plates together is
W  1355 N.
Since there are 4 pair of contact surface, it mean total contact surface = 8
Thus total wear = 8 1.25  10 mm

Reduction in spring force, use F  kx , then

F  6130000.01  780 N.
The new axial load considering the wear,
WR  W  F  1355  780  575 N.

Now the new torque transmitted due to wear is

r  r   0.12  0.06 
Twear  4WR  1 2   40.3575 
 2   2
Twear  62 Nm.
In order to find maximum power, before wear, 151.6 Nm of torque produce 25 kW of power,
thus for 62 Nm torque, thus power transmitted is
25000
Pwear   62  10250 W
151.6
PROBLEMS - FRICTIONS, SCREW THREADS AND CLUTCH
( section 1, odd number and section 4 even number ) dateline 1st. Dec 2015

1. Discuss briefly the various types of friction experienced by a body. Explain the
following term; (a) Limiting friction (b) Angle of friction
(c) Coefficient of friction (d) Angle of Repose

2. An effort of 2 kN is required just to move a certain body up an inclined plane of

angle 15˚, the force acting parallel to the plane. If the angle of inclination of the
plane is made 20˚, the effort required again, applied parallel to the plane is found to
be 2.3 kN. Find the weight of the body and the coefficient of friction.
(Ans:   0.26 , W = 3.9 kN)

3. A body of mass 50 kg and with a surface for which on the same plane, the friction
coefficient is 0.15, is to be moved by a force P directed at an angle 15˚ to the plane,
i.e at 35˚ to the horizontal. Calculate the value of P which will cause steady upward
movement, and also the value to which P must be reduce before downward
movement becomes possible. Any formulae use should be established or explained
by vector diagrams of forces.
(Ans: 235.8N, 106.4N)

4. The pitch of 50 mm mean diameter threaded screw of a screw jack is 12.5 mm. The
coefficient of friction between the screw and nut is 0.13. Determine the torque
required on the screw to raise a load of 25 kN, assuming the load to rotate with
screw. Determine the ratio of the torque required to raise the load, to the torque
required to lower the load.
(Ans: 132.35 Nm, 4.155)

5. A turnbuckle with right and left hand threads is used to couple two railway coaches.
It has single start square threads with pitch of 13 mm on a mean diameter of 39 mm.
Taking the coefficient of friction as 0.1, find the work done in drawing the coaches
together, a distance of 20.8 cm (a) against a steady load of 2500 N (b) if the load
increases over 20.8 cm from 2500 N to 7500 N (c) Efficency.
(Ans: (a) 1021 Nm, (b) 2042 Nm, (c) 51%)

6. A screw jack having square threads of 5 cm mean diameter and 1.25 cm pitch is
operated by a 50 cm long hand lever. Coefficient of friction at the threads is 0.1.
Determine the effort needed to be applied at the end of the lever to lift a load of 20
kN.
(Ans: 181 N)
7. A sluice gate of mass 6 tonne, is subjected to a normal pressure of 2.5 MN. It is
raised by means of vertical screw which engages with a screwed bush fixed to the top
of the gate. The screw is rotated by a 37 kW motor running at maximum speed of
600 rev/min, and bevel pinion on the motor shaft gearing with a bevel wheel of 80
teeth keyed to the vertical screw. The screw is 125 mm mean diameter and 25 mm
pitch. Coefficient of friction for the screw in the nut is 0.08 and between the gates is
its guides are 0.10.
If friction losses, additional to those mentioned above, amount to 15% of the total
power available, determine the maximum number of teeth for the bevel pinion.
(Ans : 14)

8. Explain clearly the operation principle of engage and disengage of a single plate
clutch. Derive using single plate clutch, using assumptions of uniform pressure over
2  r13  r23 
the contact area, equation T  W  2 2  , and using assumptions uniform
3  r1  r2 
W
wear over the contact area, equation T   r1  r2  .
2
9. A motor car clutch is required to transmit 15 kW at 3000 rpm. It is of single plate
type, both sides of plate being effective. If   0.25 and the axial pressure is
limited to 0.85 bar of plate area and the external diameter of the plate is 1.5 times the
internal diameter, determine the dimensions of the plate.

10. A friction clutch is required to transmit 34.5 kW at 2000 rpm. It is to be of single

plate disc type with both sides of the plate effective, the pressure being applied
axially by means of springs and limited to 70 kN/m2. If the outer diameter of the
plate is to be 300 mm, find the required inner diameter of the clutch ring and the total
force exerted by the springs. Assume the wear to be uniform. Use   0.3
(Ans: 200 mm, 2.2 kN)

11. A multi plate clutch has 3 discs on the driving shaft and 2 on the driven shaft. The
outside diameter of the contact surfaces is 30 cm and inside diameter is 15 cm.
Assuming uniform wear and   0.3 , find the maximum axial intensity of pressure
between the discs for transmitting 30 kW at 1800 rpm.
(Ans: 33357 N/m2)

12. A multi plate clutch is to transmit 12 kW at 1500 rpm. The inner and outer radii for
the plates are 50 mm and 100 mm respectively. The maximum axial spring force is
restricted to 1 kN. Calculate the necessary number of pairs of surfaces if   0.35
and assuming constant wear. What will be the necessary axial force?
(Ans: 3, 970 N)