1.

Embedded Systems 2
2.Introduction To AVR 9
3.Input output registers 15
4.Seven Segment Display 19
5.Sensor And It’s Classification 24
6.dtmf 29
7.Relay 34
8.LCD Display 38
9.ADC (Analog To Digital Converter) 44
10.ADC WITH ATMEGA8 53
11.Interrupts With Atmega-8 Introduction 63
12.Timer 72
13.Timer0 78
14.Interrupt With Timer0 86
15.What is PWM 91
 Embedded Systems
➢A system mainly designed to perform one Or few
specific tasks

➢It is combination of hardware and software

➢Softwareincludes a program(set of instructions),

embedded into the hardware

➢Hardware is something that exists physically (Electronic,

Electromechanical, Electrical Components etc)

➢Examples: Automatic washing machine, TV remote system

Simple Block Diagram
 Input Units include input devices such as
Sensor, Keyboard etc which give some
information to the control unit

 Control Unit is responsible for fetching,

processing and execution

 Memory Unit consists of RAM, ROM, Flash

Memory etc & useful for storing program,
intermediate and output data

 Output Unit includes output devices such as

led, actuator, display etc
 Microprocessor
 Silicon chip (IC) having only CPU inside it

 Need external peripherals such as RAM, ROM, Timer etc to

perform any task

 Mainly useful for complex and multi tasks such as in

Computers, laptops etc

 High cost & high power consumption

 frequency range in GHz

 Some examples of microprocessor are Pentium, I3, I5, I7 etc.

Microprocessor System
 Micro-controller
 IC that contains a CPU, ROM, RAM, I/O pins, timers etc inside
it

 Can process data alone as all components are available inside

it

 Heavily used in embedded systems

 Low cost and power consumption

 Frequency range is within few MHz

 8051, AVR, PIC are popular examples of microcontrollers

 Introduction To AVR
➢AVR was produced by Atmel Corporation in 1996

➢ The abbreviation of AVR is “Advanced Virtual RISC”

(named after designers of it’s architecture: Alf-Egil Bogen & Vegard
Wollen)

➢This is based on modified Harvard Architecture, available in 8-bit

and 32-bit Word length

➢SRAM , EEPROM, Programmable Flash memory, I/O data Space,

ADC, Internal oscillator (in MHz) and Communication protocols are
some feature available on chip
 Classification Of AVR Microcontroller
Mainly Divided into Three Categories:
1. Tiny AVR : Small in size and used in simple applications

2. Mega AVR : Famous for large number of integrated

components and thus used for multiple applications

3. X-Mega AVR : For difficult applications where high sped

and huge program memory required
 AT MEGA 8

Atmel Flash Memory=8KB

(Name of Producer) (For Storing Program)

Operational Frequency in MHz range

 Features of Atmega8
➢ Available in 3 Packages :
1. PDIP(Plastic Dual In-line Packaging)
28 PINS 6-Channel ADC
Frequency 0-16MHZ Operational Voltage 4.5-5.5v

2. TQFP(Thin Quad Flat Package)

32PINS 8-Channel ADC
Frequency 0-8MHZ Operational Voltage 2.7-5.5V

3. MLF/ QFN(Micro Lead Frame/Quad Flat No Leads)

32PINS 8-Channel ADC
Frequency 0-8MHZ Operational Voltage 2.7-5.5V
• 8KB Programmable Flash memory(Special type PROM) have
10000 Write/erase cycles and this memory is used to store
program and it can be change by programmer.

• 1KB SRAM(Volatile in nature) used as cache or buffer to reduce

accessing of flash memory, Thus store frequently accessed data

• 512bytes EEPROM have 1000000 write/erase cycle and it can

use to store and access any data for long time, this can be
done by setting special registers inside AVR via program
• 23 input/output Lines (PB0-7, PC0-6, PD0-7)
• Two 8-Bit Timers/counter and one 16-Bit Timer/counter
• 3 PWM channels available
• Communication Protocols 1 USART, 1 SPI & 1 I2C/TWI
PIN Description
Input / Output Registers (Atmega-8)
For I/O Line B (PBO-PB7 = 8 lines)
DDRB (8 Bit Register)
PORTB (8 Bit Register)
PINB (8 Bit Register)

For I/O Line C (PC0-PC6 =7 lines)

DDRC (7 Bit Register)
PORTC (7 Bit Register)
PINC (7 Bit Register)

For I/O Line D(PD0-PD7 =8 lines)

DDRD (8 Bit Register)
PORTD (8 Bit Register)
PIND (8 Bit Register)
 1. DDRX (X =B,C OR D)
• DDRX : Data Direction Register

• Bits stored in this register represents the nature of the

respective line (either it is input line or output line)

• If stored value is 0, it means that respective line is acting as

input line (for connecting input devices like sensors)

• Similarly if value is 1, it means that respective line is acting as

output line (for connecting output devices
 2. PORTX (X=B,C or D)
• Use in output lines to define voltage level in respective line

• If value stored=1 (output voltage is 5 volts)

• If value stored=0 (output voltage is 0 volts)

 3. PINX (X=B,C or D)
• Use in input lines and these are read only registers, means
values are set by input device automatically

• If value stored=1 (input voltage is 5 volts)

• If value stored=0 (input voltage is 0 volts)

Seven Segment Display
 Definition
• An electronic component use to display
numeric digits and few alphabets
• Consists of seven LEDs arranged in rectangular
fashion as shown
 Types Of Seven Segment
• Common Cathode: All LED’S have a common
negative terminal
• Common Anode: All LED’S have a common
positive terminal
7 Segment 14 Segment 16 Segment
Sensor And It’s Classification

By: 5Voltz.com
 Definition
• Electronic device that sense (or detect) changes in
physical property of environment and produce a
corresponding output, generally as an electrical or
optical signal

• These act as Input unit for microcontroller

• Example: IR sensor, Sense Infrared radiation in

environment and give output in form of voltage

• Temperature sensor, Gas Sensor, PIR sensor, Smoke

Sensor etc are some commonly used sensors
 Types Of Sensors
• Analog Sensors : These sensors produce analog
output

• To interface such sensors with microcontroller we

need ADC (Analog To Digital Converter)

• Atmega-8 have inbuilt 6 channel ADC with 10 bit

resolution
• Digital Sensor: These kinds of sensors are designed
by analog sensors along with other electronic
components to produce digital (discrete) signals as
a output

• These sensors can be directly interface with

microcontroller as are digital in nature
Circuit Diagram Of IR Sensor
 DTMF(Dual Tone Multi Frequency )
❑DTMF is a signaling system for identifying the keys
or number dialed on a DTMF keypad or pushbutton.

❑DTMF uses a combination of two (one low

frequency and one high frequency) tones to identify
the dialed number or a signal.

❑DTMF tones are mainly useful at the telephone

switching centre.
DTMF Keypad
DTMF Encoded Signal
DTMF Decoder
Output Table For DTMF
 Relay
➢A Relay is an electrically operated switch which controls
(open and close) circuits.

➢ Electro-thermal relay, Electromechanical relay, Solid State

relay, Hybrid relay, Polarized relay, Non Polarized relay etc
are various types of Relay are available, based on the principle
of operation.

➢Electromechanical Relay is a general purpose Relay based

on electromagnets
Construction & Working
LCD Display

➢Introduction
➢Types of LCD
➢PIN Description (16X2)
➢Registers in LCD
➢Basic Commands for LCD
 Introduction
• LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display.

• LCD screen is an output display device widely used

in embedded systems.
 Types Of LCD
• Alpha numeric LCD (Alphabets &Numeric values)
• Graphical/Customized LCD (For Pictures etc)

Some formats available in Alphanumeric LCD:

• 16X2 LCD = 32 Blocks

• 32X2 LCD = 64 Blocks
• 16X4 LCD = 64 Blocks
• 32X4 LCD = 128 Blocks
16X2 LCD PIN DIAGRAM
• LCD have Command register and Data register
which are used to store commands and data
respectively.

• RS=0 (To select command register)

• RS=1 (To select data register)

• RW=0 (Read Operation)

• RW=1 (Write Operation)

• Enable(To execute command or data ,a pulse must

go from 1 to 0)
 Commands for LCD
• 38→8-bit mode
• 28→4-bit mode
• 0E→LCD On, Curser On
• 01→Clear Current Screen
• 8X→Position of data to be displayed in 1st column
• CX→ Position of data to be displayed in 2nd column

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 8A 8B 8C 8D 8E 8F
C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 CA CB CC CD CE CF
 Successive Approximation Type ADC

➢ Introduction
➢ Important Factors & Aspects
➢ Circuit Diagram
➢ Working
 Need Of ADC
• Transducer or sensor produce some electric signal with
respect to some physical quantities of real world

• These electric signals are analog in nature

• Microprocessors or microcontrollers are capable to

process digital signals only

• Thus we need ADC to interface any analog sensor with

microprocessor or microcontroller
 Important Factors & Aspects
➢ Step Size:
o Smallest change in signal that can be detect by ADC

o It depends on Reference voltage(V.ref) and Resolution of ADC

o ADC with small Step Size will be more accurate

Step Size = V.ref / (Resolution-1)

➢ Resolution:
o Resolution is an important factor for accuracy of ADC

o ADC are available in various resolutions such as 8,10,12,16,24 bit

o High Resolution provides small Step Size thus provides more accuracy
➢ Reference Voltage: (V.ref)

o Conversion takes place with respect to this voltage only

o If V.ref is 5 volt then input analog voltage(Vin) must be in range 0 to 5V

➢ Conversion Time:

o This is the time taken by ADC to convert Analog signal to Digital

o Conversion time depends on clock source connected to ADC

o Successive Approximation type ADC takes n clock cycles for one

conversion where n is Resolution of ADC
V.ref Vin Range (V) Step Size Step Size
(V) (For 8bit Resolution) (For 10bit Resolution)
156 (0-255) 1024 (0-1023)

5 0-5 5/255=19.61mV 5/1023=4.89mV

4 0-4 4/255=15.69mV 4/1023=3.91mV

3 0-3 3/255=11.76mV 3/1023=2.93mV

Step Size = V.ref / (Resolution-1)

Digital Output = Vin / Step Size

 Vin
Input Voltage Vd = _______________________
V.ref * Digital Input Value
Vd 2^n

V.ref
Reference Voltage

D=0 if Vd > Vin

Start Conversion D=1 if Vin > Vd
Serial Data Output
Conversion Complete Clock

Digital Output
 1111
1111
1110 1110
1101
1101
1100 1100
1011
1011
1010 1010
1001
1001
1000 1000
0111
0111
0110 0110
0101
0101
0100 0100
0011
0011
0010 0010
0001
0001
0000
Problem : If V.ref=5, ADC is of 4bit, find out digital output when
Vin= 1.65V

Solution : By formula :
Step Size = V.ref/(Resolution-1) = 5/15 = 0.33V
Digital Output =Vin/Step Size = 1.65 / 0.33 = 5 ➔ 0101

By Circuit :
Clock SAR Value Vd Vin D
Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
1 1 0 0 0 (5*8)/16=2.5 1.65 0
2 0 1 0 0 (5*4)/16=1.25 1.65 1
3 0 1 1 0 (5*6)/16=1.875 1.65 0
4 0 1 0 1 (5*5)/16=1.5625 1.65 1
• PIN-20 (AVCC):
➢ AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter.
➢ It should be externally connected to voltage source, even if the
ADC is not used.
➢ AVCC must not differ more than ±0.3V from VCC.
➢ One can use it as Ref. Voltage (Vref.) for ADC by setting ADMUX
register which we will discuss later.

There are mainly 3 options for Reference Voltage:

1> Internal Reference voltage=2.56V
2> AVCC=VCC ±0.3V
3> AREF (For Reference voltage other than 2.56 and AVCC)
 Steps For A TO D Conversion
1. Enable ADC

By default ADEN is 0 (PC0-PC5 act as i/o pins)

To Enable ADC Set ADEN to 1.

 2. Set Pre-scalar

ADFR : Set to 1 for ADC Free Running Mode

 3.Set Reference Voltage

ADLAR(ADC Left Adjust Register) : For defining how to store ADC values in ADC Data Register
4.Select ADC Channel
 5.Start Conversion

To Start ADC conversion Set ADSC to 1.

After Conversion complete this bit returns 0 automatically.

 6.Store ADC Value
ADLAR=0 (ADC Left Adjust Register)

ADLAR=1 (ADC Left Adjust Register)

ADIE(ADC Interrupt Enable) : Set to 1 for Enabling ADC Interrupt

ADIF(ADC Interrupt Flag)

Embedded Systems Tutorial (Atmega-8)
Interrupts With Atmega-8

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 What Is Interrupt
• An interrupt is a signal generated by hardware or software(program) to the
microcontroller and it suspends normal flow of execution.

• Whenever an interrupt occurs, the controller completes the execution of ongoing

instruction, pause it and starts the execution of an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
or Interrupt Handler.

• After handling interrupt, microcontroller again resumes the normal flow of

instructions .

• ISR contains a set of instructions that should be execute by controller when

interrupt is triggered. Usually different interrupts have their own ISR.

• For every interrupt, there is a fixed location in memory that holds the address of its
ISR and this is knows as Interrupt Vector.
Interrupt Triggered Interrupt Triggered

main() main() main()

Pause Pause
Resume Resume

ISR() ISR()

Execute ISR Execute ISR

 Sources Of Interrupt
• The AVR 8-bits microcontroller provide both Internal and External interrupt
sources.

• The Internal interrupts are associated with the microcontroller's

Timers/Counter, ADC,USART etc.

• The external interrupts are triggered via external pins.

• The figure shows the pins, on which the external interrupts can be
triggered.
Interrupt Vector Table
 Some Important Bits In Interrupt

• Global interrupt enable bit must be enabled to activate microcontrollers Interrupt. This bit is
located at 7th bit of Status Register (SREG)

• Sei() is a function in Embedded C to enable Global Interrupt.

• Beside Global Interrupt, each interrupt is associated with 2-bits, an Interrupt Enable Bit and
Interrupt Flag Bit.

• The interrupt enable bit is used to enable or disable a specific interrupt. Basically is tells the
microcontroller whether it should respond to the interrupt or not (when triggered).

• The interrupt flag bit is set whenever the interrupt event occur.
 Steps In Servicing An Interrupt
• When Interrupt is triggered, the microcontroller completes the execution of the current
instruction, clears the I bit of SREG and stores the address of the next instruction ( i.e.
the address stored in the Program Counter) on the Stack.

• The Interrupt Vector of the triggered interrupt is then loaded in the PC(Program
Counter) and the microcontroller starts executing corresponding ISR.

• After execution of ISR(Interrupt Service Routine) block, the address that was stored on
the Stack in step 1 is reloaded in the PC(Program Counter) and the I bit is re-enabled.

• The microcontroller then start executing instructions from the point that it left off when
the interrupt was triggered.
10:00 Am Studies 12:30 Pm

Mobile
Recharge

10:00 Am Studies 12:30 Pm

Attempt Recharge
Call Mobile
 Interrupt Response Time
• The interrupt execution response for all the enabled interrupts is 4 clock cycles minimum.
• After 4 clock cycles, the Program Vector address for the actual interrupt handling routine is
executed.
• During this 4-clock cycle period, the Program Counter is pushed onto the Stack. The Vector
is normally a jump to the ISR, and this jump takes 3 clock cycles.
• If an interrupt occurs during execution of a multi-cycle instruction, this instruction is
completed before the interrupt is served.
• If an interrupt occurs when the MCU is in sleep mode, the interrupt execution response time
is increased by 4 clock cycles. This increase comes in addition to the start-up time from the
selected sleep mode.
• A return from an interrupt handling routine takes four clock cycles. During these four clock
cycles, the Program Counter (2 bytes) is popped back from the Stack, the Stack Pointer is
incremented by 2, and the I-bit in SREG is set.
 Timer Introduction
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 Timer/Counter

• Timer is simply a register which stores some values inside it.

• This register has property of increasing or decreasing it’s values

automatically with respect to time.

• Frequency at which timer change its values is known as timer’s

frequency.

• Internal clock or external clock source can be use as frequency source

for timer.
• Timer’s frequency is independent of CPU’s frequency, it can be less or
equal to the CPU clock frequency.

• Programmer can decrease timer’s frequency by a division factor

known as Prescaler.

• In AVR we have 2 types of Timers:

1> 8 bit Timer: Can count or store values (2^8=256) from 0 to 255.
2> 16 bit Timer: Can count or store values (2^16=65536) from 0 to 65535.

• When Timer reach it’s maximum value, it returns to initial value

which is 0. This process is know as Timer Overflow
 Top
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

. . . . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bottom
8 Bit Timer/Counter Register
 Timers In Atmega8
Timer0 Timer1 Timer2
8 Bit Timer 16 Bit Timer 8 Bit Timer
• Single Channel Counter • True 16-bit Design (i.e. allows 16-bit PWM) • Single Channel Counter
• Frequency Generator • Variable PWM Period • Frequency Generator
• External Event Counter • Frequency Generator • 10-bit Clock Prescaler
• 10-bit Clock Prescaler • External Event Counter • Clear Timer on Compare
• Two Independent Output Compare Units Match (Auto Reload)
• Double Buffered Output Compare Registers • Glitch-free, phase Correct
• One Input Capture Unit Pulse Width Modulator (PWM)
• Input Capture Noise Canceler • Overflow and Compare
• Clear Timer on Compare Match (Auto Match Interrupt Sources (TOV2
Reload) and OCF2)
• Glitch-free, Phase Correct Pulse Width • Allows Clocking from External
Modulator (PWM) 32kHz Watch Crystal
• Four Independent Interrupt Sources (TOV1, Independent of the I/O Clock
OCF1A, OCF1B, and ICF1)
 Significance of Frequency, Prescaler & Bit Resolution in Timer

Frequency Prescaler Effective Time Per Bit Resolution Time after which
Frequency Pulse timer overflow
1Mhz No 1Mhz 1X10^-6 8=0-255 2.55X10^-4 Sec
1Mhz No 1Mhz 1X10^-6 16=0-65535 6.55X10^-2 Sec
1Mhz 1024 976.56Hz 1.02X10^-3 8=0-255 0.26 sec
1Mhz 1024 976.56Hz 1.02X10^-3 16=0-65535 67.1 sec
12Mhz 1024 11718.75Hz 8.53X10^-5 8=0-255 2.17X10^-2 sec
12Mhz 1024 11718.75Hz 8.53X10^-5 16=0-65535 5.59 sec
 Timer0 Introduction
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 Timer0
• Timer0 is a general purpose,8bit Timer/Counter module.

• Features of Timer-0
1. Single Channel Counter.
2. Frequency Generator.
3. External Event Counter.
4. 10-bit Clock Prescaler.
Timer0 (Block Diagram)
n= 0, 1, 2 for timer0, 1, 2 respectively.
TOVn→TIFR

Prescaler

Internal Clock
TCCR0 (Timer Counter Control Register-0)
 Timer/Counter Register – TCNT0

• This register stores some values inside it (Initially starts from 0)

• It increase/decrease it’s values automatically with respect to clock

pulse

• Can store value equal to 2^8 (from 0 to 255)

• Reset to 0 when timer overflows (exceed maximum value 255 =0XFF)

 Some Important Bits In Interrupt

• Global interrupt enable bit must be enabled to activate microcontrollers Interrupt. This bit is
located at 7th bit of Status Register (SREG)

• Sei() is a function in Embedded C to enable Global Interrupt.

• Beside Global Interrupt, each interrupt is associated with 2-bits, an Interrupt Enable Bit and
Interrupt Flag Bit.

• The interrupt enable bit is used to enable or disable a specific interrupt. Basically is tells the
microcontroller whether it should respond to the interrupt or not (when triggered).

• The interrupt flag bit is set whenever the interrupt event occur.
TIMSK (Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register)

•TOIE0: Timer/Counter 0 Overflow Interrupt Enable

•When TOIE0 bit is written to 1 and I-bit located at 7th bit of Status
Register (SREG) is set (1), the overflow interrupt is enabled.

•I-bit in SREG (Status Register) is Global interrupt enable bit and

embedded C has a function Sei() to enable it.
TIFR (Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register)

• TOV0 : Timer/Counter 0 Overflow Flag

• This bit set(1) when Timer0 overflows and is cleared(0) by hardware

when corresponding interrupt handling vector(ISR) is executed.

• Overflow interrupt executes only when I-bit of SREG, TOIE0-bit of

TIMSK & TOV0-bit of TIFR are set(1).
 How Interrupt Works With Timer0
• To work with interrupt in timer0, The Global Interrupt should be enabled (via SREG
Register) & Local Interrupt should be enabled (via TIMSK Register).

• When both global & local Interrupts are enabled and Timer0 overflows, it generate
an interrupt and set the corresponding interrupt flag bit (TOV0→TIFR Register) to 1

• When Interrupt flag is set to 1, the microcontroller pause the main program,
executes the code written in corresponding ISR and after executing the ISR, it
resumes the normal operation.
 Timer0 Overflow Timer0 Overflow
Interrupt Triggered Interrupt Triggered
(TOV0 bit →1) (TOV0 bit→1)

Pause Pause
main() main() main()
Count 0 to 255 Count 0 to 255 Count 0 to 255
Resume Resume

ISR() ISR()

Execute ISR Execute ISR

Corresponding To Timer0 Corresponding To Timer0
Overflow Interrupt Overflow Interrupt
Task: Generate a square wave of 0.5Hz using Timer0 of Atmega-8.
Frequency of internal oscillator is 1Mhz. Available prescalers in Atmega-8 are 8, 64, 256 & 1024.

Solutions:
Total Time for 1 cycle of square wave= 1/frequency → 1/0.5 = 2 Seconds.
On time of pulse = Off time of pulse = 2/2 = 1 Seconds.

Prescaler Effective Effective Overflow No. of overflows Overflow in Width Error

Frequency Time Time to reach 1 Sec Integer generated (ms)
(in KHz) (in ms) (in ms) (in ms)
1024 0.976 1.025 261.375 3.826 4 1045.5 +45.5

256 3.906 0.256 65.28 15.318 15 979.2 -20.8

64 15.635 0.064 16.32 61.274 61 995.52 -4.48

8 125 0.008 2.04 490.196 490 999.6 -0.4
Timer0 Overflow Timer0 Overflow Timer0 Overflow
Interrupt Triggered Interrupt Triggered Interrupt Triggered
(TOV0 bit →1) (TOV0 bit→1) (TOV0 bit→1)

Pause Pause
main() main() main()
Count 0 to 255 Count 0 to 255 Count 0 to 255
261.35ms Resume 522.7 ms Resume

ISR() ISR()
Overflow=1 Overflow=2
Execute ISR Execute ISR
Corresponding Timer0 Corresponding Timer0
Overflow Interrupt Overflow Interrupt
 What is PWM
• Pulse Width Modulation is a method of reducing the average power delivered by an
digital electrical signal, by effectively chopping it into discrete parts.

Supply Switch Load

Button In ON Condition

Button Partially OFF

• The average value of voltage or current is controlled by turning the switches between
supply and load ON and OFF at fast rate.

• The longer the switch is ON compared to the OFF period, the higher the total power
supplied to the load.
 Duty Cycle

• Duty Cycle = ON Time/ Total Time

• Total Time = ON Time + OFF Time

• Duty Cycle = ON Time

ON Time + OFF Time
• Pulse Width Modulation is the process of changing the ON & OFF time of the
pulse which results the variation in the average value of waveform.

• The PWM frequency has to be high enough that it should not affect the load.
(The resultant waveform perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible).

• Frequency of PWM depends on the type of load and application.

Example : 120Hz in a lamp dimmer, few KHz to tens of KHz for a motor driver,
tens to hundreds of KHz in audio amplifiers
 Applications Of PWM
• Used in telecommunications for encoding purpose.

• Helps in regulating voltage and thus can be use for controlling brightness of smart
lighting system and to control the speed of dc motors.

• Used to control servo motors.

• Used in audio amplification and audio effects.

• Used in many electronic devices such as computer motherboards, micro-inverters etc.