Surface Armor For Erosion Protection

CHAPTER 7
SURFACE ARMOR FOR EROSION PROTECTION
In this chapter, descriptive information is generally followed by a discussion of

advantages, disadvantages, typical applications, and design considerations as appropriate. In
order to minimize redundancy, these topics are discussed at the broadest possible level in the
hierarchy of the text; in other words, aspects which are shared by all techniques are discussed
at the beginning of the chapter; aspects which are shared by a group of techniques are
discussed at the group level; aspects that are peculiar to a smaller category of techniques, or
to a single technique, are discussed at the appropriate level of specificity.
The extent of the discussion of specific techniques ranges from the detailed design
guidance presented for riprap to a brief description for some specialized techniques.
Therefore, a complete understanding of a specific technique requires perusal of all material
at a broader level in the text, as well as material peculiar to that technique.
The following paragraphs outline the general description, advantages, disadvantages,

typical applications, and design considerations for most surface armor used in bank
stabilization methods:
Armor is a protective material in direct contact with the streambank. Armor

is often simply called “revetment,” but the more specific term “armor” is used
here because other forms of bank stabilization, such as retards and retaining
walls, are also referred to in some regions as revetments. Armor materials can
be categorized as follows:
Stone;
Other self-adjusting armor;
Rigid armor; and
Flexible mattress.
Advantages are: Armoring the surface of the bank is a proven approach which
can be precisely designed for a given situation, and which provides immediate
and effective protection against erosion. Also, existing or potential problems
from erosion by overbank drainage can be effectively addressed integrally with
the design of the streambank armor work.
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Surface Armor for Erosion Protection
Disadvantages are: Preparation of the bank slope is usually required, either

for geotechnical stability or to provide a smooth surface for proper placement
of the armor. This may result in high cost, environmental damage, and
disturbance to adjacent structures. The extent of earthwork associated with
an armor revetment will be especially significant if the existing channel
alignment is to be modified either by excavation or by placing fill material in
the channel.
Effective subaqueous placement of armor material in deep water or when

current velocities are high is often difficult and costly.
Some armor materials may require special measures to mitigate undesirable

aesthetic and biological characteristics.
Design considerations are: Armor must have sufficient weight and/or strength
to remain in place when subjected to hydraulic forces and impact from objects
carried by the stream. It must also prevent significant loss of bank material
from beneath it due to turbulence of flow or movement of groundwater.
All armor protection requires careful consideration of the geotechnical

stability of the bank, and sometimes a granular or fabric underlayment is
required for proper interior drainage of the bank material, or to prevent loss
of fine grained material through the armor.
7.1 STONE ARMOR
The following paragraphs outline the general description, advantages, and

disadvantages for most stone armors used as a bank stabilization method:
Stone armor can be placed in four general configurations, the most common
being a “riprap blanket.” Other forms, known as “trenchfill,” “longitudinal
stone toe,” and “windrow” (referred to in some regions as “falling apron”),
can be very useful in certain situations.
A stone armor usually consists of “graded” stone, which is a mixture of a wide

range of stone sizes; the largest sizes resist hydraulic forces, and the smaller
sizes add interlocking support and prevent loss of bank material through gaps
between the larger stones. Hand-placed stone in a smaller range of sizes is
occasionally used.
Advantages are: Because its performance has been so thoroughly analyzed

by research and practical application in a wide range of conditions, stone
armor can be designed with an especially high degree of precision and
confidence. The American Society of Civil Engineers' Task Committee on
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Channel Stabilization Works stated in 1965 that “Stone is the most commonly
used material for upper bank paving for revetment works, and in most cases
has proved superior to other materials because of durability and ability to
conform to minor irregularities in the slope” (ASCE, 1965). Since that time,
further development and application of manufactured proprietary armor
materials, and increasing emphasis on environmental considerations and the
use of vegetation for erosion control, has tempered that observation to some
degree. However, the favorable attributes of stone armor are not diminished
by the increasing availability of alternative materials. Furthermore, well-
graded stone can often be placed without a separate underlayment material,
because it provides permeability without exposing bank material. This
characteristic may be a crucial factor when comparing the economics of
alternative armor materials.
Disadvantages are: Stone may be more costly than other materials, depending
on its availability. It requires heavy equipment for efficient placement on large
projects. It may be considered unaesthetic for some locations, and may not
compare favorably with other materials in some environmental circumstances.
7.1.1 RIPRAP BLANKET
Detailed discussion of and design guidance for this most common form of stone armor
is provided in Appendix A. Environmental considerations pertinent to the use of riprap armor
are discussed in 5.2.2.
7.1.2 TRENCHFILL
7.1.2.1 Description
A trenchfill revetment, shown in Figures 7.1 and 7.2, is simply a standard stone armor
revetment with a massive stone toe. It is normally constructed in an excavated trench behind
the river bank, in anticipation that the river will complete the work by eroding to the
revetment, causing the stone toe to launch down and armor the subaqueous bank slope.
Material other than stone, such as broken soil-cement, has been used successfully and
may be less costly than stone, but careful design of the soil/cement mixture, and careful
monitoring of the material mixing, breaking, and placing operation is required.
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Figure 7.1 Typical Cross Section of a Trenchfill Revetment
Figure 7.2 Aerial View of Trenchfill Revetment With Foreshore Material Still in
Place
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7.1.2.2 Advantages
A trenchfill revetment allows stabilization along a predetermined alignment, and is

often simpler to design and construct than a revetment placed on the active stream bank.
7.1.2.3 Disadvantages
Trenchfill allows erosion to continue unabated until the stream reaches it, and its
construction requires heavy equipment. Large areas of rights-of-way are usually required.
7.1.2.4 Typical Application
Trenchfill's most powerful use is in the following circumstances:
Where a smooth alignment of the stabilized channel is required (usually to

meet navigation criteria); and
Where rapid erosion rates, high velocities, large depths of flow, or rapid
fluctuations in river stages make construction within the stream channel very
difficult.
Trenchfill has been extremely useful where these conditions exist on the Arkansas,
Red, Missouri, and Mississippi Rivers. The key to successful performance is a relatively
uniform rate of launching at any given point, although uniformity of bank recession along its
length is not a prerequisite to successful performance. Therefore, it is most successful when
bank materials are predominantly noncohesive. Otherwise, additional stone may be necessary,
either during construction or in later reinforcement operations, to compensate for inefficient
launching where the underlying bank material fails by slab or rotational slips.
7.1.2.5 Design Considerations
Special design considerations are as follows:
The required thickness of the stone armor on the upper bank slope can be computed
according to Appendix A or can be based on successful experience under similar conditions.
Stone gradation can likewise either be computed according to the guidance provided
in Appendix A, or based on successful experience in similar applications. A gradation which
has a significant amount of fine stony material has been shown by experience to be effective
in many cases without a filter or underlayment, because the fines fill the voids between the
larger stones, while still allowing the armor layer to retain adequate permeability. Such
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gradations are sometimes called “quarry run” because little sorting is required after the
blasting operation in the quarry.
The required volume of stone in the trench can be computed according to guidance
provided in Appendix A, after the design depth of toe scour is either computed or estimated
based on previous experience.
Design of the trench is a compromise between economics and performance. A higher

trench bottom elevation reduces the volume of excavation and is less likely to require
expensive dewatering or difficult underwater excavation. Unfortunately, it also requires a
greater total volume of stone because allowing the stone to launch is less efficient than placing
it to the required thickness on a prepared slope above water. Thus, a higher trench elevation
requires a larger volume of stone to protect a given height of bank, because non-uniform
launching of the toe stone must be allowed for. The guidance for required quantity of toe
stone presented in Appendix A allows for this, but the fact remains that pre-placing stone
closer to its final position (that is, to a lower elevation) carries less risk than allowing it to
launch, particularly if the bank contains cohesive material which may retreat by mass failure
rather than eroding uniformly.
Because placing the stone in the trench to the lowest practicable elevation is desirable,
the elevation of the bottom of the trench is sometimes specified to be as much ten feet below
the river stage expected during the construction season, based on the assumption that
groundwater level in the trench will be about the same as the river stage. Ten feet of
underwater excavation is the most that is usually feasible with standard equipment without
dewatering. Careful supervision during construction is required, and the underwater trench
should be filled with stone in a continuous operation immediately behind the excavation
finishing operations.
A useful design refinement is to provide for a variable depth of trench, keyed to the
actual river stage during construction. This permits taking maximum advantage of low river
levels by lowering the trench so that the stone can be placed at a lower elevation. It also
allows the trench bottom to be raised if river levels are unexpectedly high. Construction can
then continue in spite of higher stages, without putting the contractor in an untenable position
by requiring more underwater excavation or dewatering than was anticipated in the original
bid. The specifications should set an upper limit of river stage, above which operations will
be suspended. Setting this upper limit is a subjective decision, determined by the urgency of
completing the work, the hydrologic characteristics of the river, and the experience of design
and construction personnel. The extreme case, if quick completion of the work is mandatory
in spite of high river stages, is to allow for substituting a stone windrow revetment,
constructed without excavation, in place of the trenchfill.
The design slopes of the trench are established by the most critical geotechnical
condition, depending on bank materials. This will usually be the fully launched condition.
The configuration of the riverside slope of the trench is governed only by construction
considerations, the only requirement being that the trench remain stable long enough for the
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stone to be placed, without creating a hazardous condition for construction personnel in the
interim.
Environmental or land use considerations may limit the area available for the disposal
of material excavated from the trench. Within those limitations, excavated material can be
placed either riverward or landward of the trench. If it is placed riverward of the trench, it
will be eroded away as the river channel migrates toward the revetment, although it should
be placed so that it does not cause geotechnical bank failures that might affect the integrity
of the stone in the trench before it launches. If it is placed landward of the trench, the
geotechnical design of the work should account for its presence, and proper routing of surface
drainage should be provided for. Unless it is certain that natural revegetation will occur on
the disposal area within a short time after completion of construction, vegetation should be
established as part of the construction operation. Since the disposal area will be built up
higher than the adjacent ground, habitat diversity can be improved by establishing species of
vegetation that are less tolerant of flooding than the existing species.
A portion of the excavated material can be placed so that it becomes an extension of

the bank slope, in order to provide a greater degree of control over the direction of flows at
river stages which would otherwise overtop the natural bank. This is more likely to be
desirable in cases where the channel alongside the revetment will be used by navigation traffic
than in cases where prevention of channel migration is the only project purpose. In such
cases, the material should be semi-compacted as it is placed, and then protected from erosion
as if it were part of the original bank.
7.1.3 WINDROW
7.1.3.1 Description
A windrow revetment is simply an extreme variation of a trenchfill revetment. A

windrow revetment consists of rock placed on the floodplain surface landward from the
existing bankline at a pre-determined location, beyond which additional erosion is to be
prevented as shown in Figures 7.3 through 7.6.
7.1.3.2 Advantages
A windrow has the same advantages as a trenchfill, and is even simpler to design and
construct.
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Figure 7.3 Schematic Diagram of Windrow Revetment
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Figure 7.4 Conventional Windrow Placed on Top Bank
Figure 7.5 Placement of Windrow Rock in Excavated Trench on Top Bank
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Figure 7.6 Launched Windrow Rock
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A windrow also has the same disadvantages as trenchfill. Also, it is rather wasteful
of stone when it is placed on top of the stream bank, because the self-launching process is not
as efficient when the stone must launch down the entire bank height rather than only below
the bottom of a trench excavated to a lower elevation.
7.1.3.4 Typical Applications
Where stone or other suitable windrow material is relatively inexpensive, construction

of a windrow behind the existing bank may be cost-effective, if the simplicity of design and
construction offset the relatively inefficient use of material. As with trenchfill, the key to
efficient performance is a relatively uniform rate of launching at any given point. Therefore,
sites with predominantly non-cohesive bank materials are the most suitable.
Windrow may be appropriate for emergency situations, where urgency overrides cost,
there is limited time for detailed design, and high river stages and velocities prevent normal
construction operations. The site conditions, availability of materials, equipment, and labor,
in practice dictate the design, which must be performed concurrently with mobilization of
resources and the beginning of construction. The approach is to quickly feed into the stream
a resistant material at the critical points, continuing the operation until the crisis passes and
a well-designed, permanent solution can be engineered.
The design of windrow is approached in the same way as trenchfill, except that no
trench design is required. Geotechnical analysis is recommended to determine if the risk of
mass bank failure during or after launching is acceptable, although it is impossible to obtain
the same degree of geotechnical safety with windrow as with more conventional methods, so
that some risk is unavoidable.
Based on laboratory model studies conducted at the U.S. Army Waterways

Experiment Station, a rectangular shape for the windrow was found to be the best windrow
shape (USACE, 1981). This shape supplies an initial surge of stone which counters the
thinning effect of the scour in the toe zone of the forming revetment. The remaining portion
of the windrow then provides as ready supply of stone to produce a uniform paving.
However, this shape does require the excavation of a trench for placement of the stone. The
second best windrow shape was the trapezoidal shape. It has one advantage over the
rectangular shape in that no trench is needed to contain the windrow stone. This shape
supplies a steady supply of stone similar to the rectangular shape. The triangular shape was
the least desirable shape. This shape supplies more stone initially, but the quantity of stone
diminishes as the windrow is undercut.
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The velocity and characteristics of the stream dictate the size of stone used to form
the windrow revetment. The stone must be large enough to resist being transported by the
stream. Results obtained from windrow revetments constructed on the Missouri River
indicated that small gradation stone (200-pound top size with D 50 of 7 to 8 inches) was more
effective than large gradation stone (500-pound top size with D50 of 9 to 10 inches) because
the smaller gradation forms a more dense, closely chinked protective blanket layer than the
larger gradation. A well graded stone is important to ensure that the revetment does not fail
from leaching of the underlying bank material.
7.1.4 LONGITUDINAL STONE TOE
7.1.4.1 Description
Longitudinal stone toe is another form of a windrow revetment, with the stone placed
along the existing streambed rather than on top bank. The longitudinal stone toe is placed
with the crown well below top bank, and either against the eroding bankline or a distance
riverward of the high bank. Typical crown elevations may vary but are commonly between
1/3 and 2/3 of the height to top bank.
The success of longitudinal stone toe protection is based on the premise that as the
toe of the bank is stabilized, upper bank failure will continue until a stable slope is attained
and the bank is stabilized. This stability is usually assisted by the establishment of vegetation
along the bank.
7.1.4.2 Advantages
A longitudinal stone toe has the same advantages as a trenchfill and windrow. It also
allows for the preservation of much of the existing vegetation on the bank slope, and
encourages the growth of additional vegetation as the bank slope stabilizes. An additional
advantage is that the treatment is amenable to the planting of additional vegetation behind it.
A longitudinal stone toe also has the same disadvantages as trenchfill. By definition,
longitudinal stone toe protection only provides toe protection and does not directly protect
mid and upper bank areas. Some erosion of these mid and upper bank areas should be
anticipated during long-duration, high energy flows, especially before these areas stabilize
and become vegetated.
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Longitudinal stone toe protection is especially suitable where the upper bank slope is
fairly stable (due to vegetation, cohesive material, or relatively low flow velocities), and
erosion can be arrested by placing a windrow along the toe of the bank. This avoids the
wasted effort of disturbing, then rearmoring, an existing stable slope. Small or ephemeral
streams are especially suited to this approach.
The longitudinal stone toe technique may be appropriate where the existing stream
channel is to be realigned, although for maximum effectiveness the top elevation of the stone
must be high enough that it is not overtopped frequently. In this application, it actually
functions as a retard.
There are basically two variations of the longitudinal stone toe. These will be referred
to as longitudinal peaked stone toe protection, and longitudinal stone fill toe protection.
Design consideration for these two stabilization measures are discussed below.
Longitudinal Peaked Stone Toe Protection. An efficient design for a longitudinal

stone toe is to simply specify a weight or volume of stone to be placed per unit length of
streambank, rather than to specify a given finished elevation and cross-section dimensions.
This basically results in a triangular shaped section of stone placed along the toe of the
streambank. This type of protection is commonly referred to as a longitudinal peaked stone
toe protection (Figures 7.7 and 7.8). A primary attraction of this treatment is its simplicity.
Extensive surveys and analysis during design and construction would reduce that attraction.
Since the volume of stone required at each section is determined by the estimated scour
depth, simply specifying a volume or weight is all that is required. In the small streams of
north Mississippi, longitudinal peaked stone toe protection placed at a rate of 1 to 2 tons per
linear foot of streambank has proven to be one of the most successful bank stabilization
measures used in that area. This generally results in a height of stone between 3 and 5 feet
high above the streambed. A “typical” cross-section can be specified on the drawings, along
with a relatively smooth alignment to fit site conditions. During construction, the selected
alignment for the structure is flagged, and increments of length are measured as appropriate
for the size of delivery vehicles or placement buckets. Design, bidding, and supervision of
construction is, therefore, greatly simplified.
With longitudinal peaked stone toe protection, the establishment of vegetation

landward of the structure is a critical component for a successful project. Consequently, it is
important to maintain as much of the natural vegetation as possible. If at all possible, the
construction site should be approached and the construction work accomplished from the
riverward side of the bank to leave the existing upper bank vegetation undisturbed.
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(a) One Ton Per Foot Immediately After Construction
(b) Same Site One Year Later
Figure 7.7 Typical Longitudinal Peaked Stone Toe Protection
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Figure 7.8 Typical Longitudinal Peaked Stone Toe Protection With Tiebacks
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Longitudinal peaked stone toe protection is easily combined with vegetative treatments for
a composite design (Figure 7.9).
The centerline of the longitudinal peak stone toe protection should be constructed
along a smooth alignment, preferably with a uniform radius of curvature throughout the bend.
The upstream and downstream ends of the structure should be protected against flanking and
eddy action.
Where the bank materials are highly erodible, and the adequacy of an unsupported
stone placed along the toe of the bank may be marginal, stone dikes can be placed at intervals
as “tiebacks” to prevent erosion from forming behind the structure. A spacing of one to two
multiples of channel width can be used between tiebacks. At the very least, a tieback at the
downstream limit of the structure is recommended.
Longitudinal Stone Fill Toe Protection. With longitudinal stone fill toe protection,
a top elevation and crown width for the stone are specified, along with bank grading and/or
filling to provide for a consistent cross-section of stone. The finished product could just as
easily be classified as a thickened stone armor to provide a launchable toe, with the top
elevation of the armor being well below top bank elevation. In fact, this method is sometimes
referred to as reinforced revetment. There are two basic configurations of longitudinal stone
fill toe protection. One method is to place the toefill stone adjacent to the high bank with the
tieback stone fill placed in trenches excavated into the high bank as shown in Figure 7.10. In
some instances it may be necessary to place the toefill stone riverward of the high bank as
shown in Figure 7.11. Longitudinal stone fill toe protection is often used as the toe
protection with other methods for upper bank protection.
Longitudinal stone fill toe protection can be “notched” in the same manner as a
transverse dike or retard in order to provide an aquatic connection between the main channel
and the area between the structure and the bank slope.
7.2 OTHER SELF-ADJUSTING ARMOR
Some armor materials other than stone which have the ability to adjust to scour,
settlement, or surface irregularities are:
Concrete blocks;
Sacks filled with earth, sand, and/or cement; and
Soil-cement blocks.
Materials which have been occasionally used in the past, but which have serious
shortcomings, are:
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Figure 7.9 Longitudinal Peaked Stone Toe Protection In Combination With Willow Post
Upper Bank Protection
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Figure 7.10 Longitudinal Stone Fill Toe Protection Placed Adjacent to Bank With
Tiebacks
Figure 7.11 Longitudinal Stone Fill Toe Protection Riverward of High Bank With
Tiebacks
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Rubble from demolition of pavement or other source;

Slag from steel furnaces; and
Automobile bodies.
7.2.1 CONCRETE BLOCKS
7.2.1.1 Description
The discussion here will focus on armor revetments composed of blocks which are
placed as individual components. Additional discussion of concrete blocks fastened together
in flexible mattresses is provided in 7.4.1.
A wide variety of block shapes and placement techniques can be used. Some have
evolved from engineering analyses, some from observation and empiricism, and some from
improvisation using readily available materials.
Blocks designed specifically for bank armor are commercially available. Forms for
casting concrete blocks locally are often available from distributors, and may be an
economical alternative to purchasing and transporting precast blocks.
7.2.1.2 Advantages
Concrete blocks are durable, provide permeability for bank drainage, and are amenable
to complementary vegetative treatment. Most designs provide easy pedestrian access to
water's edge, and may be more aesthetic than other materials. Channel boundary roughness
is less than with many other techniques. Hand-laid blocks will fit irregularly shaped areas, and
do not demand access by heavy construction equipment.
A fabric or granular underlayment (“filter”) is often required. Successful performance

of the underlayment is more critical than with a riprap armor. In areas of high turbulence or
waves, displacement of one block can lead to successive displacement of adjacent blocks.
If blocks are cast on-site, delays from inclement weather may be a problem.
At sites that are subject to theft or vandalism, blocks of an attractive size and shape
may suffer serious attrition.
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In addition to typical application as bank armor, blocks can be used effectively for
special features such as ditch and spillway linings, culvert outlets, walkways. They are
suitable for areas to be vegetated which are subject to erosive forces which vegetation alone
could not withstand.
Manufactured blocks are sometimes the least-cost alternative for self-adjusting armor.
This is usually in regions where riprap must be transported long distances at great expense,
or at sites of high erosive forces where a thick armor of riprap can be replaced by a thinner
armor of concrete blocks.
They are well-suited for projects where labor-intensive hand placement is acceptable.
Efficient mechanized placement is an option when the blocks are fabricated into mattresses.
Manufacturers' recommendations and/or guidance from laboratory tests and field

experience, should be followed in determining block thickness and other details.
7.2.2 SACKS
7.2.2.1 Description
Sacks as an armor material can be considered to be artificial “rocks” of uniform size

and shape. The sacks may be made of paper, burlap, or a synthetic material. The fill material
may be soil or aggregate of various types, with or without cement.
7.2.2.2 Advantages
Sacks can be placed on a steeper slope than stone.
Materials are often available locally. The hydraulic roughness is low, and they form
a walkable surface. The “cobblestone” effect may be more aesthetic than some other
materials.
A sack armor may tend to act monolithically on steeper slopes, therefore small failures
can lead to large ones. The characteristic of being “stackable” may lead to their use on slopes
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too steep for long-term geotechnical stability, although this is a flaw in design rather than an
inherent flaw of sacks themselves.
Synthetic bags, which are sometimes marketed as being suitable for filling with soil
or sand rather than a cementious mixture, may be vulnerable to environmental hazards such
as fire, ice, vandalism, livestock traffic, floating debris, and rupturing by the roots of
vegetation.
A fabric and/or granular underlayment (“filter”) is usually required, whereas that may
not be the case with a riprap blanket. Successful performance of the underlayment is more
critical than with riprap.
A sack armor may not be as likely to support vegetative growth as readily as some
other armor materials, especially if a cementious filler is used, or if the sacks are placed on
a steep slope. However, in situations where vegetative growth is not desirable, this would
be an advantage.
Sacks are especially suitable for use on transitions to steep slopes, or in areas where
they are aesthetically desirable. If low-cost labor is available, they may be the most cost-
effective method, especially on small projects.
If commercial bags are used, then the manufacturer's guidance should be followed.
Otherwise, the following guidance should be used:
Sack material selection is not critical if the sacks are to be filled with a cementious
mixture, as long as they are strong enough to withstand the stress of handling, and will not
degrade before the cement sets up. The choice of sack material can then be based on
economics, considering the total operation of filling, closing and placing. Some commercial
bags have ingenious provisions to speed filling and closing, thus reducing labor costs.
Prefilled bags are available in some areas. An alternative to specifying a particular sack for
work to be contracted out is to allow bidders a choice of sacks, within broad guidelines.
Sack size should be small enough for laborers to handle. General purpose sacks such
as burlap bags or sandbags should have a capacity larger than the desired in-place volume, so
that the open end can be folded under the bag as it is placed.
The usual filler material is a sand/cement mixture. Since labor costs are high
regardless of fill material, use of a non-cementious filler should be considered only if
significant savings would result, and a long life is not required. One such case would be for
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slopes where vegetation will be established for permanent protection, and permanent toe
protection is provided by some other material. Otherwise, a cementious filler is recommended.
A common mix is 5 parts aggregate to 1 part cement by volume. Ideal aggregate
characteristics are discussed in 7.2.3, but streambed sands are usually suitable.
A typical sack revetment is shown in Figure 7.12. Placing the bags flat on the bank
slope is recommended only if the slope is flatter than 1V on 2.5H. The practice on steeper
slopes is to provide an overlap, which adds to structural stability as well as allowing some
adjustment to scour and settlement without exposing bare bank. On slopes of 1V on 2.5H
or 1V on 2H, the bags should be overlapped by placing with the long dimension pointing
toward the bank, while on slopes steeper than 1V on 2H, the bags should be overlapped with
the short dimension pointed toward the bank. This produces the most efficient bank coverage
while still providing the desired overlap between bags. The bags should be placed with
staggered vertical joints, as in laying bricks.
Filling of bags is usually done with a portable concrete mixer when a soil-cement mix
is used. For maximum convenience in handling, the bags can be filled with dry material rather
than adding water during the mixing process. After placement, the bags can be sprinkled
with water to speed hydration. Ambient moisture, rainfall, and/or stream flow will complete
the hydration process.
There are two alternative approaches to bonding between adjacent sacks. “No
bonding” permits individual sacks to adjust to scour and settlement, whereas “bonding”
provides greater overall structural strength. The designer must decide which is preferred for
a particular application. Generally, bonding is desirable only if design velocity is so high that
individual bags might be displaced. Otherwise, adjustability is desirable. Bonding can be
discouraged by using tightly woven sacks or placing heavy paper between adjacent courses.
Bonding can be encouraged by using porous sacks, placing cement between cold courses, or
driving rods through adjacent bags.
7.2.3 SOIL-CEMENT BLOCKS
7.2.3.1 Description
Soil is mixed well with sufficient cement to provide a durable bond between soil
particles. The resulting monolith is broken into blocks of various sizes, which are used to
armor the bank.
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Figure 7.12 Typical Sack Revetment
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7.2.3.2 Advantages
Besides the general characteristics of adjustability to bank irregularities and self-

healing properties, soil-cement blocks allow the utilization of locally available materials.
Soil-cement blocks have a lower specific weight than riprap, and obtaining acceptable
gradation and durability are highly dependent on closely controlled construction operations.
Construction operations are adversely affected by wet or cold weather.
7.2.3.4 Typical Application
Soil-cement blocks are most often used when stone is prohibitively expensive, suitable
soil for aggregate is available at or near the job site, and personnel experienced in making the
blocks are available. Cost savings over alternative methods are more likely on larger projects
which amortize the cost of operations set-up.
Since soil-cement blocks are simply man-made rocks, the general principles of
effective riprap design apply. However, the lower specific weight of soil-cement requires
larger block sizes for equivalent protection, and size criteria as precise as those for riprap do
not exist.
For other aspects of design, extensive research and field experience has resulted in
detailed recommendations by the Portland Cement Concrete Association and others. The
following points are especially important:
Specifying a suitable soil as aggregate is critical. Although soil-cement can be

made from almost any soil, soil with at least 55 percent sand and no more than
35 percent fines is recommended. A “graded” soil of mostly sand, but with
some non-clayey fines and gravel provides the optimum combination of
workability, strength, durability, and minimum cement requirements.
Blocks with a low cement content may be vulnerable to damage from waves,
impingement by high velocity streamflow, and abrasion from transported
sediment.
A controlled gradation of finished blocks is best obtained by spreading mixed

soil-cement in slabs of varying thicknesses, then scarifying the upper portion
of each slab early in the curing process. Following curing, the slabs can be
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broken into blocks by driving heavy equipment over them. Sizes of the
broken blocks will vary according to the thickness of the slabs and the
distance between scarification lines.
Careful quality control during construction is vital to insure that

specifications are met.
7.2.4 RUBBLE FROM DEMOLITION
7.2.4.1 Description
The ideal rubble for erosion protection is a dense, durable material such as concrete
or asphalt with a size gradation similar to riprap.
7.2.4.2 Advantages
Rubble is economical, and recycles material that otherwise might be wasted.
Even dedicated advocates of economy and recycling are likely to view rubble on a
stream as unesthetic at best. Leachates from some rubble may pose a water quality problem.
Since rubble is usually available only on a “take it or leave it” basis, it may be too
small and/or too large. Losses of finer material due to piping, overbank drainage, and
streamflow is likely. Conversely, larger rubble precludes attaining a uniform and efficient
layer thickness.
Rubble would be considered where the justification for a more sophisticated but
expensive armor does not exist, suitable rubble is available, and the environmental
shortcomings are acceptable. It is often used in windrow form.
Although precise control is likely to be impossible, the same general principles as for
riprap will apply to weight, gradation, and durability requirements for rubble. The layer
thickness should be equal to at least 1.5 times the maximum block size, although controlling
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the placement of larger blocks may not be practical, and their in-place orientation may depend
more on chance than on design specifications.
When rubble contains large amounts of fines and/or oversize blocks, the layer
thickness should be increased generously over the theoretical riprap thickness that would be
required for the same site conditions.
A granular or fabric filter can be used to improve performance, but at the sacrifice of
economy. Some risk in performance is inherent in rubble, and the additional risk of using it
without a filter is usually accepted.
7.2.5 SLAG FROM STEEL FURNACES
7.2.5.1 Description
Slag is a granular material which is a by-product of steel-making. It is most

commonly known for its use as railroad track ballast.
7.2.5.2 Advantages
Slag may be relatively inexpensive when available locally, and its use recycles material
that might otherwise be wasted. It is dense, durable, and angular, and is often available in a
range of sizes, which gives it the same basic properties as stone riprap.
Leachates from slag may affect water quality, and some displacement of slag by
persons searching for scrap steel has been reported. At one site on the Ohio River, some
spalling from weathering and subsequent erosion of the fines has been observed, but this has
not occurred at other sites.
Slag would be a suitable choice where it is the least costly effective armor material,
and where site conditions and chemical tests of the slag indicate that there would be no
detrimental effects on water quality.
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Principles of design are the same as for stone riprap. Slag from oxygen or electric
furnaces is denser than that from blast furnaces, and may even be denser than stone.
Therefore, the riprap design criteria in Appendix A would be applicable. The designer may
have a choice of different gradations if slag is commonly used locally for construction. The
size gradation is sometimes enhanced by the addition of scrap refractory brick.
Slag has been used both with and without an underlayment. On the Ohio River, an
18 inch blanket without underlayment was as successful as a 12 inch blanket on top of
engineering fabric.
7.2.6 AUTOMOBILE BODIES
Automobile bodies are included is this listing only because they have been used
occasionally for erosion protection. No redeeming features beyond low cost can be claimed.
Environmental considerations make their use as streambank protection objectionable.
7.3 RIGID ARMOR

typical applications, and design considerations for most rigid armor used as a bank
stabilization method:
Rigid armor is an erosion-resistant material which has little or no flexibility to

conform to bank irregularities occurring after construction. Typically, the
armor is placed directly on the bank slope in a fluid or chemically reactive
state, then hardens.
The most common rigid armors are:
Asphalt;
Concrete;
Grouted riprap (or other grouted armor material); and
Soil-cement.
Materials which have a more restricted use, but which can be classified as
rigid armors, are chemical soil stabilizers, and clay.
Advantages, disadvantages, typical applications, and design considerations for

rigid armor are discussed collectively, followed by a discussion of distinctive
characteristics of each type and sources for additional information on each
type.
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Advantages are: The most common rigid armors will withstand high
velocities, have low hydraulic roughness, and prevent infiltration of water into
the channel bank. They are practically immune to vandalism, damage from
debris, corrosion, and many other destructive agents. The most common rigid
armors are easily traversed by pedestrians.
Disadvantages are: A rigid armor requires careful design and quality control
during construction, and unfavorable weather conditions can cause
construction delays. Chemical soil stabilization, clay, and ice have a limited
range of effectiveness.
Provision for draining groundwater and preventing the buildup of excess

positive pore water pressures, in the form of a filter or subsurface drains, must
usually be provided for impermeable armors, which may significantly increase
the cost of the project.
Most rigid armors are difficult or impossible to construct underwater,

although this difficulty can be alleviated for concrete by using one of the
commercially available fabric mattresses (see “Concrete” below). Asphalt has
been placed underwater in some cases (see “Asphalt” below).
Rigid armor, being inflexible, is susceptible to breaching if the bank material

subsides or heaves. Increased wave runup on a smooth rigid armor may be
a concern for some projects.
Some of these materials have little to recommend them environmentally, being

biologically sterile and perhaps unacceptable aesthetically, depending on the
surroundings.
Typical applications are: Rigid armor in the form of concrete, asphalt, or

grouted riprap is often considered for use in situations where high velocities
or extreme turbulence make adjustable armor ineffective or very expensive.
Typical uses are in conjunction with hydraulic structures or in artificial
channels on steep slopes.
Rigid armor may be the preferred alternative in flood control or drainage

channels where low boundary roughness is mandatory, or in water supply
channels where prevention of water loss due to infiltration into the bank is
important. It is suitable for bank slopes which must be easily traversed by
pedestrians or recreational users, if the slope is not too steep for safety.
Rigid armor is sometimes the least costly alternative, typically where

adjustable armor is not available locally, especially if a geotechnical analysis
of the bank material indicates that elaborate subsurface drainage work is not
necessary.
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Design considerations are: Careful attention to geotechnical stability of the

bank, provision for overbank and internal bank drainage, and toe protection
is especially critical for rigid armor. Flexible or self-launching toe protection
is appropriate in many cases, such as in larger channels where dewatering
during construction is impractical and significant toe scour during high flows
is expected.
7.3.1 ASPHALT
Asphalt is available in three forms: Pure asphalt, which can be mixed with soil or
other aggregate and spread on the bank; cutback asphalt, which is pure asphalt mixed with
solvent; and asphalt emulsion, which is pure asphalt mixed with water and an emulsifying
agent. The generic term “asphalt” applied to bank stabilization usually infers pure asphalt.
The other two types can be used in the same manner as chemical soil stabilizers; that is, by
being sprayed directly onto the bank and allowed to penetrate the soil before hardening into
a cohesive mass. The properties of an emulsion can be varied by using various emulsifying
agents.
Asphalt mixes with a high sand content are sometimes used to retain some
permeability to relieve hydrostatic pressure. However, these mixes have been reported to
become more brittle and less permeable upon long exposure to the elements, and weathering
may result in a slow loss of thickness.
The use of asphalt placed underwater on the Lower Mississippi River was
discontinued because of problems with placement control and inconsistent performance, and
as a result of the development of an efficient and effective articulated concrete mattress.
However, it should be noted that the Lower Mississippi River presents extremely difficult
construction conditions, with high velocities, great depths, and steep underwater slopes.
7.3.2 CONCRETE
On slopes above water, concrete can be placed in the conventional manner with forms,
or can be pumped into fabric mattresses which serve as forms for a fine aggregate concrete.
Prefabricated slabs may be the least costly alternative for some sites. An armor of relatively
small slabs would assume some of the characteristics of concrete block armor (see 7.2.1).
Fabric mattresses are the preferred method for underwater placement, and are
available in various configurations. The appropriate design for a given application will depend
on the need for relief of hydrostatic pressure, the design velocity, and the preferred roughness
characteristics. Some mattresses are described as being flexible by the manufacturer, although
this description should be objectively examined by the project engineer if flexibility is a critical
factor for a specific project. Section 7.4.2 below provides further discussion under “Fabric
Mattresses.”
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7.3.3 GROUTED ARMOR
Grouting of an armor layer with asphalt or concrete enables the armor to withstand
higher flow velocities, provides a smooth surface for pedestrian or vehicle access, and reduces
the hydraulic roughness of the armor. Grouting is also sometimes used with gabion armors
or structures to increase the resistance of the gabions to corrosion and abrasion.
Grouting allows the use of locally available stone or cobbles which are not large
enough to withstand design flow velocity if used alone. A grouted armor of streambed
cobbles with the surface of the cobbles exposed is more aesthetically pleasing than most other
armor materials.
When applied to a riprap armor, grout which thoroughly penetrates the riprap enables
a smaller stone size and thinner layer to be used for a given velocity of flow. If grouting is
used only to reduce hydraulic roughness or to improve trafficability, thorough penetration of
the armor layer is not necessary. However, in that case, stone size and layer thickness should
be designed as if the grout were not present.
7.3.4 SOIL-CEMENT
Soil-cement will withstand relatively high velocities and is usually less expensive than
concrete, asphalt, and grouted riprap. It is more durable than chemical stabilization, clay, and
certainly ice, but usually somewhat less durable than concrete, asphalt, and grouted riprap,
assuming that sound design and construction procedures are followed for all. A typical soil-
cement application is shown in Figure 7.13.
General factors affecting the use of soil cement were discussed under soil-cement
blocks in Section 7.2.3. Its use as a rigid armor is usually an economic decision. However,
an additional consideration is that, when mixed in a batch plant rather than mixed in-place on
the bank slope, it can be placed as a rigid armor in stair-step fashion. This allows it to be used
on steep slopes where permitted by geotechnical considerations, and provides the capability
to construct an armor of great thickness if required to resist high flow velocities, abrasive
sediment transport, and wave attack. Use of a batch plant has the further advantage of
providing consistent quality control.
In-place mixing is an alternative if a relatively flat bank slope is provided. However,

the thickness of the armor is then limited by the mixing capability of the mixing vehicle, and
quality control is not as assured.
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Figure 7.13 Typical Soil Cement Application
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7.3.5 CHEMICAL SOIL STABILIZATION
A number of commercially available products, including lime, can be used to increase

cohesion of soil particles or to provide a hard film at the soil surface. Under favorable
conditions, even those products which eventually break down upon exposure to the elements
may be effective in providing erosion protection until vegetation becomes established.
Because specific site conditions can greatly affect performance, the feasibility of this
approach and appropriate design guidance for a particular project can be determined only by
obtaining evidence of satisfactory performance under similar conditions from previous users
or from the manufacturers.
7.3.6 CLAY BLANKET
When the upper slopes of a bank are exposed to small erosive forces, but the existing
soil has insufficient cohesion to resist them, it may be effective, environmentally beneficial,
and economical to utilize a clay blanket instead of a structural armor. The cohesive properties
of the clay provide resistance to erosion, and its moisture holding properties may enhance
vegetative growth. This approach would be prudent only on projects where the consequences
of failure in the event of unfavorable streamflow or weather conditions are low, or where
adequate monitoring, and reinforcement if required, are assured.
7.4 FLEXIBLE MATTRESSES

typical applications, and design considerations for most flexible mattresses used as a bank
stabilization method:
The basic concept of a flexible mattress is that material or objects which

cannot resist erosive forces separately can be fastened together or placed in
a flexible container to provide adequate resistance to erosive forces, while
partially retaining the desirable characteristics of adjustable armor, especially
that of flexibility.
The most common flexible mattress materials are:
Concrete blocks;
Fabric; and
Gabions.
Materials which have a more limited use are:

Grids (for confining earth or other fill material);
Used tires; and
Wood.
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Advantages are: Flexibility to adjust to scour or settlement and still remain

in contact with the bed and bank is the most obvious shared trait. Most
mattress materials which are sold under trade names share another advantage
- they are available in various configurations, thus can be applied to a variety
of situations.
Flexible mattresses can be placed underwater with a relatively high degree of

confidence. If properly anchored to a geotechnically stable bank, they can be
placed on steep slopes.
They can be walked upon easily, thus are suitable for slopes used by
pedestrians.
Disadvantages are: Mattress components are subject to deterioration from the

elements and vandalism. However, the damage is often within acceptable
limits, and, since the various types are affected differently, identification of the
hazards enables the designer to select an appropriate mattress for a given
application. The construction of some types of mattress is labor intensive, and
may require skills not commonly available. However, the labor intensive
aspect may not be a disadvantage in all cases, and may be an advantage in
some cases.
Typical applications are: This compromise between adjustable armor and

rigid armor is most attractive when economical materials can be used for the
mattress. In fact, the origin of some variations can be traced directly to
creative use of local materials where no protective material of local origin was
adequate to withstand the erosive forces in a given application, and where the
most suitable method was the one which required the least amount of costly
imported material, a requirement which is often met by a flexible mattress.
Some types of mattress are suitable for use where erosive forces are so severe,
or construction operations are made so difficult by great depth and/or high
velocity of flow, that other types of armor are not effective or cannot be
placed reliably. An example is the articulated concrete mattress developed by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for the Lower Mississippi River over the
last 60 years. The ACM has evolved into a highly efficient product placed by
specialized floating equipment adapted to operation under severe conditions
of velocity and depths.
Some types of mattress are suitable for use in areas which are to be used by
pedestrian or vehicular traffic.
Design considerations are: Beyond the general considerations discussed

below for the various types of mattresses, the manufacturers of commercial
mattresses have developed very detailed design guidance for their products.
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7.4.1 CONCRETE BLOCK MATTRESS
The advantages, disadvantages, and typical applications of concrete blocks as armor

were discussed in Section 7.2.1. Some additional considerations which apply to the use of
concrete blocks in mattress form are as follows:
Mattresses provide a higher degree of safety from progressive failure of the

armor due to displacement of individual blocks from hydraulic or geotechnical
forces or vandalism.
Placing of mattresses is more mechanized and less labor intensive than placing
individual blocks.
Some commercial mattresses incorporate an engineering fabric, which will

eliminate the need for a separate filter layer under some conditions.
Precast concrete blocks can be formed into a flexible mattress in several ways: by
fastening them to engineering fabric, by fastening them together with cable or synthetic rope,
or by forming them in ingenious shapes which are then interlocked. All of these varieties are
commercially available.
Concrete block mattress will usually withstand hydraulic forces greater than an equal
thickness of riprap. However, all designs are not equal, and manufacturers being considered
as a source for a specific project should be asked to furnish evidence of adequacy.
The most conservative design approach, which would be especially appropriate for
areas of high turbulence and areas where waves create the critical loading, is to ignore any
extra uplift resistance which is provided by the blocks being attached together. This extra
resistance would be assumed to be a safety factor, rather than being taken into account when
selecting a block size for hydraulic loading. The rationale is that the “pumping” action
created by even a small amount of uplift of the blocks might result in loss of bank material or
failure of the mattress connections or bonding system.
Anchoring the mats to the bank slope is usually recommended. This should not be
considered as adding to the geotechnical stability of the bank, but rather as providing a margin
of safety from mat displacement if small slope movements occur.
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7.4.2 FABRIC MATTRESS
7.4.2.1 Description
Fabric mattresses made of synthetic material and filled with concrete grout, other
cohesive mixtures, or sand are available from various manufacturers. Tubular-shaped bags
are also available; these can be filled and placed either parallel to the streambank as a
bulkhead or perpendicular to the streambank as a dike, or can be used to fill scour holes or
undermined slopes.
7.4.2.2 Advantages
A fabric mattress is relatively easy to place, and fill material is often available locally.
Some designs have a low hydraulic roughness.
Some designs provide only limited permeability and flexibility to conform to

irregularities in the bank.
Many different designs are available. This allows the designer to discuss particular
site conditions with manufacturer's representatives in order to select a mattress which
emphasizes particular requirements, i.e., stability under hydraulic forces, filter and
permeability properties, flexibility, hydraulic roughness, resistance to deterioration, or
compatibility with vegetation. One form, intended primarily for filling with concrete,
integrates cables into the mattress to provide flexibility without separation even if the bag
deteriorates.
Potential subsurface drainage problems must be identified, and the installation

designed and monitored accordingly.
Use of a non-permanent fabric and fill material may be acceptable on the upper bank
if vegetation for permanent protection is planned. This approach has also been used on lower
banks and bed where the fabric is permanently underwater, and not subject to atmospheric
deterioration, vandalism, or impact from debris or vessels. Obviously some degree of
uncertainty exists when using perishable materials, so site conditions, expected project life,
and the consequences of failure must be carefully evaluated.
Polyester fabric has been reported to be subject to deterioration from the high pH of
concrete curing.
Anchoring the mattress to the bank slope is usually recommended by manufacturers.
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7.4.3 GABION MATTRESS
7.4.3.1 Description
A gabion mattress consists of a mesh container filled with cobbles or quarried stone.
Several firms market the containers and furnish technical assistance. Specialized equipment
or accessories are sometimes used on large jobs for efficiency, or on jobs requiring
underwater placement.
A form of gabion which is a hybrid between flexible mattress and adjustable armor is
the “sack” or “sausage,” which can be filled faster than mattress or box shapes, making it
suitable for use in emergency situations. However, it makes less efficient use of material, and
is less common than traditional mattress or boxes.
7.4.3.2 Advantages
Since relatively small stones are used to fill gabion mattresses, a filter underlayment
is often not required. The hydraulic roughness is fairly low, especially if the gabions are
carefully filled or grouted. The appearance is more natural than some other materials, and
gabions are conducive to vegetative growth.
A gabion mattress is often used in conjunction with gabion dikes or retaining walls,
since the same construction practices can be used. A gabion mattress can be tailored to
irregular shapes in transitions from one type of protection to another, or around drains and
other structural features.
A gabion mattress is less flexible than some concrete block mattresses. The mesh is
not immune to deterioration from the elements, although corrosion-resistant coatings or
grouting can be used to significantly alleviate potential problems of deterioration.
Manufacturers have developed detailed guidance for every feasible application, and
this guidance should be obtained early in the planning process. Some general factors to
consider in design are discussed in the following paragraphs.
For given hydraulic conditions, a gabion mattress can be substantially thinner than a
riprap blanket. Recent model tests, as reported by Simons et al. (1984) provide guidance for
mattress thickness related to shear stress and velocity. Two conditions were analyzed:
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Initial movement of stones within the mattress; and
A condition where the mattress shape has been deformed by stone movement,
but the mattress is still functional.
The tests indicated that ungrouted mattress thicknesses of nine inches (23 centimeters)
or less could withstand significantly higher velocities than previously believed. Grouting
would increase the allowable velocities even more. It was noted, however, that wire mesh
strength may be a major factor controlling mattress stability.
Filler stone sizes must be more uniform than for typical riprap. The smallest size must
be larger than the mesh openings, but the largest size must be small enough to eliminate large
voids between stones in the filled mattress. Streambed cobbles are sometimes used to reduce
cost where they are locally available.
Corrosion, abrasion, and vandalism can be minimized by grouting the gabions with a
sand-asphalt mastic or concrete. However, the accompanying loss of permeability may
require that special provision for hydrostatic pressure relief be provided. Also aesthetic and
environmental aspects of the project may suffer.
For corrosive or abrasive situations, previous users or manufacturer's representatives

should be consulted for information on measures used to ensure successful application under
similar conditions. Even in areas of good water quality, water chemistry may be such that
galvanized wire will corrode. For this reason, a polyvinyl chloride coating on the wires is
often specified.
Care in handling and filling is necessary to avoid damage to protective coatings,

especially with plastic coated gabions in cold weather. For work above water, filling in place
is preferable to filling before placing. Otherwise, extreme care must be taken during handling
to avoid deforming or damaging filled gabions.
Construction must be carefully supervised. Some crucial points, such as care during
filling, and complete lacing of the mattress components, are costly to a contractor's operation
and present a temptation for short cuts. Some handwork is usually necessary for proper
filling, and this in particular may be resisted by a contractor unless it is clearly specified.
On steep slopes, keying-in or anchoring the mattress at the top of the slope is
recommended.
For large jobs, a manufacturer may offer custom-sized gabions for optimum design
and construction efficiency.
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7.4.4 GRID CONFINEMENT
7.4.4.1 Description
This approach uses a grid several inches thick, resembling a “honeycomb,” to confine
soil or other material on the bank slope. It provides a level of protection which is less
resistant to erosion than conventional armoring, but more resistant than unsupported soil,
granular fill, or vegetation.
7.4.4.2 Advantages
By using locally available materials, grid confinement may offer a cost savings where
erosive forces are moderate. When filled with soil, it is highly compatible with vegetative
treatment.
Grid confinement also enhances the resistance of the slope to shallow failure. The grid
can also serve as a form for bituminous or similar armor material on steep slopes, in which
case some beneficial increase in flexibility of the armor can be expected, since the grid
material acts as joints in the armor.
When filled with a non-cohesive material, grid confinement will not withstand as high
velocities as some other flexible mattresses. When filled with asphalt or concrete, it assumes
to some extent the unfavorable characteristics of rigid armor discussed in 7.3.
Some manufacturers have developed guidance for allowable velocities and other
hydraulic factors, and can furnish specific recommendations for particular applications based
on laboratory tests and field experience.
The manufacturer may recommend a geotextile underlayment, and, if the grid is filled
with a non-porous material, filter points to allow drainage should be incorporated into the
design.
The grid should be anchored to the bank slope according to the manufacturer's
recommendation.
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7.4.5 USED-TIRE MATTRESS
7.4.5.1 Description
Used-tire mattress consists of tires fastened together with bands, cable or rope.
Whole tires are normally used, but tires sliced in half or tires with pieces removed are
sometimes available.
7.4.5.2 Advantages
Tires are often available at low cost, and use of tires in erosion control may be more
environmentally sound than landfill disposal. A tire mattress is conducive to the establishment
of woody vegetation.
No formal guidance is available for determining limits of hydraulic forces. A tire

mattress is not suitable for severe conditions unless an underlayment and multiple layers of
tires are used, which negates the cost advantage. Vulnerability to hydraulic forces, vandalism,
and theft is greatest immediately after construction, before exposed areas become vegetated.
Environmental regulations may prohibit the use of tires in many areas. Also, a tire
mattress is not aesthetic, although if site conditions permit heavy vegetative growth and
deposition of sediment, the appearance improves with time.
To combat vandalism and theft, and to reduce buoyancy during high flows, if whole
tires are used, then one or more of the following measures should be employed:
Stout and durable synthetic or galvanized connections;
Backfilling with earth over the completed revetment; and
Cutting or burning a hole in the upper sidewall of each tire.
Less durable connections can be used if the quick establishment of woody vegetation
is certain, and vandalism is not expected to be a problem. However, the savings in cost are
not likely to be significant.
The mattress should be anchored on the slope with screw anchors, driven anchors, or
buried anchors. If little toe scour is expected, and the outer edge of the mattress is not placed
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underwater, the outer edge can be anchored in the same manner as the slope. An alternative
for little toe scour and moderate velocities is to fill the outer few rows of tires with concrete.
A more conservative approach is to use one of the toe protection methods discussed in 6.3.
Tire diameters should not be allowed to vary greatly, otherwise it will be difficult to
make good connections consistently. A simple way to minimize this difficulty is to specify
that only standard tires of nominal 13-inch to 16-inch wheel diameter be used.
7.4.6 WOODEN MATTRESS
7.4.6.1 Description
Wooden mattress is one of the oldest techniques of bank stabilization, even though
it is seldom used now in developed regions. The mats may be made of poles, brush, or
lumber. The material can be fastened together by weaving, binding, cabling, clamping, or
spiking. The mattresses are sunk by ballasting with stone or other heavy materials. Some
types of mat may be so buoyant that the ballast is a significant component of the protection,
as well as a large part of the cost.
On navigable rivers during periods when current speed is slow enough that the mats
can be safely maneuvered in tow, mats with sufficient buoyancy can be assembled near the
materials supply point or near a source of labor, then towed to the project site. Individual
tows of as much as 150,000 square feet of mat were reported on the lower Mississippi River.
At least one marine construction firm has adapted modern technology to the
construction of wooden mattress, while still retaining traditional skills for use where
appropriate. They have also extended new technology to the point of developing synthetic
materials for use in mattresses, in order to overcome some of the inherent problems of wood.
7.4.6.2 Advantages
Wood is usually available locally, and is a renewable resource. If inexpensive labor

is available, a wooden mattress may be the least cost alternative. Wood is relatively durable
when permanently submerged in freshwater.
Near-site availability of material is usually required for wooden mat to be competitive

with other methods. Assembling and placing the mattresses are labor-intensive operations.
Design and construction is surprisingly complex, requiring skills which have become rarer as
other methods have become more popular.
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In most climates wood will deteriorate quickly if exposed to alternate wetting and
drying. Therefore, it is not a suitable material for use above low water unless treated lumber
is used (which may affect water quality), or unless frequent maintenance or the establishment
of vegetation is planned.
The durability of metallic components may be poor underwater. This is a significant

shortcoming, since the mat must remain intact to function properly.
Construction is difficult if currents are swift, depths are great, or the flow carries large
amounts of floating debris.
The designs that use lumber or long poles woven into a mat are stiff, which limits their
capacity to conform to bank and bed irregularities. Severe erosive forces require thick mats,
which reduces flexibility in proportion to thickness, and loss of permeability greatly increases
the difficulty in sinking in swift currents. In fact, the stiffness of sturdy woven pole and
lumber mats led to them being replaced on the lower Mississippi River about 1900 by willow
fascines, or bundles, cabled together into mats. The fascine mat was more flexible. However,
the high labor cost and diminishing willow supply, as well as sometimes ineffectual
performance, led to the fascine mat being replaced in turn about 60 years ago by the much
more successful articulated concrete mat.
The major causes of failure of wooden mattresses on the lower Mississippi River, as
discussed by Elliott (1932). The disadvantages of this technique listed above provide a basis
for defining the most critical elements of design. The most serious shortcomings were found
to be:
Rotting of the mattress where it was alternately wet and dry;
Inability of the mattress to adjust to scour at its toe (riverward edge); and
Failure of fasteners and connecting components from corrosion, abrasion, or

fatigue.
Design of a wooden mattress should address these points of vulnerability by utilizing

the following measures:
A secure, durable interface between the wooden mattress and whatever more
durable material is to be used to armor the upper bank should be specified.
Since this interface will likely be underwater at the time of construction,
unless the work is done at extremely low river stages, a material which is
suitable for reliable placement underwater is dictated. Stone is an excellent
choice, although many other adjustable armors or flexible mattress materials
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would also be suitable. Simplicity and economy of construction will be

enhanced if the same material is used for the connection as for the rest of the
upper bank. An overlap should be provided to ensure that any downslope
movement of the wooden mattress after placement will not result in an
unprotected area of bank.
If significant toe scour is expected, then a wooden mattress should be

supplemented by separate toe protection measures.
Fasteners and connectors should be of materials which are resistant to

corrosion, abrasion, and failure from fatigue due to flexing of the mattress
when subjected to hydraulic forces. Synthetic materials, stainless steel, or
heavily coated metallic components are therefore advisable.
Other major considerations for design are:
An overlap should be provided between adjacent mattresses in order to

compensate for uncertainties in underwater placement and future differential
displacement of the mattresses by hydraulic or geotechnical forces. As an
example, individual wooden mattresses on the lower Mississippi River were
overlapped from a minimum of 5 feet to a maximum of 15 feet with the
adjacent mats. The individual mats were laid from downstream progressing
upstream so that the downstream edge of each mat lay over the upstream edge
of the adjacent mat, so that the upstream edges were not exposed to the flow.
Because wooden mattresses are relatively inflexible, and because shaping them
to irregularities in the bankline is difficult, protruding points and other
irregularities should be removed or smoothed as much as possible during bank
preparation operations, and sunken debris that would interfere with the
mattress making contact with the underwater slope should be removed. This
requirement presents a dichotomy which is a major obstacle to the use of
wooden mattress, since the fact that wooden mattress is durable only when
permanently submerged restricts its use to the subaqueous bank, where
removal of bankline irregularities and debris is most difficult, and in fact is
likely to be impractical at depths greater than ten feet with standard
construction equipment, even if barge mounted.
188
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Surface Armor For Erosion Protection

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Surface Armor For Erosion Protection

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CHAPTER 7

SURFACE ARMOR FOR EROSION PROTECTION

In this chapter, descriptive information is generally followed by a discussion of

The following paragraphs outline the general description, advantages, disadvantages,

Armor is a protective material in direct contact with the streambank. Armor

Disadvantages are: Preparation of the bank slope is usually required, either

Effective subaqueous placement of armor material in deep water or when

Some armor materials may require special measures to mitigate undesirable

All armor protection requires careful consideration of the geotechnical

7.1 STONE ARMOR

The following paragraphs outline the general description, advantages, and

A stone armor usually consists of “graded” stone, which is a mixture of a wide

Advantages are: Because its performance has been so thoroughly analyzed

7.1.1 RIPRAP BLANKET

Figure 7.1 Typical Cross Section of a Trenchfill Revetment

A trenchfill revetment allows stabilization along a predetermined alignment, and is

7.1.2.4 Typical Application

Trenchfill's most powerful use is in the following circumstances:

Where a smooth alignment of the stabilized channel is required (usually to

7.1.2.5 Design Considerations

Special design considerations are as follows:

Design of the trench is a compromise between economics and performance. A higher

A portion of the excavated material can be placed so that it becomes an extension of

A windrow revetment is simply an extreme variation of a trenchfill revetment. A

Figure 7.3 Schematic Diagram of Windrow Revetment

Figure 7.4 Conventional Windrow Placed on Top Bank

Figure 7.5 Placement of Windrow Rock in Excavated Trench on Top Bank

Figure 7.6 Launched Windrow Rock

7.1.3.4 Typical Applications

Where stone or other suitable windrow material is relatively inexpensive, construction

7.1.3.5 Design Considerations

Based on laboratory model studies conducted at the U.S. Army Waterways

7.1.4 LONGITUDINAL STONE TOE

7.1.4.4 Typical Applications

7.1.4.5 Design Considerations

Longitudinal Peaked Stone Toe Protection. An efficient design for a longitudinal

With longitudinal peaked stone toe protection, the establishment of vegetation

(a) One Ton Per Foot Immediately After Construction

(b) Same Site One Year Later

Figure 7.7 Typical Longitudinal Peaked Stone Toe Protection

7.2 OTHER SELF-ADJUSTING ARMOR

Rubble from demolition of pavement or other source;

7.2.1 CONCRETE BLOCKS

A fabric or granular underlayment (“filter”) is often required. Successful performance

7.2.1.4 Typical Applications

7.2.1.5 Design Considerations

Manufacturers' recommendations and/or guidance from laboratory tests and field

Sacks as an armor material can be considered to be artificial “rocks” of uniform size

Sacks can be placed on a steeper slope than stone.

7.2.2.4 Typical Applications

7.2.2.5 Design Considerations

7.2.3 SOIL-CEMENT BLOCKS

Figure 7.12 Typical Sack Revetment

Besides the general characteristics of adjustability to bank irregularities and self-

7.2.3.4 Typical Application

7.2.3.5 Design Considerations

Specifying a suitable soil as aggregate is critical. Although soil-cement can be

A controlled gradation of finished blocks is best obtained by spreading mixed

Careful quality control during construction is vital to insure that