Teaching of Social Studies

Teaching of Social Studies
M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 1 28/12/11 6:06 PM

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Teaching of Social Studies
R.P. Pathak

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Contents
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Meaning and Concept of Social Studies 1

Concept of Social Studies 1
Social Studies and Social Sciences 2
Definition of Social Studies 2
Differences Between Social Sciences and Social Studies 3
Social Sciences 3 • Social Studies 3
Scope of Social Studies 4
Aims and Objectives of Teaching Social Studies 4
Social Studies—As a Core Subject 5
Concept of Core Curriculum 6 • Core Curriculum 6 • Social
Studies as a Core Subject 6
Curriculum for Social Studies 7
Contents of Social Studies 7
Summary 8
References 9
Additional Readings 9
Chapter 2 Role and Importance of Social Studies in

National Integration 11
Meaning and Concept of National Integration 11
Definition of National Integration 12
Need of National Integration 12
Role of Social Studies in National Integration 12
Contents of Social Studies in Promoting National Integration 12
History 12 • Geography 13 • Civics 13 • Economics 13
Methods of Teaching for Promoting National Integration 13
Role of Social Studies Teacher in Promoting National Integration 14
The Role of Social Studies in Emotional Integration 14
Summary 15
References 15

vi  Contents
Chapter 3 Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of

Social Studies 17
Concept of Teaching 17
Definition of Teaching 17
Principles of Teaching 18
General Principles of Teaching 18 • Psychological Principles of
Teaching 21
Teaching Variable 23
Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies 23
Issues Related to Curriculum 23
Teaching Controversial Issues 24
Introducing the Issue 24 • Stating the Problem 24 • Collection
of Data 24 • Guiding the Learners 25 • Exploring the Facts
and Ideas 25 • Arriving at Conclusion 25
Teacher’s Role 25
Issues Related to Strategies of Teaching 25
Selection of Appropriate Teaching Tactics 25
Selection of Appropriate Communication Media 26
Oral Communication 26 • Written Communication 27
Selection of Appropriate Instructional Aids 27
Learning Conditions and Structures 28
Summary 29
References 29
Chapter 4 Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies 31

Meaning and Concept of Instructional Aids 31
Significance of Instructional Aids in Teaching Social Studies 32
Types of Instructional Aids 32
Blackboard/Chalkboard 34
List of Items May Be Presented Through Blackboard 34 • Effective
Use of Blackboard 35
Bulletin Board 35
List of Items May Be Displayed in the Bulletin Board 35 • Use of
Bulletin board 36 • Precaution for Using the Bulletin Board 36
Objects and Specimens 37
Models 37
Qualities of Good Model 37
Charts 37
Type of Charts 37
Diagrams 38
Timelines 39
Line Graph 39 • Bar Graph 39 • Circle or Pie Graph 39
• Pictorial Graph 40
Maps 40
Types of Maps 40

Contents  vii
Reference Books 43
Summary 43
References 44
Chapter 5 Social Studies Curriculum—Selection and Organization 45

Social Studies Curriculum 45
Definition of Curriculum 45
Aims of Social Studies Curriculum 45
Principles of Selection, Organization, and Construction of
Social Studies Curriculum 46
Children-centred Curriculum 46 • Principle of Motivation 46
• Principle Related with Direct Life of Children 46 • Principles
Based on Democratic Values 46 • Principle of Integration 46
• Principle of Flexibility 46 • Principle of Community-centred
Curriculum 47 • Broad-based Curriculum 47 • Principle of
Learning by Doing 47 • Principle of Selection 47 •
Principle of Co-relation 47 • Forward-looking Principle Based on
Democratic Values 47
Pattern of Social Studies Curriculum 47
Study of Social Studies Curriculum for Different Stages as Primary,
Secondary, and Senior Secondary 48
Primary Stage—Classes I to V (Age Group 6 to 11 Years) 48
• Middle Stage—Classes VI to VIII (Age Group 11 to 14
Years) 49 • Senior Secondary Stage—Classes IX to XII
(Age Group 14 to 17 Years) 50
Teaching Method in Secondary and Senior Secondary Stages 50
Shortcomings of Social Studies Curriculum 51
Suggestions for Good Curriculum of Social Studies 51
Summary 51
References 52
Chapter 6 Methods of Teaching Social Studies 53

Meaning and Concept of Method 53
Methods of Teaching 53
Learning by Doing (Activity Method) 55
Learning by Play Way Method 55
Learning by Experience 56
Learning by Self-Education 56
Division of Methods 57
Characteristics of the Good Teaching Method 57
Different Methods of Teaching Social Studies 58
Assignment Method 59
Essentials of an Assignment 59 • Types of Assignment 59
• Home Assignments 61

viii  Contents
Discussion Method 64
Organization of Discussion 64 • Merits of Discussion 65
• Limitations of Discussion 65 • Directing Group
Discussion 65
Laboratory Method 66
Lecture Method 66
Significance of the Lecture Method 66 • Merits of the Lecture
Method 67 • Limitations of Lecture Method 67
Observation Method 68
Techniques of the Observation Method 68
Review Method 69
Purposes of Review 69
Source Method 69
Use of the Source Method 70 • Merits of the Source Method 70
• Limitations of the Source Method 70 • How to Make the Source
Method Effective 71
Storytelling Method 71
The Art of Storytelling 71
Supervised Study Method 72
Objections to Supervised Study 73 • Supervised Study and
Socialized Recitation 73
Dramatization Method 73
Note Dictation Method 74
Methods of Dictating Notes 75 • Defects in the Method of Note
Dictation 75
Problem-solving Method 75
Difference Between the Problem Method and the Project Method 76
• Aims of the Problem-solving Method 76 • Characteristics
or Features of a Good Problem 76 • Basic Principles of the
Problem-Solving Method 77 • Sources of the Problems 78
• Procedure or Steps in the Problem-solving Method 78 • Role of
Teacher in the Problem-solving Method 79 • Importance or
Advantages of the Problem-solving Method 79 • Limitations of
the Problem-solving Method 80 • Major Approaches in
Problem-solving Method 81
Inductive–Deductive Method 81
Inductive Method 81 • Deductive Method 82
Analytic–Synthetic Method 84
Analytic Method 84 • Synthetic Method 85
Project Method 86
Meaning of Project Method 87 • Basic Principles or Features
(Qualities) of the Project Method 88 • Kinds of
Projects 89 • Procedure, Steps, or Stages involved in a
Project 89 • Essentials of a Good Project 91 • Agencies of
the Project Method 91 • Examples of Projects 92 • Merits
of the Project Method 93 • Limitations of the Project
Method 94 • Suggestions 95

Contents  ix
Dalton Plan 96
Duties of a Teacher 97 • Principles Underlying the Dalton
Plan 97 • Merits of the Dalton Plan 98 • Limitations and
Difficulties of Dalton Plan 99
Questioning in Social Studies Teaching 100
Purpose of Questions 100 • Preliminary Questions and Introductory
Questions 101 • Types of Questions 102 • The Technique of
Questioning 103 • Characteristics of Good Questioning 103
• Judicious Blending of Talking and Questioning 104 • Skill in
Answering 104 • Classification of Answers 105 • How to
Deal with Answers 105
Summary 107
References 108
Chapter 7 Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of

Community Resources 109
Social Studies Laboratory 109
Equipment of the Social Studies Laboratory 110
Social Studies Museum 111
Utilizing Community Resources 112 • Importance of Community
Resources 113 • Valuable Community Resources 113
• Method of Learning through Community Resources 114
• Taking the School to the Community 114 • Community
Survey 115 • Special Camping Programme 115 • Community
Service Project 115 • Bringing the School to the Community 115
• Parents Teacher Association 116 • Celebration of Fairs,
Festivals, and Social Service Activities 116 • Advantages of
Community Resources 116
Summary 117
References 117
Chapter 8 Social Studies Teacher 119

Characteristics of a Social Studies Teacher 119
Scholarship 120 • Professional Training 120 •
Personality 120 • Teaching Skills 121
Specific Qualities of a Social Studies Teacher 125
Art of Development of Human Relations 125 • Objectivity 125
• Deep Knowledge of the Subject 125 • Application of Field
Study Theory 126 • A Well-informed Teacher 126 • Widely
Travelled Person 126 • A Good Communicator 126 • Skilled
in the Use of Technological Aids 126 • An Interpreter of Various
Experiences 126
Summary 127
References 127

x  Contents
Chapter 9 Micro-teaching in Social Studies 129

Nature and Concept of Micro-teaching 130
Definition of Micro-teaching 130
Main Propositions of Micro-teaching 131
Difference between Micro-teaching and Traditional Teaching 132
Objectives of Introducing Micro-teaching 132
Steps and Procedure in Micro-teaching 133
Phases of Micro-teaching 134
Principles of Micro-teaching 135
Teaching Skills and Micro-teaching 135
Skill of Stimulus Variation 136 • Skill of Illustrating and Use of
Examples 137 • Skill of Explaining 137 • Skill of Increasing
Pupil Participation 137 • Skill of Using the Blackboard 138
• Skill of Writing Instructional Objectives 138 • Skill of Classroom
Management 138 • Skill of Using Audiovisual Aids 138
• Skill of given Assignment 138 • Skill of Pacing the Lesson 138
• Modern Categories of Basic Skills in Teaching 139
Role of the Teacher Supervisor in Micro-teaching 140
Evaluative Instruments 141
Aids and Apparatus in Micro-teaching 141
Behaviour Modification Through Micro-teaching 142
Advantages of Micro-teaching 143
Limitations of Micro-teaching 143
Indian Model of Micro-teaching 144
Salient Features of the Indian Model of Micro-teaching 144
• Standard Procedure of Micro-teaching in Indian Model as given
by L.C. Singh 146
Summary 147
References 148
Chapter 10 Models of Teaching and Team Teaching 149

Definition of Models of Teaching 149
Characteristics of a Model of Teaching 150
Functions of Models of Teaching 150
Effects of Teaching by Modelling 151
Development of a Model 151
Modelling Operations or Stages of Modelling 151
Fundamental Elements of Models of Teaching 151
Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model 151
Description of Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model 152
Disciplinary Model of Teaching Social Sciences 153
Personality Model of Teaching Social Sciences 153
Team Teaching 154
Definition of Team Teaching 154 • Characteristics of Team
Teaching 154 • Origin and Growth of Team Teaching 155

Contents  xi
Summary 155
References 155
Chapter 11 Lesson Planning in Social Studies 157

Meaning and Concept of Lesson Planning 157
Nature and Functions of Lesson Planning 158
Definition of Lesson Planning 158
Principles of Lesson Planning 159
Importance of Lesson Planning 160
Criteria of an Effective Lesson Plan 161
Prerequisites of Lesson Planning 163
Approaches to Lesson Planning 163
Herbartian Approach of Knowledge Lesson 163
Advantages of Herbartian Lesson Planning 165 • Limitations
of Herbartian Approach 165 • Alternative Scheme 166 • An
Outline of a Lesson Plan on the basis of Herbartian Steps 167
• Herbartian Lesson Plan Model 168 • General Objectives 168
Preparation of Unit Lesson Plan: (Morrison’s Approach) 170
Features of Unit Lesson Plan (Unit Approach) 170 • Steps of Unit
Lesson Plan (Unit Approach) 170 • Advantages of Unit Lesson
Plan 171
Bloom’s Evaluation of Lesson Planning 172
Steps of Evaluation Approach of Lesson Planning 173 • Merits of
Bloom’s Approach of Lesson Planning 174 • Demerits of Bloom’s
Approach of Lesson Planning 174
Bloom’s or Evaluation Lesson Plan Model 175
Presentation: (Learning Experiences) 175
Rcem Approach to Lesson Planning 177
Features of the RCEM Approach 177 • Theoretical Rationale of
the Lesson 178 • RCEM Lesson-Plan Model 178 • Teaching
Points 178
Types of Lessons 180
Skill Lesson 180
Orderly Steps for Teaching Skill Lesson 181 • Important Points
for Skill Lesson 182
Appreciation Lesson 182
Steps of Appreciation Lesson 182 • Factors Influencing Success
of an Appreciation Lesson 183
Yearly Plan of Social Studies Teaching 184
Lesson Plans 185
Lesson Plan No. 1 185
Teaching Aids 185 • Aims of the Lesson 185 • Sectional
Revision 187 • Sectional Revision 187
Dramatized Lesson Plan 188 • Aids 188 • Preparation 188
• Presentation 189 • Application 189 • Homework 189

xii  Contents

Lord Buddha and His Teachings 189 • Illustrative Aids 189
• Specific Objectives 189 • Skills 190 • Attitudes 190
• Teaching Hints and Activities 191 • Evaluation 191
Illustrative Aids 192 • Specific Aims 192 • Previous
Knowledge 193 • Presentation 193 • Final
Recapitulation 195 • Home Assignments 195
Section I 196
Summary 196
References 197
Chapter 12 Evaluation in Social Studies 199

Meaning and Concept of Evaluation 199
Definition of Evaluation 200
Difference Between Measurement and Evaluation 201
Principles of Good Evaluation 201
Developing an Effective Programme for Social Studies
202
Evaluation in Social Studies 202
Techniques of Evaluation in Social Studies 202
Summary 207
References 207
Bibliography 209
Index 211

Preface
At the present age of science and technology, human beings are facing numerous problems.
Education is a dire necessity for the successful functioning of modern democratic societies. The
burden of responsibilities for solving complex social, economic, political, and ethical problems
has fallen upon schools where students need to be trained to solve day-to-day problems rationally.
In fulfilling this responsibility, the school should select such instructional programme which co-
ordinates the past with the present and helps them in solving such problems. This leads to the
emergence of social studies as an independent field of study at the elementary and secondary
stages.
The term ‘social studies’ is associated with the functions of the society. This term was coined
by John Dewey who believed in the essential unity of knowledge. He emphasized the need for
the integration of knowledge. The opinion of Dewey says that no acquired knowledge could ever
remain organized without proper co-ordination and incorporation of the basic principles of all
subjects such as history, civics, political science, economics, geography, and sociology, a new
subject known as social studies came into being.
It is a recognized fact that the social living is broader than any one area of the curriculum
and that social studies teaching takes place with many of the teacher’s experience both in and out
of the school. The teacher has to be aware of the latest developments in the field of social studies
teaching. All relevant and contemporary knowledge about the teaching, the method of dynamic
presentation and the selection of material, besides the personality of social studies teacher and
the evaluation in social studies, have been encompassed in this book.
This book explains in simple language and lucid manner the meaning and the concept of
teaching of social studies and discusses its role in national integration. Any typical social studies
curriculum includes some issues which are not acceptable to all, because different social scientists
have different views on these issues. The book studies some challenges and issues in teaching
practices of social studies and offers viable solutions, including proper selection and organization
of curriculum, improved methods of teaching, especially micro-teaching, team teaching and
utilization of community resources. Some important attributes that a social studies teacher must
possess, including proper qualification, fully developed personality, positive attitude, encouraging
nature, broad and refreshing outlook, and faith in democratic values, have been described in
an inclusive chapter. Evaluation is one of the most important areas of education process. In the
teaching–learning activities some instructional objectives are fixed. It is only through evaluation
that we come to know whether these objectives have been achieved or not. Various aspects of
evaluation in social studies have been discussed giving proper examples. We have directly avoided
the details in making the book bulky and in taxing upon the time, money, and mind of the readers.

xiv  Preface
I am extremely grateful to various writers whose work I have consulted and quoted at certain
places in this book. I also acknowledge the co-operation extended to me by several friends and
colleagues in the preparation of this book.
I must express my grateful appreciation to my wife Smt. Manoj Pathak and my lovely
daughter Abhilasa without whose encouragement, devotion and co-operation the publication
of this book would not have been possible. I also thank Qudsiya Ahmed and her entire team of
Pearson Education for publishing this book in time.
This book will be highly useful to the students, readers and teachers of social studies. In
addition, all those interested in the study of teaching of social studies will find it an ideal reference
book. Any suggestions for the improvement of this book will be gratefully acknowledged.
R. P. Pathak

Meaning and Concept of Social Studies
1
The study of social studies as an integral component of general education up to the
secondary level of school education is considered crucial because it helps the students
to understand the society and the world in which they live. It also enables them to view
the socio-economic developments and changes in the context of time and space and also
in relation to each other. The curriculum of social studies at the school level draws its
subject matter from history, geography, civics, sociology, and economics. Some elements
of commerce are also included in it.
Man is a social animal. He is born and brought up by the society. Every individual is a part of the
society and it is not mainly history, geography, civics or economics that matters, but rather man
who influences themselves and is influenced by their history, geography, civics or economics, and
their community. The subject of social studies directly deals with man and the society in which
they live, carries the special responsibility of preparing young children to become well-informed
and constructive participants in society, capable of developing healthy and social relationships.
y Concept of Social Studies

Social studies deals with man, their relations with other men, and their environment. It, therefore,
draws its contents from several social sciences to help us understand the problem of man and how
they deal with them.
‘Society’ is a term used commonly by people. However, many people would not be able to
explain correctly the meaning of social studies and how it is related to the society. Let us see what
does ‘social studies’ mean.
Some of the traits of social studies could be:
• n Study of society.
• n Dealing with the art of living.
• n Dealing with human relations.
• n Study of contemporary society.
• n Study of the present problems of the society: social, economical, and political.
Social studies means all these and more. The term ‘social studies’ is of recent origin. Its widespread
usage began in 1916 in the USA. The term’s origin in India can be traced back with the formulation
of the basic system of education in 1937. It has been defined differently by different committees
and commissions.
M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_C01.indd 1 17/12/11 10:36 AM

2  Teaching of Social Studies
y Social Studies and Social Sciences

Social science is a generic term covering the scientific study of man, singly or in groups, as
regards their essentially non-physical characteristics. Social sciences deal with human behaviour
in its social and cultural aspects. Social sciences generally include disciplines such as economics,
political science, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and social and economic geography.
Social studies integrate the experience and knowledge concerning human relationships. Let us
discuss how the term ‘social studies’ emerged.
One of the earliest usage of the term ‘social studies’ appeared in the United States in
1906 in an article named The Southern Workman written by Thomas Jesse Jones. In 1908,
Jones expanded this article and published Social Studies in the Hampton Curriculum (Jones,
1908). Jones became the chairman of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission
on Reorganization of Secondary Education Association. That committee’s report in 1916
was widely recognized, debated and finally accepted as identifying a curriculum area for
secondary schools whose purpose was to prepare young people to become productive
citizens.
The term ‘social studies’ acquired additional legitimation and prestige with the formation of
the National Council for Social Studies in 1921. Social studies represent a child-centred approach
and it is the practical part of human affairs. Both social studies and social sciences share common
body of content. The centre of focus in social sciences and social studies is man’s relationship to
man and their environment and how they meet their needs.
y Definition of Social Studies

We may define social studies as the study which helps the learners in understanding the human
environment in its totality and developing a broader perspective and an empirical, reasonable,
and human outlook. Some of the other renowned definitions are as follows:
Wesley and Adams—‘The term social studies is used to designate the school subjects which deal
with human relationships.’
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education Association, USA—‘The Social
Studies are understood to be those whose subject matter relates directly to the organization and
development of human society and to man as member of social groups.’
Michaelis—‘Social Studies are concerned with man and his interaction with his social and
physical environment, they deal with human relationships.’
Height—‘The Social Studies are the school mirror of the scholarly findings of the social sciences.’
Report of the Secondary Education Commission—‘Social Studies, as a term is comparatively
new in Indian education. It is meant to cover the ground traditionally associated with History,
Geography, Economics, Civics etc.’
National Curriculum Framework for School Education, NCERT, 2000—The term social sciences
has used for Social Studies. It has observed, ‘Social Sciences education aims at providing students
essential knowledge, skills and attitude necessary for self-development and also for becoming an
effective and contributing member of the society.’
Barr et al.—‘An integration of experience and knowledge concerning human relations for the
purpose of citizenship education.’

Meaning and Concept of Social Studies  3
y Differences Between Social Sciences and Social Studies

Let us discuss how social studies differ from social sciences.
Social Sciences
• n They are the advanced studies of human society.
• n They represent an adult approach.
• n They are the theory part of human affairs.
• n They lay more emphasis on knowledge.
• n They aim at finding out how new truth about human relationships.
Social Studies
• n They are the simplified portions of social sciences.
• n They represent a child-centred approach.
• n They are the practical part of human affairs.
• n They lay emphasis on the functional part of knowledge.
• n Th
ey aim at guiding adolescents in their learning selected portions what has been deserved
in social sciences.
Civics
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Econom
Philo
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Soical Studies
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Components of social sciences

y Scope of Social Studies

The scope of social studies is very vast and wide and in fact, as wide as the world itself and as
lengthy as the history of man on this earth.
The term ‘scope’ refers to the breadth, comprehensiveness, variety and extent to be provided
through a programme of teaching. Therefore, in this context, we have to answer the following
questions:
• n What is to be included in the programme?
• n What subjects are to be included?
We know that social studies help the learners in understanding the human environment in
its totality. Therefore, the breadth of social studies programme should provide for a variety of
experiences and so that the learning of children will be well-rounded and well-balanced.
Social studies study the relationships, i.e.:
• n Relationships between man and man.
• n Relationships between man and institutes.
• n Relationships between man and earth.
• n Relationships between man and goods.
Therefore, the above contents are to be included with the programmes of teaching social studies.
The major concern of this area of study is to acquaint children with the past and the present
problems related to social, economical, political, and geographical environments. Therefore, its
area is extended to the subjects such as history, geography, civics, economics, environmental
studies, and sociology.
y Aims and Objectives of Teaching Social Studies

Why formulations and objectives of teaching social studies are necessary? What are the aims and
objectives of teaching social studies?
The formulation of objectives is needed for the various reasons:
• n Selecting significant and meaningful content.
• n Selecting teaching methods and techniques.
• n Providing the basics for measurements and evaluation.
• n Making learning functional.
• n Evolving proper learning situation.
• n Identifying weakness and strengths of pupils in learning.
• n Defining educational processes.
• n Providing the desired direction to the educational activities and programmes.
The aims of teaching social studies will have to be in consonance with the broader aims of
education here and now. The objectives have to be precise and definite. The major aims of teaching
social studies are as follows:
• n To acquaint children with their past and present social, cultural, and geographical
environments.
• n To enable the children to appreciate the rich cultural heritage of India and acquaint them
in the context of social change.

• n To build intelligent democratic citizenship.

• n To build social competence among the pupil.
• n To help children to acquire the right attitude, knowledge, understanding, and competence
which they will need in the intervention with social and physical environments.
• n To help the learners in understanding the human environment in its totality and
developing a broader outlook.
• n To help the learners grow into well-informed and responsible citizens with necessary
attributes/skills and so that they could participate and contribute effectively in the process
of development and nation-building.
• n To help the learners to ‘think globally and act locally’.
• n To provide students essential knowledge, skills and attitude which are necessary for self-
development and also for becoming effective and contributing members of the society.
• n To enable the pupils to use their leisure properly.
• n To develop a sense of belongingness in the learners.
• n To develop desirable qualities for an all-round development of rich personality.
• n To promote peace in the society.
• n To participate effectively in the affairs in the community, the state, the country and the
world at large.
• n To promote the values and ideals of humanism, secularism, socialism and democracy.
• n To promote international understanding.
Area of social studies
y Social Studies—As a Core Subject

The social curriculum of a country, such as its constitution, reflects the ethos of that country. The
Education Commission of India pointed out that there is a need to transform education so as to
relate it to the life, needs, and aspirations of the people and to make it an instrument of social

change. The purpose of the curriculum of social studies is to awake the social consciousness, to
develop democratic values, and to promote national integration. Therefore, the subject of social
studies has been given the status of core subject. So what is core curriculum?
Concept of Core Curriculum

The core curriculum designates these learning experiences that are fundamental for all learners
because they derive from:
• n Our common individual drives or needs.
• n Our civic and social needs as participating members of a democratic society.
Core Curriculum
Everyone needs the knowledge or learning experiences for living satisfactorily in the modern
society. Core curriculum prepares students for living, equipping them with the fundamental
knowledge for social living.
Social Studies as a Core Subject

For various reasons, social studies has been given the status of core curriculum. They are as
follows:
• n Psychological reasons.
• n Sociological reasons.
• n Practical reasons.
Psychological Reasons
Man is a creation of environment and respond to their environment. They want to understand it
thoroughly and interpret it correctly because they can also change and mould the environment.
Therefore, children should be familiar with their environment. Social Studies enables children to
understand their own nature and conditional factors in their environment.
Children are interested in concrete things. There is nothing concrete than life itself. Social
studies is a subject of the school curriculum which aims at giving education for life.
Sociological Reasons
There is nothing permanent than change. Society is changing rapidly. With the changing pattern
of life, the home fails to provide adequate opportunities to young children for citizenship
training. Therefore, providing the necessary social education to children has placed an important
obligation on the part of the school.
Practical Reasons
Man faces a number of problems. These may be social, secular, economic and political problems.
They want to solve these problems and thereby adjust themselves in the country. It is the subject
of social studies which provides them the knowledge and experience to overcome these problems
and to adjust suitable in the environment. It provides the skills and develops attitude to equip
with the environment.

y Curriculum for Social Studies

National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2000) for School Education states that ‘In a word of ever-
increasing knowledge, selection and organization of the content areas assume great importance.
The social studies curriculum has to be comprehensive and not heavily loaded with information
interrelatedness of ideas and their comprehensibility must be kept in view.’
It should give emphasis upon the optimization of learner’s experiences. Therefore, the themes
should be drawn from geography, history, civics, economics and sociology in a balanced manner.
The contents should be organized from simple to complex and immediate to remote.
Social Studies stands for:
S = Social relationship and social efficiency
O = Objective attitude
C = Citizenship training, constructive, and critical thinking
I = Integral knowledge and intelligent understanding
A = Adaptability and appreciation of other’s viewpoint
L = Learning
S = Sensitiveness of social issues
T = Tolerance
U = Unbiased attitude
D = Devotion to ideas
I = Inter-relationship
E = Emotional balance
S = Self discipline and social attitude
y Contents of Social Studies

The following should be included in the contents of social studies:
• n Indian civilization and its rich cultural heritage.
• n World’s other civilizations and their inter-connectedness.
• n Different cultural movements and revolutions in the life of the country.
• n Spread of its culture in other lands.
• n Cultural preservation.
• n History of Indian freedom movement.
• n Contribution of India to the world civilization.
• n Contribution made by other cultures.
• n The constitution of India.
• n The constitutional obligations.
• n Content essential to natural national identity.
• n Equality of sexes.
• n Removal of social barriers.
• n Fundamental duties and rights.
• n Human rights.
• n Environmental studies.
• n Resources and sustainable development.
• n Man–environment interaction.

• n Population.
• n Surroundings of the children, i.e., home, school, community, neighbourhood, and society.
• n Changes taking place in the surroundings.
• n Fairs, festivals, folk dances, etc.
• n Physical geography.
• n Climatic changes.
• n Natural resources.
• n Food.
• n Agricultural crops.
• n Industry.
• n Social, economic, political developments, and problems.
• n Social class, weaker sections of the society, etc.
• n Poverty, illiteracy, corruption, and anti-social practices.
• n India’s role in the world especially, world peace, international cooperation, decolonization,
etc.
NCF for School Education (2005) states, ‘emphasis has to be laid more on economics, political
and social aspects of human environment especially the contemporary world that too with focus
on India. The Europe-centered view of the world must change.’
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the meaning and concept of social studies.
2. Define social studies and bring out clearly the scope of social studies.
3. Distinguish between social sciences and social studies.
4. State the objectives of teaching social studies.
5. Justify the social studies—a core subject.
6. Describe the content of social studies.
y Summary
1. The study of social sciences is an integral component of general education.
2. Social studies deals with man and their relations with other men and their environment.
3. It is the study of the present problems of the society, i.e., social, economical, and political.
4. Social sciences is a generic term covering the scientific study of man, singly or in groups, as
regards their essentially non-physical characteristics.
5. The social sciences generally includes the disciplines such as economics, political science,
sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and geography.
6. Social studies integrates the experience and knowledge concerning human relationships.
7. The scope of social studies is very vast and wide and, in fact, as wide as the world itself and as
lengthy as the history of man on this earth.
8. The aims and objectives of teaching of social studies are selecting significant and meaningful
content, selecting teaching methods and techniques, making learning functional, defining
educational processes, evolving proper learning situations and providing the basis for
measurement and evaluation.

9. As a core subject—social studies—the purpose of the curriculum of social studies is to awake

the social consciousness, to develop democratic values, and to promote national integration.
10. There are various reasons social studies has been given the status of core curriculum, they are
psychological, sociological, and practical reasons.
11. National curriculum framework (NCF) (2005) has given great importance for teaching of
social studies.
y References
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. Teaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 2–6.
Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1969. Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools. New York
and Toronto: McGraw-Hill Book Co., p. 41.
Height, G. 1951. The Art of Teaching. London: Metheuen and Co. Ltd., p. 22.
Michaelis, J.U. 1956. Social Studies for Children in a Democracy. Englewood Cliffs: N.J., Prentice
Hall, Inc., p. 48.
Wesley, E.B. 1952. Teaching Social Studies in High School. Boston: M.A., D.C. Health and Company,
p. 32.
y Additional Readings
Horn, E. 1937. Methods of Instruction in the Social Studies. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Bhattacharya, S. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Acharya Book Depot.
Nesiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in Schools. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press.
Tyagi, G. 1989. Teaching of Social Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir.
Pathak, R.P. 2010. Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publisher and Distributor,
Ansari Road, Darya Ganj.


Role and Importance of Social
Studies in National Integration 2
National integration is a feeling of oneness which transcends all groups or cultural
differences and synthesizes different castes, linguistic, and religious communities nationally
into compact whole. It is the cementing force that unites the citizens of a country. National
integration is the development of a mental climate that would help react in terms of oneness.
It must inculcate pride and respect for the best in our cultural heritage and wish to improve
our country.
India is the confluence spot of many religions, regions, languages, castes, creeds, communities,
etc. The progress and development of the country greatly depends upon the national unity.
From the time immemorial, India has kept her unity. ‘Unity in diversity’: is the beauty of Indian
society.
y Meaning and Concept of National Integration

‘Integration’ is a common term used by people. However, it is difficult to explain correctly the
meaning of integration. Let us see what does integration mean.
We can define national integration as follows:
• n Having political unity of the country.
• n Having mutual understanding among all citizens of the country.
• n Having common ideals.
• n Achieving a common objective.
National integration is a comprehensive term and it includes the feelings and sentiments of
its citizens which govern their political and public behaviour.
A nation is said to be integrated if its citizens, may be belonging to any caste, community,
religion, language and state, have a feeling of oneness, share each others joy, sorrow, smiles and
tears and have an interest in the welfare of the nation as a whole. It is the cementing force that
unites the citizens of a country.
National integration aims at fostering respect and affection for those belonging to other
cultural and ethnic groups. National integration means bringing about economic, social and
cultural differences prevailing among people within the tolerance range. In a nutshell, we can say
that national integration is nothing but unity in diversity. The feeling of overall oneness of the
nation results in fostering national integration.

y Definition of National Integration

Dorothy Thompson—‘National integration is a feeling that binds the citizens of a country.’
Preston—‘National integration is the job to inculcate knowledge of our country, pride in it
and respect for the best in our national environment, aspirations, and traditions, and a wish to
improve our country.’
y Need of National Integration

In the previous section, we have discussed the meaning of national integration; however, a
question may come to our mind, that is, why national integration is necessary or what is the need
of national integration?
National integration is necessary for the following:
• n For creating a mighty nation.
• n For the success of democracy and socialism.
• n For the ending of caste system.
• n For synthesizing religious values.
• n For the progress and development of the nation.
y Role of Social Studies in National Integration

Social studies include a variety of subjects such as history, geography, civics, and economics
environmental studies. These subjects include many contents. Different methods are used to teach
these subjects. Therefore, what should be the contents of social studies in promoting national
integration? What method the teacher should adopt for teaching social studies? What is the role
of social studies teacher in promoting national integration?
Contents of Social Studies in Promoting

y

National Integration
Social studies consists of subjects such as history, geography, civics, and economics. Let us discuss
the topics to be included in these subjects for promoting the national integration.
History
Unity is the precondition for all progress. For rapid progress, peaceful atmosphere is necessary.
Ours is a land of many races, languages, cultures, sects, and religions; however, there is ‘unity
in diversity’. To exhibit this unity-in-diversity, the development of different races, cultures,
languages, dress, food, manner, customs, religions, etc. should be taught to the students.
Lives and teachings of Gautam Buddha, Mahaveer, Chaitanya, Kabir, Mohammed Saheb,
Meerabai, Eknath, Ramdas and Muslim Sufis, Guru Nanak and Gur Govind Sing Ji, and Isha Masih
should be included in the curriculum. The importance of different pilgrim places of Hindus,
Jains, Bauddh, Muslims, Christians, etc. are to be taught to the students.
There is a predominant cultural unity throughout the country. Different festivals and
ceremonies are celebrated by different sects all over the country. The history of the festivals such

Role and Importance of Social Studies in National Integration  13
as Holi, Diwali, Dussehra, Vaisakhi, Mohram, Pongal, and Onam will be taught to the pupils for
promoting national integration. We find unique/blend of passion and the old Indian style even
in architecture, painting, music and other Indian culture through the ages; their unity in spite of
varied diversities need to be emphasized.
A short and simple history of the National Movement must be taught to every child before
they leave the school. This history reflects a saga of sacrifices willingly made and sufferings
patiently borne by Indians. This will instil national consciousness and appraise the youth with the
price which the preceding generations paid for freedom. The biography of national heroes such
as Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal,
Sardar Ballabhbai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Bhagat Singh
may be taught to the students. The student should be made familiarize with the historic events
such as the Quit India Movement, Dandi March, Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy, and Non-Cooperation
Movement. The pupils should be taught about the impact of world events such as the Russian
Revolution, the World Wars, and the role of Indians in these wars, the Revolution of China, the
Chinese and Pakistani aggression against India, and Kargil War.
Geography
India is a land of different regions. Therefore, human geography of each region should be taught to
the students. Map reading should be made compulsory. The rivers, waterfalls, mines, oil and coal
resources, mountain peaks, and forest wealth belong to all of us; it is essential for all and it shows unity.
Man-made dams, power plants, railways, roads, air, and water ways are common resources.
They give benefit to all of us. There is tremendous similarity in the style of our dress and food
habits. These should be emphasized in the curriculum to promote national integration.
Civics
There are different people living in India; however, they follow the same constitution. They
enjoy the same fundamental rights given by the constitution. Their fundamental duties are also
the same. They are all equal before the law. Though there are administrative boundaries among
the various states of the country, they are arbitrary and artificial. There is one president, one
prime minister and one supreme court. All these have to be emphasized well in the curriculum
for the promotion of national integration.
Economics
Despite economic disparities among the people, we belong to one nation. Every year, the
parliament passes a budget for the whole nation. The students should be taught about the budget
and how it is prepared. The students should be made familiar with the five-year plans to impress
upon them how India has forged ahead ‘to the service of millions who suffer’ and ‘to give reality
to our dreams’. These help in promoting national integration among the pupils.
Methods of Teaching for Promoting

y
Different methods of teaching are adopted for teaching social studies. However, for promoting
national integration among pupils, such methods should be adopted by which the qualities
such as co-operation, tolerance, leadership, respect for others’ opinion and social values will be

developed among the pupils. Therefore, the method such as panel discussion, activity, learning
by doing, project, play-way, field trips, demonstration, seminar, and symposium are to be used
for teaching of social studies.
Role of Social Studies Teacher in Promoting

y

Teachers are regarded as the central force in the whole educational system. They can create such
an environment in which the pupils can live together. The teachers should emphasize the spirit
of tolerance providing the Indian life. They can emphasize that during the Golden Age of the
Guptas, Fa-Hein was impressed by the toleration of the people, Harsha adopted the policy of
religious freedom, Akbar introduced Din-E-Elahi, etc.
Teachers should narrate the stories of the great heroes of the nation who sacrificed their lives
for the unity and integrity of the country. To infuse the blood of national integration among the
pupils, the teacher should make efforts for creating a feeling of pride for the eminent personalities
such as Visyesaraya and C.P. Ramaswamy who dreamt of a national grid for electricity and for the
waters of the Ganges to flow into the Cauvery.
The teacher should lay stress upon the point that technological developments also
make it imperative that we must stand together. Distances have been eliminated; travel has
become easier. There are developed means of communication systems such as telephone,
mobile phones, fax, and Internet. There are challenging problems of defence, research, and
economic development. India has to keep her head high. This can be possible if we are united
and make all our efforts to strengthen our country’s unity. The teachers should emphasize the
need for bringing national unity to fight against the forces such as communication, casteism,
regionalism, and terrorism.
y The Role of Social Studies in Emotional Integration

The Ministry of Education, Government of India, appointed the Committee on Emotional
Integration under the chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand in 1961. The committee made valuable
recommendations on the role of education in promoting the process of emotional integration
programmes for youth in schools and colleges. It observed, ‘The teaching social studies at all
levels, i.e., primary, secondary and university stages would impart knowledge of the geographical,
historical and cultural backgrounds of the country and the world as whole.’ The committee laid
special stress on the role of social studies.
1. Curriculum should be re-oriented to suit the needs of secular state.
2. Singing national song, national anthem and other patriotic songs in the school.
3. Stimulating children to read newspapers and books of non-communal nature and throw-
ing light on the contribution of nationalists.
4. Students should be told the history of the national flag and taught at the very earliest
stage to show reverence to the national flag.
5. Celebration of national days such as 15 August, 26 January, and 2 October in the schools
with full participation of the teachers, the student, and the community.
6. Organizing symposium, debates, and discussions on topics of secular nature in the
school.

Role and Importance of Social Studies in National Integration  15
7. Students’ excursions and tours should be organized time to time.

8. Suitable handbook for teachers in the social studies should be published.
9. School may conduct several projects which improve the students’ knowledge about the
country.
10. Organizing exhibitions on the life of different people living in different parts of the
country.
11. Educational and travel documentations with particular emphasis on various aspects
of Indian scenery, flora and fauna and various developmental and reconstruction pro-
grammes should be produced for use in schools.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the importance of social studies in national integration.
2. State the role of a teacher of social studies in developing and promoting of emotional
integration among students.
3. Define the term national integration.
4. Explain the content of social studies in promoting national integration.
5. Describe the methods of teaching for promoting national integration.
6. Elucidate the concept of emotional integration.
y Summary
1. National and emotional integrations are the developments of a mental climate that would help
react in terms of oneness.
2. National unity is the primary requisite for national existence.
3. The ideals of democracy, secularism, and socialism that are enshrined in our constitution can
be realized only through emotional and national integrations.
4. National integration is required for the creation of a mighty nation.
5. National integration can be created by ending the curse of caste-system and through
synthesizing religious values.
6. The emotional integration of the Indian people is a challenge that cannot be ignored.
7. The teachers of the educational institutions and teachers of social studies can play an important
role in the field of national and emotional integrations.
y References
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. Teaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 225–260.
Bramwell, R.D. 1957. Integrated Courses in Social Studies. Publication No. 14, Ministry of
Education, Government of India, p. 141.
Hemming, J. 1970. The Teaching of Social Studies in a Secondary School. New York: Longmans
Green and Co., pp. 144–147.

Government of India 1966. Education Commission Report. Ministry of Education, Publication

Division, pp. 286–288.
Ford Foundation 1954. Report of International Team. Ministry of Education Publication Division,
pp. 240–242.
Additional Readings
Moffat, M.P. 1971. Social Studies Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Mac Nee, E.A. 1950. Instruction in Indian Secondary Schools. London: Oxford University Press.
Forrester, J.F. 1948. Introducing Social Studies. Bombay: Orient Longmans Ltd.
Singh, N. and Sharma, M.M. 2006. Teaching of Social Sciences. Jaipur: Jain Prakashan Mandir.
Tyagi, G. 1989. Teaching of Social Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir.

Challenges and Issues in Teaching
Practices of Social Studies 3
The aim and objectives of teaching social studies are necessary to point to the broad ideals and
to enable us to select significant and meaningful content, teaching methods, and techniques.
John V. Michaels has aptly stated, ‘The social studies are concerned with man and his
interaction with his social and physical environments, they deal with human relationship—
the central function of social studies is identical with the central purpose of education—the
development of democratic citizenship.’
Social studies deals with the development of the society. It studies the man’s relationship and
their environment and how they meet their needs. It deals with the time, both the past and
the present, and places, not only of immediate vicinity but of different corners of the world. Its
curriculum includes some issue which are not acceptable to all, because different social scientists
view differently on the same issue. Often, teachers also face problems in dealing with such issues.
In addition to this, the selection of appropriate teaching strategies for different contents of social
studies is also a great concern for the teachers. Instructional aids are not an end in itself. Proper
selection of these aids are also important in teaching of social studies.
y Concept of Teaching
It is difficult to define the term ‘teaching’, because a series of behaviour is involved in this process.
It has several dimensions.
We can define the process ‘teaching’ as one of the following:
• n Modifying the behaviour of the students.
• n Providing new knowledge.
• n Developing interpersonal relationship.
• n An interactive process.
• n Manipulation of situation.
• n Giving lecture on a particular topic.
y Definition of Teaching
Morrison—‘Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality and a less mature
which designed to further the education of the latter.’
Amidon—‘Teaching is defined as an interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk which
takes place between teacher and pupils and occurs during definable activities.’
M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_C03.indd 17 28/12/11 6:07 PM

Gage—‘Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behaviour potential

of another person.’
Smith—‘Teaching is system of actions intends to induce learning through interpersonal
relationships.’
y Principles of Teaching
The principles are necessary to control the behaviour. In order to control the behaviour of
teacher, two types of teaching principles are emphasized: (1) General principles of teaching
(2) psychological principles of teaching.
General Principles of Teaching

The general principles of teaching are those principles that are general in nature and have emerged
from the general experiences. Some of the general principles of teaching are as follows:
Principle of definite aim: Teaching should start with a definite aim. In the absence of definite
aim, the teacher might go astray and at the same time their teaching might lack coherence and
definiteness. The students do not gain much if the lesson is planned haphazardly and aimlessly.
Without definite aim, even the best lesson would fail to achieve its objective. Definite aim is
of great help to both the teacher and the students. It makes teaching and learning interesting,
effective, precise, and definite.
Principle of activity (learning by doing): Teaching is ineffective if the students do not actively
participate in the lesson. Learning becomes active and quicker if the student is made active physically
as well as mentally. Teaching can be facilitated if the students actively participate in the learning
process and learn while actually manipulating the things to be learnt, i.e., put their heads and hands
together. Children learn the best through self-activity but that activity must be psychologically
sound. Learning by doing removes the dullness of the lesson and puts the children in life situations.
The children engage themselves fully in the activity and learn qualitatively as well as quantitatively.
Only that knowledge becomes a part of life which they learn through self-activity. Hence, teaching
should be so organized as to provide the maximum opportunities to the children to learn by doing.
The principle may be applied at all the stages in the school. In lower classes, it means more
of physical activity such as games, action songs, gardening, and clay modelling. In middle and
high classes, some of these activities can also continue. However, apart from these, the use of
assignments and the Dalton plan can also be made for securing active participation of students.
Besides the teaching of subjects, the principle of activity may be applied to other forms of
teaching in the school. For example, the students can get training in social behaviour by actually
organizing and participating in the activities of dramatic club, debating society, scout camps, girl
guide camps, picnic, and red-cross society.
Principle of linking with actual life and other subjects (principle of correlation): Life and
learning are two poles of a magnet; they become so interdependent that none can exist without
the other. The teacher should not teach in water-tight compartments. Good teaching implies
that learning must be vitally linked to the life of the learners and other subjects of their syllabus.
Knowledge is one whole. Learning should be unitary and not fragmentary. Teaching should
direct the children’s learning towards understanding of meanings, relationships, applications, and
organizations. Knowledge learnt must be functional and in its proper context.

Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies  19
It is quite easy to correlate some topics with the life around the children and other subjects of
their syllabus. For example, the topic of insurance can be taught by arranging a visit to the local
office of the life insurance corporation or it can be related with some local examples of persons
who die uninsured and others who had got themselves insured before death or the topic can be
elaborated by making reference to social evils which insurance attempts to eradicate or some
problems for finding the rate and amount of premium can be understood and solved.
Principle of planning: The success of teaching–learning process is directly proportional to
the planning. Successful or good teaching is always well planned. Planning involves selection,
division, and revision:
Selection: The teaching material should be carefully selected. The selection of the teaching
material should be based upon the following: (a) the instructional objectives, (b) the teacher’s
ability to impart knowledge, (c) the learner’s capacity to digest the subject matter.
Division: After selecting the subject-matter of teaching, it becomes useful to present
the teaching material in steps. Division means breaking the chosen subject-matter into
convenient and meaningful units in order to make it more understandable. The technique of
dividing the subject-matter into units and sub-units facilitates the teaching–learning process.
Without proper division, teaching may remain indefinite, incoherent, and confused and poses
problem for the learner so far as the comprehensiveness is concerned. Matter arranged and
selected should be properly graded or divided according to the pupil’s standard of attainment.
Revision: Drill and practice are absolutely essential for the assimilation of knowledge.
Revision helps assimilation and helps teachers to test the understanding of their pupils.
Therefore, the matter should be revised and put into practice. Revision should take place at
each stage and section better known as sectional revision or recapitulation.
Principle of flexibility and elasticity: Teaching should not be rigid and stereotyped. It should be
flexible and elastic. It should be arranged according to the environment and circumstances. The
teacher should be resourceful, original, imaginative, and creative enough to adapt themselves to
the requirements of the students and the teaching–learning situation.
Principle of utilizing past experiences: Past experiences serve the base for acquiring new
knowledge. Therefore, teaching should be linked with already acquired knowledge and experiences.
It facilitates teaching and helps in achieving the stipulated objectives with great ease and economy.
Principle of pupil-centredness: Teaching should be pupil-centred, i.e., the needs, interests,
abilities, and aspirations of the students should be given due importance in teaching. The
curriculum, methods, techniques, and management of teaching, learning, environment, and
evaluation should serve the cause of the pupils.
Principle of individual differences: No two individuals are alike. They differ in their attitudes,
abilities, aptitudes, interests, achievements, aims, ambitions, and aspirations. Some are slow learners
and others are quick learners. In the continuum of growth and development, entry behaviour and
acquisition of abilities in the cognitive, affective, and conative domains, all pupils occupy different
positions. Therefore, teaching should make adequate provision for individual differences. It should
be designed, performed, and evaluated according to the principle of individual differences.
Principle of effective strategies and instructional material: Successful teaching demands
effective strategies, devices, and instructional material. Therefore, great care should be taken
to choose an appropriate strategy, devices, and instructional material for teaching a particular

topic/subject. They all vary with the variance in the goals and purposes, pupils, and teaching–
learning environment.
Principle of conducive environment and proper control: Conducive environment and proper
control facilitate teaching and learning. Teaching and learning can proceed effectively in an ideal,
social, and physical environment. Room temperature, light, ventilation, cleanliness, and seating
arrangement are the factors that influence the physical environment of a classroom. Teacher,
principal, teacher–teacher, principal–teacher, and pupil–teacher relationships, group dynamics,
classroom interaction, discipline, and tone of the school are the factors that influence the social
environment of a classroom. As these factors significantly influence the teaching–learning
process, care should be taken for their proper arrangement and control.
Principle of diagnostic and remedial teaching: Good teaching diagnoses the difficulties of the
students and suggests remedies. Doubts are removed and concepts are made clear. In successful
teaching, it is necessary that a teacher should know the difficulties and problems of the students
with a view to remove them. A teacher who is able to remove the difficulties of the students and
to solve their problems is considered to be a successful teacher.
Principle of suggestiveness: Good teaching proceeds based on the suggestion rather than
direction. The military spirit is advantageous for well-conducted classroom. The teacher suggests
activities, materials, and modes of responses. Suggestion helps in securing the co-operation of
pupils. Good teachers do not give order, but they give suggestions. When a teacher gives orders, the
students feel annoyed, but when a teacher gives suggestion, the students obey to it. Hence, in good
teaching, the teacher gives their suggestions to the students for doing a thing or not doing a thing.
Principle of progressiveness: Teaching should be progressive. A good teacher is concerned
with the progress of children in the development of attitudes, interests, ideas, information,
skills, and abilities and the development of habits of thoughts and action. Good teaching looks
for improvement. Progress in the method and technique should find place in good teaching.
Good teaching looks forward for the improvement in the light of new experiments in the field of
teaching. When teaching improves steadily, it is progressive.
Principle of democracy: Successful teaching is democratic. The teacher should create a
democratic environment in the classroom. They should think that each individual is entitled
to equal rights with every other individual in the classroom. They should have no feeling that a
particular student is rich and as such the student should be taught properly. The students should
not be taught keeping in view their caste, creed, or religion. A teacher should treat all the students
as the members of the same family belonging to one caste and following one religion. The teacher
should also put themselves at par with the students. In other words, they should think that they
are also the members of the family of the students and not a ruler of the family.
Principle of liberating the mind: Successful teaching liberates and widens the intellectual
horizon of the students. Independent habits of study are developed in them. They are made to
work on their own initiative. They are made self-reliant and self-confident. They are helped in
planning, reciting, discussing, and evaluating the activities and knowledge learnt. Good teaching
stimulates the students to activity and in a way that liberalizes their way of thinking and doing
things. The ideal of good teaching is to liberate the mind of the student from any fear which they
may incidentally feel and to develop independence in thought and method of procedure and so
that the students may be able to solve their problems independently and work out solutions.
Good teaching is characterized by the observance of these general principles. Like an artist,
the teacher must know and apply these principles which help them in acquiring proficiency in
their profession.

Psychological Principles of Teaching

Psychological principles of teaching are those principles which make teaching stimulating and
effective by taking into account the psychology of the child. These principles have resulted
through the experiments and researches of the field of psychology of learning and teaching. Some
of the important psychological principles of teaching are given in the following sections.
Principle of motivation or interest: Principle of motivation is considered very important to
carry out successful teaching–learning process. It is said that half the battle is won if the students
are truly motivated for the lesson. Motivation is the fuel that drives the mental engine. Motivation
not only promotes but also facilitates learning. Motivation arouses the interest of the children
and once they are genuinely interested, they become attentive, and consequently learning
becomes effective. Hence, teacher should properly motivate the students by creating interesting
learning situations. Teaching should be linked with activities and purposes of life. Children feel
motivated for the things which are connected with their natural urge to activity. For example, in
schools, many students find it difficult to remember the properties of gases. Merely drilling and
repeating these properties is a dull and dry task. A wise teacher would urge them to find out these
properties by applying relevant tests in the laboratory. The students have liking for practical work.
The children’s love to play and activity is utilized for creating motivation through practical work.
Curiosity is a very strong urge which can be used for motivation. The teacher should see that the
physical, social, and intellectual environments are conducive to learning.
Principle of sympathy and kindness: Sympathetic attitude on the part of the teacher is an essential
prerequisite of successful teaching. Successful teaching cannot take place in a situation that lacks
sympathy and kindness with the interests and needs of students. Children love and obey those
who show kindness and sympathy to them. Students learn more when they are taught in kind
and polite manner. The teacher should be good and kind to the students in order to teach them
properly. They should keep in mind the shortcomings, limitations and difficulties of the students.
The students’ individual differences should be recognized and congenial environment should be
created in the classroom. Congenial environment is an environment of mutual understanding,
respect, consideration, and faith. Scolding, nagging, and rebuking have no place in good teaching.
Principle of co-operation: Successful teaching is a co-operative affair between the teacher and
students. If there is no co-operation, there may not be good teaching. Hence, the teacher should
plan their teaching to give the pupils abundant opportunity for co-operation in organization,
management, participation in discussion, and other classroom activities.
Principle of recreation: Successful teaching is a source of happiness to the teacher and the students
as well. Work becomes its own reward for the teacher, and the students enjoy it to the maximum.
Teaching is not to be continued as a routine affair. It should arouse the creativeness in the children.
Successful teaching proves to be a source of creativeness and recreation. It awakens in the learners
a desire to be creative and engages them in activity which is a source of pleasure to them.
Principle of repetition and exercise: ‘Practice makes a man perfect’ is a well-known proverb.
It applies well to the field of teaching and learning. If students are asked to repeat learning
tasks, they will understand, retain and recall the subject-matter more effectively. Therefore, the
principle of repetition and exercise helps in bringing desired changes in behaviour frequently and
effectively. The teacher who provides practice, revision, recapitulation and application of what has
been taught by them may successfully achieve the objectives of teaching.
Principle of readiness: Readiness on the part of an individual is essential for accomplishing a
particular task. If the pupils are not ready to learn, it is the duty of the teacher to make them ready

for learning. Principle of readiness warns the teacher to take up only those tasks for teaching
which are according to psychology of the pupils, i.e., their abilities, interests, attitudes, aspirations,
maturation, and developmental level.
Principle of change and rest: Monotony, fatigue, and lack of attention decrease the speed of
learning. Teaching–learning process followed by rest and change refreshes the mind and prepares
the learners for more and effective learning. The change in stimulus and other types of changes
in the contents, methods, and teaching–learning environment with adequate rest and recreation
prove very effective in teaching and learning. Hence, the teacher should essentially plan and
implement the provision of change, rest, and recreation in their teaching.
Principle of providing training to senses: Senses are said to be the gateways of knowledge.
Teaching and learning become more effective if senses are effectively trained and utilized.
The power of observation, identification, discrimination, experimentation, application, and
generalization can be developed through the proper training and functioning of the senses.
Therefore, the teacher should make proper arrangement for the training of senses especially the
sense of sight and hearing of the students. Of all the senses, the sense of sight is most vivid
and provides rich experiences to the individuals. The results of studies show that nearly 80% of
experiences gained by a person are received through the sense of sight, 10% of the experiences
through sense of hearing, and 10% through other senses.
Principle of feedback and reinforcement: Feedback and reinforcement play an important
role in the process of teaching and learning. A pupil repeats responses that are reinforced and
discontinue responses that are not reinforced. The immediate knowledge of results and positive
reinforcer in the form of praise, grade, certificates, and other incentives may work wonders in the
field of teaching and learning. The knowledge of result should be given to the pupils as quickly
as possible. The principle of providing feedback and reinforcement results in quick and effective
learning.
Principle of group dynamics: Principle of utilizing group behaviour and group dynamics plays
an important role in the achievement of objectives of teaching. Students tend to learn better in
a group and also develop qualities of co-operation, mutual respect, sacrifice, etc. Therefore, the
teacher should encourage group learning. They should make the use of the various aspects of
group psychology for the achievement of better results.
Principle of creativity and self-expression: Teaching should be based on the principle of
developing creativity and self-expression. It should work as an effective medium for self-
expression, so that students may develop their talents and abilities. Usually teachers feel happy
if the students reproduce the material exactly in the same manner. This practice should be
discouraged. The teacher should encourage and praise the students whenever they put forth new,
original, and imaginative ideas. As the development of a nation depends upon creative ideas,
it becomes imperative that the teacher should create situations in the classroom that inculcate
creativity and self-expression among students.
Principle of encouraging self-learning: The teacher should inculcate the habit of self-study,
independent work and self-learning among the students by providing proper opportunities and
training to their students for this purpose. Besides creating self-learning situations for students,
the teacher should be available for guiding them. This principle of teaching helps to inculcate self-
confidence and positive self-dependence among students. Moreover, it helps in individualized
teaching.

y Teaching Variable
Teaching process involves three variables (Figure 3.1):
(1) Independent variable—Teacher.
(2) Dependent variable—Student.
(3) Intervening variable—The content and the strategies of presentation.
Teacher (Independent Variable)
Student (Dependent Variable) Content (Intervening Variable)
Figure 3.1 Teaching Variables
Independent variable (Teacher): The planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of the
teaching are done by the teacher. Teacher has the freedom to perform the activities for providing
the learning experiences to the pupils.
Dependent variable (Student): Student has to act according to the planning and organization of
the teacher. The student’s learning or performance is influenced by teaching activities.
Intervening variables (Content, Strategies, Tactics, and Techniques of Teaching): The content
of teaching, strategies, tactics of teaching and techniques of motivation are known as intervening
variables. The interaction between teacher and student is performed through the intervening variables.
y Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies

The issues in teaching practices of social studies can be enumerated as follows:
• n Issues related to curriculum (contents).
• n Issues related to the strategies of teaching.
Issues Related to Curriculum

Controversy is inherent in the nature of the subject. Our knowledge is limited. The source
of material is not adequate. As a result, a difficulty is experienced in weaving a true account,
in separating the truths from falsehood. Often, there is disagreement over ‘facts’ and
interpretation of many events and moments. Views expressed are sometimes misleading. The
subjective element also plays a very important part in the process of acceptance, selection, and
interpretation of facts.
The data available has varying terminology and at times is highly confusing. Interpretation of
the facts is also influenced by the approach social scientists to the study of the subject. Some try
to relate various facts with one another with a view to present the picture they want to present.

Therefore, the subjective factor involved in interpretation of facts introduces an element of

controversy.
Some controversial issues in teaching of history are discussed in the following sections.
History
1. Origin of Aryans.
2. Decline of Mughal Empire.
3. The Revolt of 1857.
4. Macaulay’s Role in the Development of Education in India.
5. India’s Foreign Policy.
6. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
7. Kashmir Issue.
8. Indo-Pak Border Issue.
9. Israel-Palestine Boarder Issue.
10. Ram Janmabhoomi–Babri Masjid Controversy.
Civics
1. Anti-defection law.
2. Women’s Reservation Bill.
3. Certain important constitutional amendments.
Economics
1. Liberalization of economy.
2. Privatization.
3. World Trade Organization (WTO).
y Teaching Controversial Issues

The teacher should cautiously deal with the controversial issues. While teaching the social studies,
teachers should present facts, make discussions, and should draw conclusion objectively. They
must operate within the limits set by their profession and the pursuit of truth. They should not air
their views without any proposition. The following procedures may be followed.
Introducing the Issue

Students may be provided opportunities to express their strong feelings freely before they are
challenged to examine or re-examine their points of view. The specific points of controversy
involved in the topic should be listed.
Stating the Problem

The teacher should keep the students to state the problem and delimit it.
Collection of Data
The teacher should make all relevant data and information available to their pupils for study. They
should help students gather data to present the argument for and against the issue.

Guiding the Learners

The teacher should guide the students in identifying the different choices possible for deciding
the issue.
Exploring the Facts and Ideas

The teacher should encourage them to explore the facts and ideas which support the issue.
Arriving at Conclusion
The teacher should guide the students towards suspended judgement.
y Teacher’s Role
Regarding the role of teachers in handling controversial issues, the opinion is divided. Some are of
the view that the teacher should serve largely as a moderator, chairman or empire. Others view that
the teacher should play a more outspoken role. However, a combination of two will suit the best.
Teachers should be adequately equipped with the latest knowledge and research about the
issue. They should not indoctrinate the children with their own views and convictions. They
should create an atmosphere that emphasizes free inquiry and the weightage of evidence. They
should give their personal opinion at the end if students ask for it. They should help the pupils to
look for information judiciously, evaluate the data correctly, think critically, and develop positive
views on the issue under discussion.
y Issues Related to Strategies of Teaching

The teaching objectives are achieved in terms of the behavioural changes among students. The
teacher generates the learning situation, so that desired behavioural change may be brought
about. The behavioural changes of students are the means to achieve the objective of teaching.
Therefore, teaching in a view to achieve the objectives of teaching and learning structure, the
teacher selects the appropriate teaching strategies and tactics to create the desired learning
structure and conditions. It includes the following activities:
• n Selection of appropriate teaching tactics.
• n Selection of appropriate communication strategies.
• n Selection of appropriate instructional aids.
y Selection of Appropriate Teaching Tactics

Teaching tactics are the ways of applying a teaching strategy for achieving the learning objectives.
Stones and Morris (1972) defined the term ‘teaching strategies’ as ‘a generalised plan for a lesson
which includes the structure, desired learner behaviour in terms of goals of instruction and an
outline of planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.’ The lesson strategy is a part of a
larger development scheme of the curriculum.
Lecture, narration-cum-discussion, field-trips, etc. are the methods, generally, used for
teaching social studies. Teacher of social studies tries to present a concrete picture of the contents

in the classroom before the students by using these methods. Social studies is a subject of facts
and information.
The teacher has to connect the present with the past and the nearest to the farthest in the
process of teaching. It depends upon the knowledge and style of presentation of the teacher as well
as the imagination of the students. For instance, while teaching social studies, a teacher teaches
about the longitude and the lines drawn around the earth vertically and horizontally starting from
the zero degree from the centre. These lines are only imaginary lines. These methods have also
some elements. These elements cannot be eliminated totally; however, they can be eliminated to
some extent. Therefore, teacher should select appropriate teaching tactics taking into consideration
the content and its learning objectives.
y Selection of Appropriate Communication Media

An effective presentation or interaction phase of teaching depends upon the communication
media which helps in achieving learning objectives. Generally, a communication in the classroom
must include the followings:
• n Oral communication.
• n Written communication.
Oral Communication
This mode of communication employs speaking and listening communication channel. The oral
communication is largely oral or verbal interaction method. This is based upon the audio-lingual
method (Figure 3.2). The teacher has to speak on the content orally and expression on the part of
the teacher and the students listen the expression first than the theme or content.
Content
Speaking Listening
Teacher Method Student
Listening Speaking
Aids
Figure 3.2 Teacher and Student Interaction (Audio-lingual Method)

Written Communication
This type of communication is based upon the cognitive code of method of teaching (Figure 3.3).
An interaction between teacher and students takes place through reading and writing activities.
It ensures about the correct solution of the problem.
Content
Writing Reading
Teacher Method Student
Reading Writing
Aids
Figure 3.3 Teacher and Student Interaction (Cognitive Code Method)
In writing, content comes first than the expression. Generally, communication is performed
with the help of four activities, i.e., speaking, listening, wiring, and reading.
y Selection of Appropriate Instructional Aids

Instructional aids play a significant role in organizing teaching. Instructional aids are used to
make lesson interesting and involving more than one sense in teaching–learning situation. The
students can be made active and attentive by the use of teaching aids. Different teaching aids
are used in teaching social studies. Hence, selection is the complex problem. The criteria and
principles are used as the basis for selecting appropriate teaching aids are as follows:
• n Teaching–Learning Objective.
• n Learning Conditions and Structures.
• n Teaching–Learning Objectives.
The objectives formulated in the planning stage should be considered as criterion for taking
decision about the teaching aids. Researches have been conducted in this direction. The findings
of these studies have been presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Teaching Aids and Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Teaching Aids Cognitive Affective Psychomotor
1. Radio ++++ ++++ ---------
2. Tape-recorder ++++ ++++ ++++
3. Line-drawing ++++ ---------- ---------
4. Still pictures ++++ ++++ ++++
5. Models ---------- ++++ ++++
6. Films ++++ ++++ ++++
7. T.V. ++++ ++++ ++++
8. Maps/globes/charts/tables ++++ ++++ ++++
9. Educational visits ++++ ++++ ---------
In Table 3.1, plus signs indicate that a particular objective may be achieved by using specific
teaching aids. The blank indicates that particular learning objectives cannot be achieved by the
teaching objectives.
Learning Conditions and Structures

Learning objectives can be achieved by creating appropriate conditions on the structures
of learning. Thus, appropriate teaching aids facilitate appropriate learning structures. The
findings of the research conducted in jlns direction have been summarized in Table 3.2.
The plus signs in the following chart indicate that a particular aid may facilitate a particular
learning structure. An effective use of instructional aids depends upon learning objectives and
learning structure.
Table 3.2 Teaching Aids and Learning Structure
Learning Structure
Teaching Aids Signal Principle Chain Multiple Discrimination Concept
1. Radio ----- ++++ ----- ----- -----
2. Tape-recorder ----- +++ ++++ ++++ -----
3. Line-drawing ++++ ----- ++++ ----- -----
4. Still pictures ++++ ----- ----- ++++ ++++
5. Models ++++ ++++ ----- ----- -----
6. Films ----- ++++ ----- ++++ ++++
7. T.V. ----- ++++ ----- ++++ ++++
8. Maps/globes/charts/tables ++++ ----- ----- ++++ ++++
9. Educational visits ----- ++++ ----- ++++ ++++

The social studies teacher, therefore, should keep in mind the learning objectives and learning
structure, while selecting the instructional aids for teaching.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the concept of teaching.
2. Define the teaching.
3. Explain general principles of teaching.
4. Explain psychological principles of teaching.
5. Elucidate various principles of teaching.
6. Describe the issues in teaching practices of social studies.
7. State the selection of appropriate teaching tactics in social studies.
8. Evaluate the selection of appropriate communication media in teaching of social studies.
9. Explain the appropriate instructional aids in teaching of social studies.
y Summary
1. Social studies deals with the development of the society.
2. Teaching is an interactive process.
3. There are two types of teaching principles—(a) general principles of teaching and (b)
psychological principles of teaching.
4. The selection of appropriate teaching strategies for different contents of social studies is also a
great concern for the teachers.
5. Proper selection of instructional aids is also important in teaching of social studies.
6. An effective presentation or interaction phase of teaching depends upon the communication
media which helps in achieving learning objectives.
7. The type of communication is based upon the cognitive code of method of teaching.
8. Learning objectives can be achieved by creating appropriate conditions on structures of
learning.
y References
Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in a Mass Society. Pennsylvania: International Text Book
Company, p. 78.
Fenton, E. 1974. Teaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, Inc., pp. 66–64.
Bhattacharya, S. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Acharya Book Depot,
pp. 55–57.
Nasiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the School. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University
Press, p. 124.
Tyagi, G. 1989. Teaching of Social Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, p. 75.

House Pvt. Ltd.
Kocher, S.K. 1990. The Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: The Sterling Publishers Ltd.
Forrester, J.F. 1948. Introducing Social Studies. Bombay: Orient Longmans.
Pathak, R.P. 2010. Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors,
Ansari Road, Daryaganj.
Mehrotra, P.N. and Sidana, A.K. 2006. Social Studies Teaching. Jaipur: Shiksha Prakashan.

Use of Instructional
Aids in Social Studies 4
The instructional aids are those devices or procedures that help to make teaching–learning
more interesting, more stimulating, more reinforcing, and more effective. Good’s Dictionary
of Education says, ‘anything by means which learning process may be encouraged or carried
on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.’ Burton’s opinion says, ‘Instructional aids are
those sensory objects or images which initiate, stimulate, and reinforce learning.’
To make teaching learning process effective, the learning environment should be made realistic.
Learn man learns through sense. Senses are the gateway of the knowledge. Social studies deals
with time, both the past and the present, and places not only of immediate vicinity but of different
corners of the world. To make this realistic, a variety of instructional aids have to be used. These
aids are stimuli for learning.
y Meaning and Concept of Instructional Aids

Instructional aids provide a realistic experience to the learners. They help in the teaching process.
Let us see what does instructional aid mean?
We can define instructional aid as one of the followings:
• n The things which reinforce the teaching.
• n The objects which present the realistic experience to the learner.
• n The objects which provide stimuli to the learner.
• n The objects which provide sensual experience to the learner.
We may also define instructional aid as a device that assists an instructor to transmit facts,
skills, attitudes, knowledge, understanding, and application to a learner. Instructional aids are
also called teaching aids as the aids are used in the process of teaching. These are the devices
which present unit of knowledge through auditory or visual or both with a view to help learning.
They concretize the knowledge to be presented and thus help in making a learning experience
appear real living and vital.
Instructional aids are thus supplementary materials. They provide a sensory experience to
the learner. These devices help the teacher to classify, establish, co-relate, and co-ordinate accurate
concepts for interpretations and appreciations and enable them to make learning more concrete,
effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful, and vivid.

Significance of Instructional Aids

y

in Teaching Social Studies
Instructional aids provide significant gain in informational teaching retention and recall,
thinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, better assimilation, and personal growth
and development. The significance of instructional aids is stated below:
They are supplementary to the words expressed: In the class, the teacher gives verbal
descriptions which go beyond the experience of the pupils. The teacher gives description of
people of different times and climes. Therefore, to help the pupils to bring the facts home, teacher
must take the help of instructional aids.
They supplement the material of the text books: The books in social studies explicate the
specificity. They do not provide concrete experience. However, by using instructional aids, the
teaching can provide direct and purposeful experience.
They make learning permanent: Instructional aids are potent motivators. As a result,
they enable pupils to learn faster and remember longer. They supply the necessary basis for
developmental learning and hence make learning more permanent.
They make social studies real, vivid, vital, interesting, and life like: Social studies curriculum
is generally embedded with frozen and fixed accounts of facts. The use of instructional aids can
add zest, interest, and vitality to teaching and learning situation and make interesting the social
studies.
They help in developing concepts, improving attitudes, and extending appreciations and
interests: The presentation of the facts with the help of various instructional aids help in portraying
the matter in the true and realistic form. They provide sensory experience. This will help in the
development of attitude and extension of appreciations and interests.
y Types of Instructional Aids

The instructional aids can be classified based on the kind of experience they provide; Edgor
Dale classified the aids as follows. He described it as the ‘Cone of Experience’ (Figure 4.1). The
experience may be of visual, auditory, or both. Therefore, the instructional aids may be classified
into audio aids, visual aids, and audio-visual aids.
Audio aids: An audio aid is an instructional device that can be heard, but can not be seen.
Examples: radio, tape recorder, etc.
Visual aids: A visual aid is an instructional device that can be seen, but can not be heard.
Examples: picture, maps, graphs, charts, models, etc.
Audio-visual aids: An audio-visual aid is an instructional devise that can be heard as well as seen.
Examples: motion picture, television, etc.
Instructional aids can be classified according to the way they are projected, i.e., projected and
non-projected.
Projected aids: The instructional aids that are projected with the help of the screen. Examples:
film strips, slides, overhead projector, etc.
Non-projected aids: The instructional aids that are projected without the help of screen.
Examples: chalkboard, poster, maps and globes, graph and models, radio, tape-recorder, etc.

Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies  33
Verbal
Words—Words—Words
Chalk Board White Least effective method
Coloured Chalk
Charts Non-projected Teaching
Display Boards Aids
Static
Model
Sectional
Model
Working
Model
Diorama
Epidiascope Projected Teaching

Aids
Effectiveness Increases
Slide Projection
Black and White
More Effective
than Non-projected
Coloured Slides Aids
Filmstrip Projection—
Colour
Overhead Projector
Motion Picture—Silent—
Black and White
Motion Picture—Sound Colour
Loop (cassette) Colour Film
C.C.T.V Demonstrations T.V Direct Experience
Experiments
Individual doing Experiments
Projects, Excursions Relative Effectiveness

of Teaching Aids
Figure 4.1 Edgar Dale’s cone of experience in Teaching Aids

Verbal
Symbols
Visual Symbols
Recordings,
Radio, Still Pictures
Motion Pictures
Television
Exhibits
Field Trips
Demonstrations
Dramatised Experiences
Contrived Experiences
Direct Purposeful Experiences
y Blackboard/Chalkboard
The blackboard is probably the most widely used visual aid. It is the oldest and the best friend
of a teacher. It is the cheapest and most valuable teaching device. The use of blackboard in
class teaching creates a formal atmosphere and motivates learning. Teacher can use the black
board to list items, to write the important point of the lesson, and to draw charts or diagrams or
illustrations for the class.
List of Items May Be Presented Through Blackboard

The list of items that are presented through blackboard is as follows:
• n Drawing
• n Sketches
• n Maps
• n Graphs
• n Diagrams
• n Technical words
• n Definitions
• n Keywords

• n Outlines
• n Reviews
• n Daily problems
• n Assigning new problems
• n Problems to be solved
• n Making announcements
• n Giving directions
• n Illustrating procedures
• n Testing
Effective Use of Blackboard

Following activities are to be done for the effective use of blackboard:
• n Do not crowd the blackboard.
• n Make wording simple.
• n Plan layout ahead of time.
• n Get together everything you need to use the blackboard before the class begins—chalk,
ruler, eraser, and other items.
• n Check lighting. Avoid blackboard glare. Sometimes, it will be necessary to lower a shade
and turn on the room light.
• n Use colour for emphasis.
• n Print all captions and drawings on a large scale. The material must be clearly visible to
each student.
• n Erase all unrelated material.
• n Keep the black board clean.
• n Prepare complicated illustrations beforehand.
y Bulletin Board
The bulletin board is a sheet of wood, masonite, cork, celetax, or similar material usually set within
a frame. It may be used for displaying pictures, charts, posters, clippings, photographs, or other
learning materials. A good bulletin board is a vital and animated tool which is used to arouse
students’ interest, to develop efficiency, and to follow up black board work and other teaching
aids. It provides a practical outlet for artistic talent and creative ability for both the teacher and
students.
List of Items May Be Displayed in the Bulletin Board

The list of items that are presented through bulletin board is as follows:
• n Announcement
• n Booklets and brochures
• n Bulletins
• n Charts
• n Diagrams
• n Posters

• n Maps
• n Newspaper clippings
• n Drawings
• n Graphs
• n Cartoons
• n Pictures
• n Pamphlets
• n Photographs
• n Models and specimens
• n Subject outlines
• n Political parties in the country
• n Elections
• n Food
Use of Bulletin board

Following points are needed to use bulletin board:
• n Collect suitable illustrations for instructional projects or problems.
• n Classify and file material for use at the right time.
• n Select illustrations pertaining to the specific subject and area under consideration.
• n Arrange illustrations or bulletin board in an interesting manner.
• n Use colour harmony and balance.
• n Exhibit or refer to bulletin board pictures during instruction time.
• n Encourage students to observe and contribute to the bulletin board.
Precaution for Using the Bulletin Board

The precautions for using the bulletin board are as follows:
• n Do not capitalize on all bulletin board space in class room.
• n Do not use bulletin board to arouse student interest.
• n Do not use bulletin board to develop subject matter.
• n Do not use bulletin board to follow through other teaching aids.
• n Do not collect suitable material for bulletin board.
• n Do not classify and file material used on bulletin board.
• n Do not use pertinent illustrations.
• n Do not arrange pictures in orderly and interesting manner.
• n Do not create original titles.
• n Do not use colour harmony and balance.
• n Do not caption all illustration.
• n Do not change material frequently.
• n Do not make bulletin board tell a story.
• n Do not make your own bulletin boards if none are available.
• n Do not make them large enough.
• n Do not place them where they can be easily seen by all students.
• n Do not experiment with potable bulletin boards.

y Objects and Specimens

Objects may be defined as real things which have been removed as units for their natural settings.
Coins, stamps, Indian relics, tools, some locally manufactured products, etc. are some of the
examples of objects which can be used with affect in teaching social studies.
A specimen is a small piece, segment, part or sample of real object, or the material used in
the preparation of it. These teaching aids are powerful interest-arousing devices that possess the
capacity of bringing into play all five sense-touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste. An instructor
who capitalizes on as many of these senses as possible increases the efficiency of their teaching
proportionately.
y Models
Models are the recognizable three-dimensional representations of real things. They are the
replicas of large objects. They reduce large object to a size convenient for observation. They give
a vivid impression of the real objects.
Qualities of Good Model

Following qualities are essential for good model.
• n Accuracy
• n Simplicity
• n Utility
• n Solidity, i.e., inherent strength to resist
• n Ingenuity, i.e., must be an expression of the innate capacity and potentiality of a child
A variety of models, such as the models of personalities, armours, human dwellings,
ornaments, utensils, costumes, pillar and rock inscriptions, the place of historical important,
agriculture, the means of transport, the means of communication and the documents of copper
plates, architecture and sculpture can be prepared and used for illustrating the social studies.
y Charts
A chart is a diagrammatic representation. It is drawn to arrange, to delineate, or to clarify the
relationships among the individuals within an organization, the ingredients in a product, the steps
in a process, or the sequence of events in a historical period. Witch and Schullar defined a chart
as ‘combinations of graphic and pictorial media designed for the orderly and logical visualizing of
relationships between key facts or ideas’. The particular role of the chart is always to show relationships
such as comparisons, relative amounts, developments, processes, classification, and organization.
Type of Charts
There are various kinds of charts, each embodying a specific visual pattern. Let us discuss, briefly,
the most commonly used charts in social studies.
Genealogy Charts/Tree Charts

As its name suggests, the tree chart is developed from a base composed of several ‘roots’ which
lead in to a single trunk. The branches, in turn, represent the developments and relationships.

These charts are used to represent the growth and development of an empire, a dynasty and
historical facts of this nature. These charts help to summarize historical topics.
Tabulation Chart
The data are presented in a tabular form. The sequence of relationships can be shown in a tabular
form. The data are analyzed under several heads and sub-heads; the great battles of Indian history
may be analyzed under many sub-heads. Table 4.1 shows the tabulation chart of the First War of
Indian Independence.
Table 4.1 Tabulation Chart of First War of Indian Independence—1857
Causes Events Results

Political Delhi—Bahadur Shah Crown Rule Begins Secretary of State for India
Economic Kanpur—Nana Saheb Appointed Viceroy
Appointed Policy of Annexation
Given Up Indian Army-Reorganized Policy of Divide
and Rule
Begun Religious Freedom
Assured Government Job Opened to Public
India’s Freedom Movements Takes Birth
Social and Central Delhi—Tantia Tope
Religious
Military Lucknow
Immediate Jhansi-Laxmibai
Chronology/Time Charts
These charts provide a chronological framework within which the events and developments may
be recorded. These charts develop time sense among the pupils and help them to comprehend and
visualize the pageant of time and its relationships. Political development, cultural achievements,
religious, etc. can be most easily shown in chronological chart.
Flowcharts
These charts which are made up of rectangles, lines, arrows, and circles show the functional rela-
tionships within an organization. The lines that connect rectangles, circles, or other graphic repre-
sentations show the directional flow. These charts are well suited to show functional relationships
such as the organizations of city administration, the relationship among the executive, judicial, and
legislative departments, the relationship among the central, the provincial, and the local adminis-
trations of different rulers, and how the government gets and spends money.
y Diagrams
Webster Dictionary defines it as ‘any line drawing made for mathematical for scientific purposes;
a mechanical drawing or geometrical figure.’ It is a drawing that shows enlargement and relations
as of parts to the whole, relative values, origins and developments, chronological fluctuations
distributions, etc.

Witch and Schullar defined diagram as ‘a simplified drawing designed to show interrelationships
primarily by means of lines and symbols.’ Diagrams usually can better be used for the summary
and review than for the introduction. Diagrams should be used along with other aids.
y Timelines
Timeline reduces time sense into space sense for easy comparison. The concept of space involves
both the concept of sequence and distance. Time is represented by a horizontal or vertical line
and happenings are fixed on it according to their dates of occurrences in a chorological sequence.
It helps in ‘knowing how much before’ and how much after and event.
Timelines can be of various kinds, i.e., progressive and regressive timelines, pictorial and
comparative timelines.
Witch and Schullar defined graph as ‘a visual representation of numerical data’.
Graphs are flat pictures which employ dots, lines, or pictures to visualize numerical and
statistical data to show statistics or relationships. Graphs are effective tools for making comparisons
and contrasts for presenting complicated facts to students. An interesting graph will arrest
attention and make students stop, look, and think. A good graph requires little explanation and
tells its story at a glance. There are many kinds of graphs. Among those the most commonly used
graph in social studies are as follows:
• n Line graphs.
• n Bar graph.
• n Circle or pie graph.
• n Pictorial graph.
Let us discuss each of them in the following sections.
Line Graph
Line graph is the most accurate of all graphs. A line graph should be used when there are a
considerable number of data to be plotted or when the data are continuous. The concepts are
represented with the help of simple lines, vertically or horizontally drawn.
Bar Graph
Bar graphs are the simplest of all graphs to read. Each of the several groups of data to be plotted
is represented by either vertical or horizontal bars. The length of the bar expresses the amount or
percentage of data; all the bars are of the same width. These are especially helpful in comparing or
contrasting many subjects such as comparisons of income and wages, quotas, sales, the period of
different emperors, and temperature.
Circle or Pie Graph

This graph is represented by a circle. The sectors of which are used to represent component
parts of a whole. The information such as allocation of funds for different heads in the budget
of a country, or state, or municipality, distribution of money on different subjects in the
five-year plans, and distribution of money on different sectors can be represented by circle
graphs.

Pictorial Graph
Pictures are used for the expression of ideas. The number or size of the pictures conveys the
proportionate amounts. It arouses interest among the pupils.
y Maps
Webster’s Dictionary defines map as ‘a representation (usually on a flat surface) of the surface of
the earth or of some part of it, showing the relative size and position, according to some scale or
projection of the parts represented.’
They are flat representations of the earth’s surface, which convey information by means of
lines, symbols, words, and colours. Maps are essential for the teaching of social studies. Place and
time are the two most important abstracts with which a teacher of social studies is concerned.
With the help of map, the teacher of social studies can show distances and bearings for countries
of reasonable size with scarcely any error; climate, the races of man, the types of rocks and
minerals the comparative size of towns, etc. may also be shown very clearly. Therefore, it is very
essential that pupils should learn to read the maps. They must be able to interpret the symbols and
the lines of the map into their physical nature.
Types of Maps
There are mainly four types of maps according to the content they present before the learners.
Physical Maps
These maps show the physical facts about the earth. These show the geographical features of the
earth such as oceans, mountains, mines, and soil. These also show the climate, natural vegetation,
and special data as altitude, temperature, rainfall, precipitation, etc.
Political Maps
These maps show national and state boundaries, national and state capita, important town and
cities, transportation (rail, road, air, and naval), etc.
Commercial and Economic Maps

These maps show land areas in relation to the economy. Such maps include the data combined in
physical maps particularly when these data are important to the economic life of the area.
Relief Maps
These may be considered as a model of geographical features of a place. On the three-dimensional
relief maps, students can see the contours and develop realistic conceptions that can be obtained
only through great effort from a flat map. They should be used where geographical features have
a direct influence on the course of events.
According to the form of the maps, there are some important types of maps, which are
discussed in the following sections.
Chalk Board Outline Maps

These basic outline maps are blank except for land and water surfaces, although sometimes other
details are included (e.g., the states in a map of our country). The map is pointed on the chalkboard,
or the outlines are quickly traced around a prepared pattern of cardboard or the thin wood.

Projected Maps
A slide, a film strip, a transparency, or material shown by an opaque projector will provide a map
that every student can see clearly. There is no limit to the content on the form of maps shown in
this manner.
Flat Maps
They present the spherical earth on a flat surface. They are of different kinds, i.e., political, physical
economic, temperature, roads, etc.
Atlas
It is a collection of maps and outline geographical materials that can be profitably used by a
student independently.
Globes
Globe is a spherical model of the earth. It is a three-dimensional representation of the earth.
It resembles the earth in shape and shows water and land masses in proper relative sizes and
positions. Globe gives a true idea of the total environment at a glance in a classroom situation. A
child can understand the concepts of time, space, wind’s planetary relations and proportions. It
can be used for the teaching of these developments which are more or less common to the whole
world, i.e., the dawn of civilization, the industrial revolution, the growth of democracy, etc.
Pictures
Pictures are iconic and semi-symbolic signs, i.e., they resemble in many particulars the object
they represent. Pictures help children to understand that social studies is concerned with real
things, real places, and real persons. Pictures will simplify the abstractions and help, create, and
maintain interest. Especially, for the teaching of history and geography, picture is regarded as an
old familiar friend.
Slides and Film Strips

Slides and filmstrips are still picture media. They are inherently suited to the convenient
presentation of a great variety of visual materials such as pictures, cartoons, charts, graphs,
diagrams, maps, and tables. Both have the attention—focusing power of any projected image;
however, they are relatively expensive. They cover a wide range of topics in social studies and
grade levels. They can be projected in a partially darkened room thus facilitating further class
discussion and note taking. They are essentially similar, with one major exception that the slides
can be shown individually in any desired order.
A filmstrip is a series of related still photographs on a single roll of processed film. For
teaching history, a teacher can use slides of Mohanjdaro, Harappa, Maurayan Art, Gupta Art, the
life of Buddha, Indian monuments, etc.
Films
A film is a multiple media of communication. It presents facts in a realistic way, dramatizes human
relations, arouses emotions, and transmits attitudes. Films enrich the learning by presenting a
series or sequences of meaningful experience involving motion. They can transcend the barriers of
time, complexity, and space and bring the past, present, and probable denomination of experience
through which reality can be achieved, processed, explained, and situations reproduced.

A number of types of films can be used for teaching social studies—films giving information,
episode on the life of an individual, etc. In social studies, the films of important historical
events, the life on other lands, ocean and ocean currents, national integration, freedom struggle,
parliamentary form of government, etc. can be used for instruction.
The effective use of films requires special skills and knowledge in the use of projection
equipment. For the effective use of films, the teacher should know what it is about and how it fits
into the material being taught. Before projecting the film they should plan it carefully.
Television
Now-a-days, television is used as an instructional aid. Many programmes are telecasted by
the television channels. Last year, ‘Gyan-Darshan’, an educational channel, was inaugurated by
the Prime Minister of India. Indira Gandhi National Open University telecasts its educational
programme of various grades on DD-1. University Grants Commission programmes are telecasted
on DDI. Recently, ‘ZEE’ TV launched its educational channel. Various programmes related social
studies topics are telecasted by these channels on various days.
Television connected with VCP/VCR can be used in the classrooms for teaching social
studies. Utilization of video-assisted learning system and internal video feedback techniques can
be affectively used for teaching. The teacher can make video recording of important geographical
places and can show the recording in the classroom before students. Likewise, teacher can make
video clippings of the places of historic importance and exhibit them in the course of teaching
history.
These provide stronger and direct stimuli to personal thought and understanding than mere
lecture on words. Through the use of visual media, consistency is built up into the instructional
system. Through television, the ‘Super Lecture’ or ‘Master Teacher’ is available at a number of
places simultaneously without the expense of time and to it for travel.
Computer
Computer is a very sophisticated electronic device. It requires careful preparation for use and
higher pre-requisite for understanding. Some computer-assisted instructional (CAI) packages
are available for different topics of the social studies. It has more application in geography;
particularly, maps, aerial photographs, and weather changes can be easily taught through the
computer using simulation techniques. Computers with ‘Internet’ connection can also be
effectively used for teaching social studies. It gives immense opportunities for learning more and
to rationalize the thinking. The learning will become sharp. The most important factor is that the
computer is a ‘flexible’ teacher not like ‘rigid human teacher’.
Radio
Radio is also used as an instructional aid. All India Radio broadcasts different educational
programmes including social studies in different days. Regional centres also broadcast their
regional programmes on education. Radio supplements classroom instruction and widens the
general knowledge of the pupils and the teacher. Broadcasts infuse a new life into the curriculum by
correlating knowledge and skills to the immediate needs and the natural environment of the learner.
It enables the students to listen to the expert, the historian, and the scientific and the first-
rate teachers. Radio challenges dogmatic teaching and passive learning by presenting various
responsible views concerning controversial issues. The talks on ‘Gandhiji’s life’, ‘Vivekananda’s life’,
‘impact of 1857 Sepoy Mutiny on India’s freedom struggle’, etc. are quite useful in social studies.

Newspapers
Every social studies classroom should be well stocked with newspapers. The collection should
include both local and metropolitan dailies. Newspapers can motivate the students to know about
the past events. Newspapers contain a reservoir of resources and illustrations. Newspapers may
be used as means of sensitizing the class to the need for up-to-date information. Newspapers
provide the information about movements, trends, inventions and discoveries, research and new
developments, and national and international political scenario.
Thus, newspapers can help in closing the gap between information contained in the books
and changing developments of the world. The special issues of the newspapers, such as republic
day issues, independence day issues and Diwali special, contain various information about
education, which may contribute to develop the ability of the critical thinking of the students.
y Reference Books
The teacher can use reference books, such as dictionaries, yearbooks, handbooks, government
reports, and encyclopaedia, as aid in teaching social studies. Students need in-depth knowledge
in a particular subject; therefore, the teacher should take the help these reference materials to
provide information to students.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the use of instructional aids in teaching of social studies.
2. Describe the concept and significance of instructional aids in teaching of social studies.
3. Explain the types of instructional aids in teaching of social studies.
4. Clarify the types and importance of maps in teaching of social studies.
5. Explain the use of films and television in teaching of social studies.
y Summary
1. The instructional aids are those devices or procedures that help to make teaching–learning
more interesting.
2. Instructional aids provide a realistic experience to the learners.
3. Instructional aids provide significant gains in informational teaching retention and recall,
thinking and reasoning, activity interest.
4. The use of instructional aids can add zest, interest, and vitality to teaching–learning situation
and make interesting the social studies.
5. The instructional aids may be classified as audio aids, visual aids, and audio-visual aids.
6. Models are the recognizable three-dimensional representations of real things.
7. Accuracy, simplicity, utility, and solidity are the qualities of good model.
8. A chart is diagrammatic representation.
9. Diagrams usually can better be used for summary and review than for introduction. It should
be used along with other aids.
10. Map is a representation of the surface of the earth.
11. Atlas is a collection of maps and outline geographical materials that can be profitably used by
the students independently.

12. Globe is a spherical model of the earth. It is a three-dimensional representation of the earth.
13. Slides and filmstrips are still picture media.
14. A film is a multiple media of communication.
15. Television is a very popular instructional aid; many programmes are telecasted by the
television channels.
16. Computer is a very sophisticated electronic device. It requires careful preparation for use and
higher prerequisite for understanding.
17. Radio is also used as an instructional aid.
18. Newspapers can motivate the students to know about the past events.
19. Dictionaries, yearbooks, handbooks, government reports and encyclopaedia are known as
reference book. It can be used for seeking depth knowledge in a particular subject.
y References
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education, Jalandhar: Paul Publishers,
p. 268.
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. Teaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach, New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., p. 169.
Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian Schools, Baroda: Acharya
Book Depot, pp. 106–107.
Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1990. Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools, Toronto:
New York, McGraw Hill Book & Company, p. 281.
Ansari Road, Daryaganj.
Kochhar, S.K. 1990. The Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Ltd.
Highet, G. 1951. The Art of Teaching. London: Methuen and Co. Ltd.
Horne, E. 1937. Methods of Instruction in the Social Studies. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
White, E.M. 1923. The Teaching of Modern Civics. George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd.

Social Studies Curriculum—Selection
and Organization 5
Curriculum is the pivot and hub around which all activities in the school revolve. Curriculum in
social studies is that part of the school curriculum which includes subject matter and activities that
enable children to acquire an understanding of human relationships, the knowledge of environment
dedication to the basic principles and the values of the society and a commitment to participate in
the process through which the society is maintained and improved. Social studies curriculum may
be considered as a tool in the hands of the artist (social studies teacher) to mould his material (the
pupil) in accordance with the nature of the society and children in his studio (school).
y Social Studies Curriculum

Social studies being related with the society gives real experience to children about life. Social studies
has certain aims and objectives attainable only through a planned system which is called curriculum.
The word ‘curriculum’ has been taken from Latin, which means ‘field for race’. Curriculum has
a very important role in the process of education; ‘how and when’ to teach is only of secondary
importance. What is of primary importance is ‘what to teach’, which is the essence of curriculum.
y Definition of Curriculum
Crow and Crow—‘The Curriculum includes all the experiences of students which they learn in
and outside the school that are included in a programme devised to help them in their mental,
physical, social and moral development.’
Payne—‘Curriculum consists of all the situations selected and organized by the school for the
development of personality of students and to bring about desired changes in their behaviour.’
Mudaliar Commission—‘The Curriculum includes the totality of experiences which students
receive through many activities in school and in numerous informal contacts between teachers and
students.’ Thus, curriculum helps children in the evolution of their balanced personality.
y Aims of Social Studies Curriculum

The aims of social studies curriculum are given as follows:
• n To make harmonious development in children.
• n To help children becoming good citizens by inculcating democratic values in them.

• n To improve and develop the skills, abilities, and interests of pupils.

• n To develop social virtues such as honesty, truthfulness, and democratic spirits among
children.
• n To provide the opportunity of self-experience to children.
• n To provide them the training to be good and useful citizens.
• n To make children socially useful citizens in future by developing their inherent and latent
qualities.
Principles of Selection, Organization, and

y

Construction of Social Studies Curriculum
Following principles should be borne in mind while selecting the social studies curriculum for
children.
Children-centred Curriculum
Educationists consider children to be the centre of curriculum. Pupils get real education through
activity and experience. Thus, while constructing social studies curriculum, the interests, abilities,
and needs of children should be kept in mind.
Principle of Motivation
Being children centred, the curriculum should be based on children psychology. If the curriculum
is not based on the skills, attitudes, interests, and abilities of children, children are likely to lose
active participation in learning.
Principle Related with Direct Life of Children

The curriculum should include all those activities which are directly related with life, as children
take more active interest in the solution of such activities.
Principles Based on Democratic Values

Democracy is the most widely accepted political system in the present day world. Its success
depends upon enlightened and intelligent citizens. Therefore, a good curriculum should help
children in developing democratic qualities such as sympathy, brotherhood, mutual co-operation,
honesty, equality, and co-existence.
Principle of Integration
Social studies should provide link between the past and the present. Therefore, its curriculum
should be correlated with the past and the present. This kind of an integrated curriculum will
enable children to understand their environment.
Principle of Flexibility
A good curriculum should always be flexible, so that necessary changes can be made in its content
and subject matter with the changing time, needs, and situations.

Social Studies Curriculum—Selection and Organization  47
Principle of Community-centred Curriculum

The development of children depends on their living with individuals of the society. Therefore, it
is essential that their needs and desires must harmonize with the needs and desires of those with
whom they have to live in the society. The children cannot be educated in vacuum. They are to
be educated in and through the society in which they are born. Thus, a good curriculum should
be society based.
Broad-based Curriculum
Social studies curriculum should not be based on a particular community or should not prepare
students for a particular profession. The aim of education should be focussed around preparing
children for life and world. For this, it is essential that a curriculum should be as broad based as
possible and its construction should take care of all local, national, international, personal, and
familial activities.
Principle of Learning by Doing

A good social studies curriculum should be based on activity, such as the knowledge obtained by
children by self-learning and practice, is more effective and permanent.
Principle of Selection
A good curriculum should be based on the principle of selection. All the important topics of
study should be arranged and taught systematically.
Principle of Co-relation
The knowledge attained through co-related study of various subjects and activities is relatively
more clear and permanent. Social studies is a combination of different subjects such as history,
economics, geography, and political science. Therefore, a good curriculum should be helpful in
the attainment of co-related knowledge.
Forward-looking Principle Based on Democratic Values

The pupils of today are adult citizens of tomorrow. They have to shoulder the responsibilities of
the nation in their future life; therefore, they need to be taught to live a really democratic way of
life. In order to enable pupils to fulfil this objective, the curriculum should be based on democratic
principles. By making them forward-looking, it will also help them to adjust themselves to the
varying conditions of life in the world.
y Pattern of Social Studies Curriculum

The following topics may be suggested for inclusion while constructing the social studies
curriculum for various classes:
• n It should be concerned with daily human needs such as housing, clothing, food, education,
transport and communication, electricity, religion, and recreation.
• n It should be related with social needs such as neighbourhood, village, town, schools,
festivals, fairs, clubs, shops, factories, and religious institutions.

• n It should be related with familial needs such as contributions of an individual towards his
family, mutual co-operation, rights and duties, and social and civic virtues.
• n It should be related with cultural needs such as religious and social customs, national days,
ancient Indian culture and civilization, and the stories of ancient leaders.
• n It should be related with political needs such as municipal committee, panchayat, tehsil,
district, state, and national administration.
• n It should be related with economic needs such as agriculture, industry, occupation of
people, distribution of goods, problem of unemployment, and money transaction.
• n It should be related with physical needs such as rain, sun, soil, weather, mineral and water
resources, annual life, and natural conditions.
• n It should be related with scientific and technological needs such as life stories of famous
scientists and inventors, man’s conquest of time, distance, water, air, and technology.
• n It should be related with current needs such as world peace, international understanding,
Panchsheel, UNO, international trade, and interdependence of nations.
• n It should be based on curricular needs such as charts, models, pictures, group discussions,
tours, and excursions.
Study of Social Studies Curriculum for Different Stages

y

as Primary, Secondary, and Senior Secondary
Primary Stage—Classes I to V (Age Group 6 to 11 Years)
At primary stage, our subject should help children familiarize with their surroundings and facilitate
them study about the surrounding and the environment, which should be the central point of
curriculum. With this view in mind, the curriculum should emphasize the following aspects:
Economic aspect: At primary stage, the curriculum should deal with man’s economic activities
such as farming, handicrafts, industries and trade, exchange of things, village and town markets,
banks, co-operative societies, the means of transport and communications, and the importance
of animals in our economic life.
Physical aspect: Primary class curriculum should concentrate on the knowledge of physical
needs such as rain, climate, weather, land, rivers, mountains, seas, forests, and natural resources.
Social aspect: At this stage, it is essential to impart knowledge to children about family, school,
neighbourhood, social life at national and international levels, the effect of religious institutions
on social life, the stories of food, shelter and clothing, and social institutions such as clubs and
organizations; therefore, the curriculum should lay due emphasis on all these things.
Historical problems: At this stage, the children need to be conversant with historical facts;
therefore, the curriculum should include the stories of important leaders and their contribution
in social and cultural lives, historical events, wars etc.
Cultural aspect: At this stage, the curriculum should also touch the study of social and religious
traditions, personal hygiene and cleanliness, celebration of different festivals etc.
Civil aspect: The curriculum at this level should also include study of social and civil virtues,
obligation towards fellow beings, society and family, rights and duties, and use of franchise.
Current problems: Children, at this stage, should learn about the importance of simple current
problems such as starvation or hunger, ignorance, diseases, idleness, road safety, and programmes

of social and economic developments. The curriculum should enable them to fight against these
problems.
Political aspect: The children are supposed to have elementary knowledge about our political
system such as panchayat, municipal committee, zila parishad, village, district, and state
administration; therefore, the curriculum should include all these topics.
Teaching method: As the mind and faculties of children are not well developed at primary
stage, we should ensure that teaching method at this stage should be simple, related with the
environment of children and based on the interests of pupils. Facts and relevant materials should
be presented in story form and more of maps, charts, models, diagrams, and other audiovisual
aids of the materials should be made to make teaching easier and interesting for the children of
primary classes.
Middle Stage—Classes VI to VIII (Age Group 11 to 14 Years)

At this age and level, children’s mind starts developing; with this, the level of education should
also increase. Now, the need for concentrating on the study of problems of the country in relation
to world arises and the curriculum with following aspects is suggested.
Economic aspect: The economic aspect of the curriculum should include the study of use of
machines in agriculture and industry, the economic development through five-year plans, the
economic interdependence of the nations, the fulfilment of human wants, and the means of
transport and communications.
Physical aspect: In the physical aspect of the curriculum, the study of earth and solar system,
ocean, land and air routes, the effect of weather and climatic conditions, the geographical
conditions of the country, the natural regions of the world etc. should be included.
Social aspect: At this stage, the social aspect of the social studies curriculum should concentrate
on the present social conditions of Indian social life in different periods and the study of socially
and economically backward classes of people.
Historical aspect: While constructing the social studies curriculum regarding historical aspect, at
this stage, due emphasis needs to be given on the primitive man’s early movement and settlements
of races, Aryan Civilization, Sindhu Valley Civilization, Greek Civilization, Modern Civilization,
and the impact of Western Culture.
Cultural aspect: As far as the cultural aspect of the social studies curriculum is concerned,
emphasis should be laid on different stages of Indian civilization, religious and social evils,
customs and traditions, and the contribution of great leaders in guiding the nation.
Political and Civic aspects: In political and civic aspects of the social studies curriculum, at
this stage, the topics need to be highlighted are state and central governments, courts, local self-
government, zila parishad, dependence on home, school, family and society, rights and duties
of citizens, education for citizenship, and national and international responsibilities of citizens.
Current problems: With regard to current problems, the social studies syllabus, at this stage,
should include the study of national unity, five-year plans, Panchsheel, Indian foreign policy,
multipurpose projects, and the impact of science and technology on political, economic, and
cultural lives of people.
Teaching method: As the mental level starts developing at this stage, we can depend on the
problems and project methods of teaching along with storytelling, lecture, and textbook methods.

The teachers should also use, from time to time, the audiovisual aids, pictures, maps, models, and
other means to make the lesson clearly understandable, interesting, and easy. Organization of
drama and debate competitions, tours and visits to museums and historical places also play a very
important role in the development of attitudes and skills of the students.
Senior Secondary Stage—Classes IX to XII (Age Group 14 to 17 Years)

At the stage of senior secondary classes, children are supposed to have a grown up mind with the
development of understanding and reasoning power. As after XII class, majority of the children
for various reasons discontinue their studies; there is a need to teach integrated course of study
in secondary class, i.e., in IX and X classes. However, in XI and XII classes, emphasis should be
given on specialized study of history, geography, civics, economics, and sociology as separate and
independent subjects. For secondary and senior secondary classes, the following social studies
curriculums are suggested.
Economic aspect: Economic aspect of the curriculum should include the topics such as the study
of increasing population of India. Industrial development and problems, progress with regard
to Indian agriculture, nationalization of the means of production, community development
project, and the establishment of the socialist pattern of society as conceived by Vinoba Bhave
and Gandhiji.
Physical aspect: This emphasizes the study of the physical features of India, the land, air, and
sea routes of the world, the important natural regions of the world, and the transport and
communication systems.
Social aspect: The social aspect of social studies curriculum prepared for higher secondary
classes should give stress on the topics such as the social problems after Independence of India,
the philosophy of Gandhiji’s life, and the life of citizens in independent India.
Historical aspect: This should lay emphasis on the evolution and birth and life of man on the
earth, the origin of languages, the use of fire, and man’s conquest over nature and life in pre-
historic and ancient times.
Cultural aspect: This aspect of the curriculum should concentrate on Greek, Rome, and Aryan
civilizations, the impact of Islam on Indian culture, the awareness of national spirit in India and
world contributions.
Political and Civic aspects: These include the studies of need for world peace, Panchsheel and
the role of UNO.
Current aspect: In current aspect of the curriculum, we take into account the study of the
problems such as begging, prohibition, international understanding, national unity, and the
impact of science and technology on modern life.
Teaching Method in Secondary and

y

Senior Secondary Stages
In secondary and senior secondary classes, our endeavour should be helpful to impart real
and practical knowledge as far as possible. Besides using the teaching methods suggested to be
followed at middle level, we can also use here unit method, problems and source method of

teaching. Teaching can be made interesting, appealing, and more effective to the students by
increasing the use of various audiovisual aids such as radio, television, graphs and models, and
other means such as tours, excursions, and group discussions.
Making of scrap book and album for school museums can encourage students to participate
in various activities and develop interest in studies. We should also emphasize co-curricular
activities such as community surveys and celebration of national and international days. In
addition, provision should be made for necessary changes in the curriculum in changing
conditions and situations.
y Shortcomings of Social Studies Curriculum

The present day curriculum is defective, as it is more theoretical and less practical. It lays greater
emphasis on bookish knowledge and consequently the significance of subject matter and
examinations has increased. There is a lack of co-relation among different subjects; therefore,
their scope is only limited.
y Suggestions for Good Curriculum of Social Studies

A good curriculum should be flexible and based on the changing needs and individual differences.
The subject matter of the curriculum should be selected, keeping in view the child psychology.
The curriculum should not be heavy and burdensome. It should be according to the mental level
of children and based on their interest, ability, capacity and previous experience.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain briefly the selection and organization of social studies curriculum.
2. Discuss the principles of construction of social studies curriculum.
3. Describe the teaching method in secondary and senior secondary stages.
4. Give your suggestions for good curriculum of social studies.
y Summary
1. Curriculum has a very important role in the process of education.
2. The curriculum of social studies is that a part of the school curriculum which includes
subject matter and activities that enable the children to acquire an understanding of human
relationships and knowledge of the environment.
3. The harmonious development of children, good citizenship, the development of the skills, and
the development of democratic values are the aims of social studies curriculum.
4. Children-centred curriculum, motivation, democratic values, integration, flexibility,
community-centred curriculum, learning by doing, and co-relation are the principles of
selection, organization, and construction of social studies curriculum.
5. Social studies curriculum for different stages as primary, secondary, and senior secondary.
6. Real and practical knowledge should be added in teaching of social studies.

y References
Aggrawal, J.C. 2006. Teaching of Social Studies: A Practical Approach. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House, pp. 38–40.
Kocher, S.K. 1990. The Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, pp. 52–55.
Wittch, W.A. and Schullar, C.F. 1957. Audio-Visual Material. New York: Harper & Brothers,
p. 181.
Moffat, M.P. 1990. Social Studies Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall, p. 172.
Ansari Road, Daryaganj, pp. 77–78.
Barr, A. et al. 1977. The International Encyclopedia of Education. New York: Penguin Press.
Nasiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the School. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University
Press.
Hemming, J. 1990. The Teaching of Social Studies in a Secondary School. London: New York,
Longmans, Green & Co.
Company.

Methods of Teaching Social Studies
6
A method must stand or fall by their suitability to the person who adopts them. The same
method can be a wonderful success with one teacher and just a big failure on the hands of the
other. Similarly, a method which is successful with a group of students may not be successful
when used by the same teacher with a different group of students or with the same group
of students under different conditions. A method must, therefore, be flexible and workable.
Therefore, let us take methods as our servants and not allow them to become our masters.
y Meaning and Concept of Method

Broudy’s—‘Method refers to the formal structure of the sequence of acts commonly denoted
by instruction. The term method covers both strategies and tactics of teaching and involves the
choice of what is to be taught, and in which order it is to be presented’.
Wesley’s—‘Teaching method is the teacher-operated activity by which the students get
knowledge’.
Bining and Bining—‘Teaching method is the mobile activity of educational process’.
It can be concluded that a method is a means or a procedure which a teacher follows to
make learning interesting, easy, and effective. It is the process of planning, guiding, sharing, and
evaluating learning with a group of students. It is an orderly way of doing something. It is the
logical, systematized, and organized way of doing a thing for effective control; it is an effective
procedure of using experience. The meaning of a method can be further highlighted by giving the
characteristics of a good teaching method.
y Methods of Teaching
The effect of recent developments in educational philosophy and educational psychology upon
the methods of teaching has been revolutionary. The central place in the school, in theory at least,
has been given to the student. Any process that is not based upon the ‘student-activity’ is not in
accord with recent educational theories. The present century has been termed as ‘The Century of
the Child’. Rousseau considers the ‘child’ is a ‘hero’ in ‘The drama of education’, and as such they
must play the dominant role.
The origin of modern methodology may be traced to Great Didactic of Johann Amos
Comenius who lived in the seventeenth century. Comenius believed that all instructions should

be carefully graded and arranged in a natural order. He advocated that the teacher, in his methods,
should appeal through the sense perception to the understanding of the child. He set forth his
principles in his Great Didactic. The work of Comenius, however, like that of other educators of
his time was buried beneath the sea of religious controversy and bigotry of his age.
Emile of Rousseau in the second half of the eighteenth century laid the foundations of
the methodology and became the inspiration of forward-looking and progressive educators.
Comenius provided some ideas, Rousseau improved and enlarged, and others worked on them
and put them into practice. In his chief educational work Emile, Rousseau begins with his
principle ‘Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature; but everything
degenerates in the hands of man’. He points out that there are three great teachers, ‘nature, man,
and things’.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi attempted to ‘psychologies instruction’. He declared that the basis
of all education was a drawing out process and not a pouring in process, that the basis of all
education lay in the nature of the child, and that the methods of instruction must be sought and
constructed to that end.
Wilhelm August Froebel and Johann Friedrich Herbart, the disciples and followers of
Pestalozzi, developed elaborate systems of education. The work of Froebel dealt largely with the
Kindergarten stage. Herbart gave his famous ‘Herbartian Steps’ which cast a flood of light on
the existing methods. Herbartian steps became the stimulators of various other movements in
the field of education. Herbart condemned the rote method and stressed comprehension and
association. The concept that the outcome of education was not the strengthening of the mental
faculties but rather the building up of an ‘apperceptive mass’ of ideas was very revolutionary.
Herbartian theory and practice became popular in Germany between 1865 and 1885. Teachers
and students from many lands studied at Jena, a centre of Herbartian teaching. By 1890, these
ideas were brought to America where they received an almost universal acceptance.
The period of Herbartian influence, on the whole, was a transitional one. It prepared the
way for newer and better concepts of education. By 1910, Herbartian, as a system of education,
was quite generally criticized. Herbartianism stressed on the teacher and the formal procedure of
teachings; the new theories of educational philosophy emphasized the pupils. Emphasis during
recent years has been on individual instruction in the classroom, but the socialization of the
individual is not to be neglected. Almost all modern methods and procedures and be used to
promote both. It is believed that socialization can be used in connection with the individual
development. In the social studies, even more than any other subject in the school, socialization
is necessary. Through their own activities intermingled with the activities of the group, the pupil
can learn and develop. Education must begin with the child and must be adapted to the needs
and requirements of the child as they grow. Only in this manner, according to this philosophy, the
individual can be made socially efficient.
The Secondary Education Commission (1952–53) has emphasized the need for right
methods of teaching in these words, ‘Every teacher and educationist of experience knows that
even the best curriculum and the most perfect syllabus remain dead unless quickened into life by
the right methods of teaching and the right kind of teachers. Sometimes even an unsatisfactory
and unimaginative syllabus can be made interesting and significant by the gifted teacher who
does not focus his mind on the subject-matter to be taught of the information to be imparted but
on his students—their interests and aptitudes, their reactions and response. He judges the success
of his lesson not by the amount of matter covered but by the understanding, the appreciation and
the efficiency achieved by the students’.

Methods of Teaching Social Studies  55
In the world of Herbart Ward and Frank Roscoe, ‘While it is true that good method is not merely
a collection of artifices or mechanical devices and that every teacher must devise his own method,
it is important to remember that good method can result only from the constant observation
of certain broad principles, These include orderly procedure in teaching, an arrangement of the
subject-matter which will avoid waste of time and of energy and a distribution of emphasis which
will secure the greatest co-operation from the pupils and maintain their active interest’.
y Learning by Doing (Activity Method)

Children have been endowed by nature with tremendous vitality. They have within them the
springs of youth, joy, and vigour. They possess curiosity and wish to know things for themselves.
In the words of T.S. Avinashilingam, ‘The Great Ganga of life flows majestically on. But if anyone
tries to retain and dam it, the dam will break unless attempts are simultaneously made to divert
it into other channels. These waters can only be diverted but cannot be dammed indefinitely.
If anyone tried to do the impossible, it would be at his peril, for the dam will break, sooner
or later. So is the nature of children. The great vitality of our children cannot be permanently
restrained without providing a positive purpose. In ordinary bookish classroom education, the
teacher teaches, students are but passive listeners. Their energy has not to be restrained by fear,
inducement or punishment. This is against their nature and that is why we see much outbursts
of so-called indiscipline. But, on the other hand, if we provide such activities in which the
children themselves can take part we will find that discipline becomes natural. Thus, providing
for various types of activities which will interest the children and give them opportunities for
observation and the use of their hands is to offer them the fulfillment and satisfaction, which
nothing else confers’.
The principle of ‘Learning by Doing’ has been accepted by all the progressive educators and in
all the progressive countries. All educationists recognize that activity is an important instrument
of education.
Comenius—‘Impression must be ensured by expression and what has to be done must be learnt
by doing’.
Rousseau—He protested against the traditional methods of teaching very vehemently and he
declared, ‘Children are first restless and then curious. Instead of making the child stick to his
books, I keep him busy in workshop, his hands will work to the profit of his mind’.
Prestalozzi—He called the traditional system as ‘the wordy system of teaching’. According to him,
‘Our unpsychological schools are essentially only artificial stifling machines for destroying all the
results of the power and experience, the nature herself brings to life in them. After they enjoyed
sensuous life for five years, we make all nature round them vanish before their eyes: tyrannically
to the delightful course of their unrestricted freedom; peg them up like sheep; pitilessly chain
them for hours, days, weeks, months, years to the contemplation of unnatural and unattractive
letters’.
y Learning by Play Way Method

Froebel—‘Play is the main activity of childhood’, which Froebel considers as ‘the highest phase
of child development….for it is self-active representation of the stage…. It gives, therefore, joy,
freedom, contentment, inner and outer rest, peace with the world. It holds the source of all that is

good’. But, ‘without rational conscious guidance’, says Froebel, ‘childish activity degenerates into
aimless play instead of preparing for those tasks of life for which it is designed’.
y Learning by Experience
Dewey—Dewey endeavoured to substitute bookish learning by experience. He strongly
recommended investigation and experimentation. According to him, the school is a ‘special
environment’ where a certain quality of life and certain types of activities and occupations are
provided with the object of securing children’s development along desirable lines. ‘The teacher’,
according to him, ‘is a guide and director, he steers the boat but the energy that propels it must
come from those who are learning’.
y Learning by Self-Education
Madam Montessori—She shifted the emphasis from ‘teaching to learning’. She believed that self-
education is the best method by which the child learns in their own way and at his own rate. She
used the word ‘Directress’.
James Welton—‘The teacher is like a guide and the pupil like a traveller in an unknown country.
The traveller knows where he wants to go, but knows neither the way nor the exact character of
the place he wishes to go…. But unless the traveller that is the pupil takes the journey himself,
nothing is accomplished. Many a lesson is too much like a guide describing the journey to the
would-be traveller who sits and listens but does not leave his chair to undertake it. In other
lessons, the guide himself laboriously takes the journeys again and again, but the traveller that
should be, remains inert. In short, no matter how admirably a lesson is planned, there is no really
methodical teaching unless the pupils by their own efforts pass along the road traced for them; for
as has been said, ‘true teaching is nothing but arousing and directing learning activity of another’.
Gandhiji—‘Let us now cry a halt and concentrate on education of the child properly through
manual work, not as a side activity but as a prime means of intellectual training’.
Thus we find that a long line of distinguished experts in education have advocated that
knowledge can best be given through constructive activities suitable to the child. These new ideas
on education have brought a new and hopeful message to our children.
Principle of learning by doing out-of-class activities: The scope of this principle is not related
only to the learning of various subjects but also to the out-of-class activities. Students should
be engaged in debating, editing, scouting, dramatizing, etc. Games and sports are other fields.
Students should be provided the opportunities to render social service to the community. Social
education centres, social service clubs, etc. should be started. N.C.C., B.S.S., all provide the
useful channels to harness the energies of the youth and thereby sublimate the instincts of the
students.
Learning by doing in social studies: The principle can be employed in all the school subjects.
History. Children should be taken to the places of historical interest, i.e., ancient monuments,
caves, forts, ruins, edicts, museums, etc. The charts and the models of the various battles should
be prepared. The maps of various dynasties and the extent of empire should be prepared.
Historical plays may be dramatized. The students may be encouraged to read historical
novels.

Geography. The excursions to the places of geographical interest should be arranged. The
students should be asked to prepare geographical maps, models, and charts to show geographical
facts in colours and lines on paper as well as on the earth.
Civics. The visits to the meetings and sessions of village panchayat, district boards, state
assemblies, etc. may be arranged.
y Division of Methods
The division of methods are following:
Inspirational methods: These methods are primarily based on the high activity on the part of the
instructor-teacher. Giving a sermon to the students or to any group of learners is a good example
of this methodology.
Expository methods: In these methods, cognitive emphasis is very high, while the student activity
and emphasis on experience is low. One good example of the expository method is the lecture
method in which the main emphasis is on imparting cognitive information to the learners.
Natural learning methods: The main rationale of these methods is that learning takes place in
a natural way and the planning for learning is not necessary. Learners are left on their own, with
free and unplanned activity. Thus, the emphasis on learning activity is high, whereas it is low on
the planned experience and on the cognitive inputs.
Individualized methods: These methods are quite well known mainly through the popularity of
programmed instruction. The main characteristic of these methods is the guided search encouraged
by the instructor or the teacher. In addition to the programmed instruction, self-study, computer-
oriented instruction, case method, and prescribed experiments in science are other examples of
individualized learning in which the main emphasis is for each learner at their own pace.
Encounter methods: Carl Rogers had popularized the term ‘encounter’, although several other
terms are used such as T-Group, sensitivity training, and interpersonal confrontation. In these
methods, the main emphasis is on the experience and learner activity. Since the emphasis is on
providing experience through confrontation or through encounter, and not through cognitive
understanding, these methods are effective for changing basic behavioural patterns and
developing new ways of looking at things. Role play also involves some amount of encounter.
Discovery methods: These methods are high on all the dimensions: learner activity, experience
and experimentation by the learner, and cognitive understanding. Simulations primarily come
under the category as also self-generated experiments in science. The main emphasis of methods
in this category is on problem-solving and providing the necessary framework to the learner, so
that while solving the problem the learner is also able to learn the rationale and logic of what they
have done.
Group methods: Methods such as the project method come under this category.
y Characteristics of the Good Teaching Method

We can characterize the good methods of teaching as below:
• n They should aim at inculcating love of work.
• n They should aim at developing the desire to do work with the highest measure of efficiency of
which one is capable. The motto of every school and their pupils should be ‘Everything that is

worth doing at all is worth doing well’. Whether it be making a speech, writing a composition,
drawing a map, cleaning the classroom, making a book rack, or forming a queue.
• n They should provide numerous opportunities of participation in freely accepted projects
and activities in which discipline and co-operation are constantly in demand.
• n They should aim at developing the capacity for ‘clear thinking’ which distinguishes
every truly educated person, ‘whether a student is asked to make a speech in a debating
society or to write an essay or to answer a question in history, geography, or science or to
experiment, the accent should always be on clear thinking and on lucid expression which
is a mirror of clear thought’.
• n The methods of teaching should expand the range of students’ interest. ‘We would urge all
schools to provide in the timetable, at least one free period every day in which students
may pursue their favourite hobbies and creative activities individually or in groups,
preferably under the guidance of some interested teacher’, recommended the Secondary
Education Commission.
• n They should aim at providing opportunities to pupils to apply practically the knowledge
that has been acquired by them. Thus, they should aim at transforming present bookish
schools into ‘work schools’ or ‘activity schools’.
• n They should aim at the quickening of interest and training in efficient techniques of
learning and study.
• n They should train the students in the art of study. They should train the students in the use
of reference materials such as the list of contents and index in books, the dictionary, the
atlas, and reference books such as the encyclopaedia.
• n They should be adapted to suit different levels of intelligence.
• n They should be such that they balance the claim of individual work with co-operative or
group effort. The training of emotions, attitudes, and social capacities takes place best
in the context of projects and units of work undertaken co-operatively. The Secondary
Education Commission has recommended that the teachers should be so trained that they
are able to visualize and organize at least a part of the curriculum in the form of projects
and activity units which groups of students may take up and carry to completion.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the meaning and concept of the method.
2. What do you understand by the term ‘method’? Explain the characteristics of a good
teaching method.
y Different Methods of Teaching Social Studies

• n Assignment method.
• n Dalton Plan.
• n Discussion method.
• n Laboratory method.
• n Lecture method.
• n Observation method.
• n Questioning.
• n Problem-solving method.
• n Project method.

• n Review method.
• n Socialized classroom recitation method.
• n Source method.
• n Storytelling method.
• n Supervised study method.
• n Text book method.
• n Dramatization method.
• n Note dictation method.
• n Inductive-deductive method.
• n Analytic–synthetic method.
y Assignment Method
Significance of assignment: N.L. Bossing has observed, ‘The central position of the assignment
in the techniques of teaching has remained unquestioned’. G.H. Betts asserts, ‘Upon the proper
assignment of the lesson depends much of the success of the recitation, and also much of the
pupil’s progress in learning how to study’. W.N. Drum suggests, ‘Teachers generally do not
appreciate the importance of the assignment, and the work of the pupils probably suffers as much
from hasty or careless assignment as from any other single cause’. H.R. Douglass and others are of
the view, ‘The assignment represents one of the most important phases of teaching’.
Essentials of an Assignment
The assignment should be clear and definite:
• n The assignment should be concise but sufficiently detailed to enable each student to
understand the task assigned.
• n The assignment should anticipate special difficulties and suggest ways to remove them.
• n The assignment should relate the new unit to past experience.
• n Students should understand the importance of the assignment.
• n The assignment should arouse an interest in advance work.
• n The assignment should provide for the differences in the ability and the interest of students.
• n The assignment should be motivated chiefly by the hope of worthwhile achievements,
rather than scholastic reward or the fear of punishment.
• n The assignment should stimulate thought.
• n The assignment should provide necessary and specific directions for the study of lesson.
• n The assignment should be adjusted to the time and opportunity of the class.
• n The materials of the assignment should be varied and adaptable to the needs and the
interests of the students.
Types of Assignment
N.L. Bossing has listed the following types of assignment:
• n Page or paragraph assignment. Often thought of as the textbook assignment. Unfortunately,
this method is still widely used as recent studies have revealed.
• n Chapter assignment. Another form of the textbook assignment thought vastly different
from the page or paragraph form. Chapters usually are of a unitary nature and involve
some elements of completeness within themselves.

• n Topical assignment. This type may or may not centre around a single chapter in a textbook.
It has a wealth of possibility in the social sciences particularly.
• n Problem assignment. Where an arbitrary distinction is set up between a problem and a
project, the type becomes very valuable form of assignment.
• n Project assignment. Adapted especially to the workshop, natural sciences, and some
measure to the social sciences. Its special appeal is through the natural motor activity
required.
• n Experience assignment. Most frequently used in mathematics. It represents the old
traditional approach to teaching, although if used in combination with other types, this
form can be used very effectively.
• n Individual or group report assignment. Used extensively as a device to supplement other
types and to provide for individual differences in interests and capacities within the class;
very effective.
• n Unit assignment. It may apply to any extensive segment of classroom activity that presents
the factors of cohesion and a relatively complete additional element around which the unit
may resolve itself as a core. A rather pretentious problem may serve as this unitary core.
• n Experimental assignment. This is a form of the problem and project types characteristic of
the science laboratory. Too often in practice, it does not represent either an experiment
or a problem in the true sense. It can be made a vital instrument of educational training if
properly used.
• n Practice assignment. This type represents an assignment of repetitions of activities designed
to produce mental or motor skills. The mastery of the simple combinations in arithmetic,
memorization of a poem, or practice in speed on the typewriter is the example of this type
of assignment.
Difficulties in the preparation of a good assignment: Fleming and Wooding have listed the
following difficulties:
• n Insufficient thought and preparation in planning the assignment.
• n Inability to obtain an acceptance by the pupil of a worthy purpose for performance of the
task.
• n Simulation in the preparation of the assignments by appealing to the interests of
adolescents and by providing for real needs growing out of pupil experience.
• n Prevention of loss of interest due to too long phase of time between the assignment and
preparation.
• n Avoidance of assignments so long that successful accomplishment is impossible in the
time available for preparation, with consequent loss of interest.
• n Guarding against too many and too varied activities, resulting in dividing interests with
consequent bad habits of work and unsatisfactory accomplishments.
• n Difficulty in presenting work to be done so that it is clearly understood by the pupils; also,
the difficulty of ascertaining whether every pupil understands.
• n Gauging the difficulty of work so that success is possible for each pupil.
• n Determining essential requirements, and differentiation of assignments to suit the various
levels and types of ability existing in the class.
• n Inclusion of challenges to mental exploration by the pupil, thereby stimulating real thinking.
• n Provision for continuity of work by presenting new problems as a continuation of previous
experience and anticipation of future problems.

• n Correlating with other subjects and outside activities.

• n Focusing attention on important elements in the new problem of task and directing the
attack in such a way as to increase interest rather than lessen it, to stimulate effort, and to
overcome seeming obstacles to accomplishment.
• n Providing the necessary tools for preparation by training in study procedures and
techniques, and in selection, organization, and use of materials, thereby developing
effective habits of independent work.
• n Giving to pupils devices for checking the mastery and performance of work undertaken.
• n Evaluating the effectiveness of an assignment by the quality of response during the
presentation of the assignment and by the adequacy of pupil preparation.
• n Providing sufficient time for adequate consideration of the assignment and determining
the psychological moment for its presentation.
Suggested assignment procedure: The procedure suggested for the preparation of a good
assignment is as follows:
• n Analyze the nature of the learning process required in the advance unit. This is without
exception the first step in a good assignment procedure. Much of what follows in any good
assignment depends upon this analysis.
• n Study the various types of assignments available and select the one, or modified form of
it, which appears to fit best the learning situation. Some assignment types are admirably
adapted to one form of learning for teaching but not to others.
• n Provide the essential background for the advance work where uncertainty exists that such
background obtains. At this point too, many teachers are likely to assume the adequacy of
this background when in fact it may not exist. Scarcely one can emphasize too strongly the
apperceptive preparation for the new.
• n Whether this is the next step in the assignment procedure or not, it is obvious that very
early in the assignment phase the teacher must throw out a challenge to the student that
will enlist their interest and maximum effort in the new unit.
• n Outline in sufficient detail the advance unit to be studied.
• n Suggest some plan of attack upon the new unit. It is well to remember one caution—do
not do for the student that which they may be led to do for themselves. This suggests
the desirability of leading the class in a co-operative discovery of desirable leads for the
general attack upon the new.
• n Where reference to source material other than the textbooks is necessary, this should be
made specific. The most satisfactory plan in the large unit assignment is to provide the
select list of available sources in mimeographed or hectographed form with chapter or
inclusive page references given.
Home Assignments
Whether or not homework should be given to the students is a controversial point. Extreme
views have been expressed regarding the usefulness of homework. The assignment of home task
has been emphatically denounced by Bray. He writes, ‘Under normal conditions a reasonable
day’s work for a child has been done at the close of the afternoon and homework as it is generally
organised does more harm than good as a rule in this country except perhaps from the point
of view of examination success’. On the other hand, P.C. Wren commends the assigning of

homework. An average guardian also feels that some work should be given to the student which
they should do at home.
Purpose of Home Task in Social Studies

The following purposes can be stated:
• n To provide opportunities to students to work independently and thereby to develop in
them self-reliance and initiative.
• n To develop the habits of reading regularly among the students.
• n To provide opportunities to the students to utilize their leisure time profitably. It is
generally seen that our school children waste their precious time in loitering about or
making mischief when no such work is given to them.
• n To give them an opportunity to do practice what is done in the school.
• n To finish the prescribed courses in time. The syllabus is too heavy to be finished in the
classroom work.
• n To serve as a link in the parent–teacher co-operation. It enables the parents to know that
regular work is being done in the school.
• n To develop permanent interests and to train the students in the profitable use of leisure.
• n To enable the child to revise their previous lesson and prepare the next one.
• n To provide remedial measure for backward children.
• n To give a chance to every child to progress at their own speed.
Type of Homework given

The following are the types of homework:
• n Writing essay-type answers to questions arising out of the subject-matter already done in
the class.
• n Verbal memorizing work pertaining to curricular and co-curricular activities. It may
take the form of cramming facts, principles, poems, spelling, etc. of memorizing work in
respect of dramatics, debates, etc.
• n Practical work, e.g., preparation of charts, maps, knitting, sewing, drawing, etc.
• n Transcription, calligraphy, etc.
• n Advance preparation for the coming lesson.
Disadvantages of Homework given

These are as follows:
• n It deprives the children of participating in recreational activities when it imposes heavy
demands upon them.
• n It is a great hindrance in the way of the students of enjoying family and social life.
• n It deprives children of the opportunity to help their parents in supplementing their
income.
• n It imposes a great physical strain on small children and thus endangers their health.
• n It becomes a constant source of fear and worry to the students and therefore it endangers
their emotional stability.
• n Children are tempted to copy whenever they find that the home task is difficult to do.

• n Sometimes children are tempted to tell a lie that due to certain reasons they have failed to
do home task.
• n Unhealthy home conditions make study more harmful than profitable. There is a lack of
adequate light and quietness in a large number of Indian homes, and the atmosphere is
not congenial for study.
• n Too much of homework develops an attitude of indifference on the part of the pupils and
they become careless.
• n Lack of proper correction by the teacher, sometimes, gives rise to carelessness on the
part of the pupils. It also develops wrong habits of work if the work is not properly
checked.
• n Too much work is set by some overenthusiastic specialist teachers in their subjects, completely
disregarding what other teachers of the same class might have set for the same day.
• n The task is generally too academic in nature and ignores those activities that are needed
most for an all-round development of the personality of the child.
• n It is not properly adjusted to pupils’ needs and capacities.
Principles of Assigning Homework

The following are the principles of assigning homework:
• n The nature of the homework should be such that it does not require any kind of assistance
from a private tutor or guardian.
• n It should not be purely mechanical, i.e., requiring no general knowledge on the part of the
child.
• n Homework should aim at developing the taste of the individual child. This purpose can be
very conveniently realized if homework is in the nature of hobbies.
• n Homework should be very definite.
• n It should be supplementary rather preparatory as far as possible.
• n A single assignment for the whole class may not be considered as appropriate. It should
vary according to the mental and physical makeup of the students.
• n Homework in different subjects should be co-ordinated. Homework timetable should be
framed so as to avoid confusion.
• n While assigning homework, ‘Principle of sliding scales’ should be adapted. The primary
classes might be given home task to keep them busy for about half hour or so; in the
middle, secondary, and senior secondary classes time involved in doing home task should
not exceed one hour. Normally it should be given on alternate days.
• n Home task should not be set as a punishment.
• n Home task should be properly checked.
• n Library books should be given for reading at home as a home task.
• n The copies of the homework timetables may be sent to the parents to seek their co-
operation which is very important.
• n While assigning homework, the teachers should take into consideration the home
conditions of the child such as domestic employment, working condition in the
home, etc.
• n About 15% marks should be reserved for the evaluation of the student’s work based on the
assignments done through the year.

Methods of Correction
The following methods of correction may be adopted:
• n Correction by the teacher.
• n Correction with the help of the bright students in the class.
• n Correction with the help of the blackboard.
• n Correction by interchanging the exercise books among the students.
• n Glance checking and singing by teachers.
At the primary stage, teachers should correct all the assignments without any help from the
children. At this stage, it is not possible for the children to do any self-correction.
y Discussion Method
Meaning and significance of the discussion method: This method has been used in the
teaching–learning process since times immemorial. It was widely used at the famous Nalanda
University. The Greek scholars in their work used to discuss various problems and issues with
their disciples. Discussion has been described as a thoughtful consideration of the relationships
involved in a topic or a problem under study. It is concerned with the analysis, comparison,
evaluation, and conclusions of these relationships. It aims at uniting and integrating the work of
the class. It is carried out by organizing, outlining, and relating the facts studied. It encourages
the students to direct their thinking process towards the solution of a problem and to use their
experiences for a further clarification and consolidation of learning material.
Discussion is to be distinguished from debate in which the participants seek to prove a point
rather than to discover a truth. Debate may also be marked by uncontrolled exchange of verbalism.
Discussion is very important in stimulating mental activity, developing fluency and ease in
expression, bringing clarity of ideas in thinking and training in the presentation of one’s ideas and
facts. An exchange of ideas and opinions offers valuable training to students in reflective thinking.
Essential parts or constituents of discussion: These are as under:
• n The leader–the teacher.
• n The group–the students.
• n The problem or the topic.
• n The content–body of knowledge.
• n Evaluation–change in ideas, attitudes, etc.
Organization of Discussion
The following are the main techniques of organizing discussion:
• n Introducing a topic or a problem by the teacher by giving points or explanations to serve
as the basis of discussion.
• n Calling upon a pupil by the teacher to give facts, describe a scene or situation, explain an
incident, event, or happening for getting the discussion started.
• n Preparing an outline of points co-operatively by the teacher and a few students which may
become the starting point for discussion.
• n Asking the students to describe their own experiences connected with the subject, topic,
or problem and making them points for discussion.

• n Presenting detailed papers by the teacher and discussions thereon.

• n Presenting detailed papers by the students and discussing them in the class.
• n Showing special works and projects to the class and discussing them.
• n Showing some pictures, charts, diagrams, or any audiovisual material and discussion
about them.
Merits of Discussion
The following are the merits of discussion:
• n It helps in clarifying issues.
• n It helps children in crystallizing their thinking.
• n It helps students in discovering what they do not know and what they have overlooked.
• n It engenders more reflection. It is farther from rote learning.
• n It represents a type of pooled knowledge, ideas, and feelings of several persons.
• n It develops team spirit.
• n It engenders toleration of views which are at variance.
• n It affords opportunities to the students to learn together, make suggestions, share
responsibility, comprehend the topic, evaluate the findings, and summarize the results.
• n It provides opportunities to the students to speak distinctly, stand and sit correctly, respect
the ideas of others, share interests, ask pertinent questions, and comprehend the problem
before the group.
• n It helps the teacher in discovering talented students who have potential for becoming
good leaders.
Limitations of Discussion
The limitations of discussion are following:
• n It is not suitable in all topics.
• n It is likely to be dominated by a few students.
• n It is likely to go off the track.
• n It may lead to unpleasant feelings.
• n It may create emotional tensions.
• n It may involve unnecessary arguments.
Directing Group Discussion

The teacher has to show immense patience and skill to ensure that discussion takes place on the
right lines and in the appropriate environment. The following points may be considered in this
respect:
• n Students should be well acquainted with the significance of the topic, its nature and scope,
and causes why the class should discuss it.
• n Discussion should be confined to important aspects.
• n Students should be encouraged to participate in the discussion.
• n Ideas may be invited without pressure or embarrassment.
• n Explanations, where needed, should be provided.
• n Personality cult should be avoided.

• n Co-operation rather than competition should be encouraged.

• n Efforts should be made to develop team spirit.
• n Doubts, mistakes, and wrong interpretation should be made clear by the teacher.
• n Facts and points should be evaluated.
• n Facts and points should be summarized.
• n Students should be guided to appreciate difference of opinion and views.
• n Goals of discussion should be kept in view.
• n Only a few students should not be allowed to dominate classroom discussion.
• n Shy students may be given training in discussion in small groups so that their hesitation is
removed while participating in bigger groups.
y Laboratory Method
H.C. Hill presents a picture of the laboratory method as used in the University of Chicago High
School in a class in civics. He says, ‘The greater part of the students will be studying and writing at
their work tables. Two or three may be having a quiet conference on some moot point. Others may be
comparing notes or outlines of some phase of the work. One student may be busy at the dictionary,
hunting for the explanation of some phrase or term; another may be consulting an atlas; a third may
be sharpening a pencil or filling his fountain pen; a fourth may be making a map or preparing a
graph; a fifth may be conferring with the teacher about some difficulty or asking for a criticism on his
notes or outlines. Usually one or two students will be browsing among the volumes in the bookcases
or going through tables of contents or indexes to find a clue to some obscure item. Now and then an
idler or a dawdler will be observed. In general, however, the room is a place of quite, disorderly order,
in which students are busily engaged in profitable activities of one kind or another’.
Bining and Bining sum up the situation, ‘Conviction on troublesome issues and questions must
come as a result of analysis, judgement, and experience. Teachers must be loyal to the ideals of
tolerance, truth, justice, and honesty. They should emphasize, in their teaching, attitudes, ideals,
intellectual habits, and other qualities that will bring about an educated citizency in a great democracy.
A few educators have suggested that the teaching of ideals—even those ideals upon which there is
general agreement—is a form of indoctrination. From this viewpoint, we are being indoctrinated.
If it means going to the extremes of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany or present-day Soviet Russia, it
is to be condemned. On the other hand, a social and civic training that is in accord with democratic
ideals—call it what we may—is not only desirable but essential if our schools are to have any part in
training citizens who will build a nobler society, freer from faults and defects than the present one’.
y Lecture Method
Significance of the Lecture Method
It is the oldest teaching method given by the philosophy of idealism. As used in education, the lecture
method refers to the teaching procedure involved in the clarification or explanation to the student
of some major idea. This method lays emphasis on the presentation of the content. The teacher is
more active and students are passive, but they use question–answer to keep them attentive in the
class. It is used to clarify matters, to expand content, and to motivate the students. By changing
their voice, by impersonating characters, by shifting their position, and by using simple devices, a
teacher can deliver their lesson effectively. While delivering their lecture, a teacher can indicate by
their facial expression, gestures, and tones the exact shade of the meaning that they wish to convey.

Merits of the Lecture Method

The following are the merits of the lecture method:
• n It is economical as it needs no apparatus and no laboratory. A large number of students
can be taught at a time.
• n It saves time and covers syllabus in a limited time.
• n It is very effective in giving factual information and in relating some of the thrilling
anecdotes with historical lessons. The life stories of great adventures, experimenters,
investigators, and thinkers can become very interesting and valuable talks by a teacher.
• n Lecturing makes the work of the teacher very simple. They need not make elaborate
arrangements.
• n A good lecture not only stimulates the students but also lingers long in their imagination.
It motivates students to become good orators.
• n It provides better scope for clarification and for laying stress on significant ideas.
• n It brings a personal contact and touch to impress or influence the pupils.
• n It provides flexibility. As the teacher is in close and intimate contact with their pupils, they
can adjust their technique in accordance with their abilities, aptitudes, and interests.
• n It gives the students training in listening.
• n It gives the students training in taking notes rapidly.
• n It develops good audience habits.
• n It provides opportunities of correlating events and subjects.
• n It enables the linkage of previous knowledge with the new one.
Limitations of Lecture Method

The limitations of this method are as follows:
• n There is a very little scope for pupil activity.
• n It does not take into consideration individual differences.
• n Lecturing is against the principle of ‘Learning by Doing’.
• n It spoonfeeds the students without developing their power of reasoning.
• n Speed of the lecture may be too fast for the learner to grasp the line of thought.
• n An average student may not be able to fix up their attention to a lecture of 40–45 minutes.
• n A lecturer is likely to cover more content without realizing that little learning takes place.
• n A lecture may become monotonous to the students after a while. Very few teachers can
keep the interest of the students upto the end.
The effective use of the lecture method, the following points should be kept in view when
using this device of teaching:
• n Matter should be arranged in such a way as to leave a single clear impression on the minds
of the students.
• n The teacher should have pauses in between the lesson so that the students may learn the
new knowledge bit by bit.
• n The rate of exposition should be slow when the class is backward. The teacher should
utilize different ways of presenting the same information.
• n There should be abundant repetition, but it should be in a new way so that the class may
not feel dullness.

• n Children’s way of looking at things should be considered in exposition. Language used

should be familiar and suitable.
• n The lesson should be divided into sections which have a logical sequence. This will enable
the students to understand easily and will also train them in systematic thinking besides
assisting them to put their own thoughts logically.
• n The rate of exposition and the size of the subject-matter are determined by the individual
capacity of children and teacher’s natural rate of speech.
• n Proper use of the blackboard should be made.
• n Actual objects, models, diagrams, sketches, etc. should be used.
• n The students should be encouraged to ask questions. This will enable them to get their
doubts removed.
• n Verbal illustrations such as examples and comparisons should be used to enable the
students to grasp the exposition.
• n Pictorial illustrations such as pictures, maps, and charts should be freely used as these help
in the motivation of the students.
• n The aim of the lesson should be kept in view and the students should be fully made
conversant with the aim.
y Observation Method
It is rightly believed that the observation under the careful guidance of a social studies teacher
proves very effective in the process of learning, and facts, skills, and behaviour learnt are retained
for a longer period. Observation or direct experience or visits to actual places, say, a monument,
a fort, a field, a river, a temple, an institution, etc. provide ample opportunities to students, for
‘seeing’, ‘hearing’, ‘examining’, ‘gathering data’ and ‘asking’ questions. Visits to hospitals, telephone
exchanges, telegraph offices, study trips to airports, etc. show how people and goods are transported
from one place to another. Pupils understand better the working of markets, co-operative stores,
and factories when they see their working and thus acquaint themselves with the processes of
production, distribution, exchange, and consumption. Such experiences are most conducive to
learning. The concrete data on cultural, industrial, political and geographical facts and relationship
being more ‘tangible’, ‘visible’, and ‘describable’ serve as a great motivating force for further enquiry
in social sciences. The observation lends vitality to the subject-matter of social studies.
Techniques of the Observation Method

The following techniques are adopted in the observation method:
• n Field trips of educational excursions.
• n Community surveys.
• n Community service projects.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the following methods with special reference to meaning, procedure, advantage,
and limitation.
(a) Assignment method (b) Discussion method (c) Laboratory method (d) Lecture method
(e) Observation method.

y Review Method
N.L. Bossing states, ‘The term review connotes not a mere repetition, of facts to fix them more
firmly in mind, but rather a new view of these facts in a different setting that results in new
understandings, changed attitudes or different behaviour patterns’. H.N. Rivilin regards review
as, ‘deepening the students insight into the problem…… increasing his appreciation of its
ramifications’. Review must recall essential facts and appraisals of the segments of experience in
a final summary that actually involves a new view and a new understanding and provides a basis
for changed behaviour.
Purposes of Review
The following are the purposes of review:
• n Fixing in mind the activities or materials learnt.
• n Organizing the materials and experiences into larger units for understanding.
• n Enabling the students to gain perspective.
• n Providing for the desirable expansion and supplementation of materials and experience.
• n Providing an apperceptive basis for future study.
• n Diagnosing student weakness in preparation and understanding.
• n Diagnosing teacher weakness.
• n Creating new interest in old materials.
y Source Method
The source method implies the use of original material and original sources in the teaching of social
studies. The source method provides first-hand experiences and leads to better understanding of
the subject. Sources may be divided into two categories:
• n Primary sources.
• n Secondary sources.
Primary sources. Physical remains or relics or unconscious testimony in far off historical
sites, roads, pyramids, human remains, clothing, food, fortification, utensils, pottery, building,
implements, machinery, furniture, weapons, fine arts and museum pieces of many kinds,
inscriptions, chiselled stories, monuments, tombs, coins, stamps, tape-strips, scenery and
portraits, sculptures, historical paintings etc.
Consciously information has been transmitted in the form of oral or written testimony.
Written sources include constitutions, charters, court decisions, official minutes or records, au-
tobiographies, letters, diaries, geneologies, contracts, deeds, wills, permits, licences, affidavits,
depositions, declarations, proclamations, certificates, bills, receipts, magazines and newspapers,
accounts, advertisements, maps, diagrams, books, pamphlets, films, catalogues, paintings, in-
scriptions, recordings, transcriptions, and research reports. Oral tradition includes ballads, anec-
dotes, tales, and saga.
Secondary sources. These are those sources that are written by those who are not on the scene
of the event. They simply describe the reports of those persons who either participate in an event
or were eyewitnesses of the events. Generally, they are several times removed from the original
first-hand account of events, and as such they are usually of limited worth.

An act passed by the Parliament is a primary data, whereas its extracts published in newspapers
are covered by the secondary data. The report of the University Education Commission is primary
data, but contents published in textbooks form the secondary data. Many history textbooks and
encyclopaedias are examples of secondary sources.
Use of the Source Method

It can be used at the following stages of the lesson:
Pre-lesson use of resources. The visits to the actual sites of monuments, efforts, or museums
may be arranged. The teacher can ask the students to read selected passages connected with the
lesson beforehand.
Mid-lesson use of resources. The extracts from original or secondary sources can be read
during the course of the lesson. They create real situations, impart reality and vividness to the
lesson, and reinforce the impact of teaching.
Post-lesson use of resources. Pre-lesson use of resources can also become the post-lesson use
of resources and vice versa. Students may be given assignments that need the use of resources
and vice versa. Students may be given assignments that need the use of resources. They may be
encouraged to pursue their interest in a particular topic, do some critical thinking and analysis,
and prepare their own account.
Merits of the Source Method

The following are the merits of the source method:
• n It develops a sense of reality and vividness.
• n It develops a sense of objectivity.
• n It provides a congenial and motivating environment.
• n It arouses curiosity among the students.
• n It develops elementary skills of collecting data, sifting the relevant, and organizing the same.
• n It provides the opportunities for useful mental exercises—right thinking and imagining,
comparing and analysing, drawing inferences, etc.
• n It promotes the interest in the study of the subject.
• n It initiates the students in social studies research.
• n It provides functional knowledge. Even the slow and backward children feel interested
when they see original sources. Their learning becomes functional because it is gained in
the real counter.
• n It supplements classroom lesson.
Limitations of the Source Method

The limitations are given below:
• n It is very difficult for the school teachers to have an easy access to original sources.
• n Utilization of original sources is a very difficult task for the school students as they lack the
requisite training.
• n The method is very complex and technical.
• n There is the difficulty of languages. Almost all the original sources are in Sanskrit, Pali,
Arabic or Persian, and a few in English.

• n Contemporary authors and writers have given their own prejudices preferences and
limitations with the result that it becomes very difficult sift fact from fiction. The students
are, thus, lost in the maze of conflicting views about the same event or movement.
• n The source method of teaching social studies is very expensive.
• n The source method of teaching social studies is time consuming.
How to Make the Source Method Effective

The students should be encouraged to study the resource books in the library. Educational tours to
places of importance may be arranged. The students may be asked to write their own impressions
and inferences about the places they visit. The copies of important extracts from the relevant
records may be pasted on the blackboard for the use of students.
Keatings thinks that original sources can be used for creating suitable environment in the
lower form. Well-planned, purposive, and well-directed efforts have to be made by the teacher in
the use of this method. By suggesting the use of the resource method in social studies, we do not
aim at making our students research scholars. The use of the method in selected topics is likely to
make the study of social studies more meaningful and real.
y Storytelling Method
Storytelling is one of the most important methods of teaching social studies. It is an art which
enables the teacher to come very close to the heart of the students, and thereby they attract
their attention. Some teachers are born storytellers and they are very fortunate in this respect.
This art of storytelling aims at presenting to the pupils, through the medium of speech, clear,
vivid, interesting, ordered sequences of events, in such a way that their minds reconstruct these
happenings and they live in imagination through the experiences recounted either as spectators or
possibly as participators. Storytelling enables the teacher to make lessons lively and interesting to
the pupils. The stories of great personalities, reformers, writers, saints, discoverers and scientists,
etc. must be told to the students. Storytelling helps in enhancing the interests of the students in
the subject. It goes a long way in firing the imagination of the students. Storytelling can be relied
upon by the teacher as the best companion for helping in developing in their pupils traits of
character such as charity, piety, truthfulness, and valour.
The Art of Storytelling

The art of storytelling can be cultivated by:
• n Observing skilful narrators.
• n Studying the work of successful story writers.
• n Practicing storytelling.
• n Critically evaluating one’s own performance and bringing about necessary changes.
In telling a story, the teacher should be guided by the following points:
• n Suitable stories for the age of the students should be selected. A story that appeals and
interests the seven-year-old child will not suit the child of four years of age. Small children
of four or five years are interested in stories of boys and girls. The child of seven or eight
years takes interest in hearing to the stories of magic and wonder and the stories of giants,
adventure, and romance.

• n The stories should be short and the plot easy.

• n The teachers must know well the story that they want to narrate. If they stop in the middle,
it will detract charm from the story.
• n The language employed in telling a story should be very simple and easy.
• n A story should be told and not read. The story loses a great deal of its interest for the
children if it is read.
• n The teachers themselves should like the story and take interest in storytelling.
• n There should be plenty of action in the stories. Key sentences and phrases should be
repeated as the children enjoy this repetition. The stories should be loaded with activities
and experiences familiar to the children. R. Strang has observed, ‘Stories for young
children, therefore, should be told in terms of action and sense impressions. Upto the age
of six years, a child is most alive to moving things—engines, boats, horses and wagons,
animals, boys and girls in action. Children lose interest when the action is interrupted
by a long descriptive passage. In telling a story one can notice the drop in interest during
descriptive and explanatory portions, and the flare-up of interest again when the action
is resumed. Since the young child’s own activities and experiences are the ones most
interesting to him, the first stories should be about experiences familiar to children’.
• n Conversation, if any, in the story should be given in direct speech and not indirect speech.
• n The method of introducing and developing the story should be thought out beforehand.
• n The story should be told in a natural way and very vividly.
• n Humour makes the story more interesting and should not be neglected.
• n To make the story more realistic, the teacher may use pictures and draw diagrams on the
blackboard.
• n The story should suggest and inspire the students to action.
• n Ryburn suggests that well-known and familiar stories can be made fresh if they are told
as though one of the characters in the story were telling it. He writes, ‘The story of Asoka
and the Kalinga war could be told as if Asoka, himself, were telling it’.
• n The story must have some aim besides mere enjoyment. The teacher must keep in mind
the aim while narrating a story. It is all the more better if the students too know the aim.
y Supervised Study Method

Arthur C. Bining and David H. Bining describe the meaning of supervised study as, ‘By supervised
study, we mean the supervision by the teacher of a group or class of pupils as they work at their
desk or around their tables. In this procedure, we find pupils busy at work that has been assigned
to them by the teacher. When they meet a difficulty that they cannot overcome, they ask the
teacher for direction and assistance. The teacher, when not called upon, walks up quietly up and
down the classroom or remains at his desk watching the pupils do their work continually alert
for any wrong procedures that the pupils may follow. He is always ready to direct and aid them’.
Individual attention. Supervised study is an aid in helping to solve the problem of individual
differences. Supervised study aids in preventing failures. The pupil works along their own mental
level and at their own capacity. Assignments can be given to meet all levels of ability.
Better pupil–teacher relations. Another good feature of supervised study is seen in the better
pupil–teacher relations that it promotes. In the usual class teaching procedure, the teacher
is frequently considered a hard task master, and the procedure often produces a ‘class versus
teacher’ attitude. Under the supervised study programme, they appear in the role of a helper and

guide. There is greater opportunity for the display of sympathy and understanding. The teacher
is able to understand the pupil and their difficulties better and is in a position to spurt them on
to a greater effort.
Development of skills. There are certain skills that can best be developed under this procedure.
A thorough use of the supervised method would reveal weaknesses in the learner. The following
skills can be developed easily.
• n Skills as to how to read social studies material.
• n Skills as to how to use encyclopaedias.
• n Skills as to how to use dictionaries.
• n Skills as to how to use maps, atlases, indexes, and almanacs.
• n Skills as to how to read graphs.
Objections to Supervised Study

There are some objections such as:
• n Some investigations have concluded that the bright pupil is not helped under this method
and in some cases is even hindered by the method.
• n Supervised study requires the lengthened school day, which is not possible due to various
pressures of co-curricular activities.
• n Supervised study is a costly method. It would necessitate an increase in the teaching force
that would mean an increased cost of education.
• n Supervised study depends too much on the initiative and enthusiasm of the students
which they seldom display.
• n Supervised study destroys the supremacy of the teacher as they play a secondary role in
the teaching–learning process.
Supervised Study and Socialized Recitation

Bining and Bining have explained the difference, ‘The socialised recitation has been used
successfully with a supervised study procedure. In a class period of sixty minutes, however, it
would be better to use a simplified form of socialised recitation. The first part of the period can
be devoted to the socialised study. For example, the procedure could be as follows. During the
socialised recitation, the direction of the class is under a pupil Chairman and a discussion leader.
The Chairman first calls upon a pupil, previously chosen by the Chairman, teacher or class, for
review of the work of the preceding day. Corrections and additions are then voluntarily made.
The Chairman next calls for the topic or problem of the day, in order to be sure that subject is
clearly in the minds of the members of the group. The discussion leader now takes charge. Each
phase of the topic or problem is then discussed by the group, under the direction of the leader.
After the discussion the teacher examines or comments on any points that have not been clearly
brought out’.
y Dramatization Method
Dramatization has been described as a ‘synthetic art’, involving the purposive co-ordination and
control of the delicate organs of speech and muscles of the body combined with a sense of rhythm,
with a view to free and intelligent expression of emotions and ideas.

Dramatic art affords innumerable opportunities for the correlation of a large number of
subjects. In the preparation of their roles, the students indirectly and unconsciously improve
their speech habits and language. A systematic study of historical events has to be made
when pageants of the life of great persons are prepared, i.e., pageant on the life of Buddha,
Chandragupta, Vikramaditya, Gandhiji, etc. Children prepare costumes suiting different ages
and thus come to know about the dresses of the people during different periods of history.
Dramatics also add to the geographical knowledge of the students. Carpentry and other
mechanical arts facilitate the work of construction of the stage. Dance and music add to the
beauty of a drama.
Drama has its great social value. It is a co-operative enterprise and develops the qualities of
co-operation and social understanding. It helps in fostering esprit de corps among the students. In
various school functions, dramas form the chief items of the programme. For the honour of the
school, every student works to the best of their capacity.
Dramatics afford the students many opportunities for training in team work. They are very
helpful in providing the students with the opportunities for the release of the inhibitions to which
they are subjected by the conventions of society.
There are many activities in a drama, and as such students of diverse aptitudes get chances to
choose items for which they are best suited and satisfy their urges, e.g., self-expression through
the various activities of a drama.
Conditions for success. A number of rehearsals bring grace and success to the play when it is
staged. Pupils should prepare as much stage material as they can.
Children should be encouraged to write their own plays. The usual participants in this
activity should be given opportunities to play different roles. The same pupils as far as possible
should, however, not be allowed to play the role of a villain.
Selection of Play
Selection of play are following:
• n Plays chosen should depict the evils of the social customs.
• n A play should have a literary value also.
• n The students should be able to understand and appreciate the play.
• n It should also have entertainment value.
• n It should be free from objectional subject-matter.
• n There should be no vulgarity in the play.
y Note Dictation Method

V.D. Ghate has observed, ‘There is too much dictating of notes in our schools and the history
teacher seems to be by far the worst culprit’. Dictating notes, by and large, has become a coaching
and not a teaching device. It has, of course, a great significance in teaching of social studies. It is
used due to the following reasons:
• n Lack of suitable history textbooks.
• n Pressure of work with the teacher and less time for preparing the reason.
• n Shortcut to finish the overcrowded subject-matter.
• n Shortcut to pass the examination. Lack of adequate power of expression of the teacher.

Methods of Dictating Notes

• n Detailed notes on important topics after discussing the topic in the class.
• n Notes in the question–answer form primarily from the examination point of view—guess
questions and their answers.
• n Explanatory notes and summaries on the blackboards.
Defects in the Method of Note Dictation

Defects in the method of note dictation are as follows:
• n It does not provide training in developing critical approach.
• n Note dictation makes history teaching synonymous with memorization of facts
communicated by the teacher.
• n Note dictation fails to develop proper insight into the subject.
• n Note dictation proves to be a great hindrance in developing the habit of consulting
reference books and textbooks also.
• n Instead of dictating notes to the students, they should be encouraged to prepare their own
notes.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the following methods with special reference to meaning, advantage, and
limitation.
(a) Review method (b) Source method (c) Storytelling method (d) Supervised study
method (e) Dramatization method (f) Note dictation method
y Problem-solving Method
Everybody, at some time or the other, is confronted with serious problems of life or with minor
problems needing immediate attention. Education is considered to be a preparation or a training
ground for meeting this challenge. Students are to be trained in the school for social participation
and also to be equipped to meet the problems of complex life. Knowledge, thus gained in the school,
becomes useful and purposeful, and the students become active participants in the entire process.
Bossing: N.L. Bossing, in his book, Teaching in Secondary Schools, writes, ‘The problem method
consists of the organisation of the school work in such a way as to present to mind of the learner a
genuine problem that challenges him to sustained effort to achieve its solution on a mental plane’.
Good’s Dictionary of Education: The problem method is a ‘manner of dealing with that
which is problematic, a method involving clear definition of problem confronted, formation of
hypothetical solution, deliberates test of hypothesis until evidence warrants its acceptance’.
Yokam and Simpson: Yokam and Simpson in their book Modern Methods and Techniques of
Teaching state, ‘Problem solving method is a method in which a person uses his ability to solve
problems which confront him, enables a man to exercise control over his activities and his
environment. Without it he is at the mercy of nature and cannot make intelligent social progress’.
Rusk’s: ‘Problem solving may be defined as planned attack upon a difficulty or perplexity for the
purpose of finding a satisfactory solution’.

Ross: ‘Problem solving is an educational device whereby the teacher and the pupils attempt
in a conclusions, planned, purposeful effort to arrive at an explanation or solution to some
educationally significant difficulty’.
It must be noted that problem-solving method is a method in which a felt difficulty to act
in an educational situation is realized, and then an attempt is made in an intelligent, planned,
and purposeful way to find its solution. In other words, the problem-solving method consists
of conscious, meaningful, and well-integrated activity. It begins with a problematic solution and
adopts the problem-solving procedure.
Difference Between the Problem Method and

the Project Method
Problems and projects are so often spoken together that it seems necessary to distinguish
between the two terms. The problem method differs from the project in that the emphasis in
it is on the mental solution reached rather than on practical accomplishment. Project is a more
purposeful and constructive activity. It embraces both intellectual and physical problems. But it
is characterized chiefly by mental activity and by critical thinking and is, therefore, more directly
applicable to the school-level instruction.
In the words of Wilson and Wilson, ‘But even a thoroughly motivated problem is not a
project. The problem may be solved in thought only while the project requires the completion of
some objective piece of work based upon a problem or a series of problems……. The difference is
that the problem solution may end in thought while the project can end only with the successful
completion of an objective unit of work’.
Aims of the Problem-solving Method

The problem method aims at presenting the knowledge to be learnt in the form of a problem, the
solution of which requires activity on the part of the pupils. Indirectly they acquire the needed
knowledge. Knowledge gained is useful and real, and it comes in its natural setting in a correlated
manner. Problems set to the students must be of such a nature that the students are genuinely
interested to solve them.
Characteristics or Features of a Good Problem

Students will be able to tackle problems successfully if the following characteristics of good
problems are kept in view.
Real: Problems should be real rather than artificial.
Interesting: They should be interesting. They should make the students genuinely interested in
solving them.
Suitable: Problems should be suitable to the age, needs, mental and physical capacities, and
resourcefulness of the students.
Related to life: Problems should be related to actual life. They should have direct bearing on the
general life of the students. The students should get training in solving real-life problems.
Thought provoking: Problems should be thought provoking. They should present a genuine
difficulty, mental or physical, which demands reflective thinking on the part of the learners. The
students recognize them as challenge.

Correlated with previous knowledge: Problems selected should have correlation with the
already gained knowledge of the students. This will facilitate solution.
Correlated with environment: Problems should be correlated with physical and social
environment of the students and also with other school subjects.
Educational value: Problems should be worthwhile and of educational value.
Maximum activity: Problems should be such that they may provide maximum activity and
useful knowledge to the students.
Clear and definite: Problems should be clear and definite. They should be free from ambiguities.
Possible of solution: Problems should be possible of solution, i.e., they should not be too deep
for the particular group of students, and specific information needed for solving the problems
should be available. They should be capable of completion within the time limits set by the course.
Fitted in curricular organization: Problems should be such that they can be fitted well in the
present curricular organization; otherwise they may pose various administrative difficulties in
the school.
No financial strain: Problems should cause no strain on the financial resources of either the
school or the students.
Basic Principles of the Problem-Solving Method

The meaning of problem-solving method can be further illustrated by highlighting the following
basic principles of the problem-solving method:
Principle of judicious selection of problem: Problem should be judiciously selected while
keeping in view the characteristics of a good problem. Problem should be (1) real; (2) interesting;
(3) suitable according to age, need, mental and physical capacities, and resourcefulness of the
students; (4) related to life; (5) thought provoking; (6) correlated with previous knowledge; (7)
correlated with physical and social environment; (8) educationally useful; (9) activity oriented;
(10) clear and definite; (11) possible of solution; (12) fitted in curricular organization; (13) free
from financial strain.
Principle of mental activity: A problematic situation provides for maximum mental activity. It
leads to active thinking and therefore, results in proper understanding of the situation.
Principle of freedom: The principle of giving freedom to students may be observed. Problems
should not be imposed on the students. Students may be grouped together on the basis of
common interests, and each group may choose problems which the group would prefer to tackle.
Principle of owning the problem: Students must feel the problem on their own. The problem
must include interest and values to arouse the curiosity of students for finding the solution. The
students must feel it worthwhile to make efforts for its solution.
Principle of stating the problem: The problem must be stated in definite terms. It is the duty of
the teacher to see that the problem is stated in definite terms. If it is defined clearly, the students
will be able to keep it in mind while working on the problem.
Principle of selecting material: The means of solving the problem must not be vague to the
students; otherwise most of the value of the procedure will be lost. Hence judicious selection of
the material must be made.
Principle of definiteness of conclusion: Conclusions or solutions must be definite and clear.
Many means may be adopted to arrive at definite conclusions. One of the students may be asked

to summarize the conclusion before the whole class. Other students may be asked to evaluate
and criticize it until it is accepted by all. This definiteness of the conclusion or solution must be
emphasized.
Principle of congenial environment: The teacher should provide a congenial and co-operative
environment for solving the problems.
Sources of the Problems

Sources of the problems are following:
Subjects: Generally mathematics and science are considered the only subjects where
problem-solving method may be adopted. But its use has been now extended to other subjects
as well. Social studies, history, geography, civics, and health education provide numerous
opportunities for problem solving. Every subject has its own problems. These problems can
train the students in the art of reflective thinking. The problems may be of intellectual, social,
or manual nature.
School life: School life furnishes many practical problems such as collecting funds for Red Cross,
doing school work to beautify the school, organizing certain festivals, celebrating some days, and
staging dramas.
Students: The problems may be suggested by the students themselves.
Teacher: The teacher can present a problem before the students, but it should be accepted by the
students as their own problem.
Procedure or Steps in the Problem-solving Method

Procedure or steps in the problem-solving method are following:
Recognition of the problem: The first step involved in problem solving is the recognition of
the problem. A problem arises out of a situation. A situation should be created by the teacher
in which the students feel the presence of the problem and the need to solve it. The problem
should arise from the educational needs of the students. The problem situation may be created
by the discussion on various topics, the survey of surrounding environment, and the needs of the
students. The teacher must see that the problem gets before the children in such a way as to arouse
their interest and challenge them to study it.
Interpretation and delimitation of the problem: Once the problem has been recognized, it must
be properly interpreted, defined, and delimited. The teacher may explain the problem in detail
or the student may interpret it through discussion. The student should be clear about the scope
of the problem. The age, intelligence, and interests of the students should be kept in mind at this
stage.
Collection of data: After students have grasped the meaning of the problem, they must be
stimulated to collect relevant data in a systematic manner. The teacher may invite suggestions
from the students regarding the relevant material. They may provide the necessary information
about the sources to be tapped. They may ask the students to read books from the library, study
charts, graphs, maps, pamphlets, and such other source materials. They may have to contact
some experts in the field or to make a few field trips. The students will thus collect all sorts of
information regarding the problem at hand.

Organization and evaluation of data: After collecting data, it should be properly organized and
evaluated. The superfluous materials should be eliminated. The teacher should help the students
in eliminating the irrelevant data.
Formulation of tentative solutions: All inferences drawn on the data must be considered
tentatively. In words of Yokam and Simpson, ‘Judgement must be suspended until sufficient data are
gathered, evaluated and organised in a systematic manner to further the solution of the problem’.
Establishing the final conclusion: Tentative solutions are pooled together. Discussion takes
place and the students are encouraged to take part in discussion. Wrong inferences are rejected
and final conclusion is drawn on the basis of logical and collective thinking.
Verification of results: After arriving at the final conclusion, it may be verified. Its validity may
be tested in various ways: (a) By applying the hypothesis to new situations, (b) By experimenting
further with it, (c) By collecting new data through study and investigation.
Role of Teacher in the Problem-solving Method

The role of teacher in the problem-solving method are as under:
• n The teacher should create problem situations.
• n The teacher should provide guidance in: (a) defining the problem, (b) collecting,
organizing, and interpreting the data.
• n The teacher should have confidence in them. They must possess the ability to sense the
problem clearly, supply the necessary challenge for their students, and make good the
deficiency of textbooks.
• n The teacher should see to it that problem solving develops in the students the art of
reasoning and gives them practical knowledge and skill valuable in life.
Importance or Advantages of the Problem-solving Method

Importance or advantages of the problem-solving method are following:
Intellectual development: It develops the power of thinking and reasoning of students. It
stimulates intellectual pursuits and develops power of critical judgement. Students have to
explore the situation to find out the possible solutions and select the best possible solution. They
get a chance to think, to judge, to evaluate, to compare, and to select the best.
Development of social qualities: The problem method provides valuable social experiences to
students. They solve the problems through joint and collective efforts. Various social qualities
such as discipline, social sensitiveness, co-operation, fellow-feeling, open-mindedness, and
tolerance are developed. The students find that there are so many sides to a problem and they
listen to different point of view. So they become tolerant in outlook and open-minded in their
attitude. They begin to value the opinions of others. They work in the form of a group, and it
contributes to their social development.
Development of initiative and self-dependence: Students learn self-dependence and initiative
as they have to depend upon themselves for the solution of their problems.
Development of study habits: Students develop desirable study habits. They have to read various
books. They develop the habit of selective study. As they have to solve many problems, they tend
to be critical in studies.

Development of self-expression: Students perform purposeful activities and get training in self-
expression through discussion during the solution of the problems.
Assimilation of knowledge: Knowledge is gained as a result of purposeful activity, connected
with students’ everyday life. So it is easily assimilated.
Problems of life and active participation: The problem method conforms to life. It prepares the
students to meet the problems of life and helps them to learn how to act in the new situations.
It marks for students’ activity. The students are stimulated to struggle for solutions of certain
problems. They are then no longer passive members of a class but active participants.
Cordial relations between teacher and students: Good and cordial relations between teacher
and students are established and promoted. The teacher comes to know the difficulties which the
various students face and helps them accordingly. Students learn to appreciate the guidance of
the teacher. Thus a foundation is laid for good and happy relations between the teacher and the
taught, which is indispensable for the success of the teaching–learning process.
Limitations of the Problem-solving Method

Limitations of the problem-solving method are as under:
Time consuming: The problem-solving method is time consuming as children often go astray.
The progress of students is very slow because they may not be able to find the correct solution and
go on repeating incorrect things. The syllabus may not be covered in time.
Unsuitable for small children: The method is not suitable for small children because they do
not have enough background for fruitful discussion of real problems. They may not properly
understand and organize the material.
Dull and monotonous: This method will become dull and monotonous if used too frequently.
The teacher may not be able to impart information from their own side. So this method can be
used as one of the procedures and not as the sole method.
Lack of suitable books: There is lack of suitable books for reference and guidance. Books written
in traditional style cannot serve this purpose.
Lack of trained teachers: There is shortage of trained teachers to put such method into actual
practice.
Not useful for lower standards: This method is useful only for the students of higher classes who
possess higher type of thinking required in problem solving. It is not useful in lower standards.
Unsuitable for existing system of education: This method does not fit in the existing system of
education. Neither the social studies curriculum nor the examination encourages this method.
It is difficult to organize syllabus according to the requirements of the method. Teacher cannot
suggest sufficient problems to cover each topic of every subject. All topics cannot be covered by
this method.
Neglecting physical activity: Generally the problem-solving method lays all emphasis on
mental or intellectual activity such as thinking and reasoning. The solution of a problem is
found by mental deliberation. Physical activity is neglected. This makes the learning situation
artificial. In actual life, problems are rarely confined only to intellectual sphere.
No satisfactory results: Generally, the method does not achieve satisfactory results. Hence
students and teachers remain dissatisfied and discouraged.

It may be noted that what is expected from school children by this method is mental solution
rather than practical accomplishment. It is a way of thinking or a way of life that has to be
developed through the problem method.
Major Approaches in Problem-solving Method

In the problem-solving method, four different approaches may be followed: (1) inductive
approach, (2) deductive approach, (3) analytic approach, and (4) synthetic approach.
y Inductive–Deductive Method
Inductive Method
In the inductive method, we lead our pupils from particular instances to general conclusions,
from concrete cases to abstract rules, from the known to the unknown, from the observed to
the unobserved, from empirical to rational, and from individual cases to generalizations. For
example, we find that a crow is black; another crow is also black; still another crow is also black.
We then come to the conclusion that all crows are black. The process of induction calls for
perception, reasoning, judgement, and generalization.
Steps in the Inductive Method

Steps in the inductive method are following:
Recognition of the problem: The first step is clear recognition of the problem. It should be
clearly understood and defined by the pupils. The teacher can help the students by questions and
suggestions.
Searching for data: Once the problem has been defined, the child should start searching for data
from all possible sources such as books, magazines, journals, and making visits to certain places.
Organization of data: Under the guidance of teacher, the pupils organize the data which they
have collected from various sources. They select relevant data and discard irrelevant material.
This may be done individually or by groups.
Framing tentative solutions: By studying particular instances, the pupils frame possible
solutions. The teacher is in the background.
Elimination: The various tentative solutions put forth in the above step are discussed, argued,
and judged. They are critically evaluated. Their weaknesses are pointed out. Thus many tentative
solutions are eliminated, and only the probable solutions remain.
Verification: The solutions are applied to the situation and results are verified. The procedure is
repeated until a correct solution is discovered.
Advantages of Inductive Method

Advantages of inductive method are following:
Psychological method: This method is psychologically sound. It is based on the principle of
learning by doing.
Promotes self-activity and interest: This method promotes self-activity and interest. The pupil
remains active throughout the process. It gives them pleasure. They feel interested in experiments,
experiences, and discoveries.

Fosters independence and self-confidence: This method fosters independence and self-
confidence in the pupil which proves very useful in later life.
Develops initiative and creative thinking: In this method, children discover the solution
themselves. Hence it develops and encourages initiative and creative thinking.
Promotes self-acquired knowledge: All that we learn with the help of inductive method is
remembered easily because it is self-acquired.
Possibility of correlation: In this method, the pupils observe and analyze particular objects of
similar and different nature and try to arrive at general truth. Hence a lot of correlation is possible.
According to maxims of teaching: Inductive method takes into consideration all the maxims of
good teaching like to proceed from the known to the unknown, from concrete to abstract, from
empirical to rational, from particular to general, and from the observed to the unobserved.
Limitations of the Inductive Method

Limitations of the inductive method are following:
Not useful in case of all subjects: The inductive method is quite useful in teaching
mathematics, science, and grammar, but it is generally not applicable in case of social studies
history, geography, etc. The facts of history and geography cannot be experienced by individual
students. We shall have to accept these facts from the testimony of others.
Wrong conclusions: Sometimes the pupils may draw hasty or wrong conclusions. They may draw
conclusion before coming across an adequate number of instances. This jump to conclusion may
be a dangerous one.
Lengthy and boring: At the advanced stage, i.e., with higher classes, the inductive method
sometimes is not so useful. It is lengthy and becomes tedious, dull, and boring.
Incomplete without deduction: This method is incomplete without the deductive method.
Induction helps in making generalizations. In order to utilize these generalizations for concrete
purposes, we need deduction. Moreover, only the principles of deduction can help us in the
detection of fallacies. New teaching always starts with induction and ends in deduction where the
knowledge learnt is applied, verified, and established.
Deductive Method
The deductive method is opposite of the inductive method. In the deductive method rules,
principles and conclusions are applied to particular cases. The students proceed from general
to particular, abstract to concrete, and formula to examples. For example, the students are told
that ‘air exerts pressure’. They are asked to verify it by means of experiments. Similarly, they
are told that the area of rectangle = length × breadth. Then a few sums are solved before the
students. The students apply the formulae to solve these problems and they memorize these for
future use.
Steps Involved in the Deductive Method

The following steps involved in the deductive method:
Recognition of the problem: Like the inductive method, the first step involved in deductive
approach is the clear recognition of the problem. It should be clearly understood and defined by
the students.

Searching for data: The students collect data. It may involve the study of particular things and
phenomena.
Reviewing: Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find as to which may be applicable to
find a solution.
Formulation of inference: In this step, the rule, principle, or generalization is applied to a
problem, and inference is formulated that the problem falls under such rule, principle, or
generalization.
Verification: Verification of the inference is done by applying it to a case. If it solves the
problem, then it is accepted; otherwise the procedure is repeated to find the correct one.
Advantages of the Deductive Method

Advantages of the deductive method are following:
Short and time saving: The deductive method is short and time saving. It takes little time to solve
the problems by predetermined formulae.
Teacher’s work simplified: In the deductive method, the teacher’s work is very much simplified.
They simply give a rule and ask their pupils to verify it by application to several concrete
examples.
Useful for small children: This method is very useful for small children because with small
children we generally use the story or telling method.
Enhances speed: It enhances speed and efficiency in solving problems.
Glorifies memory: This method glorifies memory, as the students have to memorize a
considerable number of definitions.
Useful during practice and revision: This method is adequate and advantageous during practice
and revision stage.
Limitations of the Deductive Method

Limitations of the deductive method are following:
Encourages cram work: The deductive method encourages memorization and cram work. As
we have already pointed out that in the deductive method rules, formulae or definitions are
first stated and then the students are asked to apply them and use them. The students begin to
do so without understanding these rules and formulae. Thus the educative process is ultimately
reduced to the memorization of facts. These facts are soon forgotten. Moreover, these facts will
cause an unnecessary and heavy burden on the brain.
No self-activity: There is no self-activity or self-effort on the part of students. Students are given
ready-made rules and formulae. They are given no opportunity to do things for themselves. Thus
they are deprived of the pleasure of self-effort and self-activity.
Unnatural and unpsychological: The deductive method is unnatural and unpsychological. The
beginner has no ability to understand abstract knowledge without having first gone through
concrete examples. In all natural development, practice precedes theory and concrete examples
precede abstract ideas. The deductive method is just a reverse of this natural procedure.
Not suitable for discovery: The deductive method is not suitable for the development of thinking,
reasoning, and discovery.

Comparison Between the Inductive Method and the Deductive Method
Inductive Approach or Method Deductive Approach or Method

1. We proceed from particular instances to 1. W
e start with general law or formula and then
general laws or formulae. solve particular problems by applying this law
or formula.
2. It is a method of discovery and provides 2. It is a method of verification and explanation
education. and provides instruction.
3. It is a method of specialization, i.e., the pupil 3. It is a method of generalization, i.e., its aim is
may acquire some special knowledge. to fit the pupil generally for the battle of life.
4. It is a slow method. 4. It is a quick method.
5. It is a safe method. The general law is 5. It is not a safe method. The general law may
reached step by step. Its meaning is properly not be properly understood. Hence it may lead
understood and applied with success. to faulty application.
6. It is an upward movement of thought leading 6. It is a downward movement of thought leading
to definitions, principles, or rules. to good understanding of the principle or rule.
7. It fosters self-reliance. Pupils depend on their 7. It encourages dependence on others.
own observations and judgment. Knowledge which is gained with the help of
this method may be forgotten soon.
8. It leads to new knowledge but depends on 8. It does not lead to new knowledge. It depends
deduction for verification. upon induction for new knowledge.
9. It implies much training and little information. 9. It implies much information and little training.
10. Induction tests the material validity, i.e., 10. D
eduction can give us the formal validity
whether the application of deduction is real because the rule is taken for granted. The
or not. formal validity may be misleading if the
general statement is wrong.
Both methods are equally necessary as the right and left foot are for walking or as both the
wheels are wanted for a cart. Both these methods should go side by side supplementing each other.
They are inseparable. We cannot use one method to the exclusion of the other. Induction should
always be followed by deduction, and deduction should be established through induction. Just
as it is impossible to separate form and matter, similarly the form of thought, i.e., deduction, and
matter of thought, i.e., induction, should never be isolated as such. For the attainment of truth
and the development of knowledge, these two processes must co-operate like a lame man of good
vision and a blind man of sure foot. In short, modern teaching should always start with induction,
lead to deduction, where the knowledge learnt is verified, and then ends in induction, where the
knowledge is applied to further examples. It should be induction cum deduction cum induction.
y Analytic–Synthetic Method
Analytic Method
Analysis means to break, to separate, and to unloose things that are together. In the analytic
method, we split the material or the problem presented into component parts. Analysis is
often identified with induction and synthesis with deduction. Analysis is the method of

discovering the solution of a problem, and heuristic attitude is implicit in it. At every step in
analysis, we see whether it would facilitate the learning process or would help in arriving at
the solution.
The meaning of analytical method can be explained in the light of the following characteristics
of analytical method:
To break the material: The analysis method breaks the material into simpler parts. These parts
can be easily handled, understood, and assimilated.
Application of inductive reasoning: The analytic method applies inductive way of reasoning.
In the induction method, knowledge is revealed and not told. Like inductive procedure, in the
analytic method we proceed from the known to the unknown and from the particular to the
general.
Heuristic spirit: The analytic method has heuristic spirit implicit in it. Students are made to learn
and establish facts through their own efforts.
Merits of the Analytic Method

The following merits of the analytic method are:
Logical method: The analytic method is a logical method. It leaves no doubt and convinces the
learner.
Useful for understanding and discovery: It is useful for understanding and discovery. It is based
on reasoning and justification.
Specially useful for complex knowledge: The analytic method is specially useful where the
knowledge to be learnt is either complex or the relations existing among the various parts are not
very clear to the students.
Limitations of the Analytic Method

Limitation of the analytic method are following:
Lengthy: Sometimes analytic method becomes lengthy, time consuming, and laborious.
Not applicable to all topics: This method may not be applicable to all the topics equally well.
Low efficiency: It is difficult to acquire efficiency and speed with this method.
Synthetic Method
The synthetic method is the opposite of the analytic method. Synthesis implies composition or
the putting of two or more things together. Synthesis is to place together things that are apart. It is
identified with deduction. It is the method of formulating, recording, and presenting concisely the
discovered solution omitting the trials and errors. It is the synthesis that clarifies and completes
the purpose of analysis.
Merits of Synthetic Method

Merits of synthetic method are as under:
Quick and straightforward: It is a quick and straightforward method. It saves time.
Develops memory: It develops memory.
Promotes information: It develops information.

Limitations of the Synthetic Method

Limitations of the synthetic method are following:
Encourages cram work: The synthetic method encourages memorization and cram work. It does
not develop originality.
No heuristic approach: There is no heuristic approach in it. It is not a method for a thinker and
a discoverer.
Forgotten steps: It is not easy to recall or reconstruct the forgotten steps.
Comparison Between the Analytic Method and the Synthetic Method
Analytic Approach or Method Synthetic Approach or Method

1. It starts from the conclusion and goes to the 1. It begins with the hypothesis and ends with the
hypothesis. conclusion.
2. It is a process of exploration and demands 2. It is a process of presentation of previously
thought. discovered facts.
3. It is a slow and lengthy method and involves 3. It is a quick method and omits trial and error.
trial and error.
4. It is a method for a thinker and a discoverer. 4. It is a method for a crammer.
5. It develops originality. 5. It develops memory.
6. Students can recall and reconstruct steps 6. It is not easy to recall or reconstruct the
easily, if forgotten. forgotten steps.
7. It has heuristic spirit implicit in it. 7. There is no heuristic spirit in it.

8. It is the pre-runner of synthesis. 8. It is the follower of analysis.
Like the inductive and the deductive methods, the analytic and the synthetic methods are also
to go together. Analysis leads to synthesis and synthesis makes the purpose of analysis clear and
complete. Both the analytic and the synthetic methods are interdependent and complementary
and hence indispensable in teaching. Analysis helps to understand and synthesis helps to retain
the knowledge in memory. Analysis forms the beginning and synthesis forms the follow-up
work. The discoveries made analytically are represented synthetically. Synthesis without analysis
is dogmatic. Analysis without synthesis at the end is futile and meaningless. Thus as a classroom
procedure, the analytic–synthetic method is the best.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the following methods with special reference to meaning advantages and
limitations: (a) inductive method, (b) deductive method, (c) analytic method, and (d)
synthetic method.
2. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the problem-solving method.
y Project Method
The project method, like many other activity methods, is also a modern contribution to
educational theory and practice. It is a result of John Dewey’s philosophy of education which is
known as pragmatism, or experimentalism, or instrumentalism. It was developed and improved

by Professor William Kilpatrick, a follower of Dewey. Dr. J.A. Stevenson worked on it further and
perfected it as a method of teaching. Now it is being followed in the progressive schools all over
the world.
Meaning of Project Method

Kilpatrick’s view—‘A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity, proceeding in a social
environment’.
Stevenson’s view—‘A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting’.
Ballard’s view—‘A project is a bit of real life that has been imported into the school’.
Burton’s view—‘The problem is a project which results in doing. The motor element is not what
makes the activity a project, but the problem-solving of a practical nature, accompanying the
activity’.
Ryburn’s view—‘A project is a purposeful activity which completed in vacuum with co-operation
and understanding’.
Thomas and Lang’s view—‘Project is a voluntary act in which there are constructive and creative
attempts and ideas which have some definite concrete and tangible results’.
Snedden’s view—‘Project is a unit of educative work in which the most prominent feature is some
form of positive and concrete achievement’.
W.W. Charters’ view—‘In the topical organisation principles are learned first while in the projects
the problems are proposed which demand in the solution the development of principles by the
learner as needed’.
The above-mentioned definitions of the project emphasize the following points:
Problematic act: A project is a problematic act.
Voluntary act: A project is a voluntary act which involves constructive and creative ideas.
Purposeful activity: A project is a purposeful activity.
Whole-hearted activity: A project is a whole-hearted activity.
Activity in natural setting: A project is an activity in a natural setting.
Activity in social setting: A project is an activity in a social setting.
A bit of real life: A project is a bit of real life introduced in school.
Problem solving of practical nature: A project is a problem solving of a practical nature.
Voluntary act: A project is a voluntary act in which there are constructive and creative attempts.
Positive and concrete achievement: A project is a positive and concrete achievement.
Activity of solutions: A project is an activity through which solutions of various problems are
found.
The Herbartian method is teacher centred, whereas the project method is pupil centred.
In this (project) method, the school, the contents, the curriculum, and techniques of teaching
and learning are considered from the pupil’s point of view. It emphasizes learning by doing and
learning by living.
In the project method, the activity is chosen from the real life of the children. The project is
not a theory; it is an activity or a problem. Here the child is not required to learn the lesson by
heart. In this method, they would really do and learn. The child will be active both physically and

mentally. Children are provided the opportunities of work and play. It should be noted here that
the project is a problematic act, not merely an ordinary activity. The problem requires reasoning,
imagining, evaluating, calculating, and judging. It is not a mechanical activity; it is a meaningful
act. There is no scope for artificial, bookish, and unrealistic education in the project method.
The student learns by performing the activity. The project is carried to completion. It is not left
unfinished.
The project is carried in a social environment. It teaches the students co-operation, mutual
help, and sympathy. Thus it helps the children to become socially efficient citizens.
Basic Principles or Features (Qualities) of the Project Method

The project method can be further illustrated by highlighting the basic principles or the features
of the project method:
Principle of purpose: A good project is always purposeful and has a clear-cut goal. The pupils
follow the project just to reach the goal. The knowledge of purpose is a great stimulus which
motivates the pupil to achieve the goal. Purpose motivates learning. Interest cannot be aroused
by purposeless or aimless and meaningless activities.
Principle of activity: A child is active by nature. They love activity. The instincts of curiosity,
construction, pugnacity, and self-assertion make them active by nature. So opportunities should
be provided to the child to be active and to do things for themselves. Physical as well as mental
activities are to be provided to them. They are to be allowed to ‘do’ and ‘to live’ and to ‘live through
doing’. The project method gives pupils ample opportunities to think and plan intelligently and
then carry out the project in co-operation with others.
Principle of experience: Experience is the best educator. First-hand experience is the basis of
learning in the project method. Thus through social participation, the child indirectly receives
character training and assimilates practical democracy.
Principle of reality: We educate the children for real life, and it can be done only by bringing real
life into the programme of education. A project is a bit of real life imported into the school. There
is no scope for teaching superfluous things in the project method. Real present is always more
meaningful and significant for the child than the buried past and hazy future. But if a project is
good, past and present can be represented through it and can be made real through present-life
situations. A project presents real-life situations to the children.
Principle of freedom: There should be freedom at all stages in a project. Children should choose
plan and execute a project without interference by an external authority. Project should be the
outcome of spontaneous activity on the part of children. In such atmosphere, children express
themselves freely and this leads to the development of well-adjusted personality. Children should
be free to choose the activity according to needs, interests, capacities, and powers.
Principle of utility: Utility is one of the basic principles of the project method. The knowledge
gained should be useful and practical. The experience and knowledge gained through projects
ensure utility because they are carried out under natural conditions. This method removes the
boredom created due to the absence of practical experience in the classroom teaching through
traditional methods.
Principle of laws of learning: The project method is soundly based on the psychological principles
of learning, namely, principle of readiness, exercise and effect evolved by Thorndike, principle

of learning by doing, principle of self-experience, principle of self-learning, and principle of

motivated learning.
Principle of democratic procedure: There is everything democratic in a project. There are no
set rules and regulations, not even a set programme to carry out a project. It is the participants
themselves who are responsible for the choice of the project and for the completion of the
activity. In fact, many children join the activity. None of them is a dictator and none is inferior
to anybody else in the group. All stand on equal footing and all utilize their best talents and
efforts for the completion. Everything goes on in a democratic way. There are no commands and
orders. There are suggestions, discussions, and their decisions which are carried out voluntarily
and faithfully by the participants themselves.
Kinds of Projects
Following kinds of projects are:
Producer’s type: When the students construct something material, e.g., a soap, a hut, etc.
Consumer type: Where the students may get an experience and enjoy, e.g., reading a poem,
listening to a story, watching television, appreciating light music, enjoying classical music, etc.
Drill type: When it is aimed at acquiring efficiency in some activity, e.g., skill in swimming,
singing, dancing, etc.
Problem type: When the main purpose is to solve a problem involving the intellectual processes,
such as determining the density of a liquid.
Another classification: Projects are generally of two types:
Simple projects: In simple projects, there is only one work to do like stitching a shirt or baking a
bread, or doing such other work.
Complex projects: In complex projects, there are more than one work to do. For example,
arranging a drama or raising a wall, etc. In this process, children get the knowledge of various
subjects.
Procedure, Steps, or Stages involved in a Project

Providing situations: First, the teacher has to provide suitable pupil-centred interesting situation.
It means that the teacher is to provide such a situation according to the needs, interests, and
aptitudes of the pupils, which may give them a spontaneous urge to carry it out. Situations may
be provided by the conversations on different topics, discussions on pictures, buildings or cities,
by telling stories, or taking out children on excursions and educational tours. Educational trips,
coming festivals, the days of national importance, and many kinds of other social activities may
provide fruitful situations for projects. In the first step, there is no choosing at all. They make them
conscious of various subjects and that too through the active participation and co-operation of
the children. Children themselves think of various subjects, make their lists, and go on finding
still more. However, the teacher’s guidance is there.
Stevenson taught the use of the electric bell to his high school students by the project method.
The necessity of completely overhauling the bell system in the school building arose, and this
occasion was utilized in providing a situation.

Choosing and purposing: After the situation has been provided, the next step is the choice of
a good project. Purposing is very important. It is the centre around which a project moves. The
project selected must be such that it satisfies a definite need or purpose. The purpose, as far as
possible, must be acceptable to all the students of a class. Dr. Kilpatrick writes, ‘The part of the
pupil and the part of the teacher in most of the school work depend largely on who does the
purposing. It is practically the whole thing’. The students themselves should choose the project.
The teacher should not be in a hurry to choose the project. Better results and better satisfaction
can be had only through self-choice. Many situations should be provided to children. These
situations should be discussed and the teacher should give useful suggestions. Decision should
always be democratic. The teacher should merely guide and not thrust their opinion. The children
must feel that the project is their own choice.
According to the criteria, the children take up every purposeful project and test its
worthwhileness from various aspects such as:
• n Is it the most needed and most useful activity?

• n Is it practicable with the limited sources available?
• n Is the material required in connection with its completion available?
• n Is it of some educational value?
• n Is it within the time limit?
• n How much will it cost and how much time and labour will it require?
• n Is it useful for the community?
Planning: After a suitable choice has been made, the next step is to prepare a plan for the
execution of the project. Good planning leads to better results. The entire planning is to be done
by the pupils under the guidance of the teacher, after a good deal of discussion. Each child should
be encouraged to participate in the discussion and offer their suggestions. The entire plan should
be put in black and white by the pupils in their project book.
Executing: When the plan is ready, the teacher should encourage the pupils to put into practice.
It requires a lot of work. The whole project is to be executed through the co-operative efforts of
all students. The various activities of the project should be divided according to the individual
interests and activities of the different students in the class. The teacher is to see that every student
is assigned some duty to do work. They should give guidance to the students. They are to suggest
books for references, provide them with the necessary information, advise them to do particular
type of activity, and help them on the right line.
This is the stage at which the students perform many activities and learn useful experiences.
They keep themselves busy in collecting information; reading and writing in various languages;
keeping accounts; calculating prices; looking up maps; collecting specimens of different things;
measuring length and area; visiting markets, museums, and zoos; visiting fields and crops; seeking
help from others, and the like.
Judging (Evaluating): After the completion of the project, the students should be asked to
review their work. Lessons must be learnt from the mistakes that have been made in the various
steps. The students must learn to criticize constructively their own work. Self-criticism is a
valuable form of training. The students should find out what things they have learnt from the
project.
Recording: All the pupils should maintain a project book in which they should put down a
complete record of all the activities connected with the project. This record will include: (1) the

choice of the project, (2) its planning, (3) discussion held, (4) duties assigned, (5) references
and books consulted, (6) difficulties felt, (7) experiences gained, (8) guidance sought, and (9)
important points for future reference and guidance.
Thus the project book should give a comprehensive picture of the project as a whole.
Essentials of a Good Project

Essentials of a good project are following:
Usefulness: Project should be useful and the children should feel that it has some utility for them.
The learning experiences in project must be capable of being applied in life.
Interesting: Projects should be interesting to students. They must make an appeal to the
instinctive and emotional hunger of the students.
Economical: The projects should be economical. They should not unnecessary tax the energy
and pocket of the students. There should be least wastage of time.
Timely: Projects should be related directly to the lesson and vocational interests. Projects should
suit the age, interests, aptitudes, abilities, and mental level of the students. Environmental and
seasonal factors should also be taken into account.
Challenging: Projects should neither be too simple and easy nor too long and difficult. They
should be challenging. Young students want to do tasks which are challenging in nature.
Rich in experiences: Projects should be rich in experiences. They should provide experiences of
high standard, including social contacts and character training. They must fulfil some educational
purpose. They should be capable of correlating different subjects and practical activities of life.
Maximum activity: The project should have a maximum number of activities so that all the
participants may be able to have due share of experience.
Availability of resources: Material connected with the project should be readily available in the
school or in the neighbourhood school. The pupils should be able to handle it without difficulty.
Co-operativeness: The project should provide opportunities to the students to think and plan
independently as well co-operatively. The projects should be executed in such a way that the
students are kept active both physically and mentally.
Agencies of the Project Method

Agencies of the project method are:
Teacher: The teacher is an essential part of this method. Their duty is to create an ideal
environment in the school where the students may grow and develop. They are to bring about the
social organization, directly or indirectly.
School: School is the field of activity of the pupil as well as the teacher. Students grow and develop
over there, and teachers help them to grow and develop. The environment of the school should
enable the students to achieve the main purpose of education, i.e., the development of wholesome,
balanced, and integrated personality. An important aim of education under the projects is
socialization of the students, and therefore the school should present a ‘society in miniature’.
Curriculum: Curriculum has to be laid down for achieving the purpose of education. This has
been done under the project method as well. The curriculum, as planned, has to be dynamic,

flexible, pupil centred, activity centred, and life centred, so that it may reflect the activities of the
children, the real features of the society.
Method of teaching: In the project method, those techniques for teaching that are suitable
for acquiring knowledge are adopted. This method is made suitable for children and their
environment.
Discipline: Discipline is also very important. Without discipline, the society cannot run and
so in school the environment has to present the miniature of the discipline of the society. The
environment in the school should be such that it encourages the children to give expression to their
natural faculties in co-operation with others, so that there may be a social environment as well.
Democracy: An environment ringing with freedom must be created to enable the pupils to
learn the real spirit of democracy. This spirit requires that we should not only do our work
conscientiously but also let others to do their work and do not interfere with their duties
Examples of Projects
Project: Village Survey
History: The history of the village, if any, relics and monuments, dwellings of primitive man
caves, huts, etc. houses through different ages and at different places.
Geography: The source of water supply, climate, crops, fruits, vegetables, and other products.
Economics: The occupation of the people, agricultural yield per acre, village handicrafts, rural
indebtedness, and co-operative societies.
Civics: Working of the village panchayat, co-operative store, and educational facilities.
General science: The health and sanitation of the village, water facilities, causes of diseases,
village dispensary, ventilation, etc.
Arithmetic: The estimate of the cost of the village drainage system, the calculation of the per
capita income of the villager, the measurement of land holding, the calculation of different items
in the family budgets, the calculation of the total area of the cultivable land, and the calculation
of agricultural produce per acre.
Language: The description of the various details of the survey.
Art work: The preparation of charts depicting the conditions of an ideal village.
Project: The Pageant on the Life of Buddha

History: The social, religious and political conditions of Indians at that time and the sources of
information regarding the life of Buddha.
Geography: Different places connected with the life of Buddha and the preparation of maps
showing these places.
Language: The study of books which throw light on the life of Buddha and the writing of the
various details of project.
Religion: The evils of untouchability, love for all, truth and non-violence, and the teaching of
Buddha.
Civics: The co-operative spirit to make the project a success.
Drawing: The preparation of stage and making lighting arrangement.
Art: Beautification work in the project.

Merits of the Project Method

Merits of the project method are following:
Based on laws of learning: The project method is based on psychological laws of learning, namely
(1) law of readiness, (2) law of exercise, and (3) law of effect.
Law of readiness: The law of readiness requires the child’s mind to be ready for acquiring
knowledge. The planning, the discussion, and the selection of the project prepare the child’s mind
to participate in the execution of the project.
Law of exercise: The law of exercise requires the child to practice what they have learnt. Learning
to be effective must be practised. The project method affords many opportunities to the students
to learn by doing.
Law of effect: According to this law, if learning is to be effective and fruitful, it must be
accompanied by satisfaction and happiness. By actually doing things in the project, the child gets
pleasure and satisfaction.
Related to life: The projects are related to everyday needs and the experiences of the child. Various
subjects are taught to the extent that they are applicable in practical life. So knowledge gained is
real, practical, purposeful, and useful, leading to the formation of proper habits and attitudes. The
children get opportunities to acquaint themselves with the real problems of life. They learn the
practical usefulness of different subjects of the curriculum.
Correlates all the subjects: The project method gives unity to the curriculum. Various subjects
are not taught like separate units. They are taught as a compact whole and related to life. The
curriculum is drawn up in such a way that it has the co-ordination of various subjects. Subjects
do not remain isolated. Learning comes as by-product of purposeful activity.
Training for a democratic way of life: The project method provides sufficient opportunities to the
students to work co-operatively for a common purpose. Decisions are arrived at democratically.
Children are trained to think and work together for a common purpose. Group interaction is
promoted. Students acquire foresight, power of judgement, independence of thought and action,
initiative, responsibility, self-reliance, tolerance, and self-respect. All these virtues are helpful in
a democratic way of life.
Training for citizenship: The project method imparts training to the students to inculcate the
qualities of citizenship such as open-mindedness, tolerance, resourcefulness, and independence.
Dignity of labour: All children have to work with their own hands in a project. Hence they
develop a taste for all kinds of work. They learn that there is nobleness in working and doing
things with their own hands. Thus, dignity of labour is maintained. Self-reliance and sense of
responsibility are cultivated among the students. They make their own decision and enjoy the
product of their own labours.
Character building: The project method is helpful in character building. Children develop the
habit of shouldering responsibilities, taking initiative, and arriving at an independent decision.
Self-reliance, self-dependence, self-confidence, and resourcefulness lead to their character
development.
Problem solving: The project method discourages cramming and memory work. It emphasizes
problem solving. It develops thinking and reasoning powers of students. It aims at providing
training in scientific method of inquiry.

Source of happiness for the backward: The project method provides a great relief to the backward
and retarded children by providing them the opportunities of participation in practical situation.
Such children are incapable of thinking abstract things and keep themselves busy in concrete and
practical situations. They can do well in projects through concrete learning situations.
Freedom: The project method provides freedom. The students work with great enthusiasm for
the completion of their self-chosen project. They do not feel tired as there is a good deal of variety
in their work and the atmosphere is full of freedom.
Play-way method: The project method provides education in a play-way method. The whole
activity is a sort of play for the children. It is not like a hard task thrust upon children from the
above. Therefore, they learn most heartily.
No indiscipline: The project method solves the problem of indiscipline. As the children remain
busy with their self-chosen work, they do not get the opportunities to think of antisocial or
indisciplined ways.
Economical: The project method is economical. It gives the best of results with the least of
wastage of time, energy, and effort. Children learn only those things which they actually need for
the present life and the life to come, and they learn it by living. The learning is very effective and
therefore very economical in that way too.
Limitations of the Project Method

Limitations of the project method are following:
Haphazard teaching: Teaching is discontinuous and haphazard in the project method. Many a
time, projects do not keep the examination and curriculum in view. No single project can deal
with all the subjects, and there are some important topics that cannot be taught through this
method. The child is to be educated for many situations which cannot be subjected to projects in
schools. If we depend upon projects alone, we may miss much desirable knowledge. Moreover,
knowledge does not come continuously in a project.
Upsetting of the timetable: Projects cannot be bowed down in the chains of rigid time-table in
the schools. Even fixed syllabus and projects cannot go together. The activities need their own
organization but in the atmosphere of freedom and activity. Projects upset the routine work of
the school.
Neglect of drill work: The project method neglects practice and the development of skill of
drill in various subjects. The students do not get adequate drill in arithmetic, reading, spelling,
drawing, etc.
Neglect of literary aspect: There is more of manual labour than literary work in projects. For
the successful completion of the project, the participants have to devote many hours to the
practical activities and spare less time for literary work. In the modern age of science, the coming
generations need much knowledge which is not possible to be transferred to them in limited time.
Difficulty of suitable textbooks: The preparation of books suitable for the project is by no means
an easy task. Collateral reading and reference books are the very soul of the project method. But
useful books for various projects are not available.
Costly: The project method is costly. It requires a lot of expensive material which most of our
schools cannot afford to provide.

Strain on teachers: The project method lays too much strain on the teacher. The teacher has to
provide the learning situations; to guide in the proper selection of projects; to supervise their
execution; and to remain active, alert, and vigilant throughout the process to help the students
in various difficulties which they often come across. They have to look at the activities of all
the children. They are not task masters even. It is their duty to see that every pupil is getting
education in a balanced way. Too much strain is put on the resourcefulness and intelligence of the
teacher. One teacher cannot be efficient in all the subjects, and at the same time the principle of
correlation is not easy to work out. Therefore, an ordinary teacher cannot succeed in this method.
Lack of competent teachers: For the successful working of this method, very learned, efficient,
and resourceful teachers are needed, which are generally not available.
Artificial correlation: Sometimes teachers show overenthusiasm in stretching the projects upon
which the class is working beyond its natural limits and try to connect those topics which have
remote connections with the project in hand.
Unsuitable for small children: Small children are too young and inexperienced to select really
valuable and good projects. As we have to depend upon them as far as the choice is concerned,
we may face many difficulties in this respect. It is not wise to rely and depend too much on the
choice of the children.
Unsuitable for the shirkers: The project method is unsuitable for the shirkers and shy. Students
who are not inclined to take responsibility may remain in the background and do very little work.
Unsuitable for transfers: The change of a school is very difficult. If a student has to change
over an ordinary school from a school which is following the project method or vice versa, they
will not be able to adjust themselves properly. Both the methods differ so much that it will be a
problem for such a child.
Suggestions
Suggestions for projects are following:
Supplement to class teaching: The project method may only be a supplement to classroom
teaching. Projects may be used for the revision and reorientation of knowledge learnt.
Direct classroom lesson: To fill the gap in knowledge learnt, direct classroom lesson should be
given.
Readjusting syllabus: The syllabus can be readjusted to accommodate the projects. So most of
the students can be helped to derive the benefits of the project. The teacher can teach through
the project method topics such as Village Survey, the Pageant on the Life of Buddha, Digging a
Well, Running a Co-operative Store, Our Village or Town, Means of Communication, National
Projects and Development, U.N.O., and Geographical Regions.
Teachers’ training: Teachers can be trained to guide the projects.
Low-cost projects: Low-cost projects can be taken up within the available finance. Moreover, to
overcome the financial difficulties, such projects may also be taken in higher classes which may
bring income to the school, e.g., staging a drama, etc.
Practice through formal teaching: The practice in reading, spelling, pronunciation, drawing
and solving mathematical problems, neglected by the project, should be provided through formal
teaching.

y Dalton Plan
The plan is named not after its originator Miss Helen Parkhurst, but after the name of the town in
which it was first adopted in a high school.
Miss Parkhurst attaches the importance to the use of the word ‘laboratory’. She writes, ‘I
cling to it in the hope that it may gradually shift the educational point of view away from the
atmosphere of prejudice which the word “school” calls up in our minds. Let us think of school
rather as a sociological laboratory where the pupils themselves are the experimenters, not the
victims of an intricate and crystallised system in the evolution of which they have neither part nor
lot. Let us think of it as a place where community conditions prevail as they prevail in life itself ’.
Her aim was to create ‘a new type of educational society’ by putting boys and girls under entirely
different conditions of living from those provided in the ordinary classroom and to re-organize
the community life of the school.
Assignment or contracts: The teachers outline the work of the year to be done in their respective
subjects to enable the students to know about the scope and the nature of the work they are
required to complete in each subject. The work is further subdivided into suitable monthly
units by the subject teachers. While preparing the assignment, the teachers bear in mind the
factors such as holidays, time available, revision at various stages, co-curricular activities, and the
demands of other subjects.
Each unit of work is accepted by the pupil as a ‘contract’, and they promise to complete the
work and to satisfy the teacher before going to the next unit.
Each subject has its separate assignment. The child will be given the new assignment only
when they have completed their assignments in all the subjects. A pupil is not allowed to do
more than the month’s work in a single subject unless they finish the month’s contract in every
other subject. The child is free to undertake an assignment of a month in any manner they like,
i.e., they may devote one week completely to complete their assignment in one subject and may
ignore assignments in other subjects during that particular week and take up assignments in
other subjects in the second, third, or the fourth week. They may spend their whole day in one
assignment of a subject and so on. The only limitation is that they must finish the whole contract,
i.e., monthly assignments in each subject for a particular month, before the second contract is
entered upon.
Subject teachers: The Dalton Plan does away with class teachers and accepts specialist teachers.
Each specialist teacher supervises each child in their subject and guides their work. They render
all possible help to the child to complete their assignment in time.
Subject rooms: The plan scraps classrooms and gives their place to subject-rooms which are
called subject-laboratories. Each specialist is the incharge of their room. Each subject-room is
adequately equipped with the material required in that subject. It contains books and magazines,
charts, maps, models, apparatus and appliances, etc. concerning that subject.
There is no fixed timetable and no fixed period. Each student is free to devote more times to
the subject in which they are weak and less in which they are up to the mark.
Records: Graphs are kept to show the work done by each child and in each subject so that
the pupils themselves and the teachers may know how they are progressing. Two records are
maintained by the pupils themselves; one showing their progress in each subject and the other
in all subjects. The third record is kept by the subject-teachers themselves and is hung in the
subject-room.

These records serve as a mirror to indicate the work of the pupils and are kept up-to-
date. These serve as a link also between the teacher and the pupil and bring them in close co-
operation for the effective learning. The graph, in fact, is a constant reminder of the ‘contract’
or ‘promise’ and helps to make one conscious of the extent to which the progress is made and
is to be made.
Conferences: Usually the morning time until recess is devoted to individual work by each child
or may be devoted for voluntary group work. The afternoon time may be used by the teacher
for oral lessons in their subject. Group discussions under the guidance of the teacher may be
held. These oral lessons or group discussions are called ‘conferences’. These conferences may
be devoted to remove common difficulties or to explain certain items of common interest and
importance.
Duties of a Teacher
The duties of a teacher in the Dalton Plan may be summed up as under:
(1) Preparing assignments and giving them to the pupils as and when required.
(2) Keeping an atmosphere of study in the room.
(3) Giving explanation of any details of the assignment and removing the difficulties of the
pupils.
(4) Giving information with regard to the use of relevant equipment and material.
(5) Ensuring that each assignment is finished properly before the new assignment is given to
the pupil.
(6) Keeping full records of the progress made by pupil in different classes.
(7) Keeping the subject-library and other equipment up-to-date and in proper order.
The teacher, in the Dalton Plan, is ‘a helper, not a driver; the pursued, not the pursuer’.
Principles Underlying the Dalton Plan

Principles underlying the Dalton plan are following:
The principle of individual work: John Adams says, ‘It is the most dramatic and systematic
break away from the class-teaching unit’. It is now generally accepted that the students differ in
various respects and it is folly to tag them together for keeping pace in studies. The plan aims at
providing equal opportunities to all pupils to work at their own rate and speed. The time taken
is not necessarily equal but a minimum uniform achievement is required. In the words of Miss
Parkhurst, ‘It is a piece of machinery for putting into operation the principle of individual work’.
The principle of freedom: Children work well when they are given the freedom to do so. There
are no arbitrary fixed periods. There are no classroom restrictions or rigidity of discipline. In
the Dalton Plan, children are free to move about, to consult one another, and to work in any
particular subject. In the words of an educationist, ‘It aims to giving to the older child that
freedom for self-development which has proved so valuable in the school life of the “infant”
while at the same time ensuring that he shall master thoroughly the academic work required
by the curriculum of the school’.
The principle of self-effort: Learning to be effective must be the product of one’s own self-effort.
In the Dalton Plan, the child learns through their own efforts.

The principle of co-operation: In a subject-laboratory, pupils of different age groups not only
assist each other when occasions demand but also are very much helped in turn, without being
distracted, in the task of a companion being similar if not identical. According to Miss Parkhurst,
the school can only reflect the social experience of the community when all its part or groups
develop the same intimate relations with one another as is found in a society as a whole. The
schools should be organized in such a way that the pupils and teachers come in close interaction
with one another. Miss Parkhurst has used the term ‘interaction of group life’. The students live
and work together with the same teachers, in the same shared common workshops or laboratories.
The principle of setting goals: The child is enabled to survey the whole field, to see the goal at
which they are aiming at, and thus a stimulus is provided to them and they take up the work bit
by bit, thereby increasing and ensuring better learning.
Merits of the Dalton Plan

The Dalton plan is a continuation of the Montessori method and is especially applicable to
secondary school work. The plan has the following advantages:
Individual teaching: Each pupil is permitted to work at their own rate. The plan approaches
teaching and instruction from the point of view of the pupil. The weak are not hurried along at
the speed of other pupils and the bright are not kept back because of their slow class-fellows. The
teacher pays individual attention to each child.
Continuity of work: There is no waste of time as is usually the case in the conduct of various
examinations for promotion or other purposes. There are no failures, and the promotions from
one grade to another may take place at any time.
The absence from school of a child due to ill health or otherwise does not stand in their way
of working smoothly. They can start the work just from where they had stopped and can make up
their deficiency in their own speed. There is no danger that some courses have been covered in
their absence and they have missed them.
Development of qualities like self-effort and self-confidence: There is absolutely no
spoonfeeding in the Dalton Plan. Ready-made knowledge is not given to the child. They have to
depend upon themselves in the solution of their problems. They have to consult suitable books
and other reference materials. They themselves have to experience difficulties and to solve their
problems. All this makes them self-confident.
Purposeful learning: Student’s ‘contract’ or ‘assignment’ is like a project in front of them, and for
its completion they try their best and devote their heart and soul into the work. Thus, learning
becomes motivated and purposeful.
Development of desirable study habits: The students have to make use of a variety of materials
to complete their assignments. They have to study reference books, source books, etc., and all this
helps to develop desirable study habits in them.
Development of sense of responsibility: The ‘contract’ is a constant reminder to the children to
complete their work in time.
They feel that they must fulfil their responsibility that they have accepted in entering upon the
‘assignment’.
Solving the problem of home task: There is no need for giving home task. The child in order to
complete their assignment may of their own accord devote extra time in the subject-laboratory.
Thus compulsory homework loses its terror in the school.

Solving the problem of discipline: No restrictions are put on children. They work in an
atmosphere of freedom. They accept their own responsibility and work for its fulfilment. There is
no rigid timetable, and the students are not forced to attend to studies according to a set timetable.
Problem of truancy, mischief, and delinquency are rare.
Simplification of the problem of evaluation: The graph system is a valuable check on the
progress of each child. The records show the progress of each pupil and enable them to know
where they stand. In a way, records can help to give incentives to them. There is no necessity of
frequent tests and awarding of marks.
Better pupil–teacher relationships: The plan enables the teacher to know the child individually.
Every child is free to seek the teacher’s guidance at any point when a difficulty occurs. The teacher
is essentially a guide and a helper.
Limitations and Difficulties of Dalton Plan

The limitations and difficulties of this plan are given below:
Not suitable for the average child and a shirker: The clever and the bright students can
derive a lot of benefits from this scheme. It is not possible for the average child to learn new
principles without a formal lesson. The shirkers also find opportunities to develop the attitude of
‘postponement’.
Development of individualistic tendencies: As a child has their own assignment to do, they
may not like to help their other friends if they are required to do so on the plea that they are
absorbed in their own work. Pinkevitch observers, ‘We cannot but express the fear that it will be
instrumental in developing individualistic tendencies in children’.
A purely intellectual plan: The plan fails to provide for liberal group activities. There is little
scope for social service activities. Dr. Cox states, ‘The Dalton Plan is highly inadequate for social
education’.
Unsuitable for lessons that require inspirational treatment: There are certain subjects which
require collective lessons for appreciation purposes. Physical training, music, and drill in
languages need group teaching. Therefore, the plan is unsuitable for these subjects.
Lack of suitable teachers For the successful working of the plan, competent, liberal, and
progressive teachers are required. The plan puts heavy demands upon the teachers who are
expected to prepare good assignment and be able to guide and help the pupils if and when such
guidance or help is needed. Teachers must be in a position to inspire students to work hard
independently. It is very difficult to get such teachers.
Lack of well-equipped libraries: Most of the libraries of our school are not adequately equipped
and are without any trained librarians. But under the Dalton Plan, we require a wide variety of
suitable textbooks, source books, and other relevant materials so that the children may prepare
their assignments.
Unsuitable for junior classes: The plan is more suitable for children above nine years of age.
Very costly: The plan is very expensive. It requires many more teachers and well-equipped
libraries and other equipment.
No provision for individual differences: It is very difficult to change the attitude of the teachers
who are accustomed to old methods of class teaching. They do not like sweeping changes.
Moreover, they do not like to give freedom to pupil.

A review of the limitations and difficulties of the Dalton Plan shows that it is not possible to
introduce this plan in its entirety in our schools. However, there is much that can be introduced
in ordinary teaching. We should try to evolve some system in which class teaching may be done
in the morning and individual teaching in the afternoon. More individual attention should
be given to the students. They should be encouraged to read extra books and a record of that
should be kept. Some sort of day-to-day assessment should be made of the work done by each
child, and the results should be communicated to them so that they may be motivated to work
hard.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the project method. Give your suggestions for
effective use of the project method.
2. Explain the merits and limitations of the use of the Dalton Plan in Indian context.
3. State the role of the teacher in the Dalton Plan.
4. Can we combine class teaching method with the Dalton Plan? Give arguments in support
of your answer.
y Questioning in Social Studies Teaching

‘Good questions’, writes F. Theodore Struck, ‘by their very nature, are educative, and they have
a very prominent place in all kinds of learning’. Questioning plays an indispensable part in
‘learning’, ‘teaching’, and ‘testing’. If used in the right way, at the proper time, questions lead to
new realms of understanding; they serve as a means of organizing knowledge, or correlating the
results of educative experiences; of tying together units of learning; and of integrating personality.
One who questions faultlessly teaches effectively is not without meaning. Salmon holds that a bad
questioner is a bad teacher; they may be a good lecturer.
In the words of Ryburn, ‘It is no exaggeration to say that the success of a teacher in any
particular lesson, and in teaching in general, depends upon his ability to question well’. According
to Raymont, ‘The acquisition of a good style of questioning may be laid down definitely as one of
the essential ambitions of a young teacher’. The art of questioning is the most potent weapon in
the educational armoury of the teacher. It has been well said:
I keep six honest serving men,
They taught me all I know,
Their names are what and why and when,
And how and where and who.
Purpose of Questions
Purpose of questions are following:
• n To test the previous knowledge of the students.
• n To enable them to recall something.
• n To enable them to recognize something.
• n To enable them to think over something.

• n To enable them to reason about something.

• n To elicit something from students.
• n To stimulate interest and effort on the part of students.
• n To keep the children mentally alert.
• n To promote initiative and originality.
• n To stimulate the curiosity of the students.
• n To ascertain whether they are following the lesson or not.
• n To link new knowledge with old.
• n To revise the lesson and thus fix the facts in the minds of the students.
• n To secure the co-operation of the students.
• n To diagnose the weak points of the students.
• n To formulate the general rules.
CLASSIFICATION OF QUESTIONS
Formal questions Natural questions
Teaching questions Testing or developing

questions
Preliminary Recapitulatory
questions questions
Formal Questions
Formal questions are those where the questioner already knows the information which they ask
for. Classroom questions may be put under this category.
Natural Questions
In natural questions, the questioner does not know the information about which they ask and
make a query.
Teacher’s questions are formal and those of the students are natural.
Preliminary Questions and Introductory Questions

These questions are generally asked at the beginning of the lesson. The purposes are:
(1) To test the previous knowledge of the students.
(2) To link the new knowledge with the already learnt knowledge.
(3) To motivate the child and arouse their curiosity.
These questions enable the teacher to test the readiness of the students’ mind. Questioning at
this stage enables the teacher to follow the maxim ‘From the known to the unknown’.
The questions should be relevant to the topic. Their number should be very small, say three
or four.

Recapitulatory Questions
Such questions are generally put at the end of a lesson or at the end of each section of the lesson.
Such questions serve two purposes:
• n To enable the teacher to know if the children have picked up the ideas they wanted them
to learn.
• n To serve the purpose of revision and to give students a good opportunity for practice.
Developing Questions
These questions are said to be the backbone of the lesson. They are used:
(1) to develop a particular line of thought.
(2) to lead the pupils to discover facts for themselves.
(3) to formulate new generalizations in an inductive way.
(4) to focus attention on important points.
(5) to develop knowledge step by step.
(6) to enable the students to use their powers of observation, of comparison, and of con-
centration.
(7) to break the narrative in order to ensure that the class is following.
(8) to make the inattentive students attentive ones.
A great skill is required on the part of the teacher to ask developing questions. The teacher
has to lead the students to think and discover facts for themselves. While narrating a story, the
teacher should not ask questions.
Types of Questions
Types of questions are following:
• n Comparison or contrast. Example: What is the difference between wealth and capital?
• n Decision for or against. Example: Do you consider it correct to call Chandragupta
Maurya as the first Emperor of India?
• n Application in new situations. Example: Suggest measures to remove illiteracy in your
village or town.
• n Classification. Example: Are the following free goods or economic goods—air, sunshine,
machinery, gold, food?
• n Relationship between cause and effect. Example: What is the relation between population
and economic prosperity?
• n Example or illustration. Example: Describe cases when prices rise with the decrease in
the supply of some commodities.
• n Statement of aim. Example: Why is the author interested in the study of problem children?
• n Criticism. Example: Do you think Ashok was justified in following the policy of ‘non-
violence’?
• n Inference. Example: From the data given, which place do you consider to be more hotter?
• n Discussion. Example: Discuss the most important proposals for bringing down the
prices.
• n Definition. Example: Define elasticity of demand.
• n Recall. Example: What do you consider the three most important inventions of the last
century?

• n Summary. Example: What were the causes of the downfall of Mughal Empire?
• n Observation. Example: Observe this experiment.
• n Formulation of new questions. Example: What questions did occur to our mind?
The Technique of Questioning

The teacher should bear in mind the following points in this connection:
• n The question should be asked first and then the student asked to answer it. The main
advantage in asking the question first is to set the whole class thinking to find out the
answer. On the other hand, if a particular student is asked to stand or sit, as the case
may be, and then the question is put to them, other students may not show much
interest.
• n The questions should be evenly distributed. No child should be neglected. At the same
time, questions should not be given in a regular order round the class. Generally there is
a tendency to put either too many questions or too less to the students sitting at the back
or in the front. Such a tendency should be avoided.
• n Plenty of time should be allowed for pupils to think out the answer. However, the time
allowed will depend upon the nature of the question.
• n The inability of a child to answer a question should be accepted. The teacher should avoid
wasting a lot of time in trying to get an answer out of a child who cannot answer. A
skilful teacher recognizes when the case is hopeless and the child is unable to answer the
question in spite of their best efforts.
• n A volley of questions asked in a rapid-fire manner is upsetting.
Characteristics of Good Questioning

Characteristics of good questioning are following:
• n The language of the question should be simple.
• n Questions should be graded. They should neither be too easy nor too difficult. If the
problem is too easy, the child will not take any interest in it. If it is too difficult, they will
get discouraged.
• n Questions should not be ambiguous, lengthy, and vague. They should be clear, brief, and
to the point.
• n They should be suited to the ability of the children to whom the questions are put.
• n Questions should be relevant to the topic.
• n Questions once asked should not be repeated unless the teacher is sure the class has not
followed it.
• n The teacher should try to vary the form of their questions.
• n Two questions should not be asked in one.
• n Questions should be interesting as far as possible.
• n Questions should be framed in such a way that these do not encourage guesswork. The
teacher should not generally admit answers like ‘yes’, ‘no’, single words.
• n Questions should be of developing nature. Every question should grow out of the response
of the previous one. Questions should be in a sequence so that lesson may develop
properly.

• n Suggestive questions such as ‘Was Sardar Patel an Iron man?’ should be avoided as they
fail to encourage mental activity.
• n Leading questions such as ‘Do you know that Subhas Chandra Bose was the founder of the
Indian National Army?’ should not be asked.
• n Echo questions such as ‘Mahatma Buddha was born at Lumbini. Where was Mahatma
Buddha born?’ should not be asked.
• n Avoid phrases like ‘Can any one answer this question?’
• n Questions should be addressed to the entire class.
• n Questions should be asked in a pleasing manner.
• n Questions should be put in such a way that every student thinks that they will be asked to
answer whether they are good or weak.
• n Adequate time should be allowed to answer.
• n Questions should be addressed to the whole group and not to individuals.
The main characteristic of questioning is to lead the child to discover new facts for themselves,
by guiding them through easy process of thinking or of reasoning.
The teacher’s attitude to pupils’ questions
The following facts should be kept in mind:
• n The students should be encouraged to ask questions.
• n Relevancy in questions should be insisted upon.
• n The teacher must insist on courtesy. Several pupils should not be allowed to ask questions
at the same time. Everyone should be asked to listen to a question.
• n Pupils’ questions may be made the starting point for a small project.
• n The teacher should be frank enough to admit their inability to answer a question when
they do not know the answer. However, in due course, they should be able to answer that
question. For the sake of prestige in the eyes of the students, they should not give a wrong
answer.
Judicious Blending of Talking and Questioning

Questioning is not a one-way traffic. There is an ample scope for the teacher as well as for the
students to put questions. The teaching–learning process is effective only when the teacher as well
as the pupils are active and co-operative. The aim of the teaching–learning process is to enable the
child learn in such a way that it enables them to adjust themselves to the environment. As both
the teachers and the pupils are attempting to realize the same goal, it is evident that they must be
active and not passive.
Skill in Answering
The same care and skill in dealing with pupils’ answers, as in questioning them, should be shown.
After all, what for do we ask questions? Not for the sake of question! The aim is to motivate
children, to create interest, to test what the child knows and what they do not know, to encourage
and stimulate thinking and fact-finding, and to clear ambiguities and doubts. The quality and the
nature of the answer reveal whether the purposes of questioning are fulfilled or not. Rather it may
be that questioning is a means to teach something that is revealed through answers. Questions
and answers may be compared with the blades of scissors. Both are indispensable in the teaching–
learning process as both the blades are required to cut a piece of cloth.

Answers reveal the deficiency of the students as well as the teachers. They are the touchstone
to test the effectiveness of the teaching–learning process. If the answers are not satisfactory,
it clearly indicates that there is something wrong either with the teaching process or with the
learning process. Either the teacher has not taught in the proper manner or the students have not
understood the subject-matter. Therefore, answers provide an important tool to make necessary
changes in the teaching–learning process.
Classification of Answers
A close analysis of the various types of answers shows that these can be put under the following
six categories:
(1) Right and correct answers.
(2) Correct but incomplete.
(3) Partially correct and partially wrong.
(4) Wrong but intelligent.
(5) Ridiculously wrong.
(6) Mischievous.
How to Deal with Answers

No hard and fast rule can be laid down for dealing with various categories of answers. Ward and
Rascoe write in this connection, ‘There are no rules. It is unwise to pass over all wrong answers as
it is unwise to deal with all. Some are genuine, misconceptions, which the teacher must clear up
at that time or later on, others are imperfect and incomplete answers, genuine also, which must
be rounded off, others are haphazard or stupid and should be treated with contempt or else with
such brief but emphatic words of disapproval as the teacher may have a command’. The following
are the different ways of dealing with answers.
Appreciation. The teacher should always appreciate the answers of students as appreciation
will encourage the students to think further. Even if the answers are wrong but the teacher feels
that the child is making genuine attempts, due appreciation should be given.
Analysis of wrong answers. When the answers given by most of the students are wrong, the
teacher should try to analyze their causes. The causes may be as under:
(1) The defective or difficult language used by the teachers.
(2) The defective explanation of the subject-matter taught.
(3) The inattentiveness on the part of the students.
(4) The lapses of memory.
(5) The toughness and complexity of the subject-matter.
In such cases, the teacher should accept the responsibility and should not feel shy of teaching
the subject-matter again.
Encouragement of children. When the answers are partly right and partly wrong, the students
should be encouraged to analyze themselves the nature of their mistake. The teacher may ask
further questions to analyze the nature of the mistake. When all the factors that are responsible
for wrong answer, or answers are not clear to all the students, they may be asked to build up the
real answers once again. It is unwise on the part of the teacher to be impatient and to make the
necessary completion or correction themselves.

Treatment of wrong answers. When a particular student gives a wrong answer, the teacher
should not pass on till they get the right answer without explaining why the first answer is wrong.
The child must be made to understand why their answer is wrong. They are not likely to gain
anything from the right answer if their doubts remain unexplained.
Answers carrying some other version, other than expected by the teacher. The teacher should
accept and appreciate correct and complete answer, although it may differ from the answers as
expected by the teacher. There are a few intelligent students in every class who believe in novelty
and do a lot of extra reading. The difference in approach should be explained by the teacher.
The form of the answers according to the nature of the lesson. Whether the answer should be
in bits or incomplete sentences depends upon the nature of the lesson. Complete sentences may
not be insisted upon in arithmetic, science, and in some cases in history or geography. But in a
language lesson where the aim is to develop the power of expression, the teacher should insist
upon complete sentences. No general rule can be laid down. It is up to the teacher to decide the
form of the answer. But it must be stressed that whatever be the form, answers should be in a clear,
simple, and concise language.
Answers based on right understanding. The teacher must make sure that the answers as given
by the students are really based on genuine mental activity. Parrot fashion words, though they
may have senses, are not based on any thought or understanding on the part of the child. The
teacher must go deeper and ensure that the child really knows what they say.
Answers given in unison. Answers given in unison should be discouraged. Such answers lack
educational value and, therefore, should be disallowed. Assertive students should be given their
due only. They should not be allowed to usurp the right of others who are slower or are perhaps
making a mistake. Students should not be allowed to interrupt others while they are answering
questions.
Observance of courtesy. The teacher should see that the ordinary courtesy is observed in
answering questions. The students should stand or sit and address in the proper way.
Encouragement to shy and submissive students. There are always some students who feel shy
and become nervous when questions are put to them. Though they know the answers quite all-
right, yet they remain silent. The teacher should, in all such cases, give more encouragement and
appreciation.
Repetition of good answers. Good answers of the students should be referred to the class,
got repeated, preferably by another pupil. The teacher should avoid repeating a correct answer
themselves, unless they want it to be specially stressed.
Discouragement to irrelevant answers. The students should be made to realize the cause of the
irrelevant answer and the teacher should study thoroughly that the irrelevant answer is not due to
some mischief on the part of the student.
Development of the summary of the lesson with the help of the answers. The answers given
by the students at the recapitulatory stage may be used to develop a summary of the lesson. All
the answers in brief may be written on the blackboard and the students should be encouraged to
develop an integrated summary with the help of these answers.
Correct, clear, and thoughtful answers result from clear thought-provoking questions. The
better means of evoking responses from the students are sympathy, patience, and encouragement
rather than impatience, harshness, or snubbing them. Right and correct answers imply that
the teacher is using right and correct methods of teaching and the students are learning in an
appropriate manner. It may, therefore, be concluded that the pupil’s answers to the questions

are equally important if not more than the questions of the teacher in the teaching–learning
process.
Questions properly planned, carefully worded, evenly distributed, scientifically and
psychologically asked, honestly answered, and intelligently followed up are very profitable and
in fact indispensable in the effective teaching–learning process. Colvin gave recognition to
questioning in these words, ‘The efficiency of instruction is measured in a large degree by the
nature of the questions that are asked and the care with which they are framed. No teacher of
elementary of secondary school subjects can succeed in his instruction if he has not a fair mastery
of the art of questioning’.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Describe the need and the purpose of questioning.
2. Explain the types of questioning.
3. Discuss the characteristics of good questioning.
y Summary
1. Method refers to the formal structure of the sequence of acts commonly denoted by
instruction.
2. Method is a means which a teacher follows to make learning interesting, easy, and effective.
3. Good teaching methods aim at inculcating the love for work.
4. There are various methods of teaching social studies, i.e. the assignment method, the
discussion method, the lecture method, the problem-solving method, the project method,
the source method, the inductive–deductive method, the analytic–synthetic method, the
Dalton Plan and questioning, etc.
5. Induction should always be followed by deduction and deduction should be established
through induction.
6. The analytic and synthetic methods are interdependent and complementary and hence
indispensable in teaching.
7. Discoveries made analytically and represented synthetically.
8. The project method is not and cannot be an educational panacea.
9. Project should be an essential feature of the educational programme.
10. The Dalton Plan is developed by Miss Helen Parkhurst.
11. Individual work, mutual co-operation, self-effort, and freedom are main principles of Dalton
Plan.
12. Questioning plays an indispensable part in learning, teaching, and testing.
13. The art of questioning is the most potent weapon in the educational armoury of the teacher.
14. The purpose of questions to test the previous knowledge of the students.
15. The main characteristic of questioning is to lead the child to discover new facts for themselves,
by guiding them through easy process of thinking or of reasoning.
16. Questions are properly planned, carefully worded, evenly distributed, scientifically and
psychologically asked honestly answered in the effective teaching–learning process.

y References
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers,
pp. 508–523.
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
pp. 90–101.
Bhattacharye, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Acharya
Book Depot, pp. 141–144.
Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1990. Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools. Toronto,
New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, pp. 110–112.
Moffatt, M.P. 1985. Social Studies Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall Inc.
Bramwell, R.D. 1957. Integrated Courses in Social Studies, Publication No. 14, Ministry of
Education, Government of India.
Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in Mass Society. Pennsylvania: International Textbook
Company.
Hemming, James. 1985. The Teaching of Social Studies in Secondary School. New York, London:
Longmans Green and Company.
Jarolimek, John. 1968. Social Studies in High School Education. New York: Macmillan Publishing
Company.

Social Studies Laboratory and
Utilization of Community Resources 7
Social studies is a dynamic and interesting subject. It requires resourceful teacher to make
its teaching effective. But how-so-ever resourceful and imaginative the teacher may be,
they cannot stimulate learning without a proper climate and atmosphere. The classroom
provides physical setting and a learning environment for successful teaching of social
studies.
y Social Studies Laboratory

Modern technology has placed different types of instructional aids at their disposal. Apart from
text books, there are different types of reference books, pamphlets, magazines, maps, globes,
charts, projects, etc. which must be used to make the teaching-learning process effective.
A social studies room or what a few subject specialists would like to term as social studies
laboratory, fully equipped with modern aids, will provide a pleasant social and cooperative
environment where the teachers and the learners feel homely. It is a must for every school. It has
been observed by M.P. Moffatt, ‘Class-room furnishings and their arrangements have directed
bearing upon the quality of results obtained. Satisfactory outcomes can be expected from any
class-room situation only when adequate facilities are provided. It should be furnished to provide
a suitable environment for acquiring and practicing social studies skills.’
It has been recognized that like sciences, social studies also require a specially equipped
room or laboratory. This alone can facilitate the use of modern methods and techniques such
as Play-way Method, Problem Method, Project Method, and the Socialized Recitation Method.
Special setting and equipment are needed for utilizing these methods.
A social studies laboratory should serve the purpose of a classroom, a library, a workshop,
an amateur theatre, a students’ club, a stock room, all combined into one. It may grow steadily
and constantly as regards equipment. It should become the exciting ‘hub’ of activity for the
students and teachers of social studies. It should be so planned and arranged that it provides
an inviting and stimulating environment. It should be a place of ‘doing’ rather than of ‘talking’.
Social studies library is an integral part of social studies programme and it helps in making it as
living and vital discipline. Social studies library is the treasure vault of the store house of ideas.
In fact, it is the flowing stream of living thoughts. Library of social studies provides suitable
opportunities to the student to use facts in a creative and productive way to arrive at their own
independent conclusions and enable them to grow in enriched knowledge, abilities, skills, and
interests.

Following are some of the considerations which necessitate the provision of a special
laboratory for social studies.
• n Providing ‘home of their own’ to social studies teachers for developing enthusiasm for the
subject and faith in themselves and the students.
• n Creating and maintaining an effective teaching-learning environment.
• n Providing a quick and ready functional environment by making available work room for
the students.
• n Introducing variety in teaching methods and facilitating the use of teaching aids readily
and conveniently.
• n Saving energy and time in carrying round equipment such as charts, maps, models,
pictures, and projectors.
y Equipment of the Social Studies Laboratory

The laboratory should be well-equipped with adequate teaching equipment so that functional
environment is created and the teacher and the students are motivated to work. It should have
the following equipment:
• n Audio-visual material which includes epidiascope, filmstrip, magic lantern, projector,
tape-recorder, etc.
• n Bulletin boards.
• n Charts and graphs.
• n Flags.
• n Globes.
• n Maps and Atlases.
• n Models.
• n Meteorological instruments—barometer.
• n Rain gauge, thermometers of different kinds. Wind vane.
• n Rock-stones and minerals.
• n Slide album containing slides showing architecture, dancing, music, painting, sculpture, etc.
• n Stamps of different kinds.
• n Survey instruments—box compass, compass, chain and arrows, divider, foot rule or scale,
flags, plane table, prismatic compass, protector, spirit level, survey field book, tape, tripod.
• n Time charts and graphs.
• n Text books.
• n Reference books.
• n Unit booklets dealing with a variety of topics, ranging from family life and neighbourhood
to people of other lands and places.
• n Literary materials which include tales of adventure, easy biographies, historical series,
travel stories, animal stories, historical novels, etc.
• n Periodicals and magazines dealing with current events and various aspects of life showing
art, literature, music, dance, etc.
• n Pamphlets published by various agencies including Central and State Governments and
specialized agencies and also by international agencies such as the UNO and UNESCO, etc.
• n Newspapers.

Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of Community Resources  111
y Social Studies Museum

The museum as an instrument of popular education is a twentieth century phenomenon.
Until very recently, museums were private clubs for the intellectually privileged and exhibits
were arranged in such a way as to be almost meaningless to the scientifically or artistically
uninformed visitor. All this has changed, at least in theory, in the modern concept of the
museums as a cultural centre of the community greater efforts are being made to make
museums informative.
The Secondary Education Commission, on the role of school museums observed, ‘Museums
play a great part in the education of school children as ‘they bring home to them much more
vividly than any prosaic lectures, the discoveries of the past and the various developments that
have taken place in many fields of science and technology.’ Again the Commission observes, ‘We
believe it is necessary from the educational point of view to establish such museums in important
centres at least wherein both ancient and modern collections will be exhibited and in some cases
even demonstrations given of the actual process of development of various scientific discoveries.
Nothing can impress students in the formative age so much as the actual visualising of these
experiments in a graphic manner.’
These museums are made up of materials used in classroom teaching which, in many cases,
are collected, classified and exhibited by students, with or without the help of a teacher. The
museum activities may be an extracurricular function of the class or the school or they may be
incorporated into a scientific-experimental method of teaching. The objectives of this type of
museum are:
• n to form within the school or the classroom an embryonic community dedicated to the
usual occupations reflected in the school life of adults.
• n to permit visual instruction and experimentation with actual museum specimens.
• n to stimulate enthusiasm for study and research among both teachers and students.
• n to stimulate interest, co-operation and participation in the cultural activities and scientific
research conducted by the larger museums.
• n to instruct students in proper scientific methods of laboratory research and museum
conservation and exhibition techniques.
• n to form, in the absence of larger museums in the community, a nucleus from which
the classroom museum can grow beyond the limits of the school to serve ultimately the
community and the region as a whole.
Exhibit programmes, interpretation, visual communication. What are some of the ways
in which museums as cultural and educational centres of the community can communicate
successfully with their transitory visitors of heterogeneous composition? Based on various
audience-testing experiments, the following media can be used to heighten the effectiveness of
visual communication.
Dramatic labels. Usually they are far too short in the art museums or far too long. They
actually frighten away rather than entice the average museum visitor. Experiments suggest
that large letters placed at the focal point of the case or exhibit area will successfully headline
the exhibit and catch the visitor’s attention. Like a newspaper headline, the main label tends
to direct the eye to smaller, less conspicuous letters that outline the most important points of
the exhibit.

Dramatic lighting. Light is a means of visual communication as well as an attention getter.

Coloured lights that change, fade or highlight an exhibit can be used with great dramatic effect.
Light can also be used to tell a story and to convey a sense of passing time. Light is particularly
important in art museums.
Dramatic utilization. Again experiments suggest that museum visitors should be given a
chance to touch exhibits as well as to see them. Of course, much depends on the nature and
expendability of the object involved but certain types of material—objects of wood, stone and
metal, and special ‘touch me’ samples of animal skins and fabrics—can be used with great success
to satisfy the visitor’s urge to touch while permitting a minimum of danger.
Dramatic sound effects. Sound, like light, can be used to heighten the dramatic effect of visual
communication. For example, an Amazon rain forest exhibition can be made vastly more effective
by adding the sound of tropical rain, the croaking of frogs, the chattering of monkeys, and the
beat of drums. An exhibit of mediaeval art can be made more meaningful if it is accompanied by
music of the same period.
Effective use of space. Special concepts are also important in planning visitor traffic patterns
within the exhibit areas.
Evaluate Yourself
Why do we need a social studies laboratory? How can we equip it?
How can a social studies room serve as a laboratory?
Write notes on:
(a) Social studies museum
(b) Social studies library.
Utilizing Community Resources

Learning takes place inside as well as outside the school. In fact, most of the subject matter of
social studies can be learnt outside the school. The community environment forms its subject
matter. Therefore, social studies can be best taught through community resource. Community
has various resources such as historical monuments, geographical places, and economic centres
from where the students can learn a lot.
The functioning of the Government can be best understood in local, state, or national
terms. Students can also observe and participate in various social processes and problems.
Thus the community environment provides good opportunity for students to understand
how things practically happen. The community provides concrete data on historical,
geographical, political, cultural, and industrial facts and relationships which can be observed
in action.
Thus, the community is a kind of library for the school. The community should open its
door to the students to gain first hand knowledge and experiences. There should be a dynamic
relationship between the school and the community. They must work together in a co-operative
way to help the students to understand the subject matter of social studies. The school should go
to the community resources and the community resources should help the school. As the slogan
goes, let us study the community, use the community, serve the community, and involve the
community in the educational process.

Importance of Community Resources

The community resources can enrich the study of social studies in many ways. A child must
become a real part of the living community and interact with it. One of the aims of teaching social
studies is to develop a useful and effective citizen. Thus the child can become such a member of
society with desirable attitudes and interests by actually participating in the social process.
There are many experiences which the community can offer the students to experiment with.
The students can go to the community under the guidance of the teacher and gather the required
information and data. They can visit the Nagar-Palika, newspaper office, telephone exchange,
post and telegraph office, various industries, libraries, sports complex, air-port, transport centre,
etc. to study how these actually function.
The classroom study is reinforced by actually seeing, observing, and sometimes taking part
in the various aspects of community life. The students can understand various social problems
better by actually observing and participating in them: protection of public property, pollution
problem, conservation of resources, functioning of Government, etc. In this way, students also
develop a sense of belongingness to the community, and the community will also be benefitted
because of developing this sense in students. Thus the teachers and students of social studies can
take full advantage of various resources offered by the community.
Valuable Community Resources

Community offers a wide variety of resources which vary from community to community. It
is not possible to make a list of all the resources. Some communities have rich resources and
some have limited resources. However, a resourceful teacher can make the best use of these
resources. Some of the community resources are very near the school, such as shopping centres,
business offices, railway station, post office, and market. The resourceful teacher can always make
a catalogue of the available resources in the community. The catalogue of the resources can be
done as follows.
Historical Resources
These resources include places of historical interest such as forts, monuments, temples, churches,
museums, caves, inscription, old and new buildings, etc.
Geographical Resources
These resources include places of geographical interest such as hills, valley, canals, centres of
transport and communication, railway station, airport, dock, mills, factories, dams, mountains,
rocks, tea garden, etc.
Cultural Resources
These resources include places of cultural interest such as theatre, museum, libraries, art galleries,
cinema halls, zoos, railway stations, boy scouts, girl guides, universities, TV centres, Bal Bhawan,
and old buildings.
Economic Resources
These resources include places of economic interest such as communication centres, dairies,
mills, factories, banks, agricultural farms, and water-works.

Scientific Resources
These resources include places of scientific interest such as scientific libraries, hydro-electric-
power stations, transmission centres, workshops, factories, engineering establishments, national
scientific laboratories, and telephone and telegraph offices.
Government Establishment
These include Nagar Palika, hospitals, police stations, fire stations, Sansad Bhawan, Akashwani,
secretariat, military establishment, welfare institutions, panchayats, etc.
Form of Social Process

These include the customs, traditions, manners, beliefs, conventions, and ceremonies taking
place in the society.
Method of Learning through Community Resources

There are two ways in which the teacher can make use of the community resources. One way is to
take the school to the community and the other is bringing the community to the school.
Taking the School to the Community

Actual observation is the best way of learning. The students must be taken to the community
resources outside to give them first hand information and knowledge about the activities, and
working of the community. Exhibition and field trips should be regularly organized purposefully
and effectively. In addition to these camping programmes and surveys should also be organized.
These must be related to the topics in hand, and definite planning and proper organization should
be there.
The details of the topics should be first discussed with the students. These programmes
should be executed under careful supervision. After the execution, the follow-up programme
should be carried out, by asking the students to read books and supplement their knowledge.
They may be asked to write reports also or prepare notebooks or hold discussion.
Field trips can be organized to secure information, awake interest, change attitudes, and
develop appreciation among the students. Field trips can be simple or complex. Simple field trips
can be organized on foot or bicycle, whereas complex field trips will require elaborate transport
arrangements and careful planning, like trips to places of historical, geographical, and cultural
interests, away from the local community. Short field trips and visits can be organized to market,
post and telegraph office, railway station, libraries, newspaper offices, etc.
Field trips arouse curiosity and stimulate imagination of students by developing their
perception. Classroom instruction is integrated and linked with the actual life of the community.
Bookish learning is made concrete. The students also learn the art of living with others. Group life
adds richness to their personality make-up. Their mental and emotional aspects are developed.
They learn the customs, traditions, and manners of society.
It is essential that for the success of field trips, the teacher must be experienced and
resourceful to get maximum advantage out of these activities. It should be properly planned,
organized, executed, and followed-up. During the follow-up, the shortcomings must be noted
and diagnosed, so that these are not recorded for further use.

Community Survey
Students of senior classes can conduct community surveys to gain educational experiences. These
should be conducted systematically. The data should be collected accurately. The students can
study the past history, economic conditions, social institutions, customs, traditions, ceremonies,
etc. The problems of community can also be studied through survey. After the collection of
data, it should be tabulated and analyzed for developing understanding of community structure
processes, etc.
Such surveys will develop the insight of students. Such constructive participation gives the
training to the students in studying social problems and developing democratic citizenship. They
develop sense of co-operation and tolerance by living and interacting with the community. Any
aspect and problem of the community can be studied through surveys. The scope and depth
of each survey will depend upon the time available. The actual survey should be preceded by
discussion, and questions about the objectives of the survey. The method of collecting information
will also become clear. The interest of the students will also be aroused.
Special Camping Programme

Special camping programmes can also be organized in the natural environment for the students.
This will provide an opportunity to learn, work, and play in natural environment. The students
will make use of natural resources for their learning. It will develop a closer relationship between
man and natural resources. Such programmes will encourage direct learning experiences. It will
involve learning by doing, hearing, seeing, and feeling.
Such camp will form a small community. Various problems faced by that community such
as preparation of food, sanitation, sewerage, housing, and health habit will come into play.
Democratic life will prove useful by inculcating democratic citizenship in the students. The
duration of camps will depend upon the age of the students and the time available.
Community Service Project

Students can also take part in community service projects like NSS and NCC programmes.
Students can involve themselves with the local community, and help them in solving some of
their problems. Such projects can be organized to develop habit of cleanliness, planting of trees,
literacy programme, water facilities, beautification, repairing of roads and streets, etc.; relief work
can also be done by the students during natural calamities and emergencies such as fire.
These programmes help in an all-round development of the students. Students like activity
and such programmes afford enough opportunity for interaction with the community. Proper
record of community service projects should be kept.
Bringing the School to the Community

The community can be brought to the school in many ways. The school can invite resource
persons to deliver lectures and talks to students. Such resource persons in the community can be
doctors, engineers, bankers, merchants, surpanches, artists, municipal commissioners, editors,
etc. They can explain the importance of their own field to the community, and services rendered
by them. Important persons from other big cities and states can also be invited to develop better
understanding and gain better knowledge. The community life can be shown to the students
through films also. Various activities of the community can be shown through this medium.

Parents Teacher Association

The schools must have a Parents Teacher Association (PTA) and regular meetings of the same
may be held. The constructive involvement of parents is very useful. The PTA can make the
school a real community centre. In this way, the parents will know about the programmes of the
school and can suggest improvements. They will also come to know about the progress of their
wards. On the other hand, the school can also put forward their point of view to the parents. The
parents can relate their life experiences to the students and inspire them to realize the values of
life. The parents will be in a better position to appreciate the work of the teacher. In this way, such
associations can serve a useful communication between the school and community.
Celebration of Fairs, Festivals, and Social Service Activities

Social studies can be effectively taught by celebrating various kinds of fairs, festivals, and national
days. In this way, the students will know the importance of these events, and learning process will
become interesting, real, and dynamic. Birthdays of great men should be celebrated. Religious
festival of the religions can also be organized. It will develop a spirit of tolerance among students.
Cultural and seasonal festivals should also be organized in the schools. National days such
as Republic Day, U.N. Day, and Human Rights Day should also be organized. Children’s Day will
help in the development of their concept. Talks and discussion on national and international
problem should be arranged. Various social service activities in the school can be organized by
the students themselves.
Advantages of Community Resources

The importance of utilizing community resources for the study of social studies can hardly be
overemphasized. The School is a social agency. It must socialize the students. It must help them
in understanding the community resources and the social process that take place in society.
The process of socialization can best take place through participation in community activities.
Community resources can develop their insight into the community life, and prepare the students
for future life.
Geographical and historical aspects become meaningful. The information given in the books
becomes concrete and functional. These develop a realistic understanding of the social processes.
Students are stimulated to read, write, speak, discuss, and observe. All these processes help in the
mental, social, and emotional development.
The role of the teacher is important for the utilization of the community resources. The
teacher can develop among students a spirit of co-operation, adjustment, tolerance, and respect
for work, which will make the students useful citizens. In community life, there are also some
evils. A wise teacher will highlight the undesirability of these evils. He should bring students to
the home why these evils are not desirable in the society.
A good teacher will make use of community life to develop pride in its past achievements,
and faith in future possibilities. Therefore, the teacher must have a thorough knowledge and
understanding of the community resources. He can make use of all these while teaching social
studies. The teacher must develop right kind of attitude towards community. He must have
patience, initiative, and resourcefulness to bring the school and community together. A well-
planned programme of co-operation between the school and community will definitely enrich
the learning of social studies.

Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the use of community resources in the teaching of social studies.
2. What do you understand by bringing community into school?
3. What are the difficulties in enlisting PTA co-operation?
4. List any two community resources and explain their need and importance
y Summary
1. Modern technology has placed different types of instructional aids at his disposal.
2. Social studies room or what a few subject specialists would like to term as social studies
laboratory that provide a pleasant social and co-operative environment.
3. Social studies laboratory serves the purpose of classroom.
4. Bulletin boards, charts, flags, globes, maps, models, rain gauge, slide, textbooks, and reference
book are the essential equipment of the social studies laboratory.
5. Social studies museum as an instrument of popular education in a twentieth century. Museum
play a great part in the education of school children.
6. Dramatic labels, lighting, utilization, sound effect, and use of space are used to heighten the
effectiveness of visual communication.
7. The communities resources can enrich the study of social studies in many ways, and the role
of the teacher is important for the utilization of the community resources.
y References
Nesiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the Schools. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege Oxford University,
pp. 112–114.
Kochhar, S.K. 1990. The Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Ltd., p. 88.
Moffat, M.P. 1985. Social Studies Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall Inc., p. 142.
Pathak, R.P. 2010. Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributor, Ansari
Road, Daryaganj.
Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Acharya
Book, Depot.
Bramwell, R.D. 1957. Integrated Courses in Social Studies. Government of India, Publication of
No. 14, Ministry of Education.
Height, G. 1951. The Art of Teaching. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers.


Social Studies Teacher
8
As the teacher is to guide the pupils by their example as well as by their precept, they must
possess certain refined qualities. The teacher is expected to be somewhat an ideal person. They
should possess high qualities in order to impart high values of life among the pupils. They can
serve the pupil, the nation, and the human race if they inherently possess the competencies of
the high order.
The teacher of social studies deals with attitudes, ideals, and appreciations to a large extent than
that of a teacher in other branches of study. The subject of social studies compared to any other
subjects demands more the well-prepared conscientious men and women of sound knowledge and
training, whose personalities rank high among other men and women. The study of mathematics,
the appreciation of a poem, the knowledge of the natural world, what so important as they may
be, cannot be compared with the attributes of the teacher of social studies who deals with the
teaching of pupils to live together in a democracy and elevating the concept of democracy by
developing thoughtful, appreciative, and an intelligent electorate.
The teaching of social studies has suffered very much from poor teaching, especially at the
elementary level. There is a general opinion that anyone could teach social studies. All that was
necessary was a textbook and the ability to read it. The teacher’s task was merely restricted to
see that the pupils knew the facts presented in the textbook. This attitude towards the teaching
of social studies still exists. A social studies class is frequently assigned to a physical education
teacher, a drawing teacher, or a music teacher in order that they may complete the schedule.
When one considers the aims and objectives of education and the role that the social studies is
destined to play in accomplishing these aims, one wonders why the teaching of social studies has
been neglected and dealt with very indifferently in many of our schools.
The social studies is to assist pupils to understand this complex world in which we live, in
order that this learning may better adapt themselves to it and prepare themselves for an intelligent
and constructive citizenship, we must provide well-trained teachers of social studies at all levels
of education.
y Characteristics of a Social Studies Teacher

Characteristics of a social studies teacher may be categorized as:
• n scholarship
• n professional training

• n personality
• n teaching skills
• n human relations
Scholarship
This includes:
• n acquaintance with the problems of the present-day life.
• n background of a liberal education.
• n reader of magazines and newspapers.
• n reader of books on the subject taught.
• n sound knowledge of the subject being taught.
Professional Training
This incorporates:
• n desire for improvement.
• n professional attitude.
• n reader of professional books.
• n reader of educational magazines.
• n sound professional training.
Personality
It has three aspects:
1. physical aspects.
2. passive virtues.
3. executive abilities.
Physical Aspects These include:

• n personal appearance including dress, carriage, social expression, mannerism, and personal
cleanliness.
• n etiquette including good manners, observance of social forms, courtesy, and refinement.
• n voice, rich, and mellow.
• n good language command including pronunciation, enunciation, and grammar.
• n health.
Passive Virtues These include:

• n enthusiasm
• n fairness
• n friendliness
• n optimism
• n patience
• n self-control
• n sincerity

Social Studies Teacher  121
• n sympathy
• n tact
• n understanding
Executive Abilities These include:

• n adaptability
• n directive ability
• n industry
• n initiative
• n organizing ability
• n resourcefulness
• n self-confidence
• n self-reliance
Teaching Skills
The Core Training Programme Package (CTPP) of the NCERT (1979) aiming at enabling the
teachers to acquire mastery of manipulative skills for making their teaching effective, includes
the following skills:
• n skills of class management.
• n skills of communication (teacher’s acts).
• n skills of interaction (teacher–pupil acts).
• n skills of the use of teaching aids.
• n skills of attitude and behaviour.
Skills of Class Room Management

These include as mentioned below:
Control and modification of facial expression: The teacher should enter the class as a balanced
person. It is necessary to emphasize the need for neatness and simplicity in their dress and
appearance. Gaudy dress and shabby appearances have to be avoided. The teacher must maintain
their calm and confidence in the face of gesticulation and mimicking of the group.
Greetings and taking up proper positions in the class: The teacher is expected to offer the greetings
while entering the class and then take the central place facing the class. They are required to keep
moving to the central place when students are offering greetings orally or by standing up in their
seats and then face the class and respond to the greetings.
Movements (locomotion in the classroom): Appropriateness of movements lies in providing a balanced
supervision to the class and in being available at the right time to the student who needs help.
Use of appropriate gestures in various situations and various stages: The expressions of gestures of
approval, appreciation, and disapproval also have a great bearing on learning. The tendency of
offering undue smile or encouragement or displeasure would create an undue impact. Praise like
gold and silver owes its utility to scarcity.
Skills of Communication (Teacher’s Acts)

This comprises five skills, namely, (1) narration, (2) recitation, (3) dramatization, (4) explanation,
and (5) demonstration. These skills are teacher dominated.

Narration It involves the art of articulated speech making, which comprises the following:
• n event-centred read out from a written text.
• n event-centred delivered with the help of notes.
• n event-centred spoken extempore.
• n theme-centred read out from a written text.
• n theme-centred delivered with the help of notes.
• n theme-centred spoken extempore.
Recitation This includes:

• n reciting poems with a written script.
• n reciting poems without a written script.
• n reciting songs and rhymes with a written script.
• n reciting songs and rhymes without a written script.
Dramatization Dramatization involves the creation of both visual and audio environment
which are appropriate to the event. Facial expressions appropriate to the occasion, the
modulation of voice, movements, pauses, the creation of appropriate environment, and
the proper sequence of presentation are very important. Dramatization may be done in the
following cases:
• n short events with the help of a written script.
• n short events without the help of a written script.
• n full story with the help of a written script.
• n full story without the help of a written script.
Explanation This involves:

• n paraphrasing and correlating a given passage.
• n elaborating and correlating a given passage.
Demonstration The following are the main steps:

• n preparing for a demonstration.
• n explaining and demonstrating each step while performing.
• n winding up a demonstration.
Skill of Interaction (Teacher–Pupil Acts) This includes:

Questions and Feedback
• n framing various types of questions.
• n framing questions pertaining to hierarchical objectives.
• n presenting and distributing questions to the whole class and feedback by verbal and
non-verbal cues.

Discussion This relates to:

• n selecting a suitable topic for discussion.
• n collecting and systematizing information.
• n initiating, sustaining, and guiding a discussion.
• n concluding a discussion.
Problem Solving This pertains to:

• n presenting a problem.
• n analyzing the problem.
• n initiating and sustaining the process of problem solving.
• n guiding problem-solving activities.
Encourage
Determine Goals/
Students to do
Pattern of Work
Work in Areas
that Interest Organise
them
Plan for
Activities and
Assignments Organise
Resources
Teacher Produce Student

as Assignment
Manager Guides and Work
Materials
Implement
Implement Work
Situation so that
Students
— Study
— Respond to
i. Directions
ii. Guidance
iii. Teaching
— Evaluate
their learning
Evaluate
Evaluate Student’s
Achievement
Role of Social Studies Teachers

Source: Role of the Social Studies Teacher (Davies 1978)

Skills in the Use of Teaching Aids This consists of:

• n selecting the teaching aids as per needs.
• n preparing charts, models, maps, and diagrams.
• n operating mechanical aids.
• n positioning while writing on and explaining from the blackboard.
• n Writing on the blackboard with reference to size, shape, boldness, and colour of letters.
• n Drawing, sketching, and preparing tables and graphs on the blackboard.
Analysis of the Subject-Matter,

Task or Problem
Studying
Characteristics of Learners
Defining Specific Communications

Problems
Identifying Objectives (Stating Enabling

Objectives, Terminal Objectives,
Performance Criteria)
Exploring Available Resources

(Environmental, Human,
Financial, Technological)
Anticipating Possible Limitations,
Constraints and Alternatives
Revision
Specifying Methods [Method

(strategy) and media selection]
Constructing Prototypes (Programme)

Pre Test, Post Test, Media
Production and Assembly
Validating Programme or Prototype

Try Out with a Representative Group
Analysing Results
Implementing Recycle
Skill of Communication (Teacher’s Acts)

Skill of Attitude and Behaviour This comprises:

• n patient listening
• n suggesting
• n guiding
• n counselling
Human Relations This comprises:

• n relations with students.
• n relations with colleagues.
• n relations with parents.
• n relations with school personnel.
• n relations with administrators, inspectors, supervisors, etc.
• n relations with the community.
• n relations with publishers, stationers, sports dealers, etc.
• n relations with professional organizations and workers.
y Specific Qualities of a Social Studies Teacher

Art of Development of Human Relations
Social studies has always been the ‘proper study of mankind’ meaning, the study of human
relationships. Such studies have a special broad emphasis because they are clustered problems of
social behaviour involving much diverse information drawn from many standard disciplines of
knowledge. A social studies teacher, therefore, has to be very much concerned with this aspect. I.B.
Berkson has observed, ‘As a specialist in human relations he is called upon more often than many of
his colleagues for public appearances and as a moderator of discussion of current and public interest.’
Objectivity
Another responsibility of the social studies teacher lies in the recognition and acceptance of
objectivity as a continual criterion. The teacher’s job is not to indoctrinate but to equip students
to make decisions based on their sound and objective knowledge. The teacher’s prime duty is not
to select for the students but to point out to them the choices which they may make themselves
and a method by which such choices may be made. The social studies teacher is perhaps always
the focus of the public eye more than others because of the very nature of the subject-matter, i.e.,
dealing as it does with people and with the contemporary scene. They must discuss the issues
that are considered controversial and, therefore, they must be doubly careful to pursue their
investigations and teaching with objectivity.
Deep Knowledge of the Subject

The primary task of any teacher is to get their students to learn by utilizing the knowledge or the
subject-matter. It is necessary to bear in mind that ‘lack of subject preparation stands near the top of
virtually every list of causes of teacher failure.’ This certainly does not mean that every schoolteacher
must be a scholar in their branches of study like the doctors of philosophy in colleges and universities.
The teacher, however, must know, broadly and deeply, their field of study.

Application of Field Study Theory

Teachers of social studies should early get into the habit of ‘field study’, i.e., an application of a field
theory to the process of learning, both for themselves and for their students. Each problem which
requires investigation and learning is a field of inquiry which can be examined from different
points of view and by drawing upon the knowledge of different disciplines.
A Well-informed Teacher
The contents of social studies change rapidly as the world changes. The children of today grow
up in a rapidly changing, moving, and accelerating universe. They need latest and up-to-date
knowledge. It is, therefore, very imperative that the teacher of social studies should be keenly
interested in the latest developments in economics, social, political, and cultural life not only
of their own country but also of the world at large. The teacher of social studies should also
acquire a broad understanding of the family, the community, the state, the nation, and the
world.
Widely Travelled Person

First-hand information of the important and significant cultural, geographical, and historical
buildings and places, art galleries, museums, dams, factories, and projects will greatly help the
social studies teachers. Travels will also enable them to develop the breadth of outlook and
the width of understanding which will assist them to interpret the culture of different parts
of the country and the world to their pupils and thus promote emotional, national, and
international understanding.
A Good Communicator
Only a good communicator can guide discussion, stimulate interest, and create in the classroom
an environment which is rich in terms of information and where pupils are challenged to work
and learn together. Further, the teacher should be a good storyteller and man of imagination.
Skilled in the Use of Technological Aids

A social studies teacher is expected to possess adequate skills in using various aids which
enables them to bring vividness and attractiveness in the lesson. Skill in map drawing is also
very essential.
An Interpreter of Various Experiences

M.L. Jacks, while discussing the functions of a social studies teacher, has observed, ‘Above all he
is an interpreter—interpreting not the experiences of his pupils but also the community to which
they belong, its past no less than its present, its purposes and efforts to achieve those purposes, its
cultural and technical achievements, its opportunities and possibilities, the invitation for service
which it extends and the rewards, glittering or dimly discovered which it offers.’ A social studies
teacher is in a very advantageous position to correlate the past and the present, the new and the
old, the alien and the native, and the near and the distant.

Evaluate Yourself
1. Describe the role of the social studies teacher in enabling the students to understand the
contemporary problems.
2. Explain the specific teaching skills needed for a social studies teacher.
3. Evaluate the qualities of a social studies teacher.
y Summary
1. A social studies teacher plays a very important role in teaching–learning process.
2. Scholarship, professional training, personality, health, knowledge, positive attitude, narration,
teaching skills, human relations, sympathy, good voice, and good language are the main
characteristics of a social studies teacher.
3. The art of development of human relations, objectivity, deep knowledge of the subject, widely
travelled person, good communicator, well experienced are the specific qualities of a social
studies teacher.
y References
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Jalandhar: Paul-Publishers,
pp. 298–300.
Tyagi, G. 1989. Teaching of Social Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, pp. 178–180.
Bais, N.S. and Sharma, M.M. 2006. Teaching of Social Science. Jaipur: Jain Prakashan Mandir,
p. 88.
Mehrotra, P.N. and Sidana, A.K. 2006. Social Studies Teaching. Jaipur: Shiksha Prakashan,
pp. 251–252.
Wesley, E.B. 1990. Teaching Social Studies in High Schools. Boston: DC, Health and Company.
White, E.M. 1923. The Teaching of Modern Civics. George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. New York.
Harolikar, L.B. 1985. The Teaching of Civics. Bombay: Padma Publications Ltd.
Pathak, R.P. 2010. Teaching of Social Studies, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributor,
Ansari Road Daryaganj.


Micro-teaching in Social Studies
9
Micro-teaching is a training procedure aiming at simplifying the complexities of the regular
teaching process. In a micro-teaching procedure, a trainee is engaged in a scaled-down
teaching situation. It is scaled down in terms of the class size, since the trainee is teaching a
small group of four to six pupils. The lesson is scaled down in the length of the class time and
is reduced to 5 or 10 minutes. It is also scaled down in terms of the teaching tasks.
Micro-teaching is one of the most important and new developments in the field of teaching
practice. The term ‘micro-teaching’ was first coined by Dwight Allen of the Stanford
University in 1963. It was used initially for the training of secondary school teachers. A
number of experiments have been conducted in many institutions in the USA, the UK, and
the Netherlands.
In India, a number of institutions have started work in the area of micro-teaching in the
recent years. D.D. Tiwari was the first to take up this work in 1967 at the Government Central
Pedagogical Institute in Allahabad. This was followed by G.B. Shah who tried an experiment in
micro-teaching with the help of a tape-recorder in the Faculty of Education and Psychology in
1970. Other eminent personalities who popularized this field are R.R. Chandasama, L.P. Singh,
N.S. Sarkar, N. Pangotra, Palsane and Ghanchi 1967, Srivastava 1970, Mehrotra 1974, B.K. Passi
and Sharma 1974. A major breakthrough was made at the Technical Teachers’ Training Institute,
Madras where a studio for educational television programme was set up in which micro-teaching
was introduced for the training of technical teachers.
A major contribution to the micro-teaching as a training device was made in 1974 at the
Technical Teachers’ Training Institute, Chandigarh with the help of videotape and close circuit
television (CCTV) under the guidance of Dr. N.L. Dosajh. Micro-teaching became a full-fledged
research project at Centre of Advanced Studies in Education (CASE), Baroda. Dr. B.K. Passi and
his colleagues completed a research project at Baroda. The NCERT undertook a major project in
collaboration with CASE at Baroda and conducted a number of workshops at various colleges of
education. The Technical Teachers’ Training Institute, Calcutta started micro-teaching with the
help of an audio tape.
Micro-teaching as an innovative technique of teacher training was experimented upon at
the pre-service level for three years, one year at the Centre of Advanced Study in Education, M.S.
University, Baroda and two years at D.A.V. College of Education, Abohar. In the light of research
experience gained at Baroda and Abohar, micro-teaching has been introduced as an integral part
of student teaching for all the college students since 1976.

Nature and Concept of Micro-teaching

y

Micro-teaching is a training concept that can be applied at the pre-service and in-service
stages in the professional development of teachers. Micro-teaching provides the teachers with a
practice setting for instruction in which the normal complexities of classroom are reduced and
in which the teacher receives a great deal of feedback on their performance. To minimize the
complexities of the normal teaching encounter, several dimensions are limited. The length of
the lesson is reduced. The scope of the lesson is narrowed, and the teacher teaches only a few
students.
Basically in micro-teaching, the trainee is engaged in a scaled-down teaching situation. It is
scaled down in terms of the class size, since the trainee is teaching a small group of 5–10 pupils.
The lesson is scaled down in length of the class time and is reduced to 5–10 minutes. It is also
scaled down in terms of the teaching tasks. These tasks may include the practising and mastering
of a specific teaching skill such as lecturing or teacher explanation, questioning or leading a
discussion; mastering of specific teaching strategies; flexibility, instructional decision making;
alternative uses of specific curricula, instructional materials, and classroom management. Only
one skill or task is taken up at a time. If possible micro-lesson is videotaped or tape recorded. The
student–teacher immediately views their lesson, evaluates it, amends their approach, reteaches
the lesson to another group of pupils, reviews, and evaluates. Some of the well-known definitions
of micro-teaching are given below.
Definition of Micro-teaching
Bush (1968)—They defines micro-teaching as a ‘teacher education technique which allows
teachers to apply well defined teaching skills to a carefully prepared lesson in a planned series
of 5–10 minutes, encounters with a small group of real class-room students, often with an
opportunity to observe the performance on video-tape.’
Dwight Allen and Kevin Ryan (1969)—They define micro-teaching as a ‘scaled down teaching
encounter in class-size and class-time.’ They elaborate it further by saying, ‘Micro-teaching is a
system of controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behavior
and to practice teaching under controlled conditions.’
Mc Aleese and Urwin (1970)—They observe that the term ‘micro-teaching is most often applied
to the use of closed-circuit television (CCT) to give immediate feedback of a trainee teacher’s
performance in a simplified environment.’ They further suggest that micro-teaching is best
viewed as a form of simulated teaching usually incorporating reduced complexity and some
feedback placed ‘along a simulation spectrum ranging from the purely abstract text-book of
teaching practice through the actual class-room teaching.’
Clift and Others (1976)—They stated, ‘micro-teaching is a teacher teaching procedure which
reduces the teaching situation to simpler and more controlled encounter achieved by limiting the
practice teaching to a specific skill and reducing teaching time and class size.’
Passi and Lalita—They stated, ‘Micro-teaching is a training technique which requires student
teachers to teach a single concept using specified teaching skill to a small number of pupils in a
short duration of time.’
L.C. Singh opines—‘Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in which a teacher
teaches a small unit to a group of five pupils for a small period of 5 to 20 minutes. Such a situation
offers a helpful setting for a experienced or inexperienced teacher to acquire new teaching skills
and to refine old ones.’

Micro-teaching in Social Studies  131
Jangira and Ajit Singh—‘Micro-teaching is a training setting for the student teacher where the
complexities of normal class-room teaching are reduced by:
• n Practising one component skill at a time.
• n Limiting the content to a single concept.
• n Reducing the size to 5–10 pupils.
• n Reducing the duration of the lesson to 5–10 minutes.
In the light of these definitions it can be concluded that the following are the features of
micro-teaching:
Real teaching: Micro-teaching is real teaching but focuses on developing the teaching skills.
Scaled-down teaching: Micro-teaching is a scaled-down teaching:
• n To reduce the class size to 5–10 pupils.
• n To reduce the duration of period to 5–10 minutes.
• n To reduce the size of the lesson.
• n To reduce the teaching skill.
Individualized device: Micro-teaching is a highly individualized training device.
Providing feedback: It provides the adequate feedback for trainee’s performance.
Device for preparing teachers: Micro-teaching is a device to prepare effective teachers.
Selection of one skill: It provides the opportunity to select one skill at a time and practise it
through scaled-down encounter and then take others in a similar way.
Main Propositions of Micro-teaching

y
In the words of Allen and Ryan, micro-teaching is an idea at the core of which lie five essential
propositions:
Real teaching: Micro-teaching is real teaching. Although the teaching situation is a constructed
one in the sense that teacher and the students work together in a practice situation, nevertheless,
bonafide teaching does take place.
Reducing complexities: Micro-teaching lessens the complexities of normal classroom teaching.
The class size, the scope of content, and the time are all reduced.
Focus on training: Micro-teaching focuses on training for the accomplishment of specific tasks.
These tasks may be the practice of techniques of teaching, the mastery of certain curricular
materials, or the demonstration of teaching methods.
Increased control of practice: Micro-teaching allows for the increased control of practice. In
the practice setting of micro-teaching, the rituals of time, students, methods of feedback and
supervision, and many other factors can be manipulated. As a result, a high degree of control can
be built into the training programme.
Expanding knowledge of results: Micro-teaching greatly expands the normal knowledge of
results or the feedback dimensions in teaching. Immediately after teaching a brief micro-lesson,
the trainee engages in a critique of their performance. To give them a maximum insight into their
performance, several sources of feedback are at their disposal. With the guidance of a supervisor
or a colleague, they analyze the aspects of their own performance in the light of their goals. The
trainee and the supervisor examine the student response forms that are designed to elicit students’
reactions to specific aspects of their teaching. When the supervisor has a video tape available,

they can use video tape playbacks in assisting the teacher how they can perform and how they
can improve their teaching. All their feedback can be immediately translated into practice when
the trainee reteaches shortly after the critique conference.
Difference Between Micro-teaching and Traditional Teaching

Difference between micro-teaching and traditional teaching are as under below:
Simple versus complex teaching: Micro-teaching is simple and non-threatening. Traditional
teaching is relatively complex and threatening.
Specification of objectives: In micro-teaching, the objectives are specified in behavioural terms.
In traditional teaching, the objectives are not specified in behavioural terms.
Providing feedback: In micro-teaching, immediate feedback is provided; in traditional teaching,
feedback is not provided.
Size of class: In micro-teaching, a class is divided into small groups of 5–10 pupil–teachers. In
traditional teaching, the class consists of 50–100 pupil–teachers.
Duration: In micro-teaching, the duration is 5–10 minutes; in traditional teaching, the duration
is 40–60 minutes.
Pattern of classroom interaction: In micro-teaching, the patterns of classroom interaction can
be objectively studied. In traditional teaching, the patterns of classroom interaction cannot be
objectively studied.
Practising skills: In micro-teaching, the pupil–teacher practises only one skill selected for practice.
In traditional teaching, the pupil–teacher practises the whole complex teaching behaviour.
Role of supervisor: In micro-teaching, the role of the supervisor is specific and well defined
to improve teaching. In traditional teaching, the role of the supervisor is vague and is not useful
to improve teaching.
Awareness: Micro-teaching develops more awareness among student teachers with regard to
professional training.
Score: Micro-teaching enunciates better scoring in the university examinations than their
counterparts in conventional teaching.
Objectives of Introducing Micro-teaching

y

Duggal and Sharma have listed the following objectives of introducing micro-teaching in colleges
of education:
To initiate the teacher trainees to analyze and develop teacher behaviour under laboratory
conditions.
To land novice teachers gradually in the real classroom after gaining enough confidence.
To impart intensive training in the component skills of teaching to teacher trainees at pre-
service level.
To involve the academic potential of teacher trainees for providing feedback to the peers.
To lessen the work load of teacher educators with the involvement of peer supervisors.
To lessen the burden upon practising schools while having the practice of teaching skills under
the simulation conditions in colleges of education.
To explore the human resources to the maximum and minimizing the cost with regard to time,
money, and materials.

Steps and Procedure in Micro-teaching

y
The micro-teaching procedure involves the following steps:
Defining the skill: A particular skill is defined to the trainees in terms of teaching behaviours to
provide the knowledge and awareness of teaching skills.
Demonstrating the skills: The specific skill is demonstrated by the experts or shown through a
video tape or a film to the teacher-trainees.
Planning the lesson: The student teacher plans a short (micro) lesson with the help of their
supervisor, in which they can practice a particular skill.
Teaching the lesson: The pupil–teacher teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils (i.e.,
5–10 pupils). The lesson is observed by the supervisor (teacher) or the peers or videotaped or
audiotaped or televised at close circuit television (CCTV).
Discussion: The teaching is followed by the discussion to provide the feedback (suggested
improvements) to the trainee. The video tape or the audio tape may be displayed to observe
their teaching activities by the trainee. The awareness of their teaching performance provides the
reinforcement to the pupil–teacher.
Replanning: In the light of the discussion and suggestions, the pupil–teacher replans the lesson
in order to practise the small skill effectively.
Reteaching: The revised lesson is retaught to another small group of students of same class for the
same duration to practise the same skill.
Rediscussion: The reteaching is again followed by the discussion, the suggestion, and encouraging
the teaching performance. Thus, the feedback is again provided to the trainee.
Repeating the cycle: The ‘teach–reteach’ cycle is repeated until the desired level of skill is achieved.
Thus, we find that in micro-teaching the pupil–teacher tries to complete the 5 R’s, namely,
Recording, Reviewing, Responding, Refining, and Redoing.
Micro-teaching cycle may be represented as:
Plan → Teach → Discuss and Feedback → Replan → Rediscuss and Refeedback.
The diagrammatic representation of micro-teaching cycle is given as under (Figure 9.1):
1. Plan
2. Teach 7. Refeedback
3. Discuss and 6. Rediscuss

Feedback
4. Replan 5. Reteach
Figure 9.1 Micro-teaching Cycle

Phases of Micro-teaching
y

Clift and Others have suggested three phases of micro-teaching procedure:
Knowledge acquisition phase: It involves two major activities:
• n to observe demonstration skills.
• n to analyze and discuss demonstration.
Skill acquisition phase: Three activities are performed under this phase in the following
sequence:
• n to prepare a micro-lesson.
• n to practise the teaching skill.
• n to evaluate the performance.
The evaluation activity provides the basis to replan the lesson for reteaching the same topic
to practise the same skill.
Transfer phase: After acquiring the skills in the second phase, the pupil–teachers are given an
opportunity to use the skill in normal classroom teaching situation (Figure 9.2 ).
Planning for 5 min. Teaching
Micro-teaching (1)
5 min. each, 3 Teachers
Video
Discussion with Video Play-Back,

3 Teachers
Evaluation
Sheet
Replanning
Micro-teaching (2) 5 min.
Self-confirmation
Figure 9.2 Micro-teaching in classroom situation

Principles of Micro-teaching
y
Principle of practice: ‘Practice makes a man perfect’ is a well–known saying. If any activity is
done repeatedly, it is learnt effectively. Micro-teaching provides sufficient practice in each small
task or skill thereby enhancing the pupil–teacher to gain mastery.
Principle of reinforcement: The psychologists have long been aware of the value of reinforcement
in the learning process. The reinforcement involves the teacher encouraging pupils’ responses
using verbal praise, accepting their responses or non-verbal ones such as a smile. In the micro-
teaching lessons, the reinforcement (encouragement) is given to the pupil–teacher from time to
time for their better performance with the feedback. Consequently, they attain satisfaction and
their performance is improved. The reinforcement and the feedback stimulate them for better
learning and better teaching.
Principle of experimentation: Micro-teaching resulted from an experiment. Experimentation
consists of the objective observation of actions performed under controlled conditions. The
controlled conditions are provided in micro-teaching. The pupil–teacher and the supervisor
experiment on the teaching skill under controlled conditions. The variables such as the time,
the content, the students, and the teaching techniques can easily be manipulated or controlled.
From its very beginning, micro-teaching has been used as a means of research. Many aspects
of micro-teaching that render it valuable as a training technique also render it valuable as a
research tool.
Principle of evaluation: A proper evaluation of pupil–teacher’s work can become an effective
motivation for better learning and better teaching. In micro-teaching, the supervisor supervises
and evaluates each micro-lesson. Self-evaluation is also possible. With the help of a video-tape
recorder, the teacher-trainee is in a position to evaluate their performance. On the basis of self-
evaluation, improvement can be made.
Principle of precise supervision: The supervision that accompanies micro-teaching is highly
specific and precise. The supervisor pays full attention to one point at a time. Both the supervisor
and the teacher are clear about the aim of the micro-lesson ahead of time. The supervisor possesses
an ‘observation schedule’ which they fill up while supervising. They make an assessment on a
rating scale. Rating is a method in which we systematize the expression or opinion concerning a
particular trait.
Principle of continuity: Micro-teaching implies continuity. The teacher learns and relearns the
skill of teaching continuously.
Planning → Teaching → Discussing and Feedback → Replanning → Reteaching → Rediscussing →
Refeedback till mastery is attained is its unique feature.
Teaching Skills and Micro-teaching

y
Micro-teaching is used for developing certain teaching skills. A teaching skill is defined as a set of
teacher behaviours which are especially effective in bringing about desired changes in the pupil–
teachers. There are various skills which can be developed among the pupil–teachers:
Allen and Ryans (1969)—They have suggested fourteen teaching skills: (1) stimulus variation,
(2) set induction, (3) closure, (4) silence and non-verbal cues, (5) reinforcement of student
participation, (6) fluency in asking questions, (7) probing questions, (8) higher order questions,

(9) divergent questions, (10) recognizing attending behaviour, (11) illustrating and using
examples, (12) lecturing, (13) planned repetition, and (xiv) completeness of communication.
B.K. Passi (1976)—He has stated thirteen skills which can be developed through micro-teaching:
(1) writing instructional objectives, (2) introducing a lesson, (3) fluency in questioning, (4) probing
questions, (5) explaining, (6) illustrating with examples, (7) stimulus variation, (8) silence and
non-verbal cues (such as smile, facial expression, etc.), (9) reinforcement (or encouraging the
pupils to participate), (10) increasing pupil participation, (11) using blackboard, (12) achieving
closure, and (13) recognizing attending behaviour.
Some of the teaching skills which can be described with the help of micro-teaching as given
by L.C. Singh are as follows:
Skill of Stimulus Variation

This skill is related to classroom attention. It is based on the principle that changes in the stimuli
in one’s perception captures their attention. This skill involves the deliberate changing of various
attention producing behaviours by the teacher in order to keep pupils attentive at a high level.
Such behaviours include teacher movements, gestures, change in speech patterns, focussing,
changing interaction, styles, shifting sensory channels, pausing, and such others.
Set induction: The term ‘set’ refers to the establishment of cognitive rapport between the pupils
and the teachers to obtain immediate involvement in the lesson. Experience indicated a direct
relationship between the effectiveness in inducing the set and effectiveness in the total lesson. If
the teacher succeeds in creating a positive set, the likelihood of pupil involvement in the lesson
will be enhanced.
Closure: This skill is complementary to ‘set induction’. Closure is attained when the major
purposes, principles, and constructs of a lesson or a portion of the lesson are judged to have been
learnt and the pupils are able to relate new knowledge with the previous knowledge. It is more
than a quick summary of the portions covered. In addition to bringing a cognitive link between
the previous knowledge and the new knowledge, the pupils feel a sense of achievement. If the
planned lesson is not completed, the teacher can use closure by drawing attention to the major
points accomplished upto that point.
Teacher’s silence and non-verbal cues: The use of silence and non-verbal cues is a powerful
tool in the classroom. During silence deliberately introduced by the teacher, they use some
non-verbal cues such as gestures, body movements, etc., in order to encourage the pupil in
participation.
Reinforcement pupil participation: Reinforcing the desired pupil behaviour through the
use of positive reinforcing behaviours is an integral part of the learning process. This skill
involves the teacher encouraging pupil’s responses or any desirable behaviours using verbal
statements such as ‘good’, ‘continue’, etc., or non-verbal cues such as a smile, nodding the
head, etc.
Fluency in questioning: This is a skill in asking questions. By fluency is meant the use of as many
questions as possible in a given period of time. However, it should be noted that no question is
considered to be relevant unless it is followed by the effective student responses. The purpose
behind this skill is to increase the number of meaningful questions asked by the teacher in a given
period of time taking into consideration its effectiveness.

Probing questions: Probing requires that the teacher asks questions that require the pupils to go
beyond superficial ‘first answer’ questions. This can be done in five ways:
• n asking the pupil for more information and/or more meaning.
• n requiring the pupil to rationally justify their response.
• n refocussing the pupil’s or class’s attention on a related issue.
• n prompting the pupil or giving him hints.
• n redirecting the question to other pupils.
Recognizing and attention behaviour: The teachers can be trained to become more sensitive
to the classroom behaviour of the pupils. The successful teacher, through visual cues, quickly
recognizes the indications of interest or boredom, comprehension or bewilderment. The
facial expressions, the directions of the eyes, the tilt of the head, and the bodily posture, offer
commonly recurrent cues which make it possible for the skilled teacher to evaluate their
classroom performance according to the pupil’s reactions. They can then change their ‘pace’, vary
the activity, introduce the new instructional strategies as necessary, and improve the quality of
their teaching.
Skill of Illustrating and Use of Examples

The use of examples is essential for a good, sound, and clear teaching. The examples are necessary
to clarify, verify, or substantiate concepts. Both inductive and deductive uses of examples can be
used effectively by the teacher. The effective use of examples includes:
• n Starting with simple examples and progressing to more complex ones.
• n Starting with examples relevant to students’ experience and knowledge.
• n Relating the examples to the principles or ideas being taught.
• n Checking to see if the objectives of the lesson have been achieved by asking students to
give examples which illustrate the main point.
Skill of Explaining
In a classroom, an explanation is a set of interrelated statements made by the teacher related to a
phenomenon, an idea, etc., in order to bring about or increase the pupil’s understanding. In order
to become an effective explainer in the classroom, the teacher should practice more and more of
desirable behaviours such as using explaining links, using beginning and concluding statements,
and testing the pupil’s understanding behaviours such as making irrelevant statements, lacking
in continuity, using inappropriate vocabulary, lacking in fluency, and using vague words and
phrases as far as possible.
Skill of Increasing Pupil Participation

The skill of increasing the pupil participation involves integrating the four components, namely,
creating set, questioning, encouraging pupil participation, and pausing in such a way that pupil
participation is maximized. Pupil participation involves the pupil’s verbal response and initiation
only. The first three components of the skill involve both verbal and non-verbal behaviours and
the fourth involves only the non-verbal teacher behaviours.

Skill of Using the Blackboard

This skill involves:
• n Writing legibly on the blackboard using distinctly different letters which are large enough
to be read by all the pupils and with adequate space in between them.
• n Neatness in the blackboard work which can be achieved by retaining only the relevant
matter under focus and by seeing that there is no overwriting.
• n Appropriateness of written work on the blackboard, meaning, brevity, simplicity, and
continuity in the points being presented; underlining the important facts with coloured
chalks; developing the necessary and proportionate diagrams along with the lesson, etc.
Skill of Writing Instructional Objectives

This skill involves writing objectives that are (1) well stated; (2) adequate with respect to the
learning outcomes; (3) relevant to the content; and (4) adequate with respect to content outline.
Skill of Classroom Management

The management dimensions of teaching consists of a number of functions or activities that
the teachers perform as an integral part of the teaching job, i.e., creating conditions within the
classroom group as well as in the classroom environment which enables students to behave in
socially approved ways, and makes learning interesting, challenging, and appealing.
Skill of Using Audiovisual Aids

Audiovisual aids help to make learning more meaningful, interesting, and effective. At the same
time, they attract and hold the attention of the pupils, help to combat the tendency of being absent-
minded, provide proper motivation, add variety and break the monotony of ordinary instruction,
help in forming the right type of mental images, stimulate critical thinking, and increase the
power of retentively. These aids must be simple, brief, appropriate, interesting, and realistic. Their
success depends mostly on the appropriate use to which they are put and the moderation with
which they are employed. The teacher is the best judge to decide the proper use of such material,
which demands a great deal of planning on the part of the teacher. They are most effective when
they aim at supplementing classroom teaching. While selecting the instructional materials, the
teacher must consider the knowledge of the pupils, the subject matter to be taught, the situation
in which they are presented, the time at hand, and the ability to handle and use the aids.
Skill of Given Assignment

An assignment is a task or piece of work given by the teacher to an individual or to a class. It is always
a part of the daily lesson plan for the teacher. Assignments that are properly understood, skilfully
planned, intelligently and sympathetically assigned are indispensable and invaluable. The skill of
giving the assignment consists in motivating the pupils in order to awaken interest, defining the
objectives in clear and simple terms, setting proper time limits, and supervising the given assignment.
Skill of Pacing the Lesson

The pacing of a lesson means the variation in the speed of teaching. Pacing the lesson should
depend commonly upon the amount of difficulty experienced by the pupils in mastering the

lesson. Many problems in teaching can be easily solved if adequate attention is paid by the teacher
to allocate the time needed to every lesson. While pacing the lesson, the teacher should keep in
mind the following guidelines: the time at hand, the syllabus to be covered, the level of mental
ability of pupils, and the objectives of the lesson to be taught. The teacher can know the pace of
the lesson by recognizing the attending and non-attending behaviours of the pupils. Accordingly,
the pacing can be increased or decreased.
The use of higher order questions: The higher order questions are defined as questions which
cannot be answered from memory or simple sensory description. They require finding a rule or
a principle rather than defining one. The critical requirements for a ‘good’ classroom question
are that it prompts the student to use the ideas rather than just remember them. Although some
teachers intuitively ask questions of high quality, many teachers overemphasize those questions
that require only the simplest cognitive activity on the part of the students. Procedures have been
designed to sensitize beginning teachers to the effects of questioning on their students and which
provide practice in forming and using higher order questions.
Divergent questions: A divergent question requires higher order thinking, as the answers are
not easily predictable and more than one in number. It requires the respondent to organize the
elements into the new patterns, predict the hypotheses, or to infer from the situations. In the
classroom, such questions provoke pupils to higher order thinking so that from a long-term view
they can develop higher order skills such as those involved in problem solving.
Lecturing: Training in some of the successful techniques of lecturing based upon a communication
model is the focus for this skill. The delivery techniques, the use of audiovisual materials, the set
induction pacing, the closure, the redundancy and repetition, and other skills related to lecturing
are included.
Planned repetition: The purpose of this skill is to clarify and reinforce major ideas, key words,
principles, and concepts in a lecture or discussion. The use of planned repetition is a powerful
technique in focussing and highlighting important points, and describing them from a different
point of view. Improper use of this skill can cause confusion and poor learning among the students,
while proper use can direct their attention to points which the teacher wishes to emphasize.
Completeness of communication: Although the importance and need for other communication
is blatant, it is not often the guiding principle in actual communication. Sensitivity training on
the importance and the difficulty of being understood is the focus of this skill. Several classroom
games have been devised which dramatically demonstrate to teachers that which they consider to
be clear instructions are often not clear at all to the students. The sensitivity training in the skill
of communicating with others will produce the teachers who are more responsive to possible
mis-communication.
Modern Categories of Basic Skills in Teaching

Modern experts have given the following broad categories of basic skills in teaching:
Planning Skills
Planning skills include the skill of writing instructional objectives.
Motivational Skills
These skills include encouraging pupils, set induction, and establishing rapport.

Presentation Skills
The presentation and communication skills include introducing a lesson, explaining the lesson,
giving examples, lecturing, drilling, and using blackboard and other aids.
Questioning Skills
These skills include the fluency in asking questions, and probing questions.
Skills of Small Group Instruction

The skills of a small group instruction include programming or individualizing instruction,
guiding, and counselling.
Developing Pupils’ Thinking

These skills include developing thinking, reasoning, problem solving, creativity, and self-direction.
Evaluative Skills
The evaluative skills include skills of assessment, diagnosing of difficulties, and providing
remedial measures.
Managerial Skills
These skills include the skills of class management and maintaining discipline.
Role of the Teacher Supervisor in Micro-teaching

y

The micro-teaching supervisor is essentially a teacher. Their role is to increase and refine
performance to the skills that serve as the objectives. The responsibility of the supervisor is
twofold:
Developing ability to perform a skill: The supervisor must help the trainee to develop the ability
to perform a skill. With regard to this role, the supervisor discharges the following functions:
• n The supervisor helps the trainee in the discrimination of the skill and reinforces their
performance of it.
• n They help the trainee to understand the behaviours that constitute the skill and to become
sensitive to the cues that signal when the skill ought to be performed.
• n When the trainee performs the skill, or begins to approximate the performance of it, the
supervisor reinforces their behaviour.
• n In other words, the supervisor helps the trainee see what they should do, and tells them
when they have done it.
To understand the application of skill: The supervisor must help the trainee to understand
when the skill should be applied. This role of the supervisor relates to the application of skills.
Having a repertory of reinforcement skills does not ensure good classroom application. Good
performance depends on when and where the skills are used. The supervisor, then, must help the
trainee in making these professional decisions.
Working with trainees: In micro-teaching, each supervisor is assigned between 5 and 10 teacher
trainees at the start of the session, and they work closely with this group.

Visiting schools: The supervisor visits their trainees in the school and prepares a special schedule
of micro-teaching lessons in the practising schools. This involves special arrangements. The time
is only between 5 and 10 minutes. After the lesson, the pupils discuss with the supervisor.
Supervising the lesson: The supervisor supervises the lesson. They have to note the improvements
which are to be made by the pupil–teacher in the presentation of the lesson.
Evaluating the lesson: The supervisor has to evaluate the lesson and to give the suitable feedback.
Evaluative Instruments
y
The teaching skills being developed through micro-teaching lessons are to be evaluated or
observed by the peers or the supervisors. The rating schedule is used as a criterion measure:
The most popular evaluative instrument for assessing the effectiveness of micro-teaching is the
Stanford Teacher Competence Appraisal Guide (STCAG).
Allen and Ryan (1969) have given an evaluation sheet for assessing the skill of reinforcement.
It consists of four dimensions of the reinforcement skill:
Rewarding correct responses: The correct responses of the students are praised or rewarded by
saying ‘fine’, ‘good’, ‘excellent’, etc.
Using non-verbal cues: The teacher uses non-verbal cues (smile) to encourage their students.
Giving credit: The teacher gives credit to student’s answering a question which is partly correct.
Referring positive aspects: The teacher refers to the positive aspects of a student’s previous
responses.
These four dimensions are recorded by the observer in terms of frequency that the teacher
has used the category number of times. The categories are assessed on scales ranging from three
to seven points. The STCAG consists of a number of scales rating the broad aspects of a teacher’s
performance.
Aids and Apparatus in Micro-teaching

y
Aids and apparatus in micro-teaching are following:
Observation schedule (checklist): The observation schedule should be used. It may be used in
the form of a checklist or a questionnaire. It should include all items to be observed.
Cassette tape recorder: For recording the entire conversation in the classroom, a cassette tape
recorder may be used. It can be used for appraising one’s own self or by the supervisor.
Videotape recorder: The videotape recorder has both the advantages of sight and sound.
Close circuit television: Through close circuit television, the entire classroom programmes can
be seen in another room and shown to other group, when these programmes are taking place.
Thus with the help of close circuit television, all the staff members and pupil–teachers can watch
the lesson without disturbing the class.
A movie film: The entire programme can be recorded with the help of a movie film and can be
seen repeatedly.
One-way screen: One-way screen may be used.
Two monitors: Two monitors should be available for assistance.

Behaviour Modification Through Micro-teaching

y

Behaviour modification through micro-teaching are following:
Concentration on Specific behaviour: Allen and Eve define micro-teaching as ‘a system of controlled
practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behaviour and to practice teaching
under controlled conditions.’ Thus, micro-teaching leads to the modification of behaviour.
Careful planning: A micro-lesson is cautiously planned with the help of a supervisor. The whole
lesson is built around a single teaching skill so as maximize the use of behavioural components
in that skill during teaching. Thus, while planning in micro-teaching the teacher plans to modify
their behaviour.
Knowledge and awareness: In micro-teaching, a particular skill is defined to the trainees in terms
of teaching behaviours to provide the knowledge and awareness of teaching skills. Thus, micro-
teaching develops awareness towards specific behaviours and specific teaching skills. Micro-teaching
also develops the awareness among the student teachers with regard to professional training.
Classroom interaction: Micro-teaching modifies the behaviour of the teacher and increases
their classroom interaction because in micro-teaching classroom interaction can be studied
objectively.
Change in attitude: Micro-teaching brings a change in attitude towards the teaching profession.
This change in the attitude itself is a modification of behaviour and also leads to other modifications
of behaviour.
Development of teaching skills: Micro-teaching helps in the development of teaching skills
such as the skill of explaining, the skill of questioning, the skill of reinforcement, the skill of
stimulus variation, the skill of illustrating with examples, the skill of using the blackboard, the
skill of silence and non-verbal cues, the skill of increasing pupils’ participation, etc. These skills
are helpful in the modification of the behaviours of both the teachers and the students.
Feedback: In the feedback session in micro-teaching, feedback is given to the teacher. This
feedback modifies their behaviour.
Observation: In micro-teaching, the teachers change their behaviour by observing others. Thus,
micro-teaching leads to the modification of behaviour.
Introspection: While practising micro-teaching, the teachers are aware of their behaviour and
consciously introspect to modify their behaviour.
Retrospection: After practising micro-teaching, the teachers think what they have done, and how
they have behaved during teaching. They can replan and reteach and modifies their behaviour.
Repetition: The micro-teaching cycle is repeated till the expected level of mastery is achieved.
This repetition modifies behaviour.
Steps in behaviour modification: The steps involved in the behaviour modification suggested by
McDonald are implicit in micro-teaching. These steps are:
• n Stating the behaviour in operational terms.

• n Stating the criteria for measuring those behaviours that are fixed.
• n Measuring the entry behaviour of the trainee.
• n Stating the actual treatment of behaviour modification.
• n Stating post-treatment measures.

Advantages of Micro-teaching
y
Advantages of micro-teaching are following:
Modification of teacher behaviour: Micro-teaching is an effective feedback device for the
modification of teacher behaviour.
Knowledge of teaching skills: The knowledge and practice of teaching skills can be given by the
use of micro-teaching.
Developing teaching skills: The specific teaching skills are developed by micro-teaching
experiences, e.g., the reinforcement skill, the explaining skill, the skill of using black-board, the
skill for using audiovisual aids, the skill for class management, etc.
Developing teaching efficiency: Micro-teaching is useful for developing the teaching efficiency
in pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes.
Improving teaching practice: Micro-teaching is a training device for improving the teaching
practice and to prepare better and effective teachers.
Individualized training: The training of the teachers becomes individualized. Each trainee
makes progress in developing teaching skills at their own rate depending on their ability.
Regulating teaching practice: Micro-teaching permits increased control and regulates the
teaching practice.
Real teaching: Micro-teaching is real teaching. It can be done either in the real classroom
conditions or in the simulated conditions.
Reducing complexities: Micro-teaching, as we have stated earlier, reduces the complexities of
normal classroom teaching by scaled-down teaching. The class size, the scope of content, and the
time are all reduced.
Focus on teaching: It focuses attention on teaching behaviour to modify and improve in the
desired direction.
Analysing one’s own teaching performance: Micro-teaching is an economical device and the
use of videotape enables the trainee to analyze their own teaching performance.
Continuous reinforcement: The mechanism of feedback device can be combined with other
devices such as simulated social skill training and interaction device which provide continuous
reinforcement to the trainee’s performances.
Research tool: Micro-teaching is a useful research tool which can be used by their candidates to
study teaching even during their course of training.
Limitations of Micro-teaching
y
Limitations of micro-teaching are as under:
Costly: Micro-teaching is costly for Indian schools as an effective micro-teaching system requires
tape records, videotapes, and close circuit television.
Narrow scope: Micro-teaching provides the opportunities for developing only a few skills (say
20–25). But in reality, teaching requires more than these skills.
Disturbs existing timetable: Micro-teaching disturbs the existing timetable of practising schools
by calling groups for a few minutes (say 5–10).

Presentation in parts: In 5–10 minutes, a very small content is presented which separates or
breaks the lesson.
Difficulty in actual practice: In a class of 5–10 pupils, the pupil–teacher may incur any difficulty.
They may gain a lot of confidence. But in the class of 50 or more, they may fail to teach.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the concept and characteristics of micro-teaching.
2. Discuss the main propositions or assumptions of micro-teaching. How will you differentiate
between micro-teaching and traditional teaching?
3. Discuss the micro-teaching procedure
4. Explain the principles of micro-teaching.
5. ‘Micro-teaching is used for developing certain teaching skills.’ Discuss the teaching skills
which can be developed with the help of micro-teaching.
6. Discuss the advantages of micro-teaching. Point out the limitations of micro-teaching.
7. Explain the role of supervisor in micro-teaching.
8. ‘Micro-teaching is a scaled-down teaching encounter in class-size and class-time.’ Elaborate
the statement and discuss the uses of micro-teaching.
9. Define micro-teaching. What is the importance of micro-teaching for bringing
improvement in education?
Indian Model of Micro-teaching

y

The Indian model of micro-teaching was developed on the bases of researches of Passi (1976)
L.C. Singh (1976–1979), Jangira (1978), and Department of Teacher Education, the NCERT. The
model was developed by Passi, Shah, and others at the Centre of Advanced Study in Education
(CASE) at Baroda.
Salient Features of the Indian Model of Micro-teaching

Salient features of the Indian model of micro teaching are following:
Flexibility: The Indian model of micro-teaching is flexible to suit the varying levels of facilities of
space and materials available in the college of education.
Technology: The Indian model of micro-teaching is a model with low or no gadget technology.
It does not rely on costly gadgets such as audio tape recorder, a videotape, or a CCTV.
Modelling: Modelling, i.e., the model of presenting the skill is done through written material,
lectures, demonstrations, and discussions and not through films, video, or CCTV as in the case
of advanced technology models of micro-teaching followed in the USA, the UK, Australia, and
other developed countries. Therefore, in the Indian model of micro-teaching we use live models
(demonstrations) and symbolic modelling. Symbolic modelling involves the presentation of
models in the form of written material such as handbooks, guides, and modules. In this format
of modelling, it is possible to exercise a great deal of control in terms of timings, content, and
presentation.

Feedback: The term ‘feedback’ refers to providing information/performance with a view to

modifying it in the desired duration. There are a number of sources of feedback—mechanical
gadgets (videotape, audio tape, CCTV), college supervisor, peers and any combination of
sources of these feedback. The Indian model of micro-teaching is a model with low or no gadget
technology. The feedback is provided through systematic live observation by (1) the college
supervisor, (2) the peer, or (3) both. Tallies and ratings on the observation schedule are used
while giving the feedback and the interpretation about the performance of student–teacher in the
light of model lessons.
Micro-teaching laboratory: The micro-teaching laboratory can function with the minimum of
facilities according to the available space, material, and equipment. The feedback sessions can be
organized even in the corridors or in the open space, if sufficient accommodation is not available.
Peers (Student teachers): In the Indian model of micro-teaching, real pupils have been replaced
by peers (use of simulation). There is the use of the peers instead of the real pupils. Micro-sessions
are held with the peers. The student teachers act as the pupils. Micro-teaching is conducted in the
college itself. It has been demonstrated by researchers in India that stimulated micro-teaching is
as effective as teaching with real pupils.
Setting: The micro-teaching setting comprises variables such as the duration of micro-teaching
cycle, the number of pupils in a micro-class, and the type of supervisor. In the Indian model of
micro-teaching, the setting given on the next page is suggested:
(1) Duration: The duration of the micro-teaching cycle is as under:
Teach 6 Minutes
Feedback 6 Minutes
Replan 12 Minutes
Reteach 6 Minutes
Refeedback 6 Minutes
Total 36 Minutes
(2) Micro-class pupils: A micro-class consists of 5–6 pupils and peers comprise the
micro-class.
(3) Number of supervisor(s): It is one or two.
(4) Feedback: Both the college supervisor(s) and the peers are used for providing feed-
back to trainees.
Integration: The integration of teaching skills is the ability on the part of a pupil–teacher to
perceive with precision the teaching situation in its entirety, select and organize the teaching
skills in the desired sequence to form effective patterns for realizing the specified instructional
objectives, and use them with ease and facility. At least five teaching skills are to be selected and
explained at length from the following:
(1) Explaining, (2) probing questions, (3) stimulus variation, (4) reinforcement, (5) silence
and non-verbal cues, (6) illustrating with examples, (7) encouraging pupil–teacher’s participation,
(8) effective use of blackboard (9) set induction, and (10) closure.
One skill at a time is to be discussed before practice. These skills are to be practised and
developed through micro-teaching.

Minimum cost: The Indian model of micro-teaching can be implemented with minimum cost. It
requires no costly gadgets such as a videotape or a tape recorder.
It should be noted that the components of micro-teaching are (1) modelling, (2) feedback,
and (3) setting and integration.
Accommodating: The model is more accommodating in terms of space, material, and equipment.
For example, the feedback session can be organized in open space, when no other space is
available. The Indian model of micro-teaching has been successfully experimented and is being
implemented and put to use in many of the university departments and training institutions.
Standard Procedure of Micro-teaching in

Indian Model as given by L.C. Singh
L.C. Singh, Ex. Professor in Education NCERT recommended the following procedure (steps)
for introducing micro-teaching in secondary teacher education in India in his Micro-teaching
Series—7 ‘Micro-teaching: An Innovation in Teacher Education’.
Orientation: In order to orient teacher-educators and student–teachers about micro-teaching,
theoretical discussion on micro-teaching may be arranged. The merits and the demerits should
also be explained.
Discussion of teaching skills: The concept of teaching skill is clarified first. At least five teaching
skills should be selected and explained at length with the help of handbooks on specific teaching
skills developed by the CASE, Baroda. One skill at a time may be discussed before practice.
Selected student–teachers should be trained in observing the teaching skill.
Presentation of model lesson: The model lessons of the corresponding skills are then
demonstrated by the trained teacher-educator preferably in all the method subjects chosen by the
student–teachers. Such model lessons are given in a book on teaching skills namely ‘Becoming
Better Teacher: Micro-teaching Approach’ by B.K. Passi.
Preparation of micro-lesson plan: The student–teacher should preferably select one unit concept
for a micro-lesson.
Micro teaching setting: The following setting is suggested for the micro-teaching technique
under this standard procedure:
(a) Time:
Teach 6 mts.
Feedback 6 mts.
Replan 12 mts.
Reteach 6 mts.
Refeedback 6 mts.
(b) Number of students 10 mts.
(c) Supervisors(s) 1 or 2
(d) Feedback of the supervisor(s)
Simulated condition: The peers (student–teachers) should act as the pupils. Micro-teaching is
conducted in the college itself.

Practice of teaching-skills: At least five skills may be practised by a student–teacher. Any five
skills of the following may be selected:
(1) Probing questions, (2) stimulus variation, (3) reinforcement, (4) silence and non-verbal
cues, (5) illustrating with examples, (6) encouraging pupil’s participation, (7) explaining, (8) effective
use of blackboard, (9) set induction, and (10) closure.
Observation of teaching skills: The teaching skills being developed through micro-teaching are
to be observed by the peers/the college supervisor.
Feedback: Immediate feedback may be given to the student–teachers individually. The tallies
and the ratings on the observation schedule may be used while giving the feedback and the
interpretation about the performance of student–teacher in the light of model lessons.
Teaching time: Complete cycle of a micro-lesson for each of the five skills will be
Teach → feedback → replan → reteach → refeedback.
Normally, 35 minutes will be taken by a trainee to complete one cycle.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the Indian model of micro-teaching.
2. What is the standard procedure of the Indian model of micro-teaching?
Summary
y
1. Micro-teaching is a training procedure aiming at simplifying the complexities of the regular
teaching process.
2. In this procedure, the trainee is engaged in a scaled-down teaching situation.
3. The term ‘micro-teaching’ was first coined by Dwight Allen of the Stanford University in
1963.
4. This is a training concept that can be applied at the pre-service and in-service stages in the
professional development of teachers.
5. Micro-teaching cycle may be represented as Plan → Teach → Discuss and Feedback →
Replan → Rediscuss and Refeedback.
6. The knowledge acquisition, the skill acquisition, and the transfer phases are the main phases
of micro-teaching
7. The principles of micro-teaching are the principle of practice, the principle of reinforcement,
the principle of experimentation, the principle of evaluation, the principle of precise
supervision, and the principle of continuity.
8. There are various teaching skills, i.e., stimulus variation, questioning, explaining, illustrating
with examples, reinforcement, using blackboard, and classroom management, etc, which can
be developed through micro-teaching.
9. The modification of teacher behaviour, the knowledge teaching skills, the real teaching , and
the continuous reinforcement are main the advantages of micro-teaching.
10. Costly, narrow scope, disturbs the existing timetable, and difficulty in actual practice are the
main limitations of micro-teaching.

References
y

Wallia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers,
pp. 256–260.
Pathak, R.P. 2003. New Dimension of Educational Technology. New Delhi: Radha Publishers,
Ansari Road, Daryaganj, p. 82.
Tyagi, G. 1989. Teaching of Social Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak-Mandir, p. 48.
Das, R.C. 1993. Educational Technology A Basic Text. Delhi: Sterling Publication, pp. 67–69.
Additional Readings
y

Jangira, N.K. and Singh, A. 1980. Micro-teaching—A Step in Learning to Teach. New Delhi:
Handbook for Teacher Educators NCERT.
Hooda, R.C. and Jangira, N.K. 1987. Mastery Learning. Kurukshetra: Vishal Publishers University
Campus.
Forrester, J.F. 1948. Introducing Social Studies. Bombay: Orient Longmans Green and Company.
Company.
Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian-Schools. Baroda: Acharya
Book Depot.

Models of Teaching and
Team Teaching 10
Models of teaching suggest inter-relationships between teaching and learning at various
conditions. Usually these models are prototypes of the theories of learning. Models of teaching
are the buildings, whereas the theories of teaching are the construction plans.
A teaching model is a model that provides suitable guidelines to the teachers for creating
a proper interactive environment for teaching-learning.
y Definition of Models of Teaching

Teaching models have been defined in a number of ways. Some of the important definitions of a
teaching model are given here to have a wider perspective of this concept. It may also be observed
that teaching models in all subjects including social studies have the same characteristics.
Allen and Ryan (1969)—‘Modelling is an individual demonstrating particular pattern which the
trainee learns through imitation.’
Bandura (1969)—‘Modelling demonstrates that virtually all learning phenomena resulting from
direct experiences can occur on a vicarious basis through observation of other person’s behaviour
and its consequences for them.’
B.K Passi, L.C. Singh, and D.N. Sansanwal (1991)—‘A model of teaching consists of guidelines
for designing educational activities and environments. Model of teaching is a plan that can also
be utilised to shape courses of studies, to design instructional material and to guide instruction.’
Joyce and Weil (1972)—‘Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the
process of specifying and producing environmental situations which cause the student to interact
in such a way that specific change occurs in the behaviour.’
Joyce and Weil (1972)—‘Teaching model is a pattern or plan, which can be used to shape a
curriculum or course to select instructional materials and to guide a teacher’s actions.’
N. K. Jangira and Ajit Singh (1983)—‘A model of teaching is a set of interrelated components
arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realise a specific goal. It helps in designing
instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization
of the stipulated objectives.’
Weil and Joyce (1978)—‘A model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing educational
activities and environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that are intended to achieve
certain kinds of goals.’

Paul D. Eggen et al. (1979)—explain the meaning of a model as, ‘An engineer, in considering a
project, first identifies the type of structure to be built, e.g., a building, a bridge or a road. Having
done this, he selects an appropriate design or blueprint to follow in building that structure. The
specifications of the blueprint determine the actions of the builder takes and the kind of building
that will result. The particular type of blueprint or model chosen depends on the type of structure
to be built. In a similar manner, a teacher considering the choice of a teaching model first identifies
what is to be taught and then selects a model in accordance with that goal. The model chosen is
specifically designed to achieve a particular set of objectives and will determine in large part of
the actions of the teachers.’
Educators and psychologists have designed several types of teaching models which provide
suitable guidelines to the teachers for modifying the behaviour of the learners.
y Characteristics of a Model of Teaching

The characteristics of a good model are given below:
Specification of learning outcome: All models of teaching specify what the students should
perform after completing an instructional sequence.
Specification of environment: A teaching model specifies in definite terms the environmental
conditions under which a student’s response should be observed.
Specification of criterion of performance: A model of teaching specifies the criterion of
performance which is expected from the students
Specification of operations: A model of teaching specifies the mechanism that provides for the
reaction of students and interaction with the environment.
Scientific procedure: A model of teaching is based on a systematic procedure to modify the
behaviour of the learner. It is not a haphazard combination of facts.
y Functions of Models of Teaching

These help in guiding the teacher to select appropriate teaching techniques, strategies, and
methods for the effective utilization of the teaching situation, and the material for realizing the
objective.
• n They help in bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of the learners.
• n They help in finding out ways and means of creating favourable environmental situations
for carrying out the teaching process.
• n They help in achieving desirable teacher–pupil interaction during teaching.
• n They help in the construction of a curriculum or contents of a course.
• n They help in the proper selection of instructional material for teaching the prepared
course or the curriculum.
• n They help in designing appropriate educational activities.
• n They assist producers of materials to create interesting and effective materials and learning
sources.
• n They stimulate the development of new educational innovations.
• n They help in the formation of a theory of teaching.

Models of Teaching and Team Teaching  151
• n They help in establishing an empirical relationship between teaching and learning.

• n They help in developing social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities, and
behavioural aspects of the students.
y Effects of Teaching by Modelling

Bandura and Walters mention three kinds of effects in teaching by modelling. These are: (1) a
modelling effect, (2) an inhibitary and disinhibitary effect, and (3) an eliciting effect.
1. A modelling effect. A modelling effect can be seen when a teacher demonstrates to a student
how to hold a pen when drawing a map or a graph, etc., and thus shows a new behaviour. Here
a student learns new kinds of response pattern.
2. An inhibitary and disinhibitary effect. An inhibitary or disinhibitary effect takes place when a
teacher through modelling lets the student to know that it is not good to look at pictures of
nudes even in an art book.
3. An eliciting effect. The eliciting effect takes place when a teacher through modelling tries to
teach the students to raise from their seats when a lady enters the room and thus provides a
cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited.
y Development of a Model
Modelling Operations or Stages of Modelling
The three stages in the development of a model are:
1. analysis of a particular skill.
2. identification of the key elements in it.
3. exposition of the elements in such a way as to exemplify satisfactorily the skills under con-
sideration.
Fundamental Elements of Models of Teaching

y
The following are the fundamental elements of a teaching model. These are explained while
discussing the basic teaching model of Glaser.
• n focus
• n syntax
• n principles of reactions
• n social system
• n support system
y Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model

The basic teaching model was developed by Robert Glaser in 1962. It is termed as ‘basic’ because
it tries to explain the whole teaching process by dividing it into four basic components or parts,
namely, (1) instructional objectives, (2) entering behaviour, (3) instructional procedures, and
(4) performance assessment. All these four basic components of the teaching process interact and
influence each other as explained in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1 Components of Teaching Process in Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model
Instructional objectives: Instructional objectives indicate the stipulated goals that a student is
expected to attain after the completion of a part of instruction. These are usually based on Bloom’s
Taxonomy of objectives.
Entering behaviour: Entering behaviour implies the initial behaviour of the student before the
beginning of instruction. The assessment of the entering behaviour is an important aspect of the
instructional process.
Instructional procedures: Instructional procedures represent the teaching methods, strategies,
and student–teacher interaction patterns involved in teaching. Instructional procedures are
guided by the nature of the instructional objectives and the entering behaviour.
Performance assessment: Performance assessment involves the extent to which the stipulated
objectives have been fulfilled. It involves the use of suitable evaluation techniques such as tests,
observation, etc. It serves as a feedback device for each of the steps and elements of the teaching
process.
As matter of fact, all these four basic components of the teaching process interact and
influence each other. One sets the base for the other by providing a base or feedback for the
successful operation of the teaching act.
Description of Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model

y

Glaser’s model may be described in terms of the fundamental elements as follows:
Focus: It attempts to pinpoint the processes and major activities comprising the entire teaching–
learning process. It also brings into light the sequence to be followed in the instructional processes.
Syntax: The flow of activities in this model is sequential. First, the objectives to be followed are
fixed in accordance with Bloom’s Taxonomy. Then the potentiality of the learners in terms of their
entry behaviour is assessed. Thereafter in the light of the entry behaviour, instructional work is
carried out for the achievement of stipulated objectives. Performance assessment is the final phase.
Principles of reactions: The main principles of reaction are summarized below:
Principle of Interdependence: The student’s responses are to be understood and dealt with
in the light of the interaction and interdependence of the four stages, i.e., objectives, entry
behaviour, instructional process, and assessment.
Principle of Active Involvement: Its proper execution requires a great deal of activity on the
part of the teacher. At every stage, the teacher is expected to develop a proper understanding
of the potential and difficulties of his students for achieving the objectives.
Principle of Follow-up: In case the results are not in accordance with the set objectives, gaps
and deficiencies have to be found out and corrective measures need to be taken.

Social system: The success of this model depends upon the ability and competency of the teacher
in terms of various skills such as the formulation of objectives, the use of proper strategies, the
techniques of evaluation, etc.
Support system: The model for its success needs additional support in terms of (1) the availability
of adequate pre-service and in-service facilities to teachers to acquire the inevitable competencies
and skills for the use of the model, (2) the availability of desirable teaching–learning environment
and situations for the use of suitable teaching strategies, and (3) availability of appropriate
evaluation devices for the assessment of entry and terminal behaviour of the learners.
Applicability of the model: Being quite systematic and structured, this model is applicable to
almost all learning–teaching situations.
Glaser’s model indicates that teaching includes a wide range of decisions and practices and
much of which requires little or no personal contact between the teacher and the student. It
implies a greater emphasis on the competency of the teacher than on his personality.
Disciplinary Model of Teaching Social Sciences

y
The disciplinary model of teaching adopted by the teacher relates not only to control the class but
also to learning. The control should be from within rather than external. An understanding of
the appropriate model of discipline will go a long way to enable a teacher to manage classroom
activities effectively.
The following are some of the significant points to be borne in the mind by a teacher in this
regard.
• n Basic needs of the students should be properly gratified.
• n Teachers can exercise a positive influence on the functioning of classroom by being
courteous.
• n Teachers assume the role of a guide and not of a critic.
• n Attention is more likely when teaching-learning provides learners with opportunities to
apply their skills.
• n Boredom is less likely when teachers vary their teaching strategies.
• n A sense of rhythm should be there in all the activities carried out in the class. This is
possible if students are kept engaged in worthwhile activities.
Personality Model of Teaching Social Sciences

y
All teachers including the teachers of social sciences must keep in view the personality aspect.
In the words of Dr. E.A. Pires, ‘He (teacher) has to concern himself with the total development
of the child and not only with one or two aspects. He must befriend him and help him in his
emotional and social development. He must be a philosopher illumining the way of his intellectual
and spiritual progress. He must be his guide in his moral and aesthetic advancement. In fact,
he must be “all things” to all his pupils—a physician concerned about their physical health, a
mental hygienist leading them carefully to sound mental health, a philosopher guiding them
painstakingly in their research for truth, a moralist assisting and encouraging them to acquire
goodness, an artist helping them to find beauty. In fact, be must he a minister ministering to their
every need. Such a ministry calls for dedicated service.’

Various personality aspects of the teacher include (1) character, (2) open mindedness,
(3) impartial attitude, (4) due regard for the personality of the child, (5) consistency in giving
commands, (6) judicious use of praise and blame, (7) humorous nature, (8) emotional stability,
(9) good appearance, (10) right manners and postures, and (11) self-analysis.
y Team Teaching
The idea of team teaching is comparatively new in the field of education. It is one of the most
interesting and potentially significant recent developments in education. It is an organizational
structure to improve teaching–learning process in the classroom. It is an innovation in school
organization in which two or more teachers teach the different parts of a subject to a group of
students. The group is benefited by the expertise of different teachers.
Definition of Team Teaching

Carlo-Obson—‘An instructional situation where two or more teachers possessing complimentary
teaching skills cooperatively plan and implement the instruction for a single group of students
using flexible scheduling and grouping techniques to meet the particular instruction.’
David Warwick—‘A team teaching is a form of organisation, in which individual teachers decide
to pool resources, interest and expertise, in order to devise and implement scheme of work
suitable to the needs of their pupils and the facilities of their school.’
France Chase of the University of Chicago—‘Such an arrangement (team teaching) would allow
for maximum use of the available talent; provide guidance for young and experienced teachers.’
Goodlad—‘Team teaching implies a hierarchy of personnel as well as a differentiation of staff
functions based on differences in qualifications or personal interests. The hierarchy involves a
team leader, assistant teacher, teacher’s aide, internal teacher and clerk or some other assay of
sources.’
M.B. Naik—‘In a team teaching method, two or more teachers make a plan of the subjects
cooperatively, carry it out, and always evaluate its effect on the students periodically.’
Michael J. Apter—‘Team teaching involves bringing together a number of classes, whose teaching
is then the joint responsibility of the teachers of these classes who now constitute a team.’
T.T. Shaplin—‘Team teaching is a type of instructional organisation involving teaching personnel
and the students assigned to them, in which two or more teachers are given responsibilities,
working together, for all or a significant part of the instruction of some group of students.’
Characteristics of Team Teaching

From the above-mentioned definitions of team teaching, the following characteristics emerge:
• n It is an instructional arrangement.
• n It involves teaching to be conducted by two or more teachers.
• n It calls for team spirit in teaching.
• n Team spirit of teachers is bound to benefit the students to the maximum.
• n It is a sort of pooling of expertise and resources such as experience, interest, knowledge
and skills, etc., of teachers.
• n It is economical in the sense that it results in more work in less time.

Origin and Growth of Team Teaching

The USA is said to be the birthplace of team teaching. In 1955, it was initiated at the Harvard
University. The second milestone was at Lexington in 1957.
Francis Chase of the University of Chicago and J. Leyod Trump, Director of the Commission
on the Experimental Study, popularized the movement in the secondary schools in the USA.
In the 1970s, almost all the institutions in the USA used team teaching in one or the other way.
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the models of teaching.
2. Describe the characteristics and functions of models of teaching.
3. Explain the Glaser’s basic teaching model.
4. Evaluate the disciplinary model of teaching social sciences.
5. Critically comment on the personality model of teaching social sciences.
6. Define the characteristics of team teaching.
y Summary
1. Models of teaching suggest inter-relationships between various conditions of teaching–
learning.
2. Models of teaching have been defined in a number of ways.
3. The specification of learning outcome, the specification of environment, the specification
of operations, and the specification of scientific procedure are the main characteristics of
models of teaching.
4. Focus, syntax, the principles of reactions, social system, and support system are the
fundamental elements of a model of teaching.
5. Glaser model of teaching is known as the basic teaching model.
6. The basic needs of the students, the teacher’s role, the application of skills, etc., are the main
significant factors for the disciplinary model of teaching social sciences.
7. Character, open mindedness, impartial attitude, humorous nature, emotional stability, good
appearance, right manners, and self-analysis are the aspects of the personality models of
teaching social sciences.
8. Team teaching is comparatively new idea in the field of education.
9. The characteristics of team teaching are the instructional arrangement, the team spirit in
teaching, and its economical nature.
10. One origin of team teaching is developed at Harvard University in the USA in 1955.
y References
Dececco, J.P. 1970. The Psychology of Learning and Instruction. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India
Pvt. Ltd., p. 184.
Joyce, B. and Weil, M. 1985. Models of Teaching. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
pp. 214–216.
Pandey, K.P. 1983. Dynamics of Teaching Behaviour. Ghaziabad: Amitash Prakashan, p. 64.

Mattoo, B.K. 1996. New Teaching Technology for Elementary School Teachers. New Delhi: Neeta
Prakashan Ring Road, South Extn Part I, p. 70.
Bajpai, A.C. and Leedham, J.F. 1970. Aspects of Educational Technology. New York: Pitman
Publishing & Co.
Das, R.C. 1993. Educational Technology—A Basic Text. Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
Peter, L.J. 1965. Prescriptive Teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill Book & Co.
Pathak R.P. 2003. Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributers, Ansari
Road, Daryaganj.

Lesson Planning in Social Studies
11
The smallest unit of the proposed teaching material which the teacher wants to teach in one
unit of time is called a ‘lesson’. Before teaching this unit, the teacher prepares an outline of the
lesson. This outline is based on the principles of learning and is called ‘the lesson plan’. The
pupil–teacher is taught to prepare the lesson plan.
Bossing explains the meaning of lesson planning in these words, ‘Lesson planning is the title
given to a statement: of the achievements to be realized and the specific means by which these are
to be attained as a result of the activities engaged in day-by-day under the guidance of the teacher.’
This definition tends to focus the teacher’s attention upon the following:
• n Outcomes or results in terms of the pupil.
• n Definite processes and procedures with a recognition of activity as the basis of learning.
• n The pupil in the foreground and the teacher in the background as guide and director only
of the learning activity.
y Meaning and Concept of Lesson Planning

According to Bossing, ‘Lesson planning is essentially an experience in anticipatory teaching.
It is living through in advance, mentally and emotionally, the classroom experience as the
teacher visualizes it. The eager faces, the questions that will arise, the difficulties the pupils
will encounter, the way these difficulties are to be met all these the teacher will experience in
imagination. This is the first essential of good planning. It is here that the teacher can bring
into play the subtle power of well-developed imagination. The more vivid, the better, so long
as it is fully tinged with realism.’ The teacher must possess the following four qualities to plan
effectively:
• n A broad understanding of the subject matter, materials, and activities that will provide the
nucleus for the classroom experience.
• n An intimate knowledge of the environmental forces that has played upon the life of the
class collectively and individually.
• n A thorough comprehension of the psychology of the mental process with an
understanding of the realization of the laws of learning leading to the anticipated
classroom situation.
• n A teaching technique to meet the general and specific needs of a learning situation.

y Nature and Functions of Lesson Planning

Planning is essential not only in teaching but also in all spheres of human activity. Probably, there is
no type of work where the results of poor planning are as devastating as in teaching. R.L. Stevenson
said, ‘To every teacher I would say, “Always plan out your lesson before-hand but do not be slave to
it”.’ Bagley has put it thus, ‘However, able and experienced the teacher, he could do never without his
preliminary preparation.’ To be effective, every intelligent worker plans out their work. A surgeon
diagnoses the case, prepares their surgical instruments before they put the patient on the operation
table; a lawyer makes attempts to anticipate and prepare for every move in the court; an engineer
prepares their blue print before they actually start the construction work of a bridge or a building;
the house mistress plans the details of the daily meals; the sales manager gives careful attention to
every step in a proposed selling campaign. Similarly, teachers ought to plan and prepare their work.
A lesson plan indicates the aims to be realized by teaching a lesson, the methods to be
employed, and the activities to be undertaken in the class so that it is kept engaged for the
realization of the aim. The lesson plan is actually a plan of action. It includes:
• n Their working philosophy.
• n Their information and understanding of their pupils.
• n Their comprehension of the objectives of education.
• n Their knowledge of the material to be taught.
• n Their ability to use effective methods of education.
The lesson plan affects the teacher’s skill, intelligence, ability, and their personality. The
following are the chief functions of planning:
• n It delimits the field of work of the teacher as well as of the students and provides a definite
objective for each day’s work.
• n As the goal is determined, the teacher gets impetus to realize their goal.
• n It tends to prevent wandering from the subject and going off the way. It serves as a check
on the possible wastage of time and energy of the teachers and the students. It makes
teaching systematic, orderly, and economical.
• n It helps the teacher to organize and systematize the learning process. The activities in
the lesson are well knit, inter-connected, and associated. The continuity of the educative
process is ensured.
• n It helps in avoiding needless repetition.
• n It helps the teacher to overcome the feeling of nervousness and insecurity. It helps in
fostering their confidence to face the class.
• n It gives opportunities to the teacher to think out new ways and means of making the
lesson interesting and to introduce thought-provoking questions.
• n It ensures a definite assignment for the class and the availability of adequate materials for
the lesson.
y Definition of Lesson Planning

Lester B. Sands—‘A lesson plan is actually a plan of action. It, therefore, includes the working
philosophy of the teacher, her knowledge of philosophy, her information about and understanding
of her pupils, her comprehension of the objectives of education, her knowledge of the material to
be taught, and her ability to utilize effective method.’

Lesson Planning in Social Studies  159
Bossing—‘A lesson plan is an organised statement of general and specific goals together with
the specific means by which these goals are to be attained by learner under the guidance of the
teacher on a given day.’
Binning and Binning—‘Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives, selecting and
arranging subject-matter and determining the method or procedure.’
Carter V. Good—A lesson plan is ‘a teaching outline of the important points of lesson arranged
in order in which they are to be presented. It may include objectives, points to be made, questions
to be asked, references to materials, assignments etc.’
The following points highlight the concept of lesson planning:
Instructional procedure: A lesson plan is an instructional procedure prepared by the teacher.
Teaching approach: The lesson plan is designed on the basis of some approach of teaching.
Generally, Bloom’s approach is followed for lesson planning. It includes three steps: (1) teaching
objectives, (2) learning experiences, and (3) change in behaviour.
Plan of action: A lesson plan is actually a plan of action. It includes the working philosophy of
the teacher, their information about the understanding of the pupils, their comprehension of the
objectives of education, their knowledge of the material to be taught, and their ability to utilize
an effective method.
Statement of objectives and means: A lesson plan is an organized statement of general and
specific objectives together with the specific means by which these objectives are to be achieved
by the pupils under the guidance of teacher.
Selecting subject matter and method: Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives,
selecting and arranging subject matter, and deciding the method that needs to be followed.
Teaching outline: A lesson plan is a teaching outline of the important points of lesson arranged
in the order of presentation. It includes objectives, points to be made, aids to be used, questions
to be asked, blackboard summary, references to material, and assignments. It is the brief outline
of the main points of the lesson to be covered by the teacher in a specified period at school for the
realization of stipulated instructional objectives.
Indication of what and how: A lesson plan indicates clearly what has already been done, what
the pupils are supposed to do, how the pupils are to be engaged in various activities, and what
activities are to be pursued.
Statement of purposes, activities, and techniques: The lesson plan is a clear and precise statement
of the aims and purposes of the lesson and the various devices and techniques to be used by the
teacher. It should make a mention of the specific activities to be undertaken in the classroom.
Teacher’s mental visualization: The lesson plan, is in fact, a teacher’s mental visualization of
classroom experiences and activities put down in black and white.
Heart of teaching: An effective lesson planning is the heart of effective teaching.
y Principles of Lesson Planning

Principles of lesson planning are given below:
Principle of writing the lesson plan: A good lesson plan should preferably be written. It should
not remain at the oral or mental stage.

Principle of statement of objectives: Both the general and specific objectives should be clearly
stated.
Principle of selection of suitable subject matter: The contents of the lesson should be selected
according to the needs, the interests, the abilities, and the level of the pupils. While selecting the
subject matter, the aims of teaching and the time at disposal should also be kept in mind.
Principle of orderly presentation: The subject matter should be presented in an organized,
orderly, and effective manner. An effective presentation includes the following:
Principle of correlation: The subject matter should be correlated with what has been done before
and with what needs to be followed. Moreover, it should be correlated with various subjects,
crafts, and life situations. It will make the lesson interesting and more meaningful.
Principle of teaching techniques: The plan should indicate the teaching techniques to be used by
the teacher–how the lesson is to be presented, what method is to be followed, what questions are
to be asked, and what illustrations are to be used. It should clearly indicate the maps, the charts,
the models, the pictures, the films, and the other audiovisual aids which are to be used by the
teacher.
Principle of use of blackboard: The lesson plan should clearly indicate the blackboard work to
be done by the teacher. It should point out the diagrams or the sketches which are to be drawn
on the blackboard.
Principle of child’s activity and participation: The lesson plan should indicate child’s activity
and participation which is to be made in the classroom. The pupils should be encouraged to ask
questions, solve problems, and perform experiments.
Principle of flexibility: The lesson plan should be flexible. The teacher should be free to depart
from the lesson plan which they have already written.
Principle of evaluation exercises: The lesson plan should indicate the evaluation exercises. These
exercises may be in the form of recapitulatory questions and problems relating to the application
of knowledge.
Principle of assignment: The lesson plan should include the assignments for the pupils.
Principle of selected bibliography: The lesson plan should indicate the selected bibliography,
i.e., the reference books.
Principle of duration and age of pupils: The lesson plan should be made in accordance with the
age level of the pupils as well as with the duration of period. There should be a proper division of
time to be devoted to the various parts of the lesson. Besides this, the lesson plan should indicate
the age of the pupils, the time allotment of the class to be taught, the subject, and the topic.
Principle of making summary: The lesson plan should have an outline or a summary of the
whole lesson. This summary may be developed on the blackboard with the help of the students.
y Importance of Lesson Planning

Importance of lesson planning are following:
Achievement of definite goals: The lesson planning delimits the field in which the teacher is
teaching and enables them to define their aims and objectives more clearly. The teacher thinks of
ways and means with which they can realize their aim most effectively.

Selection and organization of subject matter: The lesson planning helps the teacher in the
selection and organization of subject matter, materials, and activities. The subject matter is
selected and organized according to the abilities, aptitudes, and developmental level of the pupils.
Selection of effective teaching procedure: The lesson planning helps the teacher in the selection
of the most effective teaching procedure which will lead to the modification of the pupils’ attitudes,
their habits, and the information in desirable directions.
Evaluation of instructions: The lesson planning enables the teacher to prepare tests for progress
and to evaluate the outcome of instructions. The evaluation is a very important part of teaching–
learning process. The evaluation is possible only if the definite aims and objectives are to be borne
in the mind.
Prevention of wastage: The lesson planning prevents the wastage of time, because it helps the
teacher to be systematic and orderly. It saves them from haphazard teaching as needless repetitions
are avoided.
Continuity in teaching process: The lesson planning establishes the proper connections between
the different lessons or the units of study. Thus, it encourages the continuity in the teaching
process.
Provision for summaries and assignments: The lesson planning provides adequate lesson
summaries and ensures a definite assignment for the class which helps in developing insight and
understanding.
Confidence and self-reliance: The lesson planning imparts confidence and self-reliance to
the teacher. It enables the teacher to enter the classroom without anxiety. During the planning
process, the teacher foresees the difficulties that are likely to arise and prepares themselves to deal
with these issues.
y Criteria of an Effective Lesson Plan

An effective lesson plan is like a clock. It reflects many qualities of the teacher—their methods
of teaching, their strategies, their devices of teaching, and their use of language. The lesson plan
is a guideline for the pupil–teacher to teach in the classroom. An effective lesson plan helps the
pupil–teacher in organizing their teaching in the classroom. The following is the criteria or the
characteristics of an effective lesson plan:
Written: An effective lesson plan is in the written form. It does not remain at the oral or mental
stage. This assures the teacher that they have read the lesson from various possible dimensions.
Objective-based: An effective lesson plan is a statement of both the general and specific objectives.
The objectives are written and defined clearly and it helps in the evaluation of the lesson.
Based on previous knowledge: The lesson plan should be related to the previous knowledge of
the pupils, i.e., their previous lessons. It should not be isolated from the previous knowledge of
the pupils. Some of the working links must be established.
Suitable units: An effective lesson plan is divided into suitable units so that the students may
understand it gradually.
Selection of subject matter: In an effective lesson plan, the contents of the lesson are selected
according to the needs, interests, abilities, and level of the pupils. While selecting the subject
matter, the aims of teaching and the time at disposal are to be borne in mind. The subject matter

should be carefully selected and well organized under important points stage by stage. It should
be progressively correlated with what has gone before and with what is to follow.
Suitable aids: A right decision should be taken regarding the diagrams, the pictures, the maps,
the models, the charts, the graphs, etc., while preparing an ideal lesson plan.
Orderly presentation: In an effective lesson plan, the subject matter is presented in an organized,
orderly, and effective manner. An effective presentation includes:
Correlation: The subject matter is correlated with what has been done before and with what is to
follow. It should be correlated with various subjects, crafts, and life situations. It makes the lesson
interesting and more meaningful.
Teaching techniques, strategies, and aids: An effective lesson plan clearly indicates the
techniques and strategies to be used by the teacher—how the lesson is to be presented, what
method is to be followed, what questions are to be asked, what illustrations are to be used. It
clearly indicates the maps, the charts, the models, the flash cards, the pictures, the posters, the
filmstrips, the films, and other audiovisual aids to be used by the teacher.
Use of blackboard: An effective lesson plan clearly indicates the blackboard work to be done by
the teacher. It points out the diagrams or the sketches to be drawn on the blackboard.
Pupils’ activity and participation: An effective lesson plan indicates the pupils’ activity and the
participation to be made in the classroom. It indicates the questions to be asked, the problems to
be solved, and the experiments to be performed.
Flexible and psychological: An effective lesson plan is logical and flexible. It can be changed or
modified according to the needs of the students in the classroom. It means that the teacher is free
to depart from the lesson plan which they have already written.
Functional format: The format of an effective lesson plan is functional. It is according to the
nature of the subject content. It can be followed in the classroom step by step by the pupil–teacher.
There should not be several columns in the presentation or learning experiences. There should be
two columns: (1) teaching activities, (2) pupils’ activities, which should involve methods, devices,
aids, and other supporting systems. It should be highly applicable in the classroom teaching.
Memory to reflective level: An effective lesson plan indicates the developmental and thought-
provoking questions to be asked to the students according to the need of the content in an effort
to extend the teaching from the memory level to the reflective lesson level.
Evaluation exercises: An effective lesson plan indicates the evaluation exercises in the form of
recapitulatory questions and the problems relating to the application of knowledge.
Duration of period and age of pupils: An effective lesson plan is made in accordance with the
age level of the pupils as well as the duration of the period. There is a proper division of time to
be devoted to various parts of the lesson. Besides this, it indicates the age and class of pupils, the
duration of period, the subject, and the topic to be taught. The size of the lesson plan should be such
that it may be completed within the period of school duration. It should not be too large or too small.
Summary: An effective lesson plan has an outline or a summary of the whole lesson. The
summary may be developed on the blackboard with the help of students.
Practice and remediation: An effective lesson plan has the provision for practice and remediation
of students’ learning difficulties.
Assignments: An effective lesson plan includes an assignment (homework) for the pupils.
Reference books: An effective lesson plan indicates the reference books or selected bibliography.

Thus, in lesson planning, a teacher has to consider the following:

• n Considering the broader objectives of the subject.
• n Defining the classroom objectives of the lesson.
• n Organizing the subject matter to be covered in the lesson for achieving the stipulated
objectives.
• n Deciding the way of presenting the subject matter, the teaching strategies and tactics, and
the classroom interaction and management.
• n Providing appropriate provision for evaluation and feedback.
y Prerequisites of Lesson Planning

Prerequisites of lesson planning are following:
Knowledge of subject matter: The teacher must be master of their subject. They should have a
thorough knowledge of the subject matter, the materials, and the activities which are to be used.
Knowledge of child psychology: The teacher must have the knowledge of child psychology, i.e.,
they should know the standard and individuality of the students and present the subject matter
accordingly. This psychological insight on the part of teacher is very essential.
Knowledge of methods and techniques: The teacher should be conversant with the methods
and techniques of teaching.
Knowledge of aims: The teacher should have a basic understanding of the aims and the objectives
of education. They should have an ability and skill for writing the objectives in behavioural terms
as well as the knowledge of various teaching skills.
y Approaches to Lesson Planning

There are various styles and approaches for planning and writing the lesson plans. In this chapter,
we shall describe four important approaches:
• n Herbartian approach.
• n Unit approach (Morrison’s approach).
• n Evaluation approach (Bloom’s approach).
• n RCEM approach.
y Herbartian Approach of Knowledge Lesson

For imparting knowledge in a systematic manner, a set procedure has to be followed. Various
attempts have been made from time to time by the psychologists and the educationists to evolve
out the definite procedure for the teaching knowledge lesson. Herbar suggested the following five
steps for imparting the knowledge lesson:
Preparation: Preparing means the preparation of learner’s mind to receive new knowledge. Just
as the field is prepared to sow the seeds, the children’s mind is also to be prepared to receive the
new knowledge. The preparation of students involves two steps:
Previous knowledge testing: Through the previous knowledge testing, the teacher becomes familiar
with what the pupils already know relevant to the topic Herbart calls it ‘apperceptive masses’. The
teacher’s function is to find out the nature and the extent of apperceptive masses or the previous

knowledge. They can do it by asking questions. It should be noted that the teacher should put only
a few questions. Besides asking questions, the teacher can tell a story or discuss some topics of
relevant interest in order to connect the previous lesson with the new lesson. But this step must
be brief, stimulating, and to the point. Sometimes this step is called ‘Introduction’ or ‘Motivation’.
Here is a word of caution for the teacher: The lengthy introductions should be avoided.
Announcement of the aim: The aim will automatically emerge out if the lesson has been effectively
introduced. The announcement of the aim should be in clear, concise, and free from verbosity and
unknown words. It should be a brief statement like. ‘Today, we shall study the uses of forests.’
To sum up the first step, we quote the words of J. Welton, ‘To know where the pupils are and
where they should try to be are the first two essentials of good teaching.’
Presentation: After the pupils have been motivated and the aim has been announced clearly,
the teacher should proceed with the presentation of the new material. This step involves a good
deal of mental activity on the part of the students. Here the lesson is divided into different
sections or units which are interconnected. The teacher imparts the new information in a proper
sequence which is suitable to the level of the pupils. They utilize the various devices such as the
exposition, the explanation, the narration, the description, the questions, the illustrations, the
demonstrations, and the sensory aids. The teacher puts themselves into the shoes of the students
to present things to them. The order of presentation should be psychological and not logical.
The subject matter is to be selected and presented according to the needs, the interests, the
abilities, and the developmental level of the pupils. The teacher should keep in mind the following
principles in the presentation stage:
Principle of selection and division: The subject matter should be presented very wisely and
judiciously according to the level of the pupils.
Principle of successive clearness: When the lesson is divided into different sections, the teacher
should observe well connected and proper sequence, and successive clarity. The teacher should
assure themselves that the portions of the lesson taught become clear to the students. They should
not proceed to the next part until the previous parts are properly understood by the pupils.
Principle of absorption and integration: Each section or an item of new knowledge should first
be separately dealt with and comprehended. Then it should be integrated with what has been
done before. For example, when dealing with compound interest, it will be better to integrate with
simple interest which has been taught before.
Association or comparison: An association is the linking up of the new ideas with the old and
with one another into a system. The selected examples or facts are presented before the pupils and
they are asked to carefully observe them and compare them with another set of facts and to arrive
at some conclusion. The comparison step is most important in a purely inductive lesson on a new
topic such as a formula in algebra, the definition of a part of speech in grammar, or the framing
of a hypothesis in science.
Sometimes an association or a comparison is regarded as a part of the presentation step. Its
importance lies in establishing new relations from a combination of the old and the new.
Generalization: The comparison and the association help the children in finding out a certain
conclusion which should enable them to frame a general law, a principle, or a formula. The
teacher’s function is to enable the pupils to draw out the generalization from the relevant data that
are well collected and well arranged. The teacher should encourage the students to draw out the

conclusion themselves. If the generalization made by the pupils is incomplete or wrongly stated,
the teacher should help them to complete and correct it. The important thing is that the students
should clearly understand the law that they have found. The generalization should be primarily
the product of students’ thinking and experience.
Application: The knowledge that is not used will soon fade from consciousness. It is said that
knowledge is power, but it is true only when the mind can apply it to a practical situation. Thus,
the principles framed in the generalization step may be applied to the solution of a particular
revision and the recapitulation of principles just learnt and may take a wide variety of form such
as the making of a model, the drawing of a map, and the writing of an essay. By application, the
new facts get established in the mind of the pupils and become a part and parcel of the child’s
mental make-up.
If the lesson is imparted according to the Herbartian steps, it should be followed by
recapitulation. Generally, a recapitulation is the revision or the repetition of knowledge learnt
in the lesson and the application is the use of knowledge learnt. Moreover, in the recapitulation
the emphasis is on the memory and the retentivity of knowledge, while in the application the
emphasis is on the higher mental processes. The application requires the mental activity to apply
the knowledge to the new situations. The recapitulation is done at the end of a lesson, or it is done
after covering a part of it (sectional recapitulation).
Advantages of Herbartian Lesson Planning

The important merits of Herbartian’s five steps of the lesson planning are given below:
Psychological: Herbartian’s five steps lesson planning approach is psychological, logical, and
effective. It incorporates the principles of learning and each step is organized in a logical way.
Useful in all subjects: It is used in the teaching of all the subjects—the languages, social studies,
and sciences.
Inductive and deductive methods: It employs both inductive and deductive methods of teaching.
In the Herbartian approach, while presenting the new knowledge, the help of various examples
is sought and at the ‘generalization’ step, rules are derived. It is an inductive method. At the
application step, these rules are taught to be executed and it is called a deductive method.
Achievement of cognitive objectives: It is useful for achieving the cognitive objectives of
teaching.
Use of previous knowledge: It uses the previous knowledge of the students for imparting the
new knowledge.
Simple and easy: It is a simple and easy approach of the lesson planning.
Limitations of Herbartian Approach

Limitations of Herbartian approach are given below:
Not applicable to all lessons: Herbart’s steps are not applicable to all lessons. They are suitable
only for the knowledge lesson and not for the skill or appreciation lesson. In the skill lesson,
there is a need for the demonstration of the skill by the teacher and the practice by the students.
In such a type of the lesson, Herbartian steps such as the comparison and the generalization are
not needed. Similarly in the appreciation lesson, Herbartian steps such as the comparison, the

generalization, and the application do not serve any useful purpose. Thus, we find that Herbartian
steps are suitable only to the academic subjects.
More emphasis on teaching rather than learning: Throughout the lesson, there is more emphasis
on the teaching rather than on the learning. Herbartian steps do not encourage the active
participation of the pupils. They do not provide opportunities to the students for self-motivation,
initiation, and discussion. It is only the teacher who decides what the pupils are to learn.
Rigidity and uniformity: The Herbartian scheme provides the rigidity and the uniformity in the
lesson. Although the teacher finds it difficult to teach according to Herbartian steps, yet they try
to teach according to these steps. Consequently, the lesson becomes stereotyped, and the students
get bored and lose their interest. Moreover, the Herbartian steps deprive the ambitious teacher
and the students of independent thinking.
Vagueness of the term ‘Preparation’: The term ‘Preparation’ is vague. It is not clear whether
preparation stands for the preparation of the pupils or the teacher or both.
Presentation speaks for passivity: The term ‘presentation’ is criticized on the ground that it
speaks of the passivity on the part of the learning process. In fact, the process of association or
comparison is present throughout the presentation stage.
Association or Comparison—not a separate step: Herbart was wrong to think that ‘association
or comparison’ is a separate step in the learning process. In fact, the process of association or
comparison is present throughout the presentation stage. If the teacher starts associating or
comparing facts after the presentation is over, then it will involve much repetition.
‘Generalization’—a difficult process: Herbart thought that when the presented ideas are
sufficiently clear and adequate, and the comparisons and associations are made, then it is very
easy to arrive at generalization. But in reality, it is very difficult to establish generalization. Many
tentative generalizations are made and discarded before we arrive at the final generalization.
Alternative Scheme
A.H.T. Glover in his book New Teaching for New Age recommends an alternative scheme which
is based on several modern concepts of the educative process. The following are the steps of his
scheme:
Questioning: The lesson is introduced with the help of the questions. The students should be
encouraged to ask the questions freely. Thus, the teacher can ask the questions of all types—
introductory, developing, and then the recapitulatory questions.
Discussion: The class should be divided into different groups for the sake of a healthy discussion.
The teacher should guide the students in the discussion. They should be encouraged to express
their ideas and opinions. The discussion should help the students in removing their doubts.
Finally, the teacher should sum up the discussion.
Investigation: The discussion is followed by an investigation. The investigation includes individual
as well as group research. The teacher guides the process of the investigation and provides the
necessary information.
Expression: The investigation is followed by an expression which may be written, oral, visual,
and concrete. The expression should preferably be in the form of practical activities which Grover
classifies under four main heads:
Passive: Here the emphasis is on observing and listening.

Active: The practical activities of the active type include the handwork and the craft work, the
drawing and design, and the activities such as running a shop or a post office, arranging school
meals, and gardening.
Artistic and recreative: The artistic and recreative activities include dancing, music, games,
physical training, creative artwork, etc.
Organizational: Each of the above activities may have an organizational aspect. It may be an
individual or a group or a committee organization.
Grover’s scheme is child centred. It ensures the active participation of the pupils. But this
scheme does not appear to be useful for small children, as their knowledge about any relevant
topic is always limited. Because of limited knowledge, it is difficult for them to take an active part
in the questioning and the discussion. Even in case of higher classes, the scheme cannot work
successfully under the restrictions of the timetable and the curriculum. Sometimes the discussion
may lead into the irrelevant channels and it may be difficult to preserve the logical sequence of the
topics or the lessons. Moreover, in an usual class only bright students may monopolize the whole
discussion. The scheme is suitable only for the classes with a moderate and manageable size.
An Outline of a Lesson Plan on the basis of Herbartian Steps

An outline of a lesson plan is developed on the basis of Herbartian steps in the following form:
Subject, topic, class, and date: A teacher selects a topic for the teaching. A class with the section,
the period, and the date are written while preparing the lesson plan.
General objectives of teaching: The teacher has to write the general objectives of their subject
in accordance with the level of the students. These general objectives cannot be achieved by the
lesson plan.
Specific objectives: The specific objectives can be achieved by organizing the teaching for a
period of say 40-minutes lesson. The specific objectives may be the knowledge, the skill, and the
appreciation. The social studies lesson is designed for achieving a knowledge objective, the poetry
lesson for an appreciation objective and language, and the craft lesson and some science lesson
for a skill objective. The specific objectives are decided according to the nature of topic and the
level of the students.
Introduction: The introduction step is mainly concerned with the initiation of all teaching
activities. The teacher uses their insight and experiences for linking new knowledge with the
previous knowledge of the students. The priming and prompting devices may be used by
preparing introductory questions. The topic is usually emitted by the students’ responses or by
creating the appropriate situation.
Statement of the aim: At the introductory stage, the teacher makes the efforts for emitting the
topic from the students. They give the statement of teaching topic by incorporating the responses
of the students.
Presentation: After introducing the topic to be taught, the teacher writes developing questions.
The presentation is done with the help of developing questions. The questions are arranged in a
psychological and logical order while keeping in mind the structure of the teaching unit.
Explanation: When the students are not in a position to answer the developing questions, the
teacher is supposed to explain the concept or the element by giving their statements (explanations).
Blackboard summary: The teacher has to prepare the blackboard summary of their teaching
points and explanation. The students should write down the blackboard summary.

Recapitulatory questions: The blackboard summary must be removed before asking the
recapitulatory questions. The purpose of the recapitulatory questions is to practise the students’
learning and evaluate the students’ performance to ensure that they could comprehend the
teaching unit.
Homework: Suitable homework is to be assigned to the students at the end of the lesson plan. The
purpose of homework is to practise, to organize, and to study the topic. The homework provides
the opportunities for assimilation to the students.
Herbartian Lesson Plan Model

Roll No.: Date:
Subject: Geography/General Science Class: VIII B
Topic: Solar and Lunar Eclipses Period: II
General Objectives: The lesson is prepared to achieve the following specific objectives of teaching:
• n To satisfy the natural curiosity of the students about the physical objects and the
environment.
• n To provide the awareness about the physical principles and facts.
• n To create, an interest in the study of geography by illustrating the use of geography in their
daily life.
• n To develop the feeling of international outlook and world brotherhood.
• n To develop the feeling of national integration and emotional integration by giving the
awareness of the economical, social, and political problems in the light of geographical
background.
Specific Objectives: The lesson is prepared to achieve the following specific objectives of teaching:
• n To enable the students to state the solar and lunar eclipses.
• n To enable the students to describe the causes of the solar and lunar eclipses.
• n To enable the students to recall the dates of the solar and lunar eclipses.
• n To enable the students to explain the influences of the solar and lunar eclipses.
Teaching Aids: The following teaching aids are required for teaching the proposed topic: The
model of the earth, the models of the sun and the moon, and a chart of the solar eclipse and the
lunar eclipse.
Previous Knowledge: The students are familiar with the earth, the sun, and the moon. They are
also aware about the rotation and revolution of earth. They know about the solar eclipse and the
lunar eclipse.
Introduction: Q. Why is the sun not visible partially or wholly for a few minutes even in a clear
sky on the mid-date of a month?
Ans. It is due to eclipse.
Statement of Aim: ‘Today we shall study the causes of the solar and lunar eclipses.’
Presentation: Q. Why does the eclipse fall?
Ans. The sun or the moon is caught by Rahu and Ketu.
Q. To whom around does the moon revolve?
Ans. The moon revolves around the earth.

Q. To whom around does the earth revolve?

Ans. The earth revolves around the sun.
These questions are asked by showing the models of the sun, the earth, and the moon.
Q. How do these motions influence the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon? (By
showing the model).
Teacher’s Explanation: Sometimes the earth comes in between the sun and the moon and
sometimes the moon comes in between the earth and the sun.
Q. From where does the moon receive the light?
Ans. The moon receives the light from the sun.
Teacher’s Statement: The earth and the moon receive the heat and the light from the sun. The
moon comes in between the earth and the sun on the mid-date of a month, i.e., Amavasiya.
Q. What are the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon on mid date of a month?
Ans. The moon comes in between the earth and the sun.
Q. Which is the date of full moon?
Ans. It is the last date of the month, i.e., Purnima.
Q. What are the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon on the last date of month?
(By showing positions on models).
Ans. The earth comes in between the sun and the moon on Purnima or on the last date of
the month.
Teacher’s Statement: By demonstrating the positions of these objects on the model, sometimes
on Purnima or the last date of month, the earth, the sun, and the moon come in a straight line.
The earth’s shadow falls on the moon or the sunrays do not reach on the moon for few minutes
partially or wholly, then.
Q. What do we call this situation?
Ans. It is known as the lunar eclipse.
Q. Why does the lunar eclipse fall?
Ans. The earth’s shadow falls on the moon.
Q. How does the solar eclipse fall?
Statement of the Teacher: By showing the positions of the earth, the sun, and the moon on the
model. Sometimes on the mid-date of the month, the sun, the earth, and the moon come in a
straight line and the moon comes in between them. The moon’s shadow falls on the earth for a
while then.
Q. What do we call this situation?
Ans. We call it the solar eclipse.
Q. Why does the solar eclipse not fall on every mid-date of a month?
Teacher’s Explanation: The sun, the earth, and the moon do not fall on a straight line in every
month. The earth axis is inclined 23(1/2)° from north.
The moon does not complete one round of the earth completely within 30 days.
Q. Why does the lunar eclipse not fall on every last date of the month or on Purnima?
Ans. The sun, the earth, and the moon do not fall on a straight line on every last date of
the month.
Review Questions: Q.(l.) From where does the moon receive the light and the heat?
Q.(2.) When does the lunar eclipse fall?
Q.(3.) When does the solar eclipse fall?

Q.(4.) What are the causes of the lunar or solar eclipse?

Q.(5.) Why does the lunar or solar eclipse fall on every month?
Homework: Describe the causes of the solar and lunar eclipses with the help of a diagram.
Preparation of Unit Lesson Plan:

y

(Morrison’s Approach)
Professor H.C. Morrison of Chicago University is the exponent of this approach. His approach is
known as unit approach because he emphasizes on the unit method for planning the teaching–
learning activities. In words of Morrison, ‘Unit is a comprehension and significant aspect of the
environment of an organised science and art.’ Wesley writes, ‘The unit is an organised body of
information and experience designed to effect significant outcomes of the learner.’
Morrison advocates the division of the subject matter into small but meaningful units. Each
unit is derived from the previous knowledge of the units. While teaching, the teacher presents the
subject matter related to a particular unit and deals with it thoroughly. They move to the second
unit when they find that the students have acquired mastery over the subject matter of the unit
and are able to generalize and apply the ideas of the learnt material.
Features of Unit Lesson Plan (Unit Approach)

The following important features are associated with Morrison’s unit lesson plan (approach) of
the lesson planning:
Part of syllabus: A unit is a part of the syllabus consisting of the coherent and the correlated
small wholes.
Units and sub-units: The contents of a subject prescribed for a class are first split into large units
and then these large units are divided into small but meaningful teaching units and sub-units.
Each sub-unit appears as a whole.
Writing the objectives and the specifications: A teacher has to understand and write down
the objectives and specifications which they to develop for a particular unit or a sub-unit while
planning their lesson.
Identifying the activities: A teacher has to identify the activities which they have to undertake
in order to realize the predetermined instructional objectives of a particular unit or a sub-unit.
Listing the material and the aids: The teacher has to list out the teaching–learning material and
aids, required for teaching the unit or the sub-unit.
Mentioning the evaluation procedure: The teacher has to mention the evaluation procedure
and devices which they would use to assess the educational outcomes after completing the task
of teaching a unit.
Steps of Unit Lesson Plan (Unit Approach)

Morrison has given us the following five steps in the unit lesson plan (approach of lesson
planning):
Exploration: The exploration step matches the preparation or the introductory step of the
Herbartian approach. Here the teacher has to:

(1) Explore the previous knowledge of the students (with regard to the learning material to
be taught) by questioning.
(2) Explore the interests, the general abilities, and the aptitudes of the students.
(3) Explore the available environmental situations and the resources for teaching the unit.
(4) Explore the decision about the strategies, and the tactics of methods of presenting the
subject matter of the unit in a psychological sequence.
Presentation: At this stage, the teacher remains more active. They perform the following activities
for the presentation of the contents:
(1) Presenting the content in the small units in the sequence and maintaining a continuous
rapport with the class.
(2) Diagnosing the areas of weakness.
(3) Repeating the content until most of the students acquire the understanding.
Assimilation: After presenting the contents, the teacher provides opportunities for the
assimilation. The assimilation has the following characteristics:
• n Opportunities for generalization so that the students get the mastery of the concept.
• n Opportunities to stress upon the depth of the content.
• n Opportunities of performing individual activities.
• n Students work themselves in laboratories and libraries.
• n Home assignments are given.
• n The pupils perform individual activities.
• n Supervised study occurs. The teacher guides the pupils according to the need during
supervision. Doubts of the students are clarified. In a supervised study, there is a high
interaction between the teacher and the student.
• n The teacher tests whether the pupils have achieved mastery over the contents or not.
• n If the pupils do not pass the mastery test, they are provided with reopportunities for
further assimilation.
Organization: The period of the assimilation is of the mastery test. After succeeding in the
mastery test, the pupils enter the period of the organization or the recitation according to the
nature of contents. During the organization, the pupils are provided with the occasion for
the representation. The pupils write the contents in their own language. The representation
in the subjects such as grammar and mathematics has no importance. Hence, the pupils enter
into the recitation rather to the organization.
Recitation: It is the oral presentation of the unit (contents) in front of the teacher or their
classmates. It is called the mastery recitation. In the mastery recitation (full understanding,
permanent insight), the pupils may use the blackboard and the demonstration apparatus. The
recitation may also take the form of written paper.
Advantages of Unit Lesson Plan

Advantages of unit lesson plan are following:
Psychological: The unit lesson plan is psychological in the sense that it is based on Gestalt
psychology. The importance is given to the ‘whole’ instead of the ‘part’. The contents of a syllabus are
divided into suitable broader units, teaching units, and sub-units as complete wholes in themselves.

Child centred: The unit lesson plan is child centred. In this approach, the capacities and needs of
the pupils are prioritized.
Interesting: In this lesson plan, the interests of the pupils are emphasized. The distribution of
the learning material into small units and sub-units makes the teaching–learning process easy,
simple, and interesting.
Self-study: The init lesson plan encourages the habit of self-study and independent learning
among the students.
Active participation: The unit lesson plan provides opportunities for active participation in
various teaching–learning activities to both the teacher and the students. It provides a healthy
interaction.
Specificity: The teaching–learning process becomes more objective and specified on account of
the delimitation of the learning contents and the specification of unit objectives.
Understanding: The unit lesson plan undertakes the teaching–learning process at an understanding
level. The students do not memorize mechanically and they learn with full understanding.
Mastery: The unit lesson plan aims at the complete mastery over the learning material presented
in a particular unit. All the steps are directed to achieve the desired mastery.
Motivation: The assimilation, the understanding, and the mastery of a unit motivate the students
to learn the next teaching or learning unit. Thus, the learning becomes sequential, systematic,
organized, and effective.
y Bloom’s Evaluation of Lesson Planning

Bloom’s evaluation approach to the lesson planning is a new innovation in the field of
education. It has revolutionized the teaching, the learning, and the testing process. According
to Bloom, education is a tri-polar process which involves: (1) formulating the educational
objectives, (2) creating the learning experiences, and (3) evaluating the behavioural changes
or the learning outcomes. Thus, the evaluation approach involves these three main steps or
phases (Figure 11.1).
Educational Objectives
Learning Experiences Evaluating Learning

Outcomes
Figure 11.1 Tri-polar process of Education
Formulation of educational objectives: The educational objectives are identified and formulated
in relation to the entry behaviour, the desired behavioural changes, and the learning experiences

to be provided to the students. These objectives are clearly specified and written in the behavioural
terms as explained in the chapter on ‘Instructional Objectives’.
Creating learning experiences: A suitable learning environment and the learning experiences
are provided for the realization of the stipulated educational objectives. The following points
should be considered while planning for this step:
(1) The selection and the organization of a suitable learning material (learning experi-
ences).
(2) The selection of the appropriate teaching–learning strategies, the tactics, or the devices
for creating the environment for providing the learning experiences to the students.
(3) The selection of suitable resources.
(4) The plann of the activities and the classroom interaction of the teachers and the
students.
Evaluating the learning outcomes: The learning experiences bring desirable changes in the
behaviour of the students. The changes of the behaviour are evaluated to take a decision regarding
the effectiveness of the learning experiences. The teaching–learning outcomes are evaluated. The
cognitive, affective, and conative (psychomotor) objectives require different types of teaching–
learning strategies and experiences. The different evaluation techniques such as essay writing,
objective and short answer type tests, practical examinations, etc., are needed for their evaluation.
This significant aspect should be considered in a proper planning. It should select an appropriate
criterion for assessing the behavioural changes.
Steps of Evaluation Approach of Lesson Planning

Content: The subject matter or content (teaching points) to be taught to the pupils should be
written in the first column of the lesson plan. The content should be selected from the prescribed
textbooks. In this column, the contents should not be written in detail. The main facts and
thoughts regarding the topic should be very precise.
Objectives with specifications: In this column of the lesson planning, the instructional objectives
should be written in clear and concise behavioural terms.
Teacher’s activities: In this column of the lesson planning, all those activities which a teacher
performs for the realization of the stipulated objectives are mentioned. These activities are:
to ask questions, statements, to describe, to illustrate, to use material aids, to deliver model
lessons, and to clarify the terms and the concepts. In this column, the teacher should also
indicate the learning experiences and the efforts put in to achieve these goals in the short term.
Students’ activities: In this column of the lesson planning, the students’ activities for the
realization of the teaching–learning objectives should be mentioned. For example, to listen to
the teacher, to answer the questions, to participate in the discussion, to prepare the material, and
to study it.
Teaching aids: In this step of the lesson plan, the teaching aids used for providing the desirable
teaching–learning experiences are mentioned. These material aids make the contents clear,
understandable, andinteresting.
Evaluation: In this step of the lesson planning, we mention the evaluation techniques or the
devices used for finding out the extent to which the stipulated objectives have been achieved

through the teaching–learning process. It enables the teacher realize the success and the failure of
the strategies and tactics used bythem and they can modify the teaching. Students can also bring
a desirable improvement in the process of learning.
Merits of Bloom’s Approach of Lesson Planning

Merits of Bloom’s approach of lesson planning are following:
Psychological and scientific: The approach is based on the sound psychological and scientific
principles and theories of the teaching and learning.
Objectives in behavioural terms: The objectives are written in the behavioural terms.
Summary of contents: The contents are properly presented in a summary form through the
teaching points.
Content analysis: The content analysis is done and the two-dimensional charts are prepared for
specifying the objectives.
Students’ and teachers’ activities: The students’ and teachers’ activities are mentioned separately.
They are essentially related, organized, and integrated for the realization of the stipulated
objectives. They are related to the teaching and learning structures.
Specific strategies, methods, and aids: The specific strategies, the methods, and the teaching
aids used for the realization of the predetermined objectives are properly mentioned.
Purposeful teaching: This type of lesson plan makes the teaching purposeful and objective
centred.
Evaluating changes: It duly emphasizes the evaluation of the desired changes in the behaviour.
Improving teaching–learning experience: It has greater scope for improving and modifying the
learning experience or the teaching activities.
Demerits of Bloom’s Approach of Lesson Planning

Demerits of Bloom’s approach of lesson planning are following:
Highly structured: Bloom’s approach of the lesson planning is highly structured. It is dominated
by the teacher’s role in the teaching–learning process.
No consideration to mental abilities: This approach does not take into consideration the mental
processes or the mental abilities for writing the objectives in the behavioural terms.
Rigid and mechanical: Bloom’s approach makes the task of the lesson planning quite rigid and
mechanical. Thus it kills the initiative, originality, and creativity of both the teachers and the
students.
More than one domain: One teaching activity does not confine to one domain; it concerns with
more than one domain.
Greater responsibility: The task of the integration among the objectives, the learning experiences,
and the evaluation devices demands a greater responsibility on the part of the teacher and the
students.

y Bloom’s or Evaluation Lesson Plan Model

Roll No.: .................................... School: Date: ...................
Subject: General Science/Geography Class: VIII B
Topic: The Solar and Lunar Eclipses Period: V
Specific Objectives: The lesson is designed to achieve the following teaching objectives:
1. To enable the students to describe the solar and lunar eclipses.
2. To enable the students to state the causes of the solar and lunar eclipses.
3. To enable the students to recall the dates of the solar and lunar eclipses.
4. To enable the students to explain the influence of the solar and lunar eclipses.
Presentation: (Learning Experiences)

Teaching methods
Teacher’s activities Students’ activities and aids Objectives
Q. Why is the sun visible for a while Due to eclipse Question–Answer Knowledge
in clear sky? ‘We shall study the – – –
causes the of eclipse.’
Q. Why does an eclipse fall? The sun or the moon Question–Answer Knowledge
is caught by Rahu and
Ketu
Q. To whom around does the moon The moon revolves Question–Answer Knowledge
revolve? around the earth
Q. To whom around does the earth The earth revolves Question–Answer Knowledge
revolve? around the sun.
By demonstrating the models of the Observation Teaching aids Knowledge
earth, the sun, and the moon.
Q. How do these motions influence No response Teaching aids
the positions of the sun, the earth,
and the moon.
Explanation: Sometimes the earth Listening Teaching aids Knowledge
comes in between the sun and the
moon and sometimes the moon
comes in between the sun and
the earth.
Q. From where does the earth From the sun Teaching aids
receive the light and the heat?
Q. From where does the moon The moon receives the Question–Answer
receive the light and the heat? light and the heat from
the sun
Teacher’s Statement: The earth Listening Showing the model Comprehension
and the moon both receive the heat
and the light from the sun. The
moon comes in between the earth
and the sun on the mid-date of the
month, i.e., Amavasiya.
(continued)

Teaching methods
Teacher’s activities Students’ activities and aids Objectives
Q. What is the date of the full The last date of the Question–Answer Knowledge
moon? month, i.e., Purnima.
(Full moon)
Q. What are the positions of the The earth comes in With the help of
earth, the sun, and the moon on between the sun and model
Purnima? the moon
Teacher’s Statement: Listening With the help of Comprehension
Sometimes on Purnima, the earth, model
the sun, and the moon fall on a
straight line. The earth’s shadow
falls on the moon or the sunrays
do not reach on the moon for a
few minutes partially or wholly,
then
Q. What do we call this situation? Lunar eclipse Question–answer Knowledge
Q. How does the solar eclipse No response – –
fall?
Explanation: Sometimes on the Listening Showing the model Comprehension
mid-date of the month, the sun,
the earth, and the moon fall on a
straight line and the moon comes in
between them. The moon’s shadow
falls on the earth or the sun rays do
no reach on the earth for a while,
then
Q. What do we call this situation? Solar eclipse Question–Answer Knowledge
Q. Why does solar eclipse not fall No response – –
on every mid-date of a month?
Teacher’s Statement: The sun, the Listening – Comprehension
earth, and the moon do not fall on a
straight line in every month.
The earth’s axis is inclined 23 1/2° Listening Presentation Comprehension
from the north. The moon does
not complete one round of the
earth completely within 30 days.
Q. Why does the lunar eclipse not The sun, the earth, Question–answer Comprehension
fall on every last date of a month or and the moon do not
on Purnima? fall on a straight line
on every Purnima of
a month
Evaluation: 1. When does the lunar eclipse fall?

2. Why does the lunar eclipse not fall on every Purnima of a month?
3. When does the solar eclipse fall?
4. Why does the solar eclipse not fall on every Amavasiya of a month?
Homework: Describe the solar and lunar eclipses with the help of a diagram.

y Rcem Approach to Lesson Planning

The RCEM approach is developed by the Indian educationists at the Regional College of
Education, Mysore (RCEM) and hence it is known as RCEM approach.
Features of the RCEM Approach

Features of the RCEM approach to lesson planning are following:
Improvement: The RCEM approach is an improvement over the earlier approaches. It also
considers Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives in identifying the objectives of teaching
with certain modifications.
The RCEM approach of writing objectives in the behaviour terms has already been discussed
in the chapter of ‘Instructional Objectives’. It involves 17 mental abilities for writing the objectives
in a functional form.
Use of system approach: The RCEM approach makes use of the concept of the system approach
to education.
Three steps: The RCEM approach has three aspects, elements, or steps, namely, (1) input, (2)
process, and (3) output. The structure of the lesson plan is developed with the help of the input, the
process, and the output aspect of teaching. These aspects resemble the introduction, presentation,
and evaluation phases on a used lesson plan.
Input: It includes the identification and the specification of objectives. They are also known
as Expected Behavioural Outcomes (EBOs). These objectives are broadly classified into four
categories: (1) knowledge, (2) understanding, (3) application, and (4) creativity. These objectives
are written in the behavioural terms by employing 17 mental abilities. The entering behaviours of
the learners are also identified. The sequence of the instructional procedure is determined with
the help of these objectives.
Process: The process resembles the presentation step of Herbartian approach or the stage
of learning experiences of Bloom’s approach. The communication strategy is used for the
effective presentation of the content. It implies the interaction of the teacher and the students.
The participation of the teacher and the students is essential. The crux of the process is
to create the learning situations for providing the appropriate learning experiences to the
students. It includes teacher’s and students’ activities, the teaching strategies and tactics,
the audiovisual aids, the techniques of motivation, the ways of securing suitable classroom
interaction, etc., for the effective presentation of the content and the realization of stipulated
objectives.
Output: The output includes the real learning outcomes (RLOs). In the process aspect, the
learning experiences are provided for the desirable behavioural change among the students.
The change of the behaviour is known as the real learning outcomes. The various measuring
devices are used for evaluating the real learning outcomes. The teacher usually measures the
real learning outcomes by using the oral and written questions. It is an evaluation phase of the
lesson.

Theoretical Rationale of the Lesson

The following table illustrates the theoretical rationale of the lesson plan:
Output
Input Process (Evaluation)
(Instruction) Expected (Communication strategy) Real learning
behaviour outcomes Learning experiences outcomes
Teacher’s activities Student’s activities
1. Knowledge objective (i) Lecture (i) Listening (i) Review questions
(ii) Demonstration (ii) Observation (ii) Define
(iii) Charts and maps (iii) Taking notes (iii) State
(iv) Explanation (iv) Interaction (iv) Describe
(v) Question–Answer (v) Name
technique (vi) List
2. Understanding (i) Discussion (i) Participation (i) Interpret
objective (ii) Problem solving in group (ii) Translate
(iii) Question–Answer discussion (iii) Explain
technique (ii) Listening (iv) Discriminate
(iv) Demonstration (iii) Observation (v) Problem-solving
(iv) Initiation
3. Application objective (i) Group discussion (i) Experiment (i) Practical tests
(ii) Laboratory work (ii) Using knowledge (ii) Situation tests
(iii) Question–Answer for solving (iii) Essay type tests
(iv) Problem-solving problems (iv) Observation
4. Creativity objective (i) Individual work (i) Analysis (i) Essay type test
(ii) Group discussion (ii) Synthesis of (ii) Oral test
(iii) Problem-solving elements (iii) Situational test
(iii) Establish new (iv) Problem-solving
relationship (v) Observation
The above table shows that three aspects, namely, the input, the process, and the output can
be implemented in organizing teaching.
(1) The input aspect is concerned with expected behaviour outcomes (EBOs). It also in-
cludes the entering behaviour of the learners.
(2) The process aspect involves the interaction between the teacher and the students. The
teacher’s and students’ activities are determined.
(3) The output aspect deals with the real learning outcomes (RLOs). The evaluation
devices are specified for measuring the criterion behaviours.
RCEM Lesson-Plan Model

Roll No.: School: Date:.....................
Subject: Geography/Gen. Science Class VIII B
Topic: The Solar and Lunar Eclipses Period II
Teaching Points
• n the speed of the earth and the moon.
• n the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon on Purnima.

• n the causes of the lunar eclipse.

• n the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon on Amavasiya.
• n the causes of the solar eclipse.
• n the causes for not falling eclipse on every month.
• n the influence of the solar and lunar eclipses.
The paradigm of RCEM lesson plan for the topic ‘The Solar and Lunar Eclipses’ has been
illustrated in the table given on the next page:
Presentation Learning experiences or Interaction Real learning

Expected behavioural outcomes
outcomes (EBOs) Teacher’s activities Students’ activities (RLOs)
The new topic is introduced Q. From where do we We receive the heat and
on the basis of the previous receive the heat and the the light from the sun and
knowledge light? the moon
Q. From where do we
receive the light at
night?
Knowledge: Recall and Q. Why is the sun not Due to eclipse fall
recognition visible for a while in
clear sky?
Q. To whom around does Around the earth
the moon revolve?
Understanding: Seeing By showing the model of Around the sun
relationship the solar system.
Q. To whom around does
the earth revolve?
Q. How do these motions Sometimes the earth comes
influence the positions of in between the sun and the
the sun, the earth, and the moon. In another phase, the
moon? (By showing the moon comes in between
model). the sun and the earth
Knowledge: recognition Q. From where does the From the sun
moon receive the light?
Explanation: The earth
and the moon receive the
light and the heat from
the sun.
Understanding: Seeing Q. When does the moon On Purnima (full moon) What are the
relationship shine fully? positions of the
Teacher’s Statement: sun, the earth,
Sometimes on Purnima, and the moon?
the earth, the sun,
and the moon fall on a
straight line. The earth’s
shadow falls on the
moon.
Q. What do we call this Lunar eclipse How does the
situation? lunar eclipse fall?
(continued)

Presentation Learning experiences or Interaction Real learning

Expected behavioural outcomes
outcomes (EBOs) Teacher’s activities Students’ activities (RLOs)
Knowledge recall, Q. From where does the From the sun
recognition, understanding: earth receive the light and
seeing relationship the heat?
Q. When does the solar On Amavasiya. No What are the
eclipse fall? response positions of the
How does the solar earth, the sun,
eclipse fall? Explanation: and the moon on
Sometimes on the Amavasiya?
Amavasiya the sun, the
earth, and the moon fall
on a straight line. The
moon’s shadow falls
on the sun.
Understanding: Reason Q. What do we call this Solar eclipse How does the
out situation? Why do the No response solar eclipse fall?
solar eclipse and the lunar
eclipse not fall in every
month?
Explanation: These What are the
objects fall on straight line causes of the
in every month. The earth solar and lunar
has its axis eclipses?
at 23 1/2° N. (By showing
the model).
y Types of Lessons
Modern education is child centred. It aims at the development of all the three aspects (i.e., the
cognitive, the affective, and the conative) of the children for bringing about their harmonious
development. Cognitive aspect corresponds to the knowing, the affective aspect to feeling,
and the conative aspect to doing. Corresponding to these aspects, we have three types of
lessons:
Knowledge Lesson: It aims at the acquisition of the knowledge of the information. For example,
the learning of history and geography constitutes the knowledge lesson.
Skill Lesson: It aims at the acquisition of a skill. For example, specific activities such as writing,
sewing, tailoring, spinning, painting, drawing, and woodwork constitute a skill lesson.
Appreciation Lesson: It aims at the development of aesthetic sense in the children. For example,
learning to appreciate poetry, music, dance, and art constitutes the appreciation lesson.
y Skill Lesson
A skill is learnt by student in the skill lesson. The term ‘skill’ covers a wide range of activities.
Walking, jumping, reading, writing, counting, speaking, singing, dancing, drawing, painting,

sewing, tailoring, spinning, gardening, woodwork, etc., are various types of skills. The main
objective of the skill lesson is to help the pupils to do something and not merely to learn
something.
Orderly Steps for Teaching Skill Lesson

Preparation: The preparation is sometimes known as motivation or introduction. This should be
a very brief step. The teacher can prepare or motivate the students: (a) by showing the pupils a
model of some work already done and by asking them to imitate it, (b) by placing the children
in such a situation that they find necessary to acquire some kind of skill, e.g., the execution of a
project requires the performance of certain skills. Similarly, taking the students to the art-room
or the craft-room will provide a situation where the pupils feel an inner urge to learn that activity.
Afterwards, a good teacher should announce the aim of the lesson.
Presentation: The teacher can present the lesson in two ways:
(1) Demonstration: The teacher demonstrates the skill and the pupils observe it carefully
and then try to imitate it as accurately as they can. But demonstration should not be used
in excess, as excess of everything is bad.
(2) Verbal explanation: In the skill lessons, the verbal instructions are also used. The verbal
instructions may be accompanied by the illustrations and sketching of diagrams. The
pupils may wrongly imitate the teacher unless they explain each step.
For a mechanical or uniform skill, where there is usually no scope for variation, the teacher
may demonstrate the best way along with verbal explanations, and the pupils should imitate it
faithfully. But in subjects such as fine arts, variations should be encouraged, in which lie the seeds
of originality.
Statement of rules: Then the rules for the performance of the skill should be stated. Rules save
the time and energy of the learner. They are useful for the learner in learning certain skills. The
rules should serve as an aid. They are said to be temporary expedients for the beginners. In the
mechanical skills, such as spelling, rules may be helpful. In the fine arts, rules are of little use
because the artist’s own outlook plays an important role. A free and spontaneous art breaks
through the shackles of rules, the formulas, and the conventions. In the words of Raymont, ‘There
is a sense in which rules are the death of true art.’
Practice: Practice makes a man perfect. To become perfect in a skill, practice is necessary. The
children repeat the activity that the teacher has demonstrated and thus acquires skill step by step.
Practice takes a longer time than other steps. Practice may be done in two ways: (1) by imitation
and (2) by repetition.
The children may imitate the demonstration given by the teacher, they may repeat it again
and again and then practise the activity. During practice, the teacher is to supervise and guide the
students. They should pay individual attention.
Correction: At this stage, the teacher points out the mistakes of the students and shows the right
ways of performing the activity. In order to do so, the teacher can redemonstrate the skill if they
necessary or they may explain the important points again. It is essential that correction should be
made immediately otherwise wrong habits will be formed.

Second practice: After the rectification of the mistakes, the students should again practise the
skill and acquire improvement in the performance in the activity. The two steps of correction and
practice should be repeated until the mastery is achieved.
Application: The acquisition of a certain skill would not be justified unless it is followed by the
application. Hence, the skill learnt should be applied practically in life. The application will make
the lesson useful and real. If a pupil has prepared painting, they should be asked to prepare similar
paintings for the art-room.
Important Points for Skill Lesson

In order to achieve success in the skill lesson the teacher should keep in mind the following points:
Motivation: The pupils should be motivated to acquire the skill. They should be interested in the
activity that they are going to do.
Level of the pupils: The skill selected should be according to the level of the pupils. If the skill
selected is very difficult for the pupils then they will get easily discouraged.
Time factor: The task selected should not take up an undue length of time, because the pupil’s
interest is likely to waver. For small children, the task selected should be of a short duration.
Opportunity for self-expression: The children should be given the opportunity for self-
expression. In the words of Hughe and Hughe, ‘Any form of practical work in which skill has
been acquired becomes vehicle for the expression of beauty; it provides scope for the highest type
of self- expression.’
Teacher’s patience: The children are slow in learning any new skill. Hence, the teacher should
show patience and sympathy to the children.
y Appreciation Lesson
The appreciation lesson is not concerned with the acquisition of knowledge or skill. It is concerned
with the emotional aspect of pupils. It aims at the aesthetic development of the pupils, i.e., to
appreciate beauty and to enjoy beauty through form, colour, and sound. Well-balanced emotional
life is essential for appreciating and enjoying beauty.
Steps of Appreciation Lesson

It is very difficult to lay down some definite rules and regulations or the steps for the teaching
of the appreciation lessons. Such lessons are to be caught and not taught. They are to be felt and
enjoyed. They require stirring and feelings of emotions. Teaching the appreciation lessons with
certain formal steps is an inadequate treatment. Anyhow, the following steps may be adopted
with modifications as and when desired:
Preparation: First of all, the students should be properly motivated. For this purpose, the teacher
should create an appropriate atmosphere. The atmosphere should be calm, quiet, and undisturbed.
The distractions should be reduced to the minimum. Proper temperature, ventilation, and interior
decoration should be properly attended. Nothing should be allowed to break the continuity of the
lesson. The teacher should select the contents of the lesson according to the age, the abilities,

the needs, and the interests of the pupils. The Appreciation lesson should be free from language
difficulties. Thus, the preparation implies:
• n To motivate the children for enjoyment.
• n To provide suitable environment.
• n To select proper contents of the lesson.
Presentation: The second step is the presentation of the subject matter for appreciation. The
teacher should make use of various devices for arousing the imagination of the pupils. An
appreciation lesson cannot be delivered well unless there is a real enthusiasm and appreciation
in the teacher themselves. They cannot do full justice to the lesson unless they have made the
work of art a part of themselves. For teaching literature, a teacher should have the ability to read
well, for teaching music, a teacher should possess the ability to play or sing, and for teaching art,
the sense skill with a brush or a pencil is mandatory. The teacher should put themselves into
the author’s place on one hand and into pupil’s place on the other. The author’s feeling must be
produced in the minds of the pupils.
The appreciation lesson should not be divided in parts. The first presentation should be
uninterrupted and if possible, completed in one sitting. Pictures, poems, and music cannot be
presented in pieces. They are whole and must be enjoyed as whole before any analysis takes place.
Appreciation is subjective and personal. It cannot be forced. It is only through intelligent
presentation, i.e., through a proper atmosphere, a good expression, and their own interest the
teacher can lead the children to appreciate and enjoy the lesson.
Contemplation: After the presentation, some pause should be allowed for the children to feel,
think, and contemplate on the material presented. Then the aesthetic discussion should be taken.
It primarily consists of the aesthetic feelings and values. As far as the critical appreciation or the
intellectual discussion is concerned, they should only be attempted in case of senior pupils. It
does not fall within the purview of schoolchildren.
Practice and creation or application: Smith and Harrison in their book The Principles of Class
Teaching write that at this stage ‘the child passes from enjoyment to action; he tries to write in
imitation of an author who had made a vivid appeal.’ Thus, the children should be encouraged
to compose a poem, to write poetry or a short play, to draw a picture, or to paint a scenery, etc.
The younger children may be encouraged to reread a poem on a musical instrument and sing a
chorus. Such practice in the art activities will promote the aesthetic sense of the pupils.
Factors Influencing Success of an Appreciation Lesson

Factors influencing success of an appreciation lesson are following:
Selection of material: The teacher should select the material for appreciation according to the
age, the abilities, and the interests of pupils.
Teacher’s enthusiasm: The teacher should possess a real enthusiasm and an appreciation for the
form of art which they are to present to the class.
Teacher’s preparation and mastery: Teacher’s own presentation and the mastery of the material
are important factors in the lesson.
Appropriate atmosphere: The teacher should create an appropriate atmosphere. The atmosphere
should be calm, quite, and undisturbed and nothing should be allowed to break the continuity
of the lesson.

Contemplation, practice, and application: The presentation should be followed by the

contemplation, the practice, and the application.
Each type of the above-mentioned lesson involves one of three aspects of consciousness,
i.e., the cognitive, the conative, or the affective. But these three aspects cannot be completely
separated. All of them may be present to some extent in any single lesson, e.g., in history if the
facts are learnt, it is acquisition of knowledge; when the pupils draw a map, it is the acquisition
of skill; and when they appreciate the history of their country, their aesthetic sense is involved.
Hence, it should be remembered that it is the emphasis that will make it a distinct type of lesson.
y Yearly Plan of Social Studies Teaching

In the yearly plan, information about the content and the learning objectives are shown for the
whole year. The yearly plan table provides the information about: (1) the outline of the content of
the course, (2) the teaching objectives to be realized, and (3) the total period of teaching assigned
to the course.
For example, a teacher is assigned to teach social studies to the ninth class students. The
course content is to be taken from the prescribed syllabus. The objectives of teaching are also
determined in view of the (1) need of the pupils and (2) nature of the content. Thus, a yearly plan
table is prepared:
Knowledge Interest and

Teaching content Knowledge Skill application attitude Total periods
1. History 6 1 2 3 12
2. Civics 7 1 2 5 15
3. Geography 5 1 2 4 12
4. Economics 6 1 1 3 11
Total 24 4 7 15 50
Yearly Plan Table

(Social Studies Teaching)
The yearly plan table shows that the social studies course content is to be completed in a total
of 50 periods. The table further reveals that the major emphasis has been given to knowledge
objectives, as 24 periods are allotted to these objectives. The second main objective is the interest
and the attitude, as 15 periods are assigned to these objectives. The knowledge application has the
third and the skill objectives have the fourth place.
Evaluate Yourself
1. What is lesson planning? What are the principles of lesson planning? State the pre-
requisites of lesson planning.
2. Discuss the importance of writing a lesson plan. Explain briefly the various steps of the
knowledge lesson.
3. Why is it important to write a lesson plan? Write down the different steps in preparing
a lesson plan.
(continued)

4. What is the importance of planning a lesson? Select a topic of your choice and prepare a
lesson plan.
5. What are Herbartian steps? Give a critical estimate of Herbartian steps.
6. Discuss the orderly steps for teaching a skill lesson. What are the factors that influence
the success of this lesson?
7. What are the orderly steps for an ‘appreciation lesson’? Explain the factors which influence
the success of the appreciation lesson.
8. Explain Morrison’s unit approach of lesson planning.
9. Describe Bloom’s evaluation approach of lesson planning.
10. Describe RCEM approach of lesson planning.
y Lesson Plans
1. Student–teachers should follow the guidelines as suggested/recommended by their super-
visors and teachers.
2. In very rare circumstances, to meet the extraordinary situation in the class, the pupil–
teacher may totally make a departure from the lesson plan while taking the class.
3. A revision lesson will have a different plan.
4. A lesson plan based on instructional behavioural objectives will be quite different.
Lesson Plan No. 1

Roll No. of the pupil–teacher...
Class VI Topic: Primitive Man
Average age of the pupils: 11–12 years
Duration of the lesson: 40 minutes
Subject: Social Studies
Teaching Aids
Series of pictures depicting
1. different phases of the life of early man;
2. houses in trees;
3. man wrapped in bark trees;
4. striking stones to produce fire; and
5. primitive weapons such as bow and arrow.
Aims of the Lesson

I. General
1. To give some knowledge of the past history to the student in order to understand the pres-
ent and to develop their sense of reasoning and judgement.
2. To familiarize the students with the changes in their social environment with the march of
time.

II. Specific
To give the history of the all round development of the early man before acquiring the present
social status.
P.K. (Previous Knowledge) Assumed. The students are expected to know about the life of the
modern man.
Introduction. The following questions will be put to the students in order to introduce the lesson:
(1) What is the difference between the village and city life?
(2) How did the early man live?
Statement of the Aim. Well students, today we shall study ‘How did the primitive man live and
feed himself before he reached the modern era.’
Presentation. The student–teacher will divide the whole lesson into two or three units.
Correlation. The lesson will be correlated with social environment of the pupils. Questions
relating to the everyday life of the students will be put to the students.
Matter Method
Appearance
The early man was very ugly and clumsy. They The student–teacher will follow the story method.
used to wander lonely and had little sense of The following developing questions will be put to
society. They were naked, because they had the students:
no sense from where to obtain the clothes for (1) What was the facial appearance of the early
themselves. They had neither home nor ways of man?
livelihood. (2) Why did they not use the clothes?
They used to live in the caves and hide themselves (3) Why did they hide themselves in the trees and
in the leaves of the trees. the caves?
They were very much afraid of the wild animals. (4) What sort of weapons did they use for their
They used only wooden sticks for their defence as defence?
a weapon. The pictures showing the different stages of the
development of the man will be pasted on the Flannel
graph, side by side and shown to the students.
B.B. Summary will be developed side by side.
Early man was ugly and clumsy. They were naked
and used to live in the caves and the trees. They
were afraid of the wild animals.
Food and Clothes
To satisfy their hunger, they used to eat the leaves (1) What does the present man eat?
of the trees, the herbs, the raw vegetables, and the (2) How do we protect ourselves against cold and
un-cooked meat. heat?
To avoid the heat and the cold, they used to wrap (3) Why do we feel the necessity of fire?
the bark of trees and the skin of the animals, round (4) How do we obtain fire?
their body.
By and by, they felt the need of fire in order to
avoid themselves from the heat and the cold and
for cooking the food. Necessity is the mother of
invention. Thus, they gained from the experience
and came to the conclusion that fire can be
produced by striking the stones against each
other and by rubbing the dry wooden pieces. Then
they used the fire obtained for roasting animals.

Sectional Revision
The following questions will be asked in order to revise this unit:
(1) How did men live in their earliest days?
(2) How did the primitive men satisfy their hunger?
(3) How did they defend themselves against the heat and the cold?
(4) How did they produce the fire?
Second unit (Pictures will be shown)

Houses. Gradually, they felt the necessity of houses (1) Why do we feel the necessity of the
and learnt to construct huts. These huts were made of houses?
mud with thatched roofs. (2) Why do we construct pucca houses?
With the passage of time, they began to make bricks (3) Why do we construct houses with
of mud. When bricks were available, they constructed windows and ventilators?
houses out of them. In those days, there were no
windows and ventilators, but at the later stage they
constructed the houses with enough doors and
windows.
Modern Man. It is due to the improvement in the (4) Which kind of houses do we find
construction work and other new things that nowadays nowadays?
we live in the beautiful and airy buildings.
Professions
The man in the earliest days was primarily a hunter, (5) What was needed for the early man to
because they had to get meat to satisfy their hunger. satisfy their hunger?
They used bow and arrow, as the hunting weapon. (6) Why do we feel the need of taming the
Other weapons were sword and spear etc. animals?
Gradually, they tamed the wild animals for his work. (7) Why do we make implements?
During that period, their main profession was to tame (8) What kind of things does the man use
the sheep and goats. They got the idea of weaving nowadays for recreation?
the cloth from the wool, which they got from the
sheep.
The experience gave them the knowledge of cotton
and so they began to grow cotton. For their daily work,
they made iron and wooden instruments. They felt the
need of utensils and posts. So, they began to make
brass vessels and clay pots.
In this way, the man improved gradually and entered
the new era. Now they are producing many good things
according to their needs. Modern man is more scientific
and they have produced many scientific equipments
such as radio, television, cinema, aeroplanes, motors,
and wireless.
Sectional Revision
The following questions will be put to the students in order to revise the unit:
(1) What kind of houses had the early man?
(2) What were the main professions of the early man?
(3) How did they invent the clothes?

Recapitulation. The following questions will be put to the students in order to revise the whole
lesson:
(1) How did the early man get their food?
(2) Why did they feel the need of the houses?
(3) What do you know about the professions of the early man?
(4) What is the difference between the early man and the modern man?
Home Assignment. The students will be asked to write the story of the primitive man in their
notebooks at home.
Lesson Plan No. 2

Dramatized Lesson Plan
Class VI Topic: Indus Valley Civilization in India
Aims
To help the pupils (1) to come to know the most significant objects which have been found
by excavation at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, (2) to appreciate the high standard of civilization
which existed in India in the remote past, and (3) to take pride in being born in such a country
with such an ancient civilization.
Aids
(1) A map of India, showing Mohenjodaro and Harappa and also the river Indus.
(2) A time line (with 100 years as unit), showing the dates of the following civilizations:
The Babylonian, the Egyptian, the Chinese, the Indian, the Greek, and the Roman civili-
zation, the time line would be brought to the present date.
(3) The pictures of the most important finds are pasted on the cardboard and fastened with
string, so that they can be hung on the chest of the pupils.
Preparation
(1) The teachers should nominate a pupil (from volunteers) to play the role of the commen-
tator. They should come to the stage (space in front of the class). Another pupil, standing
behind the teacher’s desk should produce a metallic sound (by striking one iron piece
with another). The time line and map should hang on the wall.
(2) The commentator should look at the paper handed over to them by the teacher and say—
Hark! Listen to the sound. They are excavating Mohenjodaro (point to it on the map).
Excavation is going on in Harappa as well (point to it on the map), we are in 1921 (point
on the time line). Hark! Listen to the sound again. Two great cities have been unearthed.
People lived there more than 5,000 years ago (shows it on the time line). Now, with my
magic wand (moves the wand), I can make the people and objects in the cities come alive
and bid them to give evidence before you. They will tell you about themselves—about
the great civilization they developed—we shall call it the Indus Valley civilization (shows
the Indus valley on the map). This is the announcement of the lesson; the teacher should
write the lesson head on the blackboard.

Presentation
The commentator now calls a House to give evidence. A pupil, selected by the teacher plays the
role (the paper with the role written on it is handed over to him). ‘I am a house at Mohenjodaro.
Can you imagine my age? I am more than 5,000 years old! But I am not different from the houses
in which you live. I am very strong, made of large well-burnt bricks. I am very high too. If you
climb the stairs, you can go to the second floor—you would find a large hall with a well-paved
floor. You may rest there; if you desire to take a bath, you would find the bathroom nearby.’ (The
teacher should make a blackboard summary simultaneously as given below):
Dwelling houses—buildings made of well-burnt bricks, having baths, paved floors, etc.—
houses of varying sizes—wide roads—public bath.
Application
A few pupils should be called in to play some of the important roles. They should not be given any
paper to read out the part but may look at the blackboard and play the role.
Homework
The pupils should be asked to write a short account of what they know of the Indus Valley
civilization.
(Source: Effective Teaching of History in India, NCERT, 1975)
Lesson Plan No. 3

Lord Buddha and His Teachings
Subject: Social Studies Class VI
Topic: Buddha and His Teachings
Period: III [Duration: 40 Minutes]
Illustrative Aids
(1) The ordinary classroom apparatus.
(2) The four charts showing four scenes which changed the life of Buddha.
(3) The chart showing Buddha leaving his wife and son.
(4) The map of India for showing places associated with Buddha.
(5) The time Chart.
Specific Objectives
Knowledge
To help the pupils acquire the knowledge of facts regarding the impact of Buddhism on Indian life
in order to develop the understanding of the following major ideas:
(1) The superstitions and the rituals needed a change. Buddhism was antipriest in its out-
look and opposed to ritualism.
(2) The rigid caste system leading to persecution of the people of the lower castes was
rejected by Buddhism.

(3) The four Noble Truths and the Eight-Fold Path constituted the main teaching of
Buddha.
(4) The simplicity of Buddha’s teachings contributed to its popularity.
(5) Buddhism denied the efficiency of the Vedic rites and practices for the purpose of
salvation.
(6) Buddhism helped the Indian people in the development of art and culture.
(7) The principle of ‘Ahimsa’ permeated every walk of life of the Indian people.
(8) Buddhism served as a religion and philosophy of the developing empires, both native
and foreign in Ancient India.
(9) Buddha’s emphasis of Pali made it an all-India language.
(10) Buddhism by throwing a challenge stimulated the revival of Brahminical religions.
Skills
(1) Locating places associated with Buddhism in the map of the world.
(2) Preparing an album containing photographs and pictures of Buddha and Buddhist re-
mains.
(3) Comparing and contrasting Buddhism with other religions.
(4) Establishing cause–effect relationship between the facts and the events relating to the
spread and influence of Buddhism.
Attitudes
To help the pupils develop attitudes of the following:
(1) humanitarian outlook towards other living beings;
(2) promptness for the eradication of all types of social discriminations; and
(3) interest in the study of our national heritage.
Previous knowledge assumed. Students have already read Buddha.
Introduction. The following questions will be asked from the students to test their previous
knowledge:
(1) Name the religions of India.
(2) Who was the founder of Islam?
(3) Who was the founder of Christianity?
(4) Who was the founder of Sikhism?
Announcement of the aim. Well students, today, we shall read something about the life and
teachings of Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.
Matter Method
Sub-Unit—I 1. The picture of Buddha will be shown.
Early life, all kinds of facilities for a prince, 2. The place of birth will be shown in the map of India.
education of Buddha, all luxuries of life, man 3. The time chart will be shown to the students to give
of contemplation, social and cultural life of some idea of time.
the people, marriage of Buddha. 4. The matter will be narrated to the students.
(continued)

Sub-Unit—II Recapitulation
Buddha’s desire to see the mysteries of life, 1. What were the social and cultural conditions of India
four scenes, decision to leave the life of a when Buddha was born?
prince, and search for truth. 2. What kind of nature did Buddha possess?
1. Four scenes will be shown to the class
2. The chart showing Buddha leaving his wife and child
will be shown.
Sub-Unit—III Recapitulation
His wanderings from place to place, life of 1. What was the effect of the four scenes on his life?
austerity and penance, contemplation under 2. Why did he leave his home?
a ‘Peepal’ tree on the bank of a river near 1. A chart showing lean and thin Buddha sitting under a
Gaya. His teachings, ‘The Middle, Path, and ‘Peepal’ tree will be shown?
‘Eight-Fold Path’. 2. A chart depicting the Eight-Fold Path will be shown.
Recapitulation
1. What did Buddha do after leaving home?
2. Where did he find out the truth?
3. What were the eight principles of his teachings?
Blackboard summary. The early life of a prince, the world full of miseries, and the principal
teachings of Buddha.
Teaching Hints and Activities

1. The teacher should emphasize these points that the teachings of Buddha led to the
growth of universal brotherhood, public welfare, and simple and moral life.
2. A map of India should be used and places such as Kapilavastu, Bodha Gaya, Sarnath,
Rajgriha, Patliputra, Kosambi, and Ujjain should be located on it.
3. Stories from the Jalkas illustrative of Buddha’s teachings may be narrated in the class.
4. The pupils should be asked to collect sketches, photos, etc., of Buddha and his prominent
disciples, stupas, and temples.
5. The advanced students may be asked to meet in groups and make a comparative study of
different religions.
6. The pupils may be given the assignment of studying various aspects of Buddhism and
they should individually report these to the class.
7. The scenes from Buddha’s life may be dramatized.
8. Some of the pupils should be asked to prepare maps indicating the gradual spread of
Buddhism in India and abroad.
9. The films on the life and teachings of Buddha may be shown to the students and after that
they may be asked to write an essay on the main teachings of Buddha.
10. The teacher may suggest a suitable biography of Buddha in regional languages to the
pupils for reading at home.
11. The teacher may organize historical excursions to nearby places associated with Buddhism.
Evaluation
Below are given a few specimen test items which might help the teacher to evaluate the effectiveness
of their teaching, and the extent of students’ comprehension of the unit. The questions may be
supplemented by some other items prepared by the teacher.
1. Explain the contribution of Buddhism to the development of Indian art and culture.
2. What were the factors responsible for the popularity of Buddhism?

3. Answer the following questions in five to eight lines.

(i) What are the Four Noble Truths?
(ii) Enumerate the elements of the Eight-Fold Path.
(iii) Explain the main moral teachings of Buddhism.
4. In an outline map of India, show the places which were associated with the life of Buddha.
5. Tick off the most appropriate answer.
For salvation, according to Buddha, one must
(i) visit viharas and stupas.
(ii) practise the Eight-Fold Path as suggested by Buddha.
(iii) undergo penance (tapasya) for several years.
6. Which of the following is in keeping with the teachings of Buddha?
(i) Indiscriminate sacrifices of animals to different gods are the means to get salvation.
(ii) Good law (Dharma) is to be taught to all.
(iii) Special consideration for higher class and caste is to be shown by the sangha.
7. In what respects did Buddhism differ from the principles of other religions? Tick off the
correct answers.
(i) The virtues of pacifism and non-violence should be accepted by all.
(ii) Idol worship is necessary.
(iii) True religion consists in the formal observance of rituals.
8. Choose the appropriate words given below and fill up the blanks.
(i) Gandhiji adopted the method of............ to prosecute the national movement
(Violence, Non-violence, Cooperation)
(ii) The Harijans were converted to Buddhism under the leadership of.................
(Ambedkar, Anagarik Dharmapala, Dharmanand, Kosambi)
(iii) Buddha first preached at............. (Bodh Gaya, Rajgriha, Sarnath)
(iv) Ashoka depicted the teachings of Buddha on............ (walls, pillars, copper plates)
(Source: ‘Improving Instruction in History’, NCERT).
Lesson Plan No. 4

Class VI Topic: Propagation of Buddhism by Ashoka
Illustrative Aids
1. An outline map of India
2. A picture of a great stupa at Sanchi
3. Outline sketches of the pillar and rock edicts
4. A picture of Dharma Mahamatra.
General Aims: As in other topics
Specific Aims
1. To enable the students understand the measures adopted by Ashoka to promote principles
and teachings of Buddha.
2. To enable the students understand the lesson of tolerance and fellow feeling from the life
of Ashoka.

Previous Knowledge
(1) The students have studied about the early life of Ashoka.
(2) They have also studied about the conquest of Kalinga and its effects.
(3) They have learnt about the life of Buddha.
Introduction. Following questions will be asked to test the previous knowledge of the students:
1. What are the main teachings of Buddha?
2. Why did Ashoka invade Kalinga?
3. What was the effect of this war on the mind of Ashoka?
Statement of the Aim. Well students, today we shall study the measures adopted by Ashoka
for the propagation of Buddhism.
Presentation
What are the modern methods of propaganda?
Matter Method (Cinema, Radio, Press, TV)
Step 1. Ashoka appointed certain male and female (Correlation)
officers for the propagation of Buddhism. They
were also required to look to the morals of the Were these methods available during the time of
people and see that the law of piety was followed Ashoka?
by them. These officers were called Dharma
Mahamatras (censors of morals).
Step II. Building of Monasteries and Endowing
them
He built many monasteries and stupas at different 1. Why do people build temples?
places in the country. Stupa at Sanchi is very 2. Why were the stupas built so big in size?
famous. Buddhist monks got help from the royal (The construction of a stupa will be explained by
purse. showing the picture of the stupas and monasteries
at Sanchi)
The height of the stupa at Sanchi is 77 1/2°. It has Recapitulation
a diameter of 12 1/2°. It has a triple umbrella of 1. Why did Ashoka appoint Mahamatras?
stone at the top. There is a Pradakshna-path all 2. Where did the monks live?
round it. There are many monasteries attached to it.
These stupas and monasteries became the centres
of the diffusion of Buddhism. Keeping in view these
steps, Prof. Mojumdar has rightly remarked:
‘He (Ashoka) appeared as the torch-bearer,
who led the gospel of Buddhism from village to
village, from city to city, from province to province,
from country to country and from continent to
continent.’
Step III. Ashoka Caused Edicts to be Engraved
He caused edicts on the main teachings of 1. Why do people put up big hoardings at
Buddhism—‘Ahimsa’ (non-injury to animals), prominent places?
obedience to parents, reverence for the teachers, 2. What type of languages should be used in the
politeness to all, telling the truth, to be engraved on posters?
pillars, rocks, and barks of trees for the moral and 3. What was the language of the masses during
religious advancement of the people. They the time of Ashoka?
(continued)


were placed at the crossing or at the most frequent 4. What were the means of transport in the early
places so that everybody might read. They times?
have been found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Lauriya, 5. Which language did Ashoka choose for his
Nandangarh, etc. Their height is about 50′–60′. edicts?
Their weight is about 50 tons. The polished surface 6. Why did he choose this language?
of these pillars sometimes surprises the people. In
connection with the Asoka’s pillar at Ferozeshah (The construction of the pillar and rock edicts will
Kotla in Delhi which was brought from ‘Topra, be explained with the help of pictures.)
Bishop Herbert remarked, ‘It was a high black pillar
of cast metal.’ These pillars are found at far-off (The teacher will narrate how Topra edict was
places. ‘It is a mystery as to how they would had removed to Delhi by Ferozeshah Tughlaq a.d.
been moved to those places.’ 1356; 8,400 men were required to place it on cart
having 42 wheels.)
This method proved very useful in popularizing
Buddhism within his empire.
Step IV. Personal Example of Ashoka How can we mould others to our own way of life?
His personal example produced a very powerful
effect. He practised all those virtues which What principles did Ashoka accept and practise in
he wanted to preach to others. He became a his life to achieve this goal?
vegetarian after the Kalinga war. He had now
no attraction for hunting or enjoying dances. He Name the organization which is trying to establish
began to lead a pious life. He loved peace and peace in the world.
hated war, violence, and bloodshed. His practical
life made a deep impression on the minds of the (Correlation with UNO and its other organizations.)
people.
Step V. Buddhism as State Religion Ashoka made Recapitulation
Buddhism the State religion of his empire. Asoka’s 1. What is an edict?
successors were also Buddhists and Buddhism 2. Which is the State religion today?
continued to be the State religion for a long time in
India.
Step VI. Third Buddhist Council (Narration method will be adopted).
He called the third Buddhist Council at Patliputra Patliputra will be shown on the map.
in 252 b.c. to revise Buddhist scriptures and to
remove certain abuses that had crept into monastic
order.
Step VII. Works of Public Utility How can a government win the hearts of the
These measures were supplemented by practical people?
measures which won the goodwill of the people.
These works of public utility are best described in
his own words in Pillar edict VII.
‘On the roads I have had banyan trees planted to What did Ashoka do to make the lives of the
give shade to men and beasts. I have had groves masses happier?
of mango-trees planted, and at every half ‘Kos’. I
have had well dug, rest houses have been created
and numerous water plants have been prepared State some works of public utility which a
here and there for the enjoyment of both men and government undertakes for the welfare of the
beasts.’ people.
Step VIII. Buddhist Sacred Books were Written
in Pali
(continued)


Under his orders, the Buddhist sacred books were Which language is more effective for public
written in Pali, which were then in popular use. communication?
Since Pali was widely understood, it helped a good
deal in the spread of Buddhism.
Step IX. Religious Missions to Foreign Countries (Countries where Buddhism is found will be shown
He sent out missionaries to preach Buddhism in in the map).
the independent kingdoms of the far south Ceylon,
Syria, Egypt, and Macedonia.
Final Recapitulation
1. What were the duties of the Dharma Mahamatras?
2. What part did the edicts play in the propagation of Buddhism?
3. Why did Ashoka call the Buddhist Council?
4. What measures did Ashoka adopt to spread Buddhism in other countries?
Home Assignments
1. What were the methods adopted by Ashoka for the spread of Buddhism?
2. List five duties of the rulers
Lesson Plan No. 5

Class VI Topic: Life under the Mauryas
Aids: (1) A map of India showing the extent of Mauryan Empire.
(2) A picture of Sanchi Stupa.
(3) A time freeze of Mauryan Age.
(4) A picture showing prosperous people.
(5) A picture showing the functioning of a Municipality.
General aim—To enable the students understand that
(1) A vast and powerful empire under the Mauryas was established.
(2) Economic progress and prosperity through a strong central rule and unification of
large areas under the administration, was an important aim of the rulers.
(3) The rulers worked for promoting the cultural life of the people.
(4) For the first time, there was a successful attempt at evolving a common language for
the whole of India.
Specific aim. To familiarize the pupils with the social, economic, and religious life of people
under the Mauryas.
Introduction. To motivate the pupils for the lesson, the teacher may ask the following
questions:
(1) Who was the founder of the Mauryan Empire?
(2) What is his greatest contribution to Indian History?
(3) Who is a popular ruler?

Announcement of the aim. Today, we shall study how the establishment of a vast and
powerful empire under the Mauryas resulted in the economic progress, prosperity, and cultural
advancement of the people.
Presentation. Various activities will be undertaken for enlisting the cooperation of the pupils.
Blackboard summary will be developed along with the lessons.
Section I
Social Condition
(a) Society divided into four Varnas and other (The teacher may initiate the lesson by
castes presenting the following extracts from
Megasthenes’s INDICA)
(b) Family life—joint family system—position of (1) ‘People never drink wine except in
women. Women scholars sacrifices.’
(2) ‘They have no suits, no litigation about
pledges of deposits.
Evaluate Yourself
1. ‘Careful lesson Planning is the foundation of all good teaching’ Examine the statement.
2. ‘A lesson plan is a servant and not a master.’ Explain this statement with examples.
3. Prepare a lesson Plan of history for class VIII.
y Summary
1. The outline of lesson is based on the principles of learning. It is called the ‘lesson plan’.
2. The lesson plan is the smallest unit of the proposed teaching material of the teacher.
3. A lesson plan is actually a plan of action as it helps avoiding needless repetition.
4. The principle of writing the lesson plan, the statement of objectives, the orderly presentation,
the correlation, the teaching techniques, the use of blackboard, the flexibility, and the
evaluation exercises are the Principles of lesson planning.
5. The characteristics of an effective lesson Plan are—written, objective based, based on previous
knowledge, selection of subject matter, and suitable aids.
6. The approaches to lesson Planning are follows: Herbartian, unit or Morrison’s, Evaluation,
and RCEM approach.
7. Herbartian approach lesson plan is known as knowledge lesson plan.
8. Herbart suggested five steps, i.e., preparation, presentation, comparison, generalization, and
application.
9. Psychological, Inductive, and deductive methods. Simple and easy and use of previous
knowledge are the advantages of Herbartian lesson Planning.
10. Rigidity, vagueness, passivity, and difficult process are the limitations of Herbartian lesson
Planning.
11. The main features of a unit lesson plan are unit and subunit, material and aids, etc.
12. Exploration, presentation, assimilation, organization, and Recitation are steps involved in
unit lesson Plan.

13. Psychological, scientific, summary, content analysis, methods and aids, evaluation are the
merits of Bloom’s approach of lesson planning.
14. The features of RCEM approach are improvement and the use of system approach,.
15. Input, Process, and output are the three steps of RCEM approach to lesson Planning.
16. The types of lessons are knowledge lesson, skill lesson, and appreciation lesson.
17. The yearly plan of social studies teaching plays a very important role in teaching–learning
process and proper management.
y References
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pelagicus of Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers,
pp. 465–475.
Aggarwal, J.C 2006. Teaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
Pathak, R.P. 2003. New Dimensions of Educational Technology. New Delhi: Radha Prakashan,
Ansari Road, Daryaganj, pp.195–205.
Mehra, V. 1995. Educational Technology. Delhi: S.S. Publishers, P.110.
Das, R.C. 1993. Educational Technology—A Basic Text. Delhi: Sterling Publishers, pp. 80–85.
Additional Readings
Huseum, T. and Postleth Waite, T.N. 1994. The International Encyclopedia of Education. London:
Pergamon.
Clayton, T.E. 1995. Teaching and Learning: Psychological Perspective. Delhi: Prentice Hall.
Moffatt, M.P. 1965. Social Studies Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall Inc.
Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1996. Teaching of social studies in Indian Schools. Baroda:
Acharya Book Depot.


Evaluation in Social Studies
12
Evaluation is an important component of teaching—learning process. It is a concept that
has emerged as a prominent process of testing, measuring, assessing, and appraising. Its
main objective is qualitative improvement. In the other words, evaluation is a process
of making value judgement over the level of performance or achievement. It is not only
concerned with the appraisal of achievement, but also concerned with its improvement.
Evaluation is a continuous process, all pervasive and dynamic in a situation where the
objectives of a course or a programme relating to total development call for a variety of
cognitive and non-cognitive experiences.
Evaluation is an important part of the whole programme of education. The teaching–learning

process will not be completed without evaluation. For every programme, education is necessary.
It gives us information about what we have achieved so far and what yet to be achieved. Therefore,
it is an important aspect of social studies. In the teaching–learning process, some instructional
objectives are fixed. By evaluation, we can know whether these instructional objectives are being
achieved or not? Therefore, evaluation is an integral process of teaching and learning situation.
y Meaning and Concept of Evaluation

Evaluation is a broader term. When we ask what does evaluation mean, then many may not be
able to explain. Different people may give different answers.
We can define evaluation as one of the following:
• n Conducting examinations.
• n Assigning the division or grade for students based on their marks in different subjects.
• n Organizing various competitions.
• n Preparing question papers for examinations.
Evaluation means:
• n A systematic process.
• n Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data.
• n Assignment of symbols.
• n Achievement of instructional objectives.
• n It answers the question ‘how good’.

y Definition of Evaluation
Wiles—‘Evaluation is a process of making judgment that are to be used as a basis for planning.
It consists of establishing goals, collecting evidence concerning lack of growth towards goals, making
judgments.’ It is a procedure for improving the product, the process, and even the goals themselves.
Clara M. Brown—‘Evaluation is essential in the never-ending cycle of formulating goals,
measuring progress towards them and determining the new goals which merge as a result of new
warning.’
Evaluation involves measurement, which means objective quantitative evidence. However, it
is broader than measurement and implies that considerations have been given to certain values,
standards and that interpretation of the evidence has been made in the light of the particular situation.
National Curriculum Framework (NCF) ‘For School Education 2005’—‘Evaluation is a
systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting evidences of students’ progress and
achievement both in cognitive and non-cognitive areas of learning for the purpose of taking
variety of decisions.’
In order to understand the term ‘evaluation’, it is important to understand the term
‘measurement’. Both the terms are not synonyms. There is a slight differencebetween them. When
we say that a newborn baby has a weight of 3 kg, it refers to measurement. However, when we say
that the weight of the newborn baby is good, it refers to evaluation. Take another example, suppose
a student secured 40 marks out of 50 in an examination, it refers to measurement; however, if we
say that the students has secured above first class mark, then it refers to the term ‘evaluation’.
Measurement is the process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an
individual possesses particular characteristics (e.g., answers the question ‘How much?’).
Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to
determine the extent to which the pupils are achieving the instructional objectives (e.g., answers
the question ‘How good?’).
Schematically, the concept of educational evaluation may be presented by showing the
relationship among objectives, content (subject-matter), learning activities and evaluation
procedures (testing) (Figure 12.1).
Content
(Curriculum, Syllabus, Courses, Textbooks)
Objectives Evaluative Procedure

(Well defined purposes (Oral test, Written test,
of instruction) observation)
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
(Methods, Experiments, Discussions, Questions,
Demonstrations, etc.)
Figure 12.1 Aspects of educational evaluation

Evaluation in Social Studies  201
y Difference Between Measurement and Evaluation

From the above paragraphs, we might have understood the meaning of evaluation and
measurement. Table 12.1 explains how ‘evaluation’ differs from ‘measurement’.
Table 12.1 Differences Between Measurement and Evaluation

Measurement Evaluation
1. It is narrow in concept. 1. It is much more comprehensive term than
measurement.
2. It is limited to quantitative descriptions of pupils. 2. It includes both quantitative and qualitative
descriptions.
3. It does not always include value judgement. 3. It always includes value judgement.
4. It answers the question ‘how much?’ 4. It answers the questions ‘how good?’
5. It deals with numbers. 5. It deals with degree.
6. It is a means not an end. 6. It is a means to an end.
The role of evaluation is depicted in Figure 12.2.
Evaluation
Measurement and/or Non-measurement
(e.g. Testing) (e.g. Informal Observation)
Plus Plus
Value judgements
(e.g. Good learning progress)
Figure 12.2 Role of evaluation
y Principles of Good Evaluation

In the previous sections, we have defined the term ‘evaluation’ and also differentiated the term
‘evaluation’ from ‘measurement’. Now, what principles should we follow for the evaluation? Let us
discuss the principles of good evaluation as follows:
• n Evaluation must be done in terms of the purpose of the programme—all of them.
• n Evaluation should be related to the total learning situation.
• n Evaluation should look beyond the learning situation.
• n Evaluation must be carried on as continuing process.
• n Evaluation should be carried on as an integral part of instruction.
• n Evaluation should take into consideration the dynamic quality of growth and development.
• n E
valuation should be carried on as a co-operative (teachers, students, parents, head
master, and officers).
• n Selections of appropriate evaluation techniques.

Developing an Effective Programme for Social Studies

y

For the development of an effective programme of social studies, the teacher must be acquainted
with the following:
• n The objective of social studies in respect to the subject as a whole, in general, and the
consistent subject and specific unit, in particular.
• n The relationship among objectives, learning experiences, and evaluation.
• n The different purposes of evaluation, i.e., diagnosis, guidance, grading and classifying, etc.
• n The elementary theory and practice of measurement.
• n The techniques and tools of evaluation—their preparation and uses.
• n The following procedure (Figure 12.3) to utilize the ‘feedback’ in the classroom.
Formulate objectives Analyse learning task Decision learning system

Develop tests Implement and evaluate output
Feedback loops Modify, Change, Improve
Figure 12.3 A System Flowchart
y Evaluation in Social Studies

The subject of social studies aims at helping the child to develop social skills as are necessary
for the effective participation in social life and ultimately to become enlightened citizens, which
means that it is a subject which is concerned with introducing changes in the behaviour of the
pupils naturally; therefore, the evaluation in social studies is the process of determining the
kind and extent of changes in the behaviour of children that result from experiences designed to
promote social learning.
In view of the special nature of the subject, the evaluation of the work of the pupils should
comprise the following:
• n Testing knowledge of facts.
• n Testing powers of intellect—such as the powers of critical thinking and arriving at
judgments.
• n Testing the various skills necessary for realizing in full the aims of social studies.
• n Testing attitudes and interests.
Techniques of Evaluation in Social Studies

Information about students’ growth in various areas of educational development can be collected
through different techniques. For testing knowledge of facts, comprehension, critical thinking,
etc., the following types of tests are used.
• n Oral tests.
• n essay-type tests.
• n short-answer-type tests.
• n objective-type tests.

Oral Tests
These tests can be used for individual testing. In social studies, oral testing offers opportunity
to test in depth, especially, a student’s independent thinking. On the spot correction is possible
if the pupil given an incomplete answer. In addition to the day-to-day classroom testing, oral
tests can be used at least twice a year for testing the promptness in knowledge of facts or express
ideas coherently on a topic.
Limitations of Oral Tests

• n It is time consuming.
• n It may subjective.
• n Judging on the spot is comparatively an imperfect measuring device.
Essay-type Tests
In this type of tests, the pupils are asked to write the answer for about three to four pages or
300–400-words. Attempt is made to test student’s ability to recall, organize, integrate ideas, apply
principles, and describe events, persons, and places.
Examples of Essay-type Tests

(1) Describe the causes of education backwardness of India. What steps can be taken to
eradicate this problem?
(2) What is globalization? Discuss the impact of globalization in India since it is
introduced.
(3) Discuss the contribution of M.K. Gandhi to the Indian freedom struggle.
Merit of Essay-type Tests

• n It measures complex learning outcomes.
• n It emphasizes on the integration and application of thinking and problem-solving skills.
• n It is easy to construct.
Limitations of Essay-type Tests

• n Unreliability of the scoring.
• n Subjectivity in scoring.
• n Time-consuming to score the answers.
• n Limited sampling of topics to be measured.
Short-Answer-type Tests
Short-answer-type questions are set to which pointed answers have to be given. Answers may vary
from one word to 50 words. The main purpose is to test a large amount of knowledge, abilities, and
understandings within a short time. Language does not play a predominant part in the answers.
Example of Short-answer-type Tests

(1) Write one of the fundamental rights of Indian constitution.
(2) Name the first President of India.
(3) What is the scripture of Jainism?
(4) What is standard time?
(5) What is WHO?

Merits of Short-answer-type Tests

• n It is easy to construct.
• n It provides large sampling of topics to be measured.
• n It is easy to score.
• n It reduces the possibility of guessing.
Limitations of Short-answer-type Tests

• n Unsuitable for measuring complex learning outcomes.
• n Language ability of the students can not be measured.
• n It gives emphasis upon note learning.
Objective-type Tests
A thorough and precise exploration of the mind of each child is the central purpose of objective-
type tests. A variety of items can be employed for the testing. There is subjectivity of scoring these
tests. Large sampling of topics can be provided on these tests.
Examples of Objective-type Tests

(1) Gautam Buddha was died at …………….
(2) First Battle of Panipet was held in ………….
(i) ad 1215
(ii) ad 1530
(iii) ad 1526
(iv) ad 1506
(3) Write ‘T’ if the statement is true and write ‘F’ if the statement is false.
The President of India always works on the advice of the cabinet.
Merits of Objective-type Tests

• n Objectivity of scoring.
• n They can cover a great deal of subject matter.
• n They are easy to score.
• n They require minimum use of language.
• n There is no chance for teacher to show favouritism or personal bias.
• n These eliminate bluffing.
• n These tests are easy to administer.
• n These tests give greater satisfaction to the pupils.
Limitations of Objective-type Tests

• n Pupils do not have an opportunity to show their liability to organize their thought.
• n These tests do not diagnose the students’ difficulties.
• n They fail to check cramming.
• n They encourage guessing.
• n They fail to test abilities such as language, analyzing, comparing, interpreting, and reasoning.
Types of Objective-type Tests

There are different types of objective-type tests. They are discussed in the following sections.

Multiple choice A multiple-choice item consists of a problem and a list of suggested solutions.
The problem may be stated as a direct question or an incomplete statement and is called the stem
of the item. The list of suggested solutions is called alternatives. The correct alternative in each
item is called the answer and the remaining alternatives are called distracters.
Example of Multiple Choice of Objective Test
(1) Buddha was born at ……
(i) Patliputra
(ii) Sarnath
(iii) Lumbini
(iv) Nalanda
(2) The main characteristics of the climate in Mediterranean land is
(i) Hot wet summer and cold dry winter.
(ii) Hot dry summer and cold wet winter.
(iii) Hot dry summer and warm dry winter.
True or False or Yes or No The alternative response test item consists of a declarative statement
that the pupil is asked to mark true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes or no, fact or
opinion, agree or disagree, and the like. In each case, there are only two possible answers.
The most common use of true–false is in measuring the ability to identify the correctness
of statements of fact, definitions of terms, statements of principles, and the like. These items also
measure the ability to recognize cause-and-effect relationships.
Examples of True or False or Yes or No Put ‘T’ against the statement if it is true and put ‘F’
if the statement is false.
(1) Mahavir is called ‘Jina’.
(2) Buddha preached his first sermon at Kushinagar.
(3) The President of India is elected directly by the people.
(4) Adam smith defined economics as ‘the science of wealth’.
Matching Test
The matching test consists of two parallel columns with each word, number, or symbol in one
column being matched to a word, sentence, or phrase in the other column. The items in the
column for which a match is sought are called premises and the items in the column from which
the selection is made are called responses.
The pupil’s task to identify the pairs of the items that are to be associated on the basis indicated.
Examples of Matching Test Match the items of column ‘A’ with the appropriate items of the
column ‘B’
‘A’ ‘B’
ad 1526 The Quit India Movement
261 bc Accession of Harsha the throne
ad 1942 Kalinga War
ad 606 The First Battle of Panipat
ad 1920 Dandi March
Non-Cooperation Movement

Sequence Test
Some items are given. The student’s task is to arrange the items in a chorological order.
Example of Sequence Test
Q. Arrange the following in sequence:
Cripps Mission
Minto-Morley reforms
The Tragedy of Jalianwala Bagh
The Dandi March
Battle of Palassey
First War of Indian Independence
Third of Battle of Panipat
Classification Test
Items are presented. One of these items does not belong to the class to which all other items
belong. The pupil’s task is to find that item. By classifying these items, the student has to recognize
that item which does not belong to the same group or class.
Examples of Classification Test
Q. Underline the name which is different from the other.
(1) Chaitanaya, Gurunanak, Buddha, Kalidas
(2) Babar, Humayun, Akbar, Ashoka
Completion-type Test
Hence, questions asked only involve the filling in of a proper name, date, significant facts, etc. The
task of the student is only to fill the gaps by appropriate words either given in the brackets or by
recalling. Such type of questions test the knowledge facts.
Examples of Completion-type Test
(1) A person holding the office of the … is eligible to become the President of India.
(collector, governor, commissioner, major general, army contractor)
(2) …is the father of Mahabir Vardhaman.
Recall-type Test
In this test, simple and small answers have to be given for the given questions. They mainly test
knowledge.
Examples of Recall-type Test
(1) Which is the leading country in jute production in the world?
(2) Which country’s per capita income is the highest in the world?
(3) What percentage of people is literate in India according to 2001 census?
Evaluate Yourself
1. Explain the concept of evaluation.
2. Define the evaluation and differentiate measurement and evaluation.
3. Discuss the techniques of evaluation in social studies.
4. Evaluate the merits and limitations of objective-type tests.
5. Explain the merits and limitations of essay-type tests.

y Summary
1. Evaluation is an important component of teaching–learning process.
2. It gives us information about what we have achieved so far and what yet to be achieved.
3. Evaluation is a broader term than measurement.
4. Measurement is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to determine
the extent to which the pupils are achieving the instructional objectives.
5. Measurement is limited to quantitative descriptions whereas evaluation includes both
quantitative and qualitative descriptions.
6. Total learning situation, continuing process, integral part of instruction and dynamic quality
of growth and development are the main principles of good evaluation.
7. Techniques of evaluation in social studies are oral tests, essay-type tests, short-answer-type
tests and objective-type test, etc.
8. Each test has its own merits and limitations.
y References
Aggarwal, J.S. 2006. Teaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
Tyagi, G. 1989. Teaching of Social Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, pp. 217–220.
Mehrotra, P.N. and Sidana, A.K. 2006. Social Study Teaching. Jaipur: Shiksha Prakashan,
pp. 317–320.
Bais, N.S. 2006. Teaching of Social Science. Jaipur: Jain Prakashan Mandir, pp. 121–123.
Pathak, R.P. 2010. Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributor,
Ansari Road, Daryaganj, pp. 80–81.
Bhattacharya, S. and Darji D.R. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Acharya
Book Depot.
Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in Mass Society. Pennsylvania: International Text Book
Company.
Highet, G. 1951. The Art of Teaching. London: Methuen and Company Ltd.
NCERT, National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005), MHRD, Government of India.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aggarwal, J.C. 1992. Teaching of Social Studies: A Practical Approach. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House.
Barr, A. et al. 1977. The International Encyclopedia of Education. New York: Penguin Press.
Bhattacharya, S. and Darji D.R. 1966. Teaching of Social Studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Acharya
Book Depot.
Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1985. Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools. Toronto:
New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in a Mass Society. Pennsylvania: International Text book
Company.
Clark, L.H. 1973. Teaching Social Studies in Secondary Schools: A Handbook. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co., Line.
Dale, E. 1969. Audio-Visual Method in Teaching. New York: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Dhand, H. 1991. A Handbook for Teachers: Research in Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi:
Ashish Publishing House.
Forrester, J.F. 1948. Introducing Social Studies. Bombay: Orient Longmans Publishing Co. Ltd.
Hass, K.B. and Packer, H.Q. 1955. Preparation and Use of Audio Visual Aids. New York: Prentice
Hall.
Hemming, J. 1990. The Teaching of Social Studies in a Secondary School. London: New York,
Longmans, Green & Co.
High, J. 1962. Teaching Secondary Schools Social Studies. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Horn, E. 1937. Methods of Instruction in the Social Studies. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Kochar, S.K. 1990. The Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
Michaelis, J.V. 1962. Social Studies for Children in a Democracy. New York: Prentice Hall Inc.
Morrison, H.C. and Sharma, R.A. 1934/1993. Technology of Teaching. Meerut: International
Publishing House.
Moffatt, M.P. 1990. Social Studies Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc.
National Curriculum Framework for School Education NCERT (2000), Govt. of India New Delhi.
Stones, E. and Morris, S. 1972. Teaching Practices, Problem and Prospective. London: Methuen &
Co. Ltd.
Nesiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the Schools. London: Geoffery Cumberlege, Oxford University
Press.
Wesley, A. and Adams, M.A. 1952. Teaching Social Studies in Elementary Schools. Boston: DC,
Health and Co.
Wittch, W.A. and Schullar, C.F. 1957. Audio-Visual Materials. New York: Harper and Brothers.
M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_Bib.indd 209 17/12/11 7:34 PM

M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_Bib.indd 210 17/12/11 7:34 PM

Index
A B
A.H.T. Glover, 166 B.K. Passi (1976), 129, 136, 146
Additional legitimation, 2 Bal bhawan, 113
Adult approach, 3 Bandura, 149, 151
Advantage of deductive method, 83 Basic principle of problem-solving method, 77
Advantage of inductive Basic principle of project method, 88
method, 81 Battle of Palassey, 206
Advantage of micro-teaching, 143 Beautification work, 92
Advantage of problem-solving Bhagat Singh, 13
method, 79 Biography of Buddha, 191
development of initiative and Biography of national hero, 13
self-dependence, 79 Bloom’s evaluation, 172, 185
development of self-expression, 80 Bloom’s Taxonomy, 152, 177
development of social quality, 79 Bodha Gaya, 191
intellectual development, 79 Buddhism by Ashoka, 192
Advantage of unit lesson plan, 171 Bulletin board, 35–36, 110, 117
Agency of project method, 91 precaution for use, 36
Agricultural crop, 8 use of, 36
Akbar, 14, 206 Burton’s view, 87
All India Radio, 42 Bush, 130
Allen and Eve, 142
Allen and Ryans, 135
Amavasiya, 169, 175–176, 179, 180 C
Amazon rain forest, 112 Carl Rogers, 57
Amidon, 17 Carter V. Good, 159
Analytic method, 84–85 Central and State Government, 110
Application of knowledge, 162 Chandragupta Maurya, 102
Appreciation lesson, 182 Characteristic of model of teaching, 150
Step pf, 182 Characteristic of good questioning, 103
Art of storytelling, 71 Characteristic of good teaching method, 57
Arthur C. Bining, 72 Characteristic of social studies teacher, 119
Artistic and recreative, 167 personality, 5, 17, 45, 63, 65, 88, 91, 100, 114,
Atlas, 41, 58, 66, 73, 110 120, 127, 153–154, 155, 158
Audio aid, 32, 43 scholarship, 119–120, 127
Audio-visual aid, 32, 43 teaching skill, 120–121, 127, 130–137, 141–147,
Australia, 144 154, 163, 181
M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_Ind.indd 211 02/01/12 8:42 PM

212  Index
Child psychology, 51, 163 David Warwick, 154

Child’s activity, 160 D.D. Tiwari, 129
Child’s mental make-up, 165 Deductive method, 59, 81–84, 86, 107, 165, 196
Children psychology, 46 advantage of, 83
Children-centred curriculum, 46, 51 limitation of, 83
Classroom interaction, 20, 132, 142, 163, 173, 177 Defect in method of note dictation, 75
Clear-cut goal, 88 Defining educational process, 4, 8
Closed-circuit television, 130 Demerit of Bloom’s Approach, 174
Collection of data, 24, 78, 115 Democratic citizenship, 5, 17, 115
Comenius, 53–55 Democratic value, 6, 9, 45–47, 51
Communication media, 26, 29 Demonstration apparatus, 171
oral, 26 Demonstration, 14, 33, 111, 121, 131, 134, 144,
written, 26–27 164, 171, 178, 181, 200
Communication model, 139 Department of teacher education, 144
Communication system, 14, 50 Developing interpersonal relationship, 17
fax, 14 Development of effective programme, 202
internet, 14, 42 Dewey, 56, 86–87
mobile phone, 14 Diagrammatic representation, 37, 43, 133
telephone, 14, 68, 113–114 Differences between measurement and
Community survey, 51, 68, 115 evaluation, 201
Community-centred curriculum, 47, 51 Difference between micro-teaching and
Comparison between analytic method and traditional teaching, 132
synthetic method, 86 Difference between problem method and project
Comparison between inductive method and method, 76
deductive method, 84 Difference between social science and
Comprehensive term, 11, 201 social study, 3
Computer, 42, 44, 57 Different teaching method of
Concept of evaluation, 199, 206 social study, 58
Concept of social studies, 1, 3, 5, 7–9 Dignity of labour, 93
Concept of teaching, 17, 29, 146 Din-E-Elahi, 14
Congenial and co-operative environment, 78 Disadvantage of homework, 62
Constitutional obligation, 7 Discussion method, 58, 64, 68, 107
Controversial issue, 24–25, 42 limitations of, 65
Co-operative effort, 90 merit of, 65
Core curriculum, 6, 9 organization of, 64
Core training programme package, 121 Division of method, 57
Correction method, 64 Dorothy Thompson, 12
C.P. Ramaswamy, 14 Dr. Cox, 99
Crow and crow, 45 Dr. E.A. Pires, 153
Cultural and seasonal festival, 116 Dr. J.A. Stevenson, 87
Cultural heritage, 4, 7, 11 Dr. Kilpatrick, 90
Cultural preservation, 7 Dr. N.L. Dosajh, 129
Dr. Sampurnanand, 14
Dramatization method, 59, 73, 75
D Duggal and Sharma, 132
Dalton Plan, 18, 58, 96–100, 107 Duty of teacher in dalton plane, 97
difficulty of, 99 keeping equipment up-to-date and in
limitation of, 99 proper order, 97
merit of, 98 keeping full record, 97
David H. Bining, 72 preparing assignment, 97

Index  213
E Guru Nanak, 12
Gyan-darshan, 42
Edgor dale, 32
Educational philosophy, 53–54
Educational psychology, 53 H
Educational trip, 89 H.C. Hill, 66
Educational value, 77, 90, 106 H.N. Rivilin, 69
Effective lesson plan, 159, 161–162, 196 H.R. Douglass, 59
Emile, 54 Hampton curriculum, 2
Environmental and seasonal factor, 91 Harappa, 41, 188
Equipment of social studies laboratory, 110 Harsha, 14
Essential of good project, 91 Harmonious development, 45, 51, 180
Esprit de corps, 74 Harvard University, 155
Evaluation in social studies, 199, 201–203, Helen Parkhurst, 96, 107
205–207 Herbart Ward, 55
Expected Behavioural Outcome, 177, 179–180 Herbartian Approach, 163, 165, 170, 177, 196
Herbartian lesson plan model, 168
lunar eclipse, 168, 169, 170, 175, 176,
F 178, 179, 180
Fa-Hein, 14 solar eclipse, 168, 169, 170, 176, 179, 180
Fascist Italy, 66 Herbartian method, 87
Film, 28, 32, 41–43, 69, 115, 133, 141, 144, 160, 191 Herbartian scheme, 166
F. Theodore Struck, 100 Herbartian step, 54, 165–167, 185
Frank Roscoe, 55 Herbartian theory, 54
Fruitful discussion, 80 Heuristic attitude, 85
Heuristic spirit, 85–86
Historic event, 13
G dandi march, 13, 205, 206
Gage, 18 jallianwala bagh tragedy, 13
Gandhiji, 42, 50, 56, 74, 192 non-cooperation movement, 13, 205
Gautam Buddha, 12, 204 quit india movement, 13, 205
G.H. Betts, 59 History of festival, 12
General education, 1, 8 diwali, 13, 43
Geographical environment, 4 holi, 13
Geographical knowledge, 74 mohram, 13
Germany, 54, 66 onam, 13
Glaser basic teaching model, 151 History of national flag, 14
Globe, 28, 32, 41, 44, 109, 110, 117 Home assignment, 61, 171, 188, 195
Good communicator, 126–127 Hughe and Hughe, 182
Good teaching diagnose, 20 Human affair, 2–3
Good’s dictionary of education, 31, 75 Human behaviour, 2
Government central pedagogical institute, 129 Human environment, 2, 4, 5, 8
Great didactic, 53 Human relationship, 2, 3, 8, 17, 45, 51, 125
Great stupa, 192 Hydro-electricpower station, 114
Group discussion, 48, 51, 65, 97, 178
Group dynamic, 20, 22
Group interaction, 93 I
Group psychology, 22 I.B.Berkson, 125
Grover’s scheme, 167 Impact of globalization in India, 203
Gur Govind Sing, 12 Importance of community resource, 113, 116

214  Index
Importance of lesson planning, 160 limitation of, 67

India’s foreign policy, 24 merit of, 67
Indian civilization, 7, 49 significance of, 66
Indian education, 2, 177 Lester B. Sands, 158
Indira Gandhi national open university, 42 Life insurance corporation, 19
Inductive method, 81, 82, 84, 86, 165 Life of Buddha, 41, 74, 92, 95, 189, 192, 193
Step in, 81 Life under Maurya, 195
Indus Valley civilization, 188–189 Limitation of lecture method, 67
Instructional material, 19, 130, 138, 149–150 Limitation of analytic method, 85
Intellectual horizon, 20 Limitation of herbartian approach, 165
Interaction of group life, 98 Limitation of inductive method, 82
Interactive process, 17, 29 Limitation of micro-teaching, 143
Internet, 14, 42 Limitation of oral test, 203
Isha Masih, 12 Limitation of project method, 94
collateral reading, 94
expensive material, 94
J haphazard teaching, 94, 161
James Welton, 56 lack of competent teacher, 95
Jawaharlal Nehru, 13 Limitation of source method, 70
Johann amos comenius, 53 Limitation of synthetic method, 86
Johann Friedrich Herbart, 54
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, 54
John Adams, 97 M
John Dewey’s philosophy of education, 86 M.K. Gandhi, 203
John V. Michaels, 17 M.L. Jacks, 126
M.P. Moffatt, 109
Madam Montessori, 56
K Mahatma Gandhi, 13
Kabir, 12 Mahaveer, 12
Kalinga war, 72, 194, 205 Map, 40
Kapilavastu, 191 type of, 40
Kargil war, 13 Mastery test, 171
Kashmir issue, 24 Mauryan Empire, 195
Kindergarten stage, 54 McDonald, 142
Kind of project, 89 Mean of communication, 95
consumer type, 89 Meaning of integration, 11
drill type, 89 Meaning of project method, 87
problem type, 89 Mechanical art, 74
producer’s type, 89 Mechanical device, 55
Mechanical gadget, 145
Meerabai, 12
L Mental engine, 21
L.C. Singh, 130, 136, 144, 146, 149 Merit of analytic method, 85
Laboratory method, 58, 66, 68 Merit of bloom’s approach, 174
Learning by doing (activity method), 55 Merit of Herbartian’s step, 165
Learning by experience, 56 Merit of project method, 93
Learning by play way method, 55 Merit of source method, 70
Learning by self-education, 56 Merit of synthetic method, 85
Learning condition and structure, 28 Method of dictating note, 75
Lecture method, 57–58, 66–68, 107 Michael J. Apter, 154

Index  215
Michael, 2, 9, 17 Philosophy of idealism, 66

Micro-teaching procedure, 129, 133–134, 144 Physical activity, 18, 80
Micro-teaching supervisor, 140 Physical environment, 2, 5, 17, 20
Military spirit, 20 Physical geography, 8
Miniature of discipline, 92 Play selection, 74
Modern methodology, 53 Possibility of correlation, 82
Mohanjdaro, 41 Preliminary question and introductory
Montessori method, 98 question, 101
Morrison’s approach, 163, 170 President of India, 203–206
Municipal committee, 48–49 Preston, 12
Principle of activity, 18, 88
N Principle of correlation, 18, 95, 160
Principle of flexibility, 19, 46, 160
Nagar-Palika, 113 Principle of good evaluation, 201
Nalanda university, 64 Principle of micro-teaching, 135
National anthem, 14 Principle of teaching, 18
National council, 2 type of teaching principle, 18
National curriculum framework, 7, 200 general principle, 18
National integration, 6, 9, 11–15, 42, 168 psychological principle, 18
definition of, 12 Principle of assigning homework, 63
meaning and concept of, 11 Problematic act, 87–88
need of, 12 Problem-solving method, 58, 75–81, 86, 107
National song, 14 advantage of, 79
National unity, 11, 14–15, 49–50 aim of, 76
Nazi Germany, 66 characteristics of, 76
NCERT, 2, 121, 129, 144, 146, 148, 189, 192, 207 limitation of, 80
Neglecting physical activity, 80 major approach in, 81
Netherland, 129 principle of, 77
Newspaper clipping, 36 role of teacher in, 79
Newspaper, 14, 36, 43, 44, 69, 70, 110, 111, 113, step in, 78
114, 120 Professor H.C. Morrison, 170
N.L. Bossing, 59, 69, 75 Professor William Kilpatrick, 87
Non-physical characteristic, 2, 8 Programme of teaching, 4
Note dictation method, 59, 74–75 Project method, 49, 57–58, 76, 86–89, 91–95, 100,
NSS and NCC programme, 115 107, 109
meaning of, 87
O principle of, 88
kind of, 89
Observation method, 58, 68 Psychological law of learning, 93
technique of observation method, 68 Psychological principle of learning, 88
Psychological principle of teaching, 18
P Psychologically sound, 18, 81
Psychologies instruction, 54
P.C. Wren, 61
Purnima, 169, 176, 178, 179
Panel discussion, 14
Purpose of home task, 62
Parents teacher association, 116
Purpose of question, 100, 107
Parliament, 13, 42, 70
Payne, 45
Phase of micro-teaching, 134 R
knowledge acquisition, 134, 147 Rahu and Ketu, 168, 175
skill acquisition, 134, 147 Rascoe, 105

216  Index
RCEM lesson-plan model, 178 Story of Asoka, 72

Real learning outcome, 177–180 Storytelling method, 59, 71, 75
Red Cross, 18, 78 Study of social studies curriculum for
Regional College of Education, 177 different stage, 48
Religious festival, 116 middle stage, 49
Review method, 59, 69, 75 primary stage, 48–49
purpose of, 69 senior secondary stage, 50–51
Revolution of China, 13 Study of society, 1
R.L. Stevenson, 158 Subhas Chandra Bose, 13, 104
Robert Glaser, 151 Successful teaching, 19–21, 109
R. Strang, 72 Suggested assignment procedure, 61
Rousseau, 53–55 Supervised study method, 59, 72, 75
Routine affair, 21 Symbolic modelling, 144
Rusk’s, 75 Synthetic method, 85, 86, 107
Russian revolution, 13
Ryburn, 72, 87, 100
T
Teacher’s Act, 121
S Teacher-Pupil Act, 122
Sansad Bhawan, 114 Teaching variable, 23
Sardar Patel, 104 dependent variable, 23
Science laboratory, 60 independent variable, 23
Scope of social study, 4 intervening variable, 23
Secondary education commission, 2, 54, 58, 111 Teaching–learning objective, 27, 173
Seminar, 14 Teaching–learning process, 19–22, 64, 73, 80,
Sense of rhythm, 73, 153 104–105, 107, 109, 127, 152, 154, 161,
Short-answer-type test, 202–204, 207 172, 174, 197, 199, 207
Significance of instructional aid, 32, 43 Technique of evaluation in social studies, 202
Skill of stimulus variation, 136, 142 Type of test, 202
Smith, 18, 183, 205 essay-type test, 202, 203, 206, 207
Social education center, 56 objective-type test, 202, 204, 206, 207
Social scientist, 17, 23 oral test, 178, 200, 202, 203, 207
Social studies curriculum, 7, 32, 45–51, 80 Technique of questioning, 103
Social studies laboratory, 109, 110, 112, 117 Technological development, 14
Social studies museum, 111–112, 117 The education commission of India, 5
Socialized recitation, 73, 109 The secondary education commission, 2, 54,
Socio-economic development, 1 58, 111
Sociological laboratory, 96 The southern workman, 2
Source method, 50, 59, 69, 70, 71, 75, 107 Theoretical discussion, 146
category of, 69 Thomas Jesse Jones, 2
primary source, 69 Three-dimensional representation, 37, 41,
secondary source, 69, 70 43, 44
Stanford Teacher Competence Appraisal Tragedy of Jalianwala Bagh, 206
Guide, 141 Transform education, 5
Stanford University, 129, 147 T.S. Avinashilingam, 55
Status of core curriculum, 6, 9
practical reason, 6, 9
psychological reason, 6 U
sociological reason, 6 UNESCO, 110
Step of evaluation approach, 173 Unit approach, 163, 170, 185

Index  217
United States, 2
Unity in diversity, 11, 12
W
University of Chicago, 66, 154, 155 W.N. Drum, 59
Unnatural and unpsychological, 83 Webster dictionary, 38
USA, 1, 2, 129, 144, 145, 155 Whole educational system, 14
Utilizing community resource, 112, 116 Whole-hearted purposeful activity, 87
Wilhelm August Froebel, 54
Wilson and Wilson, 76
Witch and schullar, 37, 39
V Women’s reservation bill, 24
V.D. Ghate, 74 World trade organization, 24
Valuable community resource, 113
Verbal description, 32 Y
Verbal memorizing work, 62
Yearly plan of social studies teaching, 184, 197
Village panchayat, 57, 92
Yokam and Simpson, 75, 79
Village survey, 92, 95
Visual representation of numerical
data, 39 Z
Visyesaraya, 14 ZEE TV, 42

Teaching of Social Studies

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Teaching of Social Studies

M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 1 28/12/11 6:06 PM

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M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 3 28/12/11 6:06 PM

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Chapter 1 Meaning and Concept of Social Studies 1

Chapter 2 Role and Importance of Social Studies in

M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 5 28/12/11 6:06 PM

Chapter 3 Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of

Chapter 4 Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies 31

M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 6 28/12/11 6:06 PM

Chapter 5 Social Studies Curriculum—Selection and Organization 45

Chapter 6 Methods of Teaching Social Studies 53

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Chapter 7 Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of

Chapter 8 Social Studies Teacher 119

M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 9 28/12/11 6:06 PM

Chapter 9 Micro-teaching in Social Studies 129

Chapter 10 Models of Teaching and Team Teaching 149

M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 10 28/12/11 6:06 PM

Chapter 11 Lesson Planning in Social Studies 157

M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 11 28/12/11 6:06 PM

Lesson Plan No. 3 189

Chapter 12 Evaluation in Social Studies 199

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M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_FM.indd 13 28/12/11 6:06 PM

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y Concept of Social Studies

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y Social Studies and Social Sciences

y Definition of Social Studies

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y Differences Between Social Sciences and Social Studies

Components of social sciences

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y Scope of Social Studies

y Aims and Objectives of Teaching Social Studies

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• n To build intelligent democratic citizenship.

Area of social studies

y Social Studies—As a Core Subject

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Concept of Core Curriculum

Social Studies as a Core Subject

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y Curriculum for Social Studies

y Contents of Social Studies

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9. As a core subject—social studies—the purpose of the curriculum of social studies is to awake

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M01_Pathak Philosophical_ISBN_C01.indd 10 17/12/11 10:36 AM

y Meaning and Concept of National Integration

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y Definition of National Integration

y Need of National Integration

y Role of Social Studies in National Integration

Contents of Social Studies in Promoting

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Chapter 1 Meaning and Concept of Social Studies 1

Chapter 2 Role and Importance of Social Studies in

Chapter 3 Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of

Chapter 4 Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies 31

Chapter 5 Social Studies Curriculum—Selection and Organization 45

Chapter 6 Methods of Teaching Social Studies 53

Chapter 7 Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of

Chapter 8 Social Studies Teacher 119

Chapter 9 Micro-teaching in Social Studies 129

Chapter 10 Models of Teaching and Team Teaching 149

Chapter 11 Lesson Planning in Social Studies 157

Lesson Plan No. 3 189

Chapter 12 Evaluation in Social Studies 199