PEOPLE &

EARTH’S
ECOSYSTEMS
MODULE

RAYMUND R. CABALLERO DMD, MPA

PAULA ESPERANZA Y. ORTHA
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Contents

MODULE 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 12

SCIENCE AND THE ART OF GEOGRAPHY ECOSYSTEM ....................................................... 12

OVERVIEW: ............................................................................................................................ 12
NATURE AND SCOPE OF ECOLOGY .............................................................................. 12
BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: ................................................................................. 13
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ECOLOGY ......................................................................... 13

COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS ..................................................................................... 14

ACTIVITY - SCIENCE AND THE ART OF GEOGRAPHY ECOSYSTEMS ...................... 20
MODULE 02.......................................................................................................................................... 21
PEOPLE AND POPULATION ........................................................................................................... 21
OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 21
HUMAN EVOLUTION............................................................................................................ 21

ANATOMICAL CHANGES ........................................................................................................ 21

RECENT HUMAN ANCESTRY ................................................................................................. 24
THE LAST SURVIVOR ............................................................................................................... 25
ACTIVITY – PEOPLE AND POPULATION: HUMAN EVOLUTION ................................... 26
Population ................................................................................................................................... 26

NATURAL SELECTION'S INFLUENCE ON POPULATION ................................................. 29

Factors that Regulate Population Size................................................................................. 31
ACTIVITY - PEOPLE AND POPULATION: POPULATION ................................................. 34
MODULE 03.......................................................................................................................................... 36
PEOPLE AND AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................ 36
OVERVIEW: ............................................................................................................................ 36

AGRICULTURE ...................................................................................................................... 36
Agriculture ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Agricultural Revolutions .............................................................................................................. 37
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ............................................................................................................... 38
Types of Commercial Farming ................................................................................................... 38

Environmental Impact.................................................................................................................. 39

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 ACTIVITY - PEOPLE AND AGRICULTURE: AGRICULTURE ........................................... 41
FOOD AND MEDICINAL PLANTS ..................................................................................... 42
History of Herbal Medicine ......................................................................................................... 42
Uses of Medicinal Plants ............................................................................................................ 42
Common Medicinal Plants .......................................................................................................... 42
ACTIVITY - PEOPLE AND AGRICULTURE: MEDICINAL PLANTS ................................. 47
MODULE 04.......................................................................................................................................... 48
PEOPLE AND FORESTS................................................................................................................... 48
OVERVIEW: ............................................................................................................................ 48

TEMPERATE FORESTS: USE AND MANAGEMENT .................................................... 48

CURRENT FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN GENERAL ..................................... 48
KEEPING THE TEMPERATE FORESTS AT REASONABLE LEVELS OF
BIODIVERSITY ............................................................................................................................ 49
TROPICAL FORESTS: USE AND MANAGEMENT ............................................................. 50
TROPICAL FORESTS MANAGEMENT .................................................................................. 51
ACTIVITY - SCIENCE AND THE ART OF GEOGRAPHY ECOSYSTEMS ...................... 54
MODULE 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 56
PEOPLE, GRASSLAND AND SCRUB ............................................................................................ 56
OBJECTIVES: ........................................................................................................................ 56
IMPORTANCE OF SCRUB FOR WILDLIFE .......................................................................... 56
SCRUB MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................ 57
TECHNIQUES USED FOR MANAGING SCRUB .................................................................. 60

THE GRASSLAND BIOME HABITAT ..................................................................................... 60

SUFFICIENT RAINFALL ...................................................................................................... 61
VARIETY OF WILDLIFE ....................................................................................................... 62
HUMAN IMPACT ON THE GRASSLANDS ............................................................................ 63
MODULE 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 66
PEOPLE AND WATER, OCEANS & COASTS .............................................................................. 66

OBJECTIVES: ........................................................................................................................ 66
OCEANS AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS .................................................................. 66

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 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OCEANS .......................................................................................... 67
MODERATE CLIMATES ............................................................................................................ 67
BIOLOGICALLY RICH ............................................................................................................... 68
CONTINENTAL MARGIN .......................................................................................................... 68
COMPOSITION OF OCEAN WATER ...................................................................................... 69
PEOPLE AND OCEANS ............................................................................................................ 71
MARINE POLLUTION ................................................................................................................ 72
BIODIVERSITY ............................................................................................................................ 74
CLIMATE CHANGE .................................................................................................................... 75

ACTIVITY ...................................................................................................................................... 77
MODULE 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 78
PEOPLE AND CLIMATE .................................................................................................................... 78
OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 78
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 78

WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE? .......................................................................................... 78

WHAT CAUSES CLIMATE CHANGE?.............................................................................. 79
WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE? ................................................... 79
WHO IS IMPACTED THE MOST BY CLIMATE CHANGE? .......................................... 80
BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING NATIONS: ................................................. 81
BETWEEN DIFFERENT ETHNICITIES AND CLASSES: .................................................... 81
BETWEEN GENDERS: .............................................................................................................. 81
BETWEEN GENERATIONS: .................................................................................................... 81
BETWEEN COMMUNITIES: ..................................................................................................... 81
WHY IS CLIMATE CHANGE A HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUE? ............................................ 82
WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR STOPPING CLIMATE CHANGE? ................................ 83

STATES......................................................................................................................................... 83
CORPORATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 84
WHY DO WE NEED TO STOP CLIMATE CHANGE?..................................................... 85
OUR CHANGING CLIMATE RISK PROFILE: PHILIPPINES ........................................ 86
OVERVIEW................................................................................................................................... 86

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 CLIMATE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 87
SECTOR IMPACTS AND VULNERABILITIES ................................................................. 88
AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................... 88
WATER RESOURCES ............................................................................................................... 89
ENERGY ....................................................................................................................................... 89
COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS ......................................................................................................... 90
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE .................................................................................................... 90
HUMAN HEALTH......................................................................................................................... 91
ACTIVITY: PEOPLE AND CLIMATE ................................................................................. 93

WEEK 8 ................................................................................................................................................. 94
ENERGY (FOSSIL FUELS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY) ......................................................... 94
OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 94
ENERGY IN THE PHILIPPINES .......................................................................................... 94
ELECTRICITY .............................................................................................................................. 96

RENEWABLE ENERGY ............................................................................................................ 97

Renewable electricity production (GWh) by source. ......................................................... 99
ELECTRICITY SITUATION ....................................................................................................... 99
POLICY ....................................................................................................................................... 100
ACTIVITY: ENERGY (FOSSIL FUELS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY) .......................... 101
MODULE 5 – 8 SOURCES: ............................................................................................... 102

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 PEOPLE AND THE EARTH’S ECOSYSTEM

Introduction

COURSE TITLE: People and the Earth’s Ecosystem

COURSE CODE: NASC

CREDIT UNITS: 3 units

COURSE PREREQUISITE: none

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course explores the ways in which human activity impacts
the natural environment and how modification of environment can eventually have
significant consequences for human activity. Topics include environmental challenges,
such as air and water pollution, population growth and distribution, global atmospheric
changes, ecosystems and evolution, agriculture and food resources, and renewable and
nonrenewable energy resources.

This course is an introduction to Earth’s resources – where they come from, how we
use them, how they impact societies, and how we might sustain or exhaust them in the
face of world population growth and changing climate. It will discuss the interrelationships
between us as humans and natural biological and physical systems from local to global
scales. During our evolutionary history, the natural environment has shaped who and what
we are just as it has for every other species on the planet. We continue to interact with the
natural environment for our own survival but as a species, we are unprecedented in our
ability to manipulate the environment for our benefit as well as to our detriment. The better
we understand our relationship with nature, the better we will be able to anticipate the
consequences of our actions and to make informed choices on which human actions are
most desirable for the long-term health of human societies and natural ecosystems.

This course will examine the origin, use, impacts and by product of food, water, energy,
and mineral resource consumption. Course material will focus on the science and
technology associated with Earth’s resources, but will consider the economic,
management, and political challenges associated resource use and future sustainability.

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This course is intended to fulfill the general education requirement for a non-laboratory
course.

Course Outcomes

At the end of this course, student should be able to:

Knowledge

1. Discover the ways humans have shaped the earth.

2. Learn how to critically analyze environmental issues to intellectually engage with
the community.
3. Present an overview of diversity of life forms in an ecosystem.
4. Understand the interrelationships between humans and the natural environment.
5. Define the basic rules and concepts of the ecology science.
6. Understand core concepts and methods from ecological and physical sciences
and their application in environmental problem-solving.

Values

1. Think critically about current environmental issues and recommend effective and
creative solutions.
2. Appreciate the ethical, cross-cultural, and historical context of environmental
issues and the links between human and natural systems.
3. Reflect critically about their roles and identities as citizens, consumers, and
environmental actors in a complex, interconnected world.
4. Apply different moral theories to the issues covered in the course.

Skills

1. Explore the scientific and political controversies of environmental issues and

solutions.
2. Formulate environmental research questions and hypothesis to evaluate solutions
to complex real-world issues.

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 3. Explore individual and group roles in sustainability, and the inter-connectedness
and necessity of collaboration between social, economic, and ecological
responsibilities.
4. Plan the projects and apply these projects by searching the studies about
practical ecology fields that had been done before.
5. Apply systems concepts and methodologies to analyze and understand
interactions between social and environmental processes.
6. Formulate ecological solutions to the problems discussed in class.

Course Grading System

Student will be assessed based on performance on several measures:

Final Output

Students will accomplish and pass the final output within the scheduled date set by the
university.

Activity/Quizzes

Will help students identify what they know and what they don't know. The students then
have a better idea of how well they are grasping the material, hopefully motivating them
to study more and helping them allocate their study time effectively by focusing on the
information that still needs more practice in preparation for their mid-terms and final
exams.

Writing (Research, Reaction Paper, etc.)

The student will have several writing assignments in this class. The goal of each
assignment is to help them develop critical thinking skills and to improve their ability to
write clearly and concisely as they compare popular opinions to scientific evidence. Their
last writing assignment will involve consolidation of Philippine environmental laws and
proposing a brief research study on what they have learned from class based on
environmental real-world problems. Additional details for each homework and writing
assignment will be provided.

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 General Instructions

Please do not write on this module. Answers to this module should be written on a
separate document. A notebook is preferred bearing the subject title, full name, and
course, year, and section. Although it is preferred, it is not mandatory.

If a notebook is not possible, you can write your answers on pieces of papers. Compile
your answers and staple them together.

Please DO NOT vandalize, reproduce, modify, distribute, sell, or anything similar in

nature without permission. Unauthorized physical and/or electronic (e.g. web page, social
media account) copies of any part of this module are strictly prohibited.

Follow the format below for every activity that you accomplish. If you have more than
one page for an activity, include still your basic information, and activity and page number.

Sample format:

PEOPLE AND EARTH’S ECOSYSTEM

Name: Dela Cruz, Juan

Course, Year, and Section: BS-ABC 1-1

Activity name and number: Activity 01 - Introduction

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 General Rubric for Essays

This is the general scoring rubric for grading the essays in this module. Please use
this as a guide when writing essays.

Content (40%)

Essay has a specific central idea that is clearly stated in the opening sentence. It is
appropriate, has concrete details that support the central idea and show originality and
focus.

Research (40%)

Essay has cited researched information and introduced personal ideas to enhance essay
cohesiveness.

Organization (20%)

Essay is logically organized and well-structured. Critical thinking skills are evident.

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 Final Output: Portfolio

Make a portfolio containing compilations of different articles that concern themselves

with the major topics discussed in this module. Choose 5 out of the 9 topics listed below:

1. Science and Art of Geography Ecosystems

2. People and Population
3. People and Agriculture
4. People and Forests
5. People and Grassland and Scrub
6. People and Water, Oceans and Coasts
7. People and Climate
8. Energy
9. Conservation in the Philippines

Your portfolio can be in any form, for as long as its contents are bind together (e.g. in
a clear book or improvised scrapbook). It should contain the following:

Cover page - indicate the subject, full name, course, and year and section

Table of contents

Contents

Topic that you have chosen (e.g. People and Grassland and Scrub)

One article per topic (preferably set in the Philippines, or at least something that can be
implemented in the Philippines). Indicate the title, date, and the author or the article. A
snippet of the article is preferred but if not available, an abstract or a summary of the
article is acceptable.

Reflection/Assessment (should be about 150-200 words per article. You may include the
strengths/weaknesses of the article as include suggestions if applicable)

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 Rubric: Portfolio

Below is the scoring rubric for the portfolio. Please use this as a guide in constructing
your final output.

• Selection of articles (40%)

The articles are clearly and related to the chosen topics.

• Reflection/analysis (40%)

Reflections show critical thinking and is contextualized to Philippine setting.

• Completeness (20%)

All the necessary parts of the portfolio is present.

Remember: Parts include 5 different articles (from 5 general topics that you have chosen)
and 5 different reflections.

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 MODULE 1
SCIENCE AND THE ART OF GEOGRAPHY ECOSYSTEM

OVERVIEW:
Ecology was derived from the Greek oikos meaning household and logos meaning science
or the "study of the household of nature."

A community includes all populations, representing multiple species, in the same region.

An ecosystem is the biotic, or living, community plus the abiotic, or nonliving, environment.

Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. Describe the principles of the ecosystem; and

2. Distinguish the different terrestrial biomes.

NATURE AND SCOPE OF ECOLOGY

Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, or environmental
science. It is an understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function is an important
focus area in ecological studies. It deals with interaction between living organisms with
each other and their surroundings.

Ecological systems are studied at several different levels from individuals and populations
to ecosystems and biosphere level. Interactions within systems determine distribution and
abundance of organisms.

• Ecology and evolutionary biology are closely related… how?

Hawks feeding on mice impact mouse population and may eventually lead to selection for
mice with fur as camouflage.

Two main themes in ecology:

• Where do organisms live? Why?

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 • How many organisms are present? Why?

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:

• Biotic - is any living component that affects the population of another organism,
or the environment (example: plants, animals, and bacteria)
• Abiotic - non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect
living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems (example: sunlight, soil,
and temperature)

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ECOLOGY

BIOSPHERE
Biosphere is the broadest level of organization. This is the part of Earth that contains
all ecosystems, thin volume of Earth, and its atmosphere that supports life. If Earth’s size
is likened to an apple, the biosphere is as thick as its peel.

ECOSYSTEM
These are communities of organisms and their non-living environment.
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COMMUNITY
It consists of populations of various species that live in the same habitat and interact
with each other.

POPULATION
It comprises a group of organisms of the same species that live in a specific
geographical area and reproduce.

ORGANISM
This is the simplest level of organization, an individual living thing.

COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS

HABITAT VS NICHE
A habitat is the physical location where members of the population live while a niche
includes all of the resources required for survival, growth, and reproduction.

Image 1. This damselfish, fungus, and cactus interact with other organisms within
their communities. They also interact with the nonliving environment.

TERRESTRIAL BIOMES

Terrestrial biomes are ecosystems with distinctive communities of life and is found
in land. Different biomes exist because of the variations of light, temperature, and moisture
across the biosphere.

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 Temperature and moisture are the main factors that determine the dominant plants
in each location. The vegetation then influences which other organisms can live in each
area. Other abiotic factors are wind, rocks and soil, and periodic disturbances.

Image 2. Biomes formed when subjected to different precipitation and temperature

POLAR ICE
Polar ice is the coldest place of terrestrial biomes. They are known for barren landscapes,
glaciers, and huge ice sheets. Its
monthly temperature of below 0°C allows
snow and ice to accumulate despite low
precipitation levels. Polar areas are
covered in ice with some ice-free areas
called Nunataks. It is extremely cold, dry,
and windy. Marine algae called
phytoplankton are primary producers in
the polar ice.
Image 3. Polar Ice

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TUNDRA
Tundra is known for its
extreme coldness and
dryness. Dryness is caused by
extremely low precipitation,
even less precipitation than
deserts. Tundra is still a wet
place because water
evaporates slowly. Its ground
remains frozen year-round,
that is why there is a layer of
permanently frozen ground
below the surface, called
Image 4. Tundra permafrost. Plants that grow
here are small and have short
growing seasons. Animals
have thick fur.

TAIGA
Taiga is also called northern
coniferous forest or boreal forest.
It is the largest terrestrial biome
on Earth. It is found in cool high
elevations in more temperate
latitudes. It is characterized by
long, cold winters and short, wet
summers that are occasionally
warm. There may be possible
precipitation and it is usually in a
form of snow. Taiga soil is usually
thin, nutrient-poor, and acidic but
evergreen trees are abundant
here. Because it is cold Image 5. Taiga

and relatively dry here, only some mammals and birds stay year-round.
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TEMPERATE RAINFOREST
Temperate rainforest is also called temperate coniferous forest. It has mild winters,
cool summers, and abundant rain. They are common in coastal areas that have mild
winters and heavy rain. Life includes large evergreens, amphibians, mammals, and fish.

TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST

Temperate deciduous forest occurs where there is sufficient moisture to support the
growth of large trees. It has warm summers, cool winters, consistent rainfall. While
precipitation is fairly distributed throughout the year, ground water can be temporarily
unavailable if the soil freezes on very cold winter days. They are characterized by broad-
leaf deciduous trees. They have a distinct annual rhythm in which trees drop leaves and
become dormant in winter, then produce new leaves in spring.

Image 6. Temperate Rainforest (left) and Temperate Deciduous Forest (right)

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TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
Temperate grassland share some of the characteristics of tropical savanna, but
they are found in regions of relatively cold winter temperatures. It has hot summers, cold
winters, and is moderately moist. The key to
the persistence of all grasslands is seasonal
drought, occasional fires, and grazing by
large mammals, all of which prevent woody
shrubs from invading and becoming
established. Grassland soils tend to be deep
and among the most fertile in the world, one
of the reasons is grasslands have an
Image 7. Temperate Grassland
abundant amount of mulch, or decaying plant
material that is deposited each year.

CHAPARRAL
Chaparral may be called Mediterranean shrubland. Coastal areas that are often
characterized by mild, rainy winters and long, hot, dry summers are dominated by this
biome. It has hot and dry summers, and cool
and moist winters. There is a combination of
environmental stresses in chaparral: aridity,
short growing season, low-nutrient soil, and
frequent fires. Plants are resistant to fire and
drought thrive; some shrubs have strands of
dense, spiny shrubs with tough evergreen
leaves. Image 8. Chaparral

DESERT
Desert is the driest of all terrestrial biomes, characterized by low and unpredictable
precipitation. It is always dry. Might be cool or hot. These belts are particularly dry because
of global air circulation patterns, which result from descending dry air absorbing available
moisture. Its plants store water and most animals are active at night.

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TROPICAL SAVANNA
Tropical savanna is a grassland with scattered individual trees. It is warm year-
round and has three distinct seasons: (1) cool and dry, (2) hot and dry, (3) warm and wet.
Most savanna soils are low in nutrients, due in part to their porosity. It is relatively simple
in physical structure but often rich in number of species. Animals are most prominent in
rainy seasons and there are few trees or shrubs.

Image 8. Desert (left) and Tropical Savanna (right)

TROPICAL RAINFOREST
Tropical rainforest is found in areas near the equator, where rainfall is abundant and dry
season lasts no more than a
few months. It is warm and
wet. This is characterized
with lush jungles and has the
greatest diversity of species
of all communities.

Image 9. Tropical Rainforest

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ACTIVITY - SCIENCE AND THE ART OF GEOGRAPHY ECOSYSTEMS

INSTRUCTIONS: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

A. Cut out/have five pictures of different places, which you believe belong to 5 different
terrestrial biomes. Describe what the environment physically looks like and determine what
kind of biome is in the picture.

B. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

a) How does the abiotic components influence the biotic components of the
ecosystem?

b) Of the different terrestrial biomes discussed, where does the Philippines fit in?
What are its characteristics that made you say that?

c) Which came first: the environment or the living organisms in a certain place? What
made you say so? How does this help you understand the concept of evolution?

Sources:

Introduction to ecology. Retrieved from http://schleyscience.weebly.com

McGraw-Hill Education. (2016). Biology: The essentials.

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 MODULE 02

PEOPLE AND POPULATION

OVERVIEW:

Human evolution is the evolutionary process that began from the evolutionary history of
primates of genus Homo and eventually to the emergence of anatomically modern humans.

Population is all the organisms of the same species that live in a particular geographical
area.

Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. trace the ancestry of humans.

2. identify the major/most important achievements of human evolution.

3. link evolution and population growth.

4. explain how populations increase and decrease in size; and

5. enumerate causes and issues related to inflation of human population.

HUMAN EVOLUTION

ANATOMICAL CHANGES

BIPEDALISM
Bipedialism is the basic adaptation of the hominid. It is considered to be the main cause of
skeletal changes.

Theories why evolution favored the adaptation of bipedalism:

3. liberated the hands for reaching and carrying food.

4. saved energy during movement.

5. enabled running and hunting for long distances.

6. enhanced the field of vision; and

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 7. helped avoid hyperthermia because it reduced the surface area exposed to direct
sun.

Skeletal changes brought by the evolution of bipedalism:

a) femur evolved into a slightly more angular position to shift the center of gravity
toward the geometric center of the body.

b) knee and ankle joints became increasingly robust to support weight better.

c) human vertebral column became S-shaped and the lumbar vertebrae became
shorter and wider to support the increased weight on each vertebra in the upright
position.

d) big toe moved into alignment with the other toes to help in walking forward.

e) arms and forearms shortened relative to the legs making it easier to run.

f) foramen magnum migrated under the skull, a more anterior position; and

g) the pelvic region: the long downward facing iliac blade was shortened and widened
to keep the center of gravity stable while walking. This made the birth canal smaller
and had significant effects on the process of human birth. The smaller birth canal
limits the brain size it can accommodate to get out. This prompted to give birth to
a relatively immature human offspring when compared to other primates. Brain
growth increases after birth, nurtured by the mother.

ENCEPHALIZATION
The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates.
Because of its size, it enabled social learning and language acquisition in young humans.
The temporal lobes that contain centers for language processing and the prefrontal cortex
that has been related to complex decision-making and moderating social behavior have
increased in size.

Encephalization has been tied to consumption of meat and starches and the
development of cooking. There is also a theory that intelligence increased as a response
to the need of solving social problems. Smaller mandibles and mandible muscle
attachments had allowed more room for the brain to grow.

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SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
Sexual dimorphism is when two sexes of the same species differ in characteristics
aside their sex organs. There is reduced degree of sexual dimorphism in humans. These
have been interpreted as a result of increased emphasis on pair bonding for prolonged
child-rearing. An important physiological change related to sexuality in humans was the
evolution of hidden estrus. This means that female humans are fertile year-round.

ULNAR OPPOSITION
The ulnar opposition is the contact between the thumb and the tip of the little finger
of the same hand. This feature is unique to the genus Homo. This trait facilitates precision
and power grip of the human hand.

Other changes:

a) increased importance on vision rather than smell.

b) longer developmental period for the young.

c) higher infant dependency.

d) a smaller gut.

e) faster basal metabolism.

f) loss of body hair.

g) evolution of sweat glands.

h) change in the shape of the dental arcade from being u-shaped to being parabolic.

i) development of a chin (found in Homo sapiens alone).

j) development of styloid processes; and

k) development of a descended larynx.

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RECENT HUMAN ANCESTRY
Gracile Australopithecines

• small braincases (400 to 500

cc)
• walked on two legs
• female 1 meter tall
• males 1.5 meter

Robust Australopithecines

• small brained
• larger than gracile
Australopithecus
• large bony crest
• Jaw muscle attachments
• Bipedal

Archaic humans, Genus Homo

• all African
• H. habilis
• 600 cc brain
• teeth and jaws smaller
than in Australopithecus
• taller
• less sexually dimorphic in
size

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Modern humans

• Last 100,000 years

• Biggest brain
• 2000 cc Cro-Magnon
• Today, about 1200 cc
• Higher foreheads
• Flatter faces with
prominent nose

Culture:

• Cro-Magnon, I found
buried in grave with 2
men, 1 woman, and
infant
• Animal bones, jewelry, stone tools

THE LAST SURVIVOR

Modern Homo sapiens descended from multispecies radiation of African hominids.

Many species co-existed at one time (estimated to be at least 5 species). Current evidence
of human evolution suggests that there was interbreeding with other hominins, suggesting
that the path was web-like and non-linear.

Paleontological agreement on this:

• H. sapiens are descendants of some or all of the H. ergaster/H. erectus group of

species

How and where did modern humans arise?

• Archaic humans were certainly in Africa.

• Recent humans were more widespread.

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ACTIVITY – PEOPLE AND POPULATION: HUMAN EVOLUTION

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

C. Complete a table like the one below by writing what questions about human evolution
interests you and list one evidence that answers your question.

Question about Human Evolution Possible Evidence

4. Describe at least two similarities of humans and other primates.

5. How are modern human humans different from other primates?

D. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

a) Of the discussed anatomical changes of humans, which do you think is the most
compelling?

b) In spite of the amount of evidence in human evolution, why do you think people
find it hard to accept this concept?

c) What are the survival challenges that early humans faced and how is it similar or
different to present time?

Population
Population refers to the number of individuals of one species.

DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION

• population density - refers to the number of individuals of a species per unit area or
unit volume of a habitat.
• population dispersion - refers to the pattern of dispersal of individuals across an
area of interest
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DEMOGRAPHY
Demography is the statistical study of a population, such as its density, its
distribution, and its rate of growth. Demography is dependent on mortality pattern and age
distribution.

Factors that Affect Population Size

Table 1. Birth rate and Death rate Factors

Birth rate is the number of individuals

produced per unit time.

• Births and migration into the

population increase
population size.

Death rate is the number of deaths per

unit time.

• Deaths and migrations out

of the population decrease
the population size.

Survivorship curves show the probability of dying at a given age.

Image 1 shows an example of a survivorship curve. In a group of 1000 penguins,

researchers determine how many individuals survive to a given age. This graph tells us
that, most penguins die in their first year of life.

It is also important to determine what percent of individuals survive to reproductive age,

because it only they can influence the size of the next generation.

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Image 10. Survivorship Curve

Survivorship curves follow predictable patterns:

• Type I - species that invest much energy caring for young have low death rates
early in life. Most individuals survive to reproduce.
• Type II - species have an
approximately equal
probability of dying at any
age.
• Type III - Species that
invest little energy raising
their young have high
death rates among
offspring. Few individuals
survive to reproductive
age.
Image 11. Survivorship curve patterns

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Age structure (distribution of age classes) aids in determining if a population is growing,
stable, or declining. According to the figures presented in Image 3, the white oak population
has mostly young individuals. This indicates a high potential for future growth as dying trees
may be replaced with many young trees. On the other hand, the cottonwood population
has few young individuals. This indicates that reproductive success is low. The population
size will decline if the dying trees are not replaced with young trees.

Image 12. Age structure of white oak (left) versus cottonwood (right)

NATURAL SELECTION'S INFLUENCE ON POPULATION

Population and Natural Selection

Thomas Malthus' writing, “An Essay on the Principle of Population” was one of
Charles Darwin's inspiration when he thought of “Natural Selection”. Mathus' essay
theorized that populations grow in geometric progression while food production grow in
arithmetic progression. This meant that populations grow faster than food supply,
eventually leading to food shortage.

This led Darwin to think that since the “supply” was low, but the demand was high,
organisms may try to compete for resource, and thus the early beginnings of Natural
Selection.

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Opportunistic vs. Equilibrium Species
Opportunistic species tend to show exponential growth. They are typically small organisms
that reproduce at an early age, have short life spans, and have many offspring that receive
little parental care.

• Weeds, insects, and many species with type III survivorship curves have
opportunistic life histories.

Equilibrium species tend to show logistic growth. Their population size is near the carrying
capacity. They typically reach their reproductive age slower than opportunistic species,
have longer lives, and have received extended parental care.

• Birds, large mammals, and species with type I or type II survivorship curves are
often equilibrium species.

Exponential Growth
The pattern of population growth depends upon two primary factors:

• The biotic potential; and

• Resource availability.

There are two possible patterns of growth:

• Exponential growth has a J-shape characteristic of a rapidly growing population.

• Logistic growth has an S-shape showing a stabilization of the population size.

Image 13. Exponential growth (left) versus logistic growth (right)

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Exponential Growth: Limitation
• Carrying capacity - the maximum number of individuals that the habitat can support
indefinitely
• Exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely when resources are limited (and
other factors influencing death and birth rate), then population growth levels off.
These populations follow a logistic, or S-shaped, growth model. As the population
size approaches the carrying capacity, the growth rate slows.
• In Image 4, the left side shows the seal population increasing. If this rate continues
to increase over time, the population is growing exponentially. The right side shows
a population of rotifer. Initially, the population continued to grow in numbers. As it
reaches the carrying capacity, the growth rate has slowed down and has seemed
to level off.

Factors that Regulate Population Size

Density-dependent Factors

• The effects of density-dependent factors increase as the population density rises.

• They result from interactions between organisms.
o competing among each other for space, nutrients, food, or mates
o spread of disease is easier with higher population density and the risk of
predation

Density-independent Factors

• Density-independent factors exert effects that are unrelated to population density.

o Natural disasters, such as this fire, might eliminate population in an area
without regard to population density.

The Human Population

The growth of any population, including humans, is determined by the difference

between birth rates and death rates. Image 5 illustrates that human population growth rate
was relatively slow until the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s and have been increasing
with developments in science and medicine. This rapid increase of the human population
brings legitimate concerns that humans may someday reach the Earth’s carrying capacity.

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Image 14. Human population across centuries

Factors That Influence Human Population Growth

Much of the current growth in

the human population is due to
high birth rates and low death
rates in less-developed
countries. The low birth rate in
more-developed countries may
be attributed to family planning
programs.

Image 15. Population from less-developed countries and more-developed countries

Variation of Birth and Death rates Worldwide

• Increase in population - countries with more individuals below reproductive age than
are in their reproductive years.
• Decrease in birth rates - tend to decline as economic development progresses
because of family planning programs and opportunities for women outside of the
home
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Image 16. Age structure of population of India, US, and China

In Image 7, India has a pyramid shape. It has a large dependency group that indicates
continued expansion of population. US has a stable age structure, with age groups almost
level to each other. China showed a declining population, as the age group of pre-
reproductive years’ population was less than that of the age group in reproductive years.

Population growth depends upon the reproductive characteristics of the population:

• The number of offspring per reproduction

• Chances of survival until reproductive age
• Frequency of reproduction
• Age at which reproduction begins

Will human population continue to grow exponentially?

There are two causes of overpopulation:

• Population size
• Resource consumption

The probability that a species will become extinct depends upon three primary factors:

• Size of Geographic Range

• Degree of Habitat Tolerance
• Size of Local Populations

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ACTIVITY - PEOPLE AND POPULATION: POPULATION

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

A. Data interpretation. Study the graph about “Women’s Education and Fertility” and
answer the questions (50-100 words each) that will follow.

Image 17. Source: Barro-Lee Educational Attainment Dataset (2015): PRB Data Sheet
2015

a) What does the graph tell you about women’s education and fertility?

b) What do you notice about the countries that have the highest number of babies (bar
location: left side of the graph/left of zero)? Highest number of years spent in education
(bar location: right side of the graph/right of zero)?

c) Which countries do you think have a J-shape pattern? S-shape?

d) Of the three survivorship curves (Type I, II, and III) which is the pattern of humans?
What made you say so?

e) Human population has continued to grow tremendously since Industrial Revolution. Is

this a density-dependent or density-independent factor? Why?

B. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

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 a) Why is the Philippines' (Metro Manila in particular) population dense? How does
this relate/align with the science we have discussed?

b) Do you see humans becoming extinct one day? Why?

c) What scenario can you see in the future when human have reached the Earth’s
carrying capacity?

Sources:

Agarwal, P. (2020). Malthusian Theory of Population. Retrieved from

https://www.intelligenteconomist.com/malthusian-theory/
Human evolution. (2020). Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolution
Human evolution. [PDF]. Retrieved from
http://www.csun.edu/~dgray/Evol322/Chapter20.pdf
Koch, D. Hall of human origins: Educator guide [PDF]. Retrieved from
https://humanorigins.si.edu/sites/default/files/HallofHumanOrigins_EducatorGu
ide.pdf
McGraw-Hill Education. (2016). Biology: The essentials.

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 MODULE 03

PEOPLE AND AGRICULTURE

OVERVIEW:
Agriculture is the science of cultivating crops and livestock. Agriculture contributed
significantly to the rise of human civilization. It created food surpluses that enabled people
to live in cities.

Medicinal plants are plants that can be used to treat different illnesses, or boost health.

OBJECTIVES:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. Enumerate the different processes and uses of agriculture.

2. Examine the environmental impacts of agriculture and find ways to mitigate its
effects.

3. Identify common medicinal plants and their uses; and

4. Reflect how to exercise caution in selecting and using medicinal plants.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture
Agriculture is raising of animals and/or growing of crops to acquire food for
consumption or distribution.

Initially, early humans tried to survive through hunting and gathering. As the human
population grew bigger, it became harder to sustain. This is because of the following
reasons:

1. Land use was extensive and not intensive.

2. There were no real permanent settlements; and
3. Unpredictable and hard.

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Agricultural Revolutions
First Agricultural Revolution

The first agricultural revolution allowed humans to become more sedentary and
avail themselves of a more reliable source of food. They tamed wild animals for human
benefit and focused on ssubsistence aagriculture.

Second Agricultural Revolution

This occurred during Industrial Revolution. It made use of technology as a means to

increase production and distribution of products. Agriculture has shifted from mere family
consumption to commercial agriculture.

Third Agricultural Revolution

This is sometimes called “Green Revolution” and it happened in the later half of the
20th century. It corresponded with exponential population growth occurring around the
world and it involved the use of biotechnology (genetic engineering).

• Double Cropping - growing two crops per year to double the harvest
• Tripple Cropping - allows even more people to be fed

Variations of Farming

• Subsistence Farming - food production to survive on a daily basis

o Extensive Subsistence Agriculture - includes pastoral nomadism and
shifting cultivation. It needs a lot of land, therefore extensive. This kind of
agriculture is productive, but its drawbacks include possible soil erosion,
water degradation, and other environmental problems.
o Intensive Subsistence Agriculture - more intense style of subsistence
farming. It needs more work than extensive subsistence agriculture to have
the same level of production to the latter. This is usually done in areas that
it is harder to continue to farm.
• Shifting Cultivation - moving farm fields after several years in search of more
productive soil after depleting nutrients in original field
• Slash and Burn agriculture - leaves barren soil behind and moves on to the next
area and clears it by burning, this puts nitrogen in soil

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 • Crop Rotation - planting of different types of crops each year to replenish the soil
with nutrients used up by previous crop
• Pastoral Nomadism - moving animals on a seasonal basis to areas that have the
necessary resources to meet the needs of the herd

Plantation Agriculture

This is more prevalent in less developed countries. The production of one crop is
sold to more developed countries.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Animal husbandry refers to the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs,
or wool, and for work and transport. Livestock production systems can be defined based
on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.

Under animal husbandry is aquaculture or fish farming. It is the production of fish

for human consumption in confined operations.

During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding
focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production and
mostly disregarded genetic diversity. This eventually led to a significant decrease in genetic
diversity and resources among livestock breeds, consequently, there is a decrease in
disease resistance and local adaptations.

Found in More Developed Countries

o Mixed Livestock and Crop Production - cows are grown for meat and other
products. Cows are fed with crops (corn and soybeans) grown on the same
farm.
o Livestock Ranching - done on the fringes of productive farmland, so it
requires huge areas of land (like the Midwest). It involves the feeding of
livestock done by allowing animals to roam fields without assistance of
farmer. “Put animals to pasture”.

Types of Commercial Farming

o Truck Farms - farm where farmers produce fruits for market. Farmers will bring in
produce to City Market on the weekends. Sales will take place there, but the farm
is somewhere else.
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 o Suitcase Farms - no one resides there permanently; mostly staffed by migrant
workers
o Agribusiness - mass production of agricultural products
o Agricultural industrialization - increased mechanization of the farming process to
increase productivity and profits (started to occur during the Industrial Revolution)

Von Thünen’s Model of Land Use

This was conceived by Johann Heinrich von Thünen. Farmers will choose what crops
are grown in direct relation to how far the farm is from the market. In order of distance
(closest farms up first):

1. Market-Gardening Activities - various heavy, bulky products (melons, veggies) – need

to be close to market because they will spoil, and it costs too much to transport

2. Dairy Farming - produced close to market, cost of transportation for cooling

3. Livestock Farming

a) Fattening adds weight to animals and farmers do this to increase sale price.

b) Feedlots specialize in cattle or hogs—these animals are not put to pasture.

4. Commercial Grain Farming - selling of wheat, corn, millet, other grains

a) Combines - separate seed from shaft of plant

b) Food chain - grain sent to market in trailers, sold to producer who makes product
(bread), product sold to wholesaler, sells to grocery store, individuals can buy it

5. Livestock Ranching - uses most land per farm of any other zones

6. Nonagricultural Land Use - isn’t really a zone of agriculture because distance to market
is so far that farmer cannot productively or profitably sell his goods

Environmental Impact

Effects and costs

Agriculture asserts external costs on society through effects such as pesticide
damage to nature (particularly herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, immoderate

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water usage, and loss of natural environment. Agriculture’s aim is to increase yield and to
reduce costs. Yield increments with factors like fertilizers and removal of pathogens,
predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with growing scale of farm
units, like making large fields. While the use of pesticides seems beneficial to better crop
yield, this and other measures have decreased biodiversity on an intensively farmed land.
Current studies reveal that agriculture and food consumption are two of the most important
drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use
and toxic discharges.

Livestock issues
Livestock production engages 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land
surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases. It has been cited
that livestock expansion is a key factor driving deforestation. An example would be that
about 70% of the previously forested area of the Amazon basin is currently occupied by
pastures, while the remainder is used for feed crops. Deforestation and land degradation
for livestock has caused reductions in biodiversity.

Land and water issues

Land transformation is the use of land to yield goods and services. It severely alters
the Earth's ecosystems and is blamed for the loss of biodiversity. This land transformation
has led to rise in Zoonotic disease like the Coronavirus disease 2019 because it degrades
natural buffers between humans and animals, reduces biodiversity, and creates big groups
of animals that share genetic similarities.

Inordinate fertilization and manure utilization to cropland, and high livestock stocking
densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from
agricultural land. These substances are major nonpoint pollutants that contributes to
eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater. Agriculture accounts
for 70% of withdrawals of freshwater resources. Utilization of water for agriculture can also
drive environmental problems like devastation of natural wetlands, the spread of water-
borne diseases, and land degradation by salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is
executed poorly.

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ACTIVITY - PEOPLE AND AGRICULTURE: AGRICULTURE

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

E. Cite actual scenarios/examples from the Philippines that demonstrates variations of

farming techniques. You may provide pictures/drawings.

Variations of Farming:

1. Subsistence Farming -

2. Shifting Cultivation -

3. Slash and Burn agriculture -

4. Crop Rotation -

5. Pastoral Nomadism -

F. Cite actual scenarios/examples from the Philippines that tackled the environmental
impact of agriculture.

Environmental impact of agriculture:

1. Effects and costs -

2. Livestock issues -

3. Land and water issues -

G. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

1. Agriculture is greatly needed in order to keep food production and sustain living. It is
undeniable as well that it has greatly impacted the environment. How do you propose
to balance the human's need for food and protection of the environment?

2. Which of the following environmental impacts is most relevant to the Philippines?

3. With the module's discussion of agriculture as basis, how do you propose to help
Filipino farmers?

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FOOD AND MEDICINAL PLANTS

History of Herbal Medicine

The use of herbal medicine has been traced as far as 60,000 years. Primitive humans
remedied illnesses using plants, animal parts, and minerals that were not included in a
common diet. One burial site of a Neanderthal man was found buried with 8 species of
plants, suggesting that they might have been used for medicinal purpose.

Back in the 1970’s, people have rekindled their interest in herbal medicine when
modern medicine had become costly and it has an inability to cure everything. The
partisans who advocated for herbal medicine were enthusiastic rather than knowledgeable.
There were no regulating laws then and people had been claiming outrageous healing
abilities of herbal medicines, even without scientific basis.

At present time, FDA considers some herbal remedies to be worthless or potentially

dangerous. Should a herbal product be marketed, it must have FDA’s approval to make
specific health claims. This is not to undermine the importance of plants in medicine, but
rather to safeguard the consumers’ health and wealth.

Uses of Medicinal Plants

Physical

o treatment of sickness and disease

o Athletic and Weight-loss purposes

Mental

• treatment of memory loss, depression, sleep, and stress

Common Medicinal Plants

There are a few medicinal plants they are widely used and accepted by the public.
There are claims regarding the effectiveness of these supplements; the problem is

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determining which claims are true and which are false. Keep in mind that rigorous studies
have to be done in order to prove a medicinal plant’s effectiveness. Remember to exercise
caution and to consult a medical expert.

Aloe Vera

• Claims: “Cure all” tonic, for the treatment of acne, burns, minor wounds
• Effective for the topical treatment of wounds, burns, and frostbite
• Its effectiveness varies with product.
• Advised NOT for internal use.
• Possible side effects: could lead to abdominal cramping, diarrhea, loss of
potassium, discoloration of urine.

Garlic

• Claims: antibiotic, antiviral, general cure all, lowering of blood pressure, cholesterol,
and regulation of circulatory system
• shown to lower cholesterol by 9-12% in 8-16 weeks of use
• It is used in Europe as an approved remedy for cardiovascular conditions and for
the use of the flu and colds.
• Possible side effect: large doses may cause heartburn

Ginger

• Claims: treatment of Arthritis, heart tissue, motion sickness and nausea.

• It has been seen to be effective in nausea, motion sickness, and arthritis.
• It is possible that it treats heart tissue but not likely.
• Possible side effects: inhibition of the chemicals involved in platelet aggression, that
could lead to increased and prolonged bleeding

Peppermint

• Claims: muscle spasms, abdominal pain, diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome, chills
and nausea, convulsions, headaches
• It has only been observed to decrease muscle spasms.
• Possible side effects: Overuse can lead to heartburn, esophageal sphincter
relaxations, irritation of mucous membranes, and allergic reactions.

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Ginkgo Biloba

• Claims: improved memory, reduce Alzheimer’s effects, helps hearing loss, helps
depression
• helps calm asthma
• Ginkgo balboa extract increases blood flow to the brain by inhibiting blood platelet
accumulation and by regulating elasticity of blood vessel. It has also been shown to
better blood flow through major blood vessels and capillaries.
• Ginkgo biloba has been shown to be completely ineffective against memory loss,
hearing loss, depression, and asthma.
• Possible side effects: mild gastrointestinal upset, mild headaches

St. John’s Wort

• Claims: prevent depression, decrease stress levels, help nervous conditions,

decrease severity of bacterial infection
• Found in this plant is hyperforin. It is a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, and this
compound is suspected as having antidepressant effects.
• It has been studied to be mildly helpful in very mild to moderate cases of depression.
Its potency seems to decrease as the case gets more serious and in the worst cases
of depression, it can actually hurt the situation.
• Possible side effects: in cases of major depression, it may worsen the case; blurred
vision, constipation, urinary retention, and excessive drowsiness

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Exercise and Diet Supplements

Today, many people take herbal

supplements to help then in their
energy and weight loss. Magazines
and tabloids sometimes have ads for
herbal supplements, usually
accompanied by a man or woman
who has incredibly slim and toned
body. Despite claims of easy weight
loss, some experts have serious
doubts about the effectiveness of
these herbal remedies.

Common supplements:

• Exercise: Ginseng, Bell

pollen
• Weight Loss: Ephedra
Image 18. Advertisement claiming weight loss
Ginseng

• Most common form is Asian ginseng

• A perennial herb of northern China, Korea, Japan, and Russia
• Must be grown for 5 years before harvested and harvested in the fall just before
defoliation
• The root is the most widely used part
• It is suggested that ginseng increases cerebrovascular flow
• Dosage: Usual daily dose is 200mg

Effectiveness: In a 9-week, double blind, placebo-controlled trial of 30 highly trained

athletes, treatment with ginseng produced significant improvements in aerobic capacity.

There were negative results in an 8-week, double blind trial that followed 31 healthy men
in their twenties and another 8 week trial which showed that ginseng improved aerobic
capacity in people who did not exercise, but gave no additional benefit to those who did.

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Bee Pollen

• Referred to as nature’s most complete food

• Praised in the Bible and ancient Chinese texts
• Bee pollen is the male seed of a flower blossom which has been gathered by the
bees and to which special elements from the bees has been added. The honeybee
collects pollen and mixes it with its own digestive enzymes. One pollen granule
contains from one hundred thousand to five million pollen spores, each capable of
reproducing its entire species.
• Bee pollen rejuvenates your body, stimulates organs and glands, enhances vitality,
and brings about a longer life span. Bee pollen's ability to increase energy levels
makes consistently and noticeably a favorite substance among many world class
athletes and those interested in sustaining and enhancing quality performance.
• Claims: Produces an accelerated rate of recovery-normal heart rate and breathing.
It provides energy, stamina, and strength, and enhances performance levels.
• Effectiveness: Studies have shown that taking Bee Pollen does increase your
energy and stamina during exercise and repeated events.

Ephedra

• Also known as “Ma Huang”

• Popular diet supplement in the U.S.
• Has been used in Chinese medicine for thousands of years
• Claims: enhances energy, stimulates fat metabolism, burns fat and sugar more
effectively, reduces appetite, mobilizes stored fat and carbohydrate reserves
• Effectiveness: Studies have shown that ephedra helps in weight loss.

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ACTIVITY - PEOPLE AND AGRICULTURE: MEDICINAL PLANTS

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

A. Complete the following table by choosing medicinal plants (you can opt to choose the
ones that were not discussed in the module), what people believe they can do, and
what they can actually do. An italicized example is provided. Please do not simply lift
the words directly from the source and try to add explanation.

Medicinal Plants What people believe they What they actually do

can do

Example: It’s a “cure all” tonic, for the It is a topical treatment of

treatment of acne, burns, wounds, burns, and frostbite.
Aloe vera
and minor wounds.

B. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

1. Why is it easier for some people to believe ridiculous and exaggerated claims of
wellness than to heed and seek medical advice?

2. How do you protect yourself from erroneous claims of herbal "cure all’s"?

Sources:
Agriculture. (2020). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture
Agriculture [Power Point slides].
Herbal supplements and health [Power Point slides].

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 MODULE 04

PEOPLE AND FORESTS

OVERVIEW:
Forest Management is deals with the overall administrative, legal, economic, and social
aspects of forestry. Included as well are the scientific and technical aspects, like silviculture,
protection, and forest regulation.

OBJECTIVES:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. Know how to use and manage temperate forests.

2. Know how to use and manage tropical forests; and
3. Identify forest conservation strategies applicable to the philippine setting.

TEMPERATE FORESTS: USE AND MANAGEMENT

Temperate forests are often found close to farmland and/or densely populated
urban areas. Because of proximity, these forests are often utilized as a source of
recreation-related, non-forestry activities. Examples of those activities are hunting, fishing,
picking mushrooms, picking fruits and berries. Aside from its recreational benefits,
temperate forests also provide an important source of industrial roundwood.

CURRENT FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN GENERAL

The management of temperate forests is both large-scale and small-scale. In the
temperate forest zones, large-scale private (corporate) forest operations are located mainly
in the United States of America and in the Southern Hemisphere.

European countries with many private forest owners have extremely strict forest legislation.
The legislation typically requires environmental protection and nature conservation to
different degrees. Most countries have government agencies with the task of advising
private forest owners and keeps the management in line with legislation. North America
private forest owners on the other hand have more freedom over how to manage their
forests.

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 The traditional way to evaluate forest resources in well-organized forestry
enterprises was to estimate data. This is done by using information from existing stand
records covering the whole forest estate. This method may work well if the information is
accurate and fresh but, due to various types of bias and other problems, this method is
often not particularly useful for the purposes of producing data covering larger forest areas.

Present-day management of larger forest holdings make use of forest inventories,

maps, aerial photos, stand databases etc. There are computerized systems that employ
accurate satellite remote sensing systems that keep track of the geographical location of
forest stands, roads, and ownership boundaries. Most forest-rich western countries hold
regular national forest inventories. These provide information about important forest
features.

KEEPING THE TEMPERATE FORESTS AT REASONABLE LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

Temperate forests are important for the national economy and the livelihoods of
many individuals. The world is growing increasingly dense, and therefore would have a
bigger demand for wood products. The challenge that forestry is currently facing is how to
balance the demands of a growing population and demands to conserve biodiversity.

Intensive forest management

This may include operations such as: site preparation; tree planting (including,
sometimes, the use of genetically improved trees and/or exotic tree species); tending;
thinning; and fertilizer application.

It is often criticized as being contradictory with the goal of preserving biodiversity.

Forest managers argue though that a reasonable level of biodiversity can be preserved
even if a major portion of the forest is managed intensively. Examples of how it’s done is
to leave a few snag trees, hollow trees and other dispersed trees that are ecologically
important that can provide home for species to re-colonize forest areas that have been
newly established after clear-felling.

Landscape planning

This is also called “landscape ecosystem management”. This is often employed in

an intensive forest management. Landscape planning leave some forest areas untouched
as reserves for biodiversity conservation. Areas are that can form a continuous web in the

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landscape and include ecotypes that are valuable for conserving biodiversity are selected
in the planning.

Landscape planning leads to higher silvicultural costs, in return it has a high and
predictable yield of industrial roundwood. This approach is both realistic and viable.

Low intensity forestry

Compared to landscape planning, this has lower reforestation and silvicultural

costs. It is often based on natural regeneration or some type of selective harvesting system,
allowing the forest stand to naturally develop. This approach can be employed in forests
whose stands regenerate easily or stands that have trees that regenerate well. With proper
planning, it can meet nature conservation objectives and result in minimum damage to
valuable ecosystems.

The downside to this approach is the uncertainly of the long-term consequences.

There are reports of questioning the viability of this approach. In the past, some studies
made aware that this may cause of gradual deterioration of forest conditions and
biodiversity. These effects have also been shown to worsen over time and may be difficult
and may be irreversible.

TROPICAL FORESTS: USE AND MANAGEMENT

Only about 7% of the world's total land area are occupied by tropical forests but
they house in more than 50% of all living species. They are some of the most biologically
diverse areas on the planet and are rich in species.

As forest resources deplete, competition for access to forest goods and services
become greater. It is also important to note that forest areas cannot be managed separately
from agricultural areas. This is because both areas compete to meet similar basic needs.
Therefore both should be considered together within the overall context of sustainable
development.

Uses of forest resources:

• Industrial Timber Production

• Fuelwood Production

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TROPICAL FORESTS MANAGEMENT
Biodiversity conservation

The main function of most protected forest area is to conserve natural forest
ecosystems. The term “protected area” encompasses a vast variety of approaches for the
management of natural and semi-natural forest types.

Protected areas have been known to enjoy strict legal status but there are numerous
problems arise in tropical zones in relation to their management. Problems include dispute
with local people over land rights, and illegal extraction of animal and plant resources.
These are often intensified because of the inability of state authorities to protect such areas.
Therefore, conservation accomplishments do not reflect reality.

The equation “protected areas = ecological diversity” is not necessarily true.

Plans for the designation of protected areas have been based on three main criteria:

1. biogeographical divisions between the main ecosystems in a country.

2. the degree to which resources are threatened or degraded; and

3. high rates of diversity or species endemism

The equation “forest classification type = level of conservation” is not automatic. For
example, a complete natural reserve (i.e. a complete ban on human activity in the area)
corresponds to the maximum level of conservation that can be awarded, but in reality, it
leads less conservation than expected. The classification type of a forest area does not
guarantee protection if financial, human resources, and political will do not support such a
classification. In some countries, natural resource conservation is not considered a priority
and short-term objectives are generally considered to be more important.

For these efforts to come into fruition, biodiversity needs to be understood more
accurately from an economic and socio-cultural standpoint.

Buffer zones

Buffer zones serve as a physical barrier between human encroachment of the

protected area. Creation of these buffer zones is meant to support the protected area and
at the same time, provide local people with benefits. The support of local people in
conservation efforts can be encouraged through participation in the harvesting and
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management of buffer zones (e.g. using of appropriate agroforestry practices; hunting;
establishing forest and agricultural tree plantations). The drawback is that the economic
development they generate can attract more people to them and increase pressure on
resource consumption.

Sustainable wildlife management

Habitat degradation and excessive game hunting are the two main threats to fauna
sustainability. However, wildlife is also being used for tourism (e.g. hunting and
ecotourism). Aside from the financial value of these activities, this method of utilizing wildlife
resources should be ecologically and socially viable.

Historically, authoritarian management of wildlife resources often failed. Such

measures have harmed local communities and defied traditional cultural values. Total bans
on the use and marketing of game have also made communities resort to poaching.

At present, biodiversity development and sustainable use is generally equated to the

idea of a total ban on the commerce of wildlife and related products. It is also essential to
see the possible multiple uses that wildlife can provide, like recreation; food; and scientific,
cultural, economic, and ecological functions.

Fire protection

Fire is a valuable tool for farmers and herders if used properly. It may be used in the
preparation of sites for establishing plantations or to encourage natural regeneration.
Although fire is a natural component, it can damage vegetation. It also has harmful effects
like carbon emissions.

Studies have also shown that most forest fires are man-made due to:

1. deliberate deforestation (i.e. forest conversion), slash and burn cultivation.

2. rangeland regeneration (for grazing and hunting).

3. accidents.

4. traditional use (e.g. religious and tribal ceremonies); and

5. political and socio-economic conflicts over land use and ownership rights.

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 There have been different mechanical means of controlling brush fires that were
implemented through modern apparatus (e.g. fire trucks, pumps, etc.). The costly methods
of fire control led to promotion of participation of local communities, education and training,
and the use of small equipment and manual tools in fighting forest fires. However, the safest
and most effective fire protection method in most cases was deliberate and controlled
burning at the beginning of the dry season. The problems of fire control are more
sociological in nature than technical. Fire control is more of a matter of popular education
and agricultural policy than direct control and response.

Management for soil and water conservation

Tropical regions have most of their watersheds bear a large farming population.
Specifically, agricultural arrangements, like terraced farming in Asia, present tried and
tested soil and water conservation functions. Reforestation in areas degraded by farming
and grazing has been an expensive technical solution. However, upon consultation with
local people, improved forest protection often leads to natural regeneration. It also enables
secondary forest to be restored in many instances.

Forested watersheds that provide water to heavily populated areas should be

protected against shifting cultivation and unplanned urbanization. Management in such
cases should be efficient surveillance to protect forest cover. Tying in the functions of water
supply and natural reserves for wildlife and plant life in the same watershed does not
generally exhibit any technical problems, furthermore water management carried out
downstream from these areas can be successful.

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ACTIVITY - SCIENCE AND THE ART OF GEOGRAPHY ECOSYSTEMS

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

H. Cite from public documents, articles, newspaper, or any form of mass media (just be
sure it came from a verified and trustworthy source) that represent issues/problems tackled
in this module. Write a suggestion based on the article. Your chosen articles should be at
least from 2010 to present. If possible, please provide snippets of the following articles and
paste them on a separate sheet, after the table. An italicized example is provided.

Title, author, Brief summary Issues/problem Relationship of Suggestion

and date (if of the issue s tackled in this the article to the
available) module specified issue

Example: The articled Sustainable The article Talk with the

talked about wildlife talked about local people to
“Title of article”
illegal poaching management sustainable know why they
by Author, 2019
activities in wildlife poach and find
Place A. management ways to …
because it talks
of issues like …

I. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

1. Why is biodiversity important?

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2. Of the different issues presented in this module, which is the most glaring problem in
the Philippines?

3. How do you suggest bridging the gap between the needs of the locals and protection
of biodiversity?

Sources:

Hagner, S. (1999). Forest management in temperate and boreal forests: Current

practices and the scope for implementing sustainable forest management [PDF].

Dapuy, B., Maître, H., & Amsallem, I. (1999). Tropical forest management techniques:
A review of the sustainability of forest management practices in tropical
countries [PDF].

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 MODULE 5

PEOPLE, GRASSLAND AND SCRUB

OBJECTIVES:

• Classify the different grassland biomes.

• Understand the importance of grassland and scrub to wildlife and humans.
• Familiarize students with the management and maintenance of grassland
and scrub biome.

Scrub can be valuable for a wide range of wildlife, providing a continued source of
nectar, fruits, seeds, shelter, breeding, and roosting sites. A stand of scrub with varied plant
species, age and structure will support a great variety of species.

By ensuring that scrub – the transitory stage between open habitats such as
grassland and closed canopy woodland - is part of your habitat mosaic you will be providing
food and shelter for invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds.

IMPORTANCE OF SCRUB FOR WILDLIFE

INVERTEBRATES
Some tall herbs, often associated with scrub edge, are vital to many grassland
invertebrates that need nectar-rich shrubs to complete their lifecycles. Species such as
blackthorn, hawthorn, bramble, and herbs provide early pollen and nectar, as well as
foraging habitat for herbivorous and predatory invertebrates in both adult and larval stages.
Standing and fallen dead timber is valuable habitat for fungi and wood-boring insects.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

Amphibians and reptiles prefer south facing areas of scrub for basking and
hibernation sites, for example south facing heathland gorse scrub edges provide basking
for adders. Scrub can also be used as a wildlife corridor to link habitats such as wetland
areas for amphibians.

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BIRDS AND MAMMALS
Scrub is commonly used by birds such as bullfinch, yellowhammer, linnet, willow
warbler, wren, blackbird, dunnock, long-tailed tit and turtle dove. Coastal scrub is important
for migratory birds such as redwing, fieldfare, and waxwing, which use scrub as a ‘feeding
station’. Fruits and seeds are a particularly important feature of scrub which provides
autumn and winter food for resident and migrant birds and mammals.

Certain species will show preferences for certain structures of scrub for example
yellowhammer and linnet nest in low, dense scrub edges that are thick at the base, whereas
song thrush nest in thick cover, preferring mature scrub, and feed in short marginal
vegetation.

Raptors will often use scrub for roosting in winter and hunting small birds and
mammals. Long-eared owl will utilize the old nests of magpie in denser scrub areas.
Nightingale are summer visitors (mid-April – August) and restricted to the southern and
eastern counties of England. Scrub has become increasingly important for nightingale,
preferring thickets of dense scrub such as blackthorn and bramble, with a margin of rough
grass.

SCRUB MANAGEMENT
Since scrub is a transitory habitat, it needs management to maintain it otherwise it
will develop into woodland or can become invasive and reduce the biodiversity of a site.
Initially it is important to look at a site and plan how it is going to be managed to ensure a
balance with other features of the site such as open habitat, species of conservation
importance or geological features.

Work on scrub is best carried out in the autumn/winter, ideally early February, and
should never be done during the bird nesting season (March – July). Work on berry-bearing
scrub is best delayed until after December, leaving valuable autumn and winter fruits and
seeds as food for wildlife.

Improvement – Increased biodiversity is associated with larger areas of well-

managed scrub.

If a site does not have much scrub, creating it through natural regeneration or
planting can improve the variety of wildlife in the area. When planting, try to create a natural,

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uneven spread of planting with a mix of species and plenty of edges, which are an important
part of scrub.

When planning to increase the amount of scrub it is important not to create scrub
at the expense of other existing high value habitat such as herb-rich grassland. Where a
stand of scrub does not attract a great variety of wildlife, the aim of managing the scrub
should be to improve its value for wildlife. This can be done by increasing the variety of
species and structure, encouraging natural regeneration and by rotational cutting to
increase the age range within the scrub.

Generally, it is advised that species of local provenance are used for supplementary
planting. The ideal outcome is a mosaic of scrub stands of varying age and size structure
with associated open habitat, which in turn will increase the diversity of the associated plant
and animal communities.

Farmers/landowners who apply for Natural England’s Environmental Stewardship

Scheme could receive payment for the restoration or creation of a succession of scrub
habitat for specific target species such as the dormouse, song thrush or turtle dove. Scrub
creation is particularly aimed at sites where target species already exist and where the site
is adjacent to existing areas of scrub or woodland.

MAINTENANCE – Where a site has enough scrub in good condition it is important

to maintain its wildlife value by keeping a variety of stages of growth.

Because scrub is a transitory habitat and readily colonizes unmanaged open

habitat, it is typically strong growing with a dense structure. However, if allowed to grow
unchecked scrub gradually develops a woodland structure. Growth tends to become leggy
and single stemmed; the understory is shaded out and the thicket qualities of the scrub are
then lost.

By rotationally coppicing blocks of scrub and allowing them to re-grow, the scrub’s
characteristic thicket structure is rejuvenated and maintained.

Scrub typically matures at about 15 years, so coppicing 1/15th every year, i.e. a 15-
year rotation, is a good rule of thumb; alternatively cutting 2/15th every other year or 3/15th
every third year.

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 Where scrub is almost entirely composed of bramble, the rotation can be shorter,
between 5-6 years (i.e. a fifth or sixth each winter) to provide a mosaic of bramble at
different stages of growth.

In any event always try to avoid cutting adjacent patches sequentially in order not
to reduce foliage for invertebrates to feed on. Rough grassland fringes and damp ditch
banks benefit from a shorter ‘cut and rake’ rotation cycle of 2-3 years where a half or a third
is cut in late summer/autumn. Try to integrate this with the coppicing cycle i.e. cut and rake
the edge of a block that you are coppicing in the same year.

Rotational cutting of bramble, marginal rough grass and tall herbs will increase the
age ranges within the scrub and give diversity in structure, which in turn will increase the
diversity of the associated wildlife. Aim to create long edges which are sunny and sheltered
and a scrub mosaic effect with rides and glades. Edges are particularly important for wildlife
because they have flowering plants, which provide continued nectar for invertebrates, fruits
and seeds for birds and mammals, shelter and nest sites and hunting grounds for raptors.

Brash can be used to create habitat piles within the scrub. Limit the number of piles
and once these are established as part of the rotation, use the same locations in future
years.

Livestock can be allowed rotational access to rougher grass alleviating the need to
cut and rake. Care should be taken that no toxic weeds are in rougher areas/scrub and that
livestock does not push into, or become caught up in, the scrub edge– for example sheep
can become trapped by their fleeces in bramble.

REDUCTION – If scrub is encroaching on to habitats of higher conservation value, for

example unimproved grassland, it may be necessary to reduce the amount of scrub. The
effect of scrub encroachment on, for example, geological and historical features of a site
should also be considered. Once the extent of the scrub has been reduced, remaining
scrub will need to be maintained to preserve the balance between scrub and open habitat.

ERADICATION – Where scrub composition is predominantly invasive/non-native species

and is damaging other habitats, for example rhododendron or Japanese knotweed or
snowberry eradication may be desirable. Complete eradication is difficult and will require
several years of management tailored to preventing re-growth.

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TECHNIQUES USED FOR MANAGING SCRUB
There are several ways to manage scrub and methods will vary according to the
aims of management and the species for which it is being managed.

Planting and sowing – for improvement

Natural regeneration should be encouraged but for quick results plant with whips of
local provenance and from a sustainable source.

MANUAL/MACHINERY – for improvement, maintenance, reduction, or eradication

Whether hand tools or large-scale machinery is used for scrub management will
depend on the extent of the scrub and site ground conditions. It is important to use tools
appropriate to the task and ground conditions, ranging from handheld tools, mower,
chainsaw, to tractor-mounted hedge cutters or excavators.

Where the surrounding habitat is fragile, for example herb-rich grassland or wet
ground, machinery may not be feasible or advisable.

GRAZING – for maintenance, reduction, or eradication

Grazing improves and maintains the edges of scrub and helps with its reduction
and eradication. The results will largely depend on the type of livestock used and the
palatability of the scrub species. Grazing requires careful monitoring because if it becomes
too intense, scrub structure can change through over-grazing of palatable plants and
fencing may be necessary to avoid an adverse impact on species such as nightingale.
Livestock should not be used for managing /eradicating scrub that contains species that
are toxic – for example rhododendron.

THE GRASSLAND BIOME HABITAT

The grassland biome includes terrestrial habitats that are dominated by grasses
and have relatively few large trees or shrubs. There are three main types of grasslands—
temperate grasslands, tropical grasslands (also known as savannas), and steppe
grasslands.

GRASSLAND BIOME KEY CHARACTERISTICS

The following are the key characteristics of the grassland biome:

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 • Vegetation structure that is dominated by grasses
• Semi-arid climate
• Rainfall and soils insufficient to support significant tree growth
• Most common at mid-latitudes and near the interiors of continents
• Grasslands are often exploited for agricultural use

CLASSIFICATION

The grassland biome is divided into the following habitats:

TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS: Temperate grasslands are dominated by grasses, lacking

trees, and large shrubs. Temperate grasslands include tall-grass prairies which are wet
and humid, and dry, short-grass prairies that experience hot summers and cold winters.
The soil of temperate grasslands has a nutrient-rich upper layer, but fires that prevent trees
and shrubs from growing often accompany seasonal droughts.

TROPICAL GRASSLANDS: Tropical grasslands are located near the equator. They have
warmer, wetter climates than temperate grasslands and experience more pronounced
seasonal droughts. Savannahs are dominated by grasses but also have some scattered
trees. Their soil is very porous and drains rapidly. Tropical grasslands are found in Africa,
India, Australia, Nepal, and South America.

Steppe grasslands: Steppe grasslands border on semi-arid deserts. The grasses found
in the steppe are much shorter than those of temperate and tropical grasslands. Steppe
grasslands lack trees except along the banks of rivers and streams.

SUFFICIENT RAINFALL

Most grasslands experience a dry season and a rainy season. During the dry season,
grasslands can be susceptible to fires, which often start as a result of lightning strikes. The
annual rainfall in a grassland habitat is greater than the annual rainfall that occurs in desert
habitats, and while they receive enough rain to grow grasses and other scrubby plants, it's
not enough to support the growth of significant numbers of trees. The soils of grasslands

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also limit the vegetation structure that grows in them. Grassland soils are generally too
shallow and dry to support tree growth.

VARIETY OF WILDLIFE

Some common plant species that occur in grasslands include buffalo grass, asters,
coneflowers, clover, goldenrods, and wild indigos. Grasslands support a variety of animal
wildlife as well, including reptiles, mammals, amphibians, birds, and many types of
invertebrates. The dry grasslands of Africa are among the most ecologically diverse of all
grasslands and support populations of animals such as giraffes, zebras, and rhinoceroses.
The grasslands of Australia provide habitat for kangaroos, mice, snakes, and a variety of
birds. The grasslands of North America and Europe support wolves, wild turkeys, coyotes,
Canadian geese, cranes, bobcats, and eagles. Additional grassland wildlife includes:

African elephant (Loxodonta africana): The two front incisors of African elephants grow
into large tusks that curve forward. They have a large head, large ears, and a long muscular
trunk.

Lion (Panthera leo): The largest of all African cats, lions inhabit savannas and the Gir
Forest in northwest India.

American bison (Bison bison): Millions used to roam North America's grasslands, boreal
regions, and scrublands but their relentless slaughter for meat, hides, and sport drove the
species to the brink of extinction.

Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta): Inhabits of the grasslands, savannas, and semi-deserts
of sub-Saharan Africa, hyena’s have the highest population density in the Serengeti, a vast
plains ecosystem stretching from northern Tanzania to southwestern Kenya.

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HUMAN IMPACT ON THE GRASSLANDS

THIS IS A POWER PLANT ON A GRASSLAND photo courtesy of mset.rst2.edu

• Grasslands are sadly being threatened by human impacts. They are disappearing
due to dividing up the land for farming and urban development. Dividing up the
land for farming is bad because the animals of the grasslands do not have any way
to move around.
• 25% of grasslands have disappeared because of people building power plants,
cities, schools, roads, permanent homes (also known as urban development).
• Prairie animals are also being endangered. For example, farmers think that prairie
dogs are pests because they burrow and can cause injury to cattle and horses.
Farmers kill them even though it is illegal.
• In the tropical grasslands, people are illegally poaching endangered animals. For
example, people are poaching tigers, elephants, and leopards and more
endangered animals like that.
• People tour the tropical grasslands and watch the animals. The animals are
developing behavior problems due to being observed for long periods. Plus, the
cars the people are touring in have a pollution effect on the tropical grasslands.

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THIS USED TO BE A GRASSLAND, BUT NOW IT'S COVERD WITH BUILDINGS photo
courtesy of SpeciesRisk_Graph_p11

THIS PERSON IS DEALING WITH A POACHED TIGER PELT photo courtesy of techno-
trades.com

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HOW YOU CAN HELP?

RECYCLING SIGN photo courtesy of pixmac.com

You can help the grasslands by biking to school and recycling items such as paper, plastic
bags/bottles, and paper bags. You can also help by getting your family members to drive
fewer miles in the car. If it is a short distance and nice weather, it would be a good idea to
walk or bike wherever you are going. Remember, if you see litter, pick it up.

ACTIVITY: PEOPLE, GRASSLAND AND SCRUB

1. Choose one from the impacts of humans on grassland biomes and discuss.
2. Give an example in the Philippine/local setting. Include the location and
explain how humans has affected the biome.

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 MODULE 6

PEOPLE AND WATER, OCEANS & COASTS

OBJECTIVES:
• To understand the importance of oceans and coastal environments.
• Identify the impacts of humans to oceans and climate change.

OCEANS AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

Earth is a world of water, with seven tenths of its surface covered by ocean. The
oceans are the engine of our climate system, taking in approximately half of all solar energy
around the equator to power mighty currents that extend up as far as the poles, wind fields
following in their wake.

Their waters also provide us with much of the air we breathe microscopic
phytoplankton populations performing half of all photosynthesis, despite forming less than
1% of global biomass. In addition, the oceans absorb some of the additional CO2 produced
by human activity – lessening the full impact of global warming.

Human beings don't like to venture too far from the sea: 60% of us live less than 60
km from the world's three million square kilometers of coast, which represent major
economic resources, and more than two thirds of all cities with populations of more than
2.5 million people are within coastal zones.

The surface of the sea is ever-changing, but satellites provide us with a means of
mapping it for the very first time.

Envisat's ASAR surveyed ocean wave spectra to increase the safety and efficiency
of marine transport – 90% of world trade crosses the oceans – while ERS's scatter meter
compiled maps of sea surface wind patterns. Envisat's MERIS and other spectrometers
can identify phytoplankton or pollution levels from the slightest shift in water colour, while
AATSR provided a steady record of sea surface temperature and two decades worth of
radar altimetry data tracks a slight but steady increase in sea level of 3 mm per year.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OCEANS

The oceans make up 70 percent of

the planet and contains 97 percent of all the
water on Earth. The vast amount of water
stores the majority of the planet’s moisture,
terrestrial energy, and heat from the Sun.
This energy is transferred between the
equator and the two poles by larger surface
currents by winds and deep ocean currents
driven by differences in ocean density. It
also provides the moisture and energy for
storm systems and ultimately global
climates.

Phytoplankton, microscopic plants, and animals in the oceans provide the foundation of the
global food web of species. The earth’s oceans are so vital for life that over 40 percent of
the world’s population live 7.4 billion people near coastal areas.

MODERATE CLIMATES

As terrestrial creatures, humans

think of the importance of the
planet’s land surfaces, yet Earth is
a planet consisting of 70 percent
water. From space, the dominance
of water is obvious because most
of it is stored in Earth’s oceans.
Earth would not be the same planet
without its oceans. The oceans,
along with the atmosphere, keep
Earth’s surface temperatures fairly

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constant worldwide. While some places on Earth get as cold as -7 degrees Celsius and
others as hot as 55 degrees Celsius, the range is only 125 degrees Celsius. On Mercury
temperatures go from -180 degrees Celsius to 430 degrees Celsius, a range of 610
degrees Celsius. The oceans, along with the atmosphere, distribute heat around the planet.
The oceans absorb heat near the equator and then transport that solar energy to polar
regions. The oceans also moderate climate within a region. At the same latitude, the
temperature range is smaller along coastal areas compared to areas farther inland. Along
coastal areas, summer temperatures are not as hot, and winter temperatures are not as
cold, because water takes a long time to heat up or cool down.

BIOLOGICALLY RICH

The oceans are an essential part of Earth’s

water cycle. Since they cover so much of the planet,
most evaporation comes from the ocean and most
precipitation falls on the oceans. The oceans are also
home to an enormous amount of life. That is, they
have tremendous biodiversity. Tiny ocean plants
create the base of a food web that supports all sorts
of life forms. Marine life makes up the majority of all
biomass on Earth. (Biomass is the total mass of living organisms in a given area.) These
organisms supply us with food and even the oxygen created by marine plants.

CONTINENTAL MARGIN

Recall from the chapter on Plate Tectonics that the ocean floor is not flat: mid-ocean
ridges, deep sea trenches, and other features all rise sharply above or plunge deeply below
the abyssal plains. In fact, Earth’s tallest mountain is Mauna Kea volcano, which rises
10,203 m (33,476 ft.) meters) from the Pacific Ocean floor to become one of the volcanic
mountains of Hawaii. The deepest canyon is also on the ocean floor, the Challenger Deep
in the Marianas Trench, 10,916 m (35,814 ft). The mapping of the ocean floor and coastal
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margins is called bathymetry. The continental margin is the transition from the land to the
deep sea or, geologically speaking, from continental crust to oceanic crust. More than one-
quarter of the ocean basin is continental margin.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE OCEAN

COMPOSITION OF OCEAN WATER

Water is a polar
molecule so it can
dissolve many
substances such as
salts, sugars, acids,
bases, and organic
molecules. Where
does the salt in
seawater come from?
As water moves
through rock and soil
on land it picks up ions. This is the flip side of weathering. Salts comprise about 3.5% of
the mass of ocean water, but the salt content or salinity is different in different locations. In

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places like estuaries, seawater mixes with fresh water, causing salinity to be much lower
than average. Where there is lots of evaporation but little circulation of water, salinity can
be much higher. The Dead Sea has 30% salinity—nearly nine times the average salinity of
ocean water. It is called the Dead Sea because nearly nothing can survive within it because
of its salinity. Earth guide has an interactive ocean maps can show salinity, temperature,
nutrients, and other characteristics. Differences in water density are responsible for deep
ocean currents. With so many dissolved substances mixed in seawater, what is the density
(mass per volume) of seawater relative to fresh water? Water density increases as: salinity
increases; temperature decreases; pressure increases

In 1960, two men in a specially designed submarine called the Trieste descended
into a submarine trench called the Challenger Deep (10,910 meters). The average depth
of the ocean is 3,790 m, a lot more shallow than the deep trenches but still an incredible
depth for sea creatures to live in. There are three major factors that make the deep ocean
hard to inhabit: the absence of light, low temperature, and extremely high pressure.

VERTICAL DIVISIONS
To better understand regions of the ocean, scientists define the water column by
depth. They divide the entire ocean into two zones vertically, based on light level. Large
lakes are divided into similar regions. Sunlight only penetrates the sea surface to a depth
of about 200 m, creating the photic zone (consisting of the Sunlight Zone and Twilight
Zone). Organisms that photosynthesize depend on sunlight for food and so are restricted
to the photic zone. Since tiny photosynthetic organisms, known as phytoplankton, supply
nearly all of the energy and nutrients to the rest of the marine food web, most other marine
organisms live in or at least visit the photic zone. In the aphotic zone (consisting of the
Midnight Zone and the Abyss) there is not enough light for photosynthesis. The aphotic
zone makes up the majority of the ocean, but has a relatively small amount of its life, both
in diversity of type and in numbers.

HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS
The seabed is also divided into the zones described above, but the ocean itself is
also divided horizontally by distance from the shore. Nearest to the shore lies the intertidal
(littoral) zone, the region between the high and low tidal marks. This hallmark of the
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intertidal is change water is in constant motions in waves, tides, and currents. The land is
sometimes under water and sometimes is exposed. The neritic zone is from low tide mark
and slopes gradually downward to the edge of the seaward side of the continental shelf.
Some sunlight penetrates to the seabed here. The oceanic zone is the entire rest of the
ocean from the bottom edge of the neritic zone, where sunlight does not reach the bottom.
The seabed and water column are subdivided further, as seen in the figure above.

PEOPLE AND OCEANS

GENERAL
The ocean is vast, covering 140 million square miles (363 million square km),
equivalent to approximately 72 per cent of the earth's surface.

More than 600 million people (around 10 per cent of the world’s population) live in
coastal areas that are less than 10 meters above sea level.

Nearly 2.4 billion people (about 40 per cent of the world’s population) live within 100
km (60 miles) of the coast.

Oceans, coastal and marine resources are especially important for people living in
coastal communities, who represent 37 per cent of the global population in 2017.

HEALTH AND NUTRITION

Human health is being impacted by the enhanced survival and spread of tropical
diseases due to increasing ocean temperatures.

Fish is one of the most important sources of animal protein. It accounts for about
17 per cent of protein at the global level and exceeds 50 per cent in many least-developed
countries.

The nutrients found in fish are important for optimal neurodevelopment in children
and for improving cardiovascular health.

SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS AND DECENT WOR

About 97 per cent of the world’s fishermen live in developing countries and fishing
is their major source for food and income. Women account for most of the workers in
secondary marine-related activities such as fish processing and marketing.

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 Overall, 80 per cent of the world’s fish stocks for which assessment information is
available are reported as fully exploited or overexploited. Illegal, unregulated, unreported
fishing affects about 20 per cent of the global fish yields, which cost about $US23 billion a
year. An estimated 27 percent of landed fish is lost or wasted between landing and
consumption.

Small scale fisheries supply almost half of the world’s seafood stock. Small scale
fisheries are however, among others, disadvantaged by lack of access to markets, even
domestically, and a lack of pricing power.

ECONOMY
The ocean-economy, which includes employment, ecosystem services provided by
the ocean, and cultural services, is estimated at between US$3-6 trillion/year.

Fisheries and aquaculture contribute $US100 billion per year and about 260 million
jobs to the global economy.

Shipping is responsible for more than 90 per cent of the trade between countries.
The global oceans-based economy is estimated at $US3 trillion a year, which is around 5
per cent of global GDP.

Approximately 50 per cent of all international tourists travel to coastal areas. In

some developing countries, notably Small Island Development States, tourism accounts
for over 25 per cent of GDP.

MARINE POLLUTION

MARINE DEBRIS
More than 8 million tons of plastic enter the oceans each year, equal to dumping a
garbage truck of plastic every minute. As much as 80 per cent of all litter in our oceans is
made of plastic.

As many as 51 trillion microplastic particles — 500 times more than the stars in our
galaxy — litter our oceans and seas, seriously threatening marine wildlife.

Marine debris is harming more than 800 species. 40 per cent of marine mammals
and 44 per cent of seabird species are affected by marine debris ingestion.

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 According to some estimates, at the rate we are dumping items such as plastic
bottles, bags, and cups after a single use, by 2050 oceans will carry more plastic mass
than fish, and an estimated 99 per cent of seabirds will have ingested plastic.

Plastic waste kills up to 1 million sea birds, 100,000 sea mammals, marine turtles,
and countless fish each year. Plastic remains in our ecosystem for years, harming
thousands of sea creatures every day.

Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear in the oceans makes up

around 10 percent (640 000 tons) of all marine litter. This gear continues to catch fish
through so called “ghost fishing”, and also traps turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals.

LAND-BASED ACTIVITIES
80 per cent of all pollution in seas and oceans comes from land-based activities.

Nitrogen loads to oceans roughly tripled from pre-industrial times due to fertilizer,
manure, and wastewater. The global economic damage of nitrogen pollution is estimated
at $200–800 billion per year.

In many parts of the world, (urban) sewage flows untreated, or under-treated, into
the ocean.

Pollution and eutrophication (excessive nutrients in water) are also caused by run
off from the land, which cause dense plant growth and the death of animal life. The five
large marine ecosystems most at risk from coastal eutrophication are: Bay of Bengal, East
China Sea, Gulf of Mexico, North Brazil Shelf and South China Sea.

Increased nutrient loading from human activities, combined with the impacts of
climate change and other environmental change has resulted in an increase in the
frequency, magnitude, and duration of harmful algal blooms worldwide. These algal blooms
can contaminate seafood with toxins, and impact ecosystem structure and function,
recreational activities, fisheries, tourism, and coastal property values.

Nutrient over-enrichment from agricultural, municipal, and industrial sources

contributes to the so called “dead zones”—hypoxic regions that exhibit oxygen levels that
are too low to support many aquatic organisms including commercially desirable species.
The extent and duration of “dead zones” is also increasing worldwide.

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OIL SPILLS

Oil tankers transport some 2,900 million tons of crude oil and oil products every
year around the world by sea. In addition to large tanker incidents, small oil spills happens
every day, due to drilling incidents or leaking motors, and cause the death of birds, marine
mammals, algae, fish, and shellfish. Oil spills remain a concern, though actual spills have
decreased steadily for several decades.

BIODIVERSITY

BIOSPHERE
The world’s oceans contain somewhere between 500,000 and 10 million marine
species.

Marine phytoplankton (the plant components of the plankton community) produces

50 per cent of oxygen on Earth.

Oceans have absorbed as much as half of all anthropogenic carbon emissions over
the past two centuries. “Blue carbon” ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrass beds, tidal
marshes and other marine and coastal vegetated ecosystems are among the most intense
carbon sinks on the planet.

The species diversity in the oceans ranges from 0.7 to 1.0 million species, with
millions more bacteria, other microbes, and viruses. Much of the biodiversity in the ocean,
particularly in the deep sea and in the microbial ocean, is unknown, and up to 2,000 new
species are described per year.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Coral reefs (both tropical and cold water) are very sensitive to ocean acidification,
with 60 per cent of reefs currently threatened by a combination of ocean warming,
acidification and other anthropogenic impacts, a number that will rise to 90 per cent by
2030 and about 100 per cent by 2050.

About 20 per cent of the world’s coral reefs have been destroyed and show no
immediate prospects for recovery; about 16 per cent of them were seriously damaged by
coral bleaching in 1998, but of these about 40 per cent have either recovered or are
recovering well.

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 1998 was declared the first major coral bleaching event. The second major global
bleaching event was triggered by the El Niño of 2010. The third major global coral bleaching
event was declared in 2015, and it has become the longest, most widespread, and most
damaging event recorded, impacting some reefs in consecutive years and it is continuing
in 2017.

The Great Barrier Reef of Australia, for example, has experienced its worst coral
bleaching event in 2016, and bleaching has already begun again in 2017. The leading
causes of coral bleaching are the above-average sea water temperatures caused by
climate change.

An estimated 20 per cent of global mangroves have been lost since 1980.

Projected increasing temperatures in oceans will likely result in changes in

distribution of marine species and can significantly influence the reproductive cycles of fish.

Pressures on coastal and marine biodiversity continue to increase, as an estimated

40 per cent of the world’s population lives within 100km of the coast, putting unsustainable
strain on coastal resources. Human population is projected to increase to more than 9
billion people by 2050, bringing increasing pressure marine and coastal resources.

CLIMATE CHANGE

CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE OCEAN

About 93 per cent of the excess heat energy stored by the Earth over the last 50
years is found in the ocean more than three quarters of the total exchange of water between
the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface through evaporation and precipitation takes place
over the oceans.

The ocean contains 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere and is at present
acting to slow the rate of climate change by absorbing about 30 per cent of human
emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning, cement production, deforestation, and
other land use change.

ICE MELTING IN POLAR REGIONS

Over the last two decades, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been losing
mass, glaciers have continued to shrink almost worldwide, and Arctic sea ice and Northern
Hemisphere spring snow cover have continued to decrease in extent).

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 Over the past three decades, Arctic summer sea ice retreat was unprecedented
and sea surface temperatures were anomalously high in at least the last 1,450 years.

SEA LEVEL RISE

Between 1901 and 2010, global sea level rise increased at an accelerating rate and
recent sea level rise appears to have been the fastest in at least 2800 years.

During the last four decades, 75 per cent of the sea level rise can be attributed to
glacier mass loss and ocean thermal expansion. This gives Antarctica alone the potential
to contribute more than a meter of sea level rise by 2100 and more than 15 meters by 2500.

Sea level rise leads to coastal erosion, inundations, storm floods, tidal waters
encroachment into estuaries and river systems, contamination of freshwater reserves and
food crops, loss of nesting beaches, as well as displacement of coastal lowlands and
wetlands. In particular, sea level rise poses a significant risk to coastal regions and
communities.

Almost two-thirds of the world's cities with populations of over five million are
located in areas at risk of sea level rise.

The potential costs associated with damage to harbors and ports due to sea level
rise could be as high as $US111.6 billion by 2050 and $US367.2 billion by the end of the
century.

EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS

Ocean warming has been linked to extreme weather events as increasing seawater
temperatures provide more energy for storms that develop at sea, leading to fewer but
more intense tropical cyclones globally.

Latest figures show that disasters—90 per cent of which are classed as climate
related—now cost the world economy US$520 billion per year and push 26 million people
into poverty every year.

DISPLACEMENT
It is estimated that at least 11 to 15 per cent of the population of Small Island
Developing States live on land with an elevation of 5 meters or lower, and that a sea level
rise of half a meter could displace 1.2 million people from low-lying islands in the Caribbean
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Sea and the Indian and Pacific Oceans; with that number almost doubling if the sea level
rises by 2 meters.

It has been reported that an annual average of 21.5 million people have been
forcibly internally displaced by sudden weather-related hazards since 2008.

ACTIVITY: PEOPLE AND WATER, OCEANS & COASTS

Give examples of coastal communities in the country which was recently affected by
weather and climate change.

1. What is government doing to address this?

2. Identify at least one marine reserve sanctuary in the country and discuss
its significance to the environment.

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 MODULE 7

PEOPLE AND CLIMATE

OBJECTIVES:

• Understand the effects of climate change. (global and Philippine setting)

• Identify the responsibilities in addressing the ill-effects of climate change.
• Understanding the correlation of climate change to human rights.

INTRODUCTION
Human health has always been influenced by climate and weather. Changes in
climate and climate variability, particularly changes in weather extremes, affect the
environment that provides us with clean air, food, water, shelter, and security. Climate
change, together with other natural and human-made health stressors, threatens human
health and well-being in numerous ways. Some of these health impacts are already being
experienced in the United States.

Given that the impacts of climate change are projected to increase over the next
century, certain existing health threats will intensify, and new health threats may emerge.
Connecting our understanding of how climate is changing with an understanding of how
those changes may affect human health can inform decisions about mitigating (reducing)
the amount of future climate change, suggest priorities for protecting public health, and
help identify research needs.

WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?

The planet's climate has constantly been changing over geological time, with
significant fluctuations of global average temperatures.

However, this current period of warming is occurring more rapidly than any past
events. It has become clear that humanity has caused most of the last century’s warming
by releasing heat-trapping gases—commonly referred to as greenhouse gases—to power
our modern lives. We are doing this through burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land-use
and other activities that drive climate change. Greenhouse gases are at the highest levels
they have ever been over the last 800,000 years. This rapid rise is a problem because it’s
changing our climate at a rate that is too fast for living things to adapt to.
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 Climate change involves not only rising temperatures, but also extreme weather
events, rising sea levels, shifting wildlife populations and habitats, and a range of other
impacts.

WHAT CAUSES CLIMATE CHANGE?

There is an overwhelming scientific consensus that global warming is mostly man-
made: 97% of climate scientists have come to this conclusion.

One of the biggest drivers by far is our burning of fossil fuels – coal, gas and oil –
which has increased the concentration of greenhouse gases – such as carbon dioxide – in
our atmosphere. This, coupled with other activities like clearing land for agriculture, is
causing the average temperature of our planet to increase. In fact, scientists are as certain
of the link between greenhouse gases and global warming as they are of the link between
smoking and lung cancer.

This is not a recent conclusion. The scientific community has collected and studied
the data on this for decades. Warnings about global warming started making headlines
back in the late 1980s.

In 1992, 165 nations signed an international treaty, the UN Framework Convention

on Climate Change (UNFCCC). They have held meetings annually ever since (called
“Conference of the Parties” or COP), with the aim of developing goals and methods to
reduce climate change as well as adapt to its already visible effects. Today, 197 countries
are bound by the UNFCCC.

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE?

The effects of climate change are already being felt now, but they will get worse.
Global warming has reached approximately 1°C above pre-industrial levels. Every half
degree (or even less) of global warming counts.

It is important to remember that no one list of the effects of climate change can be
exhaustive. It is likely that heatwaves will occur more often and last longer, and that
extreme precipitation events will become more intense and frequent in many regions. The
oceans will continue to warm and acidify, and global mean sea level will continue to rise.
All of this will have, and is already starting to have, a devastating impact on human life.

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 The urgent need to address climate change has become even clearer with the
release of a major report in October 2018 by the world’s leading scientific body for the
assessment of climate change, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
The IPCC warns that in order to avoid catastrophic global warming, we must not reach
1.5°C above pre-industrial levels – or at very minimum not exceed that. The report sets out
the massive differences between the 1.5°C and 2°C scenarios.

By working to limit the increase in average global average temperatures to 1.5°C,

the IPCC states that we could for example:

• Reduce the number of people both exposed to climate-related risks and

susceptible to poverty by up to several hundred million by 2050.
• Protect 10 million people from risks related to sea levels.
• Reduce the proportion of the global population exposed to increase in water
stress by up to 50%, or one in every 25 people on this planet.

Perhaps most importantly, the IPCC report gave the world a clear deadline to avoid
catastrophe: greenhouse gas emissions must be halved from their 2010 levels by 2030 to
avoid reaching 1.5°C. Our governments must therefore take immediate steps right now to
change course. The longer we take to do this, the more we will have to rely on costly
technologies that could have harmful impacts on human rights.

UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres told states that they must set credible
targets by 2020 to stop the increase of emissions, otherwise “we risk missing the point
where we can avoid runaway climate change, with disastrous consequences for people
and all the natural systems that sustain us.”

WHO IS IMPACTED THE MOST BY CLIMATE CHANGE?

Climate change is and will continue to harm all of us unless governments act.
However, its effects are likely to be much more pronounced for certain groups – for
example, those communities dependent on agricultural or coastal livelihoods – as well as
those who are generally already vulnerable, disadvantaged, and subject to discrimination.

These are some of the ways climate change can and is exacerbating inequalities:

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BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING NATIONS:
At a national level, those in low-lying, small island states and less developed
countries will be and already are among those worst affected. People in the Marshall
Islands already regularly experience the devastating flooding and storms that destroy their
homes and livelihoods. The 2018 heatwave in the northern hemisphere made headlines
across Europe and North America, but some of the worst effects were also felt in places
like Pakistan, where more than 60 people died – mostly laborer’s already working in intense
heat – as temperatures soared above 44°C.

BETWEEN DIFFERENT ETHNICITIES AND CLASSES:

The effects of climate change and fossil fuel-related pollution also run along
ethnicity and class lines. In North America, it is largely poorer communities of colour who
are forced to breathe toxic air because their neighborhoods are more likely to be situated
next to power plants and refineries. They experience markedly higher rates of respiratory
illnesses and cancers, and African Americans are three times more likely to die of airborne
pollution than the overall US population.

BETWEEN GENDERS:
Women and girls are disproportionately affected by climate change, reflecting the
fact that they are more likely in many countries to be marginalized and disadvantaged. This
means that they are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate-related events as they are
less able to protect themselves against it and will find it harder to recover.

BETWEEN GENERATIONS:
Future generations will experience the worsening effects unless action is taken now
by governments. However, children and young people are already suffering due to their
specific metabolism, physiology, and developmental needs. This means, for example, that
the forced displacement experienced by communities impacting a whole range of rights –
from water, sanitation and food to adequate housing, health, education, and development
– is likely to be particularly harmful to children.

BETWEEN COMMUNITIES:
Indigenous peoples are among the communities most impacted by climate change.
They often live in marginal lands and fragile ecosystems which are particularly sensitive to
alterations in the physical environment. They maintain a close connection with nature and
their traditional lands on which their livelihoods and cultural identity depend.
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WHY IS CLIMATE CHANGE A HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUE?

Human rights are intimately linked with climate change because of its devastating
effect on not just the environment but our own wellbeing. In addition to threatening our very
existence, climate change is having harmful impacts on our rights to life, health, food, water,
housing, and livelihoods.

The longer governments wait to take meaningful action, the harder the problem
becomes to solve, and the greater the risk that emissions will be reduced through means
that increase inequality rather than reduce it.

These are some of the ways climate change is impacting and will impact our human rights:

RIGHT TO LIFE – We all have the right to life, and to live in freedom and safety. But climate
change threatens the safety of billions of people on this planet. The most obvious example
is through extreme weather-related events, such as storms, floods, and wildfires. Typhoon
Yolanda in the Philippines claimed the lives of nearly 10,000 people in 2013. Heat stress
is among the most deadly impacts. The summer heatwave in Europe in 2003 resulted in
the deaths of 35,000 people. However, there are many other less visible ways that climate
change threatens lives. The World Health Organization predicts that climate change will
cause 250,000 deaths per year between 2030 and 2050, due to malaria, malnutrition,
diarrhea and heat stress.

RIGHT TO HEALTH – We all have the right to enjoy the highest attainable standard of
physical and mental health. According to the IPCC, the major health impacts of climate
change will include greater risk of injury, disease and death due to more intense heatwaves
and fires; increased risk of under-nutrition as a result of diminished food production in poor
regions; and increased risks of food- and water-borne diseases, and vector-borne
diseases. Children exposed to traumatic events such as natural disasters, exacerbated by
climate change, can suffer from post-traumatic stress disorders. The health impacts of
climate change demand an urgent response, with unmitigated warming threatening to
undermine health systems and core global health objectives.

RIGHT TO HOUSING – We all have a right to an adequate standard of living for ourselves
and our families, including adequate housing. However, climate change threatens our right
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to housing in a variety of ways. Extreme weather events like floods and wildfires are already
destroying people’s homes, leaving them displaced. Drought, erosion, and flooding can
also over time change the environment whilst sea-level rises threaten the homes of millions
of people around the world in low-lying territories.

RIGHTS TO WATER AND TO SANITATION – We all have the right to safe water for
personal and domestic use and to sanitation that ensures we stay healthy. But a
combination of factors such as melting snow and ice, reduced rainfall, higher temperatures,
and rising sea levels show that climate change is affecting and will continue to affect the
quality and quantity of water resources. Already more than one billion people do not have
access to clean water, and climate change will make this worse. Extreme weather events
such as cyclones and floods affect water and sanitation infrastructure, leaving behind
contaminated water and thus contributing to the spread of water-borne diseases. Sewage
systems, especially in urban areas, will also be affected.

WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR STOPPING CLIMATE CHANGE?

STATES

States have the obligation to mitigate the harmful effects of climate change by taking
the most ambitious measures possible to prevent or reduce greenhouse emissions within
the shortest possible timeframe. While wealthy states need to lead the way, both internally
and through international cooperation, all countries must take all reasonable steps to
reduce emissions to the full extent of their abilities.

States must also take all necessary steps to help everyone within their jurisdiction
to adapt to the foreseeable and unavoidable effects of climate change, thus minimizing the
impact of climate change on their human rights. This is true irrespective of whether the
state is responsible for those effects because states have an obligation to protect people
from harms caused by third parties.

States must take steps to tackle climate change as fast and as humanely as
possible. In their efforts to address climate change, they must not resort to measures that
directly or indirectly violate human rights. For example, conservation areas or renewable

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energy projects must not be created on the lands of Indigenous peoples without consulting
them and getting their consent.

In all measures, states should respect the right to information and participation for
all affected people, as well as their right to access effective remedies for human rights
abuses.

However, the current pledges made by governments to mitigate climate change are
completely inadequate, as they would lead to a catastrophic 3°C increase in average global
temperatures over pre-industrial levels by 2100. People in countries including France, the
Netherlands and Switzerland are taking their governments to court for their failure to
establish sufficient climate mitigation targets and measures.

CORPORATIONS

Businesses also have a responsibility to respect human rights. To meet this

responsibility, companies must assess the potential effects of their activities on human
rights and put in place measures to prevent negative impacts. They must make such
findings and any prevention measures public. Companies must also take measures to
remedy human rights abuses they cause or to which they contribute, either by themselves
or in cooperation with other actors. Such responsibilities extend to human rights harms
resulting from climate change.

Corporations, and particularly fossil fuel companies, must also immediately put
measures in place to minimize greenhouse emissions – including by shifting their portfolio
towards renewable energy – and make relevant information about their emissions and
mitigation efforts public. These efforts must extend to all the major subsidiaries, affiliates,
and entities in their supply chain.

Fossil fuel companies have been historically among the most responsible for
climate change – and this continues today. Research shows that just 100 fossil fuel-
producing companies are responsible for 71% of global greenhouse gas emissions since
1988.

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 There is growing evidence that major fossil fuel companies have known for decades
about the harmful effects of burning fossil fuels and have attempted to suppress that
information and block efforts to tackle climate change.

WHY DO WE NEED TO STOP CLIMATE CHANGE?

Because We All Deserve Equal Protection.

We are all born with fundamental human rights, yet these rights are under grave
threat from climate change. While climate change threatens all of our lives in some way or
other, people who experience discrimination are among those likely to be the worst
affected. We are all equally deserving of protection from this universal threat.

Because There Is Nothing To Lose From Acting, And Everything To Gain.

Fighting climate change gives us a chance to put the wellbeing of people first by
ensuring a right to a healthy environment. This will give us an opportunity to enhance
human rights, for example by enabling more people to access cleaner and cheaper energy
resources and create job opportunities in new sectors.

Because We Have The Knowledge, Power And Ability To Stop Climate Change.

Many people are already working on creative, inspiring, and innovative solutions to
address climate change. From citizens to companies to cities, there are people all over the
world actively working on policies and campaigns and solutions that will protect people and
the planet. Indigenous peoples and minority communities have for centuries developed
sustainable ways of living with the environments that they call home. We can learn from
them and, with their consent, benefit from their know-how to inform our own efforts to find
a different way of interacting with our planet.

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OUR CHANGING CLIMATE RISK PROFILE: PHILIPPINES

OVERVIEW
The Philippines is highly vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change, including sea
level rise, increased frequency of extreme
weather events, rising temperatures, and
extreme rainfall. This is due to its high
exposure to natural hazards (cyclones,
landslides, floods, droughts), dependence
on climate-sensitive natural resources,
and vast coastlines where all major cities
and the majority of the population reside.
The urban poor, many of whom live in
temporary shelters, are most at risk,
lacking the resources to prevent or mitigate the threat of coastal inundation and storm
surge. Consisting of 7,107 islands divided into three island groups (Luzon, Visayas and
Mindanao), the Philippines lies in the world’s most cyclone-prone region, averaging 19–20
cyclones each year, of which 7–9 make landfall. Sea levels in the Philippines are rising
faster than the global average, increasing the hazard posed by storm surges and
threatening permanent inundation of low-lying areas. Services, agriculture, and industry
are the main economic sectors, employing 55, 29, and 16 percent of the workforce,
respectively. A rich yet increasingly depleted natural and marine resources base supports
livelihoods through fisheries, agriculture, forestry, energy, mining, and tourism and provides

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critical ecosystem services such as shoreline protection, flood control, soil stability and
habitats for biodiversity. (2, 9, 11)

February 2017

This document was prepared under the Climate Change Adaptation, Thought Leadership
and Assessments (ATLAS) Task Order No. AID-OAA-I-14-00013 and is meant to provide
a brief overview of climate risk issues. The key resources at the end of the document
provide more in-depth country and sectoral analysis. The contents of this report do not
necessarily reflect the views of USAID.

CLIMATE SUMMARY
The Philippines’ climate is tropical and monsoonal, and highly influenced by the El
Niño Southern Oscillation, which is the most important source of rainfall variability from
year to year. Temperatures average 24°–27°C throughout the year and are warmest in May
and coolest in January. Rainfall patterns exhibit high annual and regional variability, with
mean annual rainfall varying from 960 mm in southeast Mindanao to over 4,000 mm in
central Luzon. Most of the country experiences a dry season from December–May and a
cyclonic rainy season from June–November that starts with the arrival of the southwest
monsoon. A second rainy season occurs from December–February on the eastern and
northern coasts with the arrival of the northeast monsoon. El Niño events, which occur
irregularly every 2–7 years, reduce rainfall and weaken cyclone activity. La Niña events,
which occur less frequently, increase heavy rainfall and cyclone activity. (4, 7, 11, 12)

HISTORICAL CLIMATE
Historic climate trends include:

• An increase in average temperature of 0.65°C from 1951–2010, with

greatest increases in northern and southern regions.
• Increased number of “hot” days/decreased number of “cold nights” from
1951–2010.
• Increased number of cyclones during El Niño years and a slight increase of
cyclone passage over Visayas since the 1970s.
• Increased sea surface temperatures of 0.6°– 1°C since 1910, with most
significant warming occurring after the 1970s.
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 • Sea level rise of 0.15 meters since 1940.

FUTURE CLIMATE Projected changes in climate by 2050 include:

• Increased temperatures of 1.8°–2.2°C.

• Reduced rainfall from March–May in most areas, making the dry season
drier.
• Increased heavy and extreme rainfall in Luzon and Visayas during the
southwest monsoon, making the wet season wetter, but decreasing rainfall
trends for most of Mindanao.
• Increased frequency of extreme weather events, including days exceeding
35°C, days with less than 2.5 mm of rain, and days exceeding 300 mm of
rain. • Rising sea levels of 0.48–0.65 meters by 2100.

SECTOR IMPACTS AND VULNERABILITIES

AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the dominant
livelihood for the rural poor
and contributes 12 percent
to GDP. Production of
staple crops, such as rice
and corn, and cash crops
(e.g., coconut) will be
negatively impacted by a
changing climate,
especially increased
temperatures, which
accelerate
evapotranspiration rates
and can reduce yields
through heat and water
stress. Rice, wheat, and corn yields will likely decline by 10 percent for every 1°C increase
over 30°C. Droughts are linked to increased pest infestations, especially during El Niño
years. Cyclones and heavy rains bring severe flooding and increase runoff and soil erosion,

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reducing soil fertility, damaging crops, and altering productivity, especially during La Niña
years. From 2006–2013, the Philippines was struck by 75 disasters– mostly cyclones,
tropical storms, and floods– that caused $3.8 billion in accumulated damage and losses to
the agriculture sector. An estimated annual GDP loss of up to 2.2 percent s projected by
2100 due to climate impacts on agriculture. (1, 3, 10, 15)

WATER RESOURCES
Climate variability is already leading to water stress by reducing the quality and
quantity of available water supplies. Droughts reduce water inflows to watersheds and
create shortages for agricultural,
industrial, and municipal users who
account for 82, 10 and 8 percent of
water withdrawals, respectively.
Floods and landslides, a result of
extreme rainfall, increase runoff,
reduce water quality, and damage
water supply infrastructure. Saltwater
intrusion of coastal aquifers affects
water quality in about 25 percent of
coastal municipalities in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao; this is expected to increase with
sea level rise. (7, 10, 15)

ENERGY
Climate change could impact
the Philippines' energy supply, as well
as increase demand. Hydropower
production, which contributes 20
percent to the country’s energy
supply, is vulnerable to reduced water
availability from climate change. For
example, in 2010 production dropped
by 20 percent compared to the
previous year due to a drought. Other critical energy infrastructure, like the offshore natural
gas field of Malampaya, is vulnerable to more intense and frequent storms. (2, 11)

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COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
Coupled with extensive
environmental degradation and
deforestation, climate change threatens
the country’s valuable coastal ecosystems
and fisheries. Increased salinity and sea
levels can damage mangroves while
ocean acidification and rising seas and
sea surface temperatures can destroy fish
and marine habitats, particularly through
coral bleaching (around 95 percent of
corals suffered bleaching during the 2009–10 El Niño). More than 60 percent of the coastal
population’s livelihoods depend on marine resources, and coral reefs and mangroves are
valued at $2 billion and $83 million per year, respectively, for their contributions to fishing,
tourism, and storm protection. (6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14)

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
High temperatures, heavy
rainfall and strong winds are likely to
impact the Philippine’s infrastructure
and services in urban and peri-urban
areas, where over 60 percent of the
population resides. Tropical Storm
Ketsana caused $33 million in repairs to
roads and bridges in 2009. Extreme
weather also poses risks to water and sanitation facilities. Rising sea levels

threaten infrastructure and settlements in 25 cities located along the coastline. (16, 17)

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HUMAN HEALTH

Health risks from endemic

vector- and waterborne diseases
(i.e., diarrhea, dengue, malaria) are
expected to worsen with a changing
and more variable climate that
includes increased heavy rains and
rising temperatures, both of which
positively impact mosquito breeding
and survival. Although malaria rates
dropped dramatically over the last
few decades (with 73 percent of the
population living in low transmission areas in 2010), dengue epidemics continue to occur
every 3–4 years and diarrhea was the fifth most common cause of morbidity in 2010.
Observed trends from 1992–2005 show that increases in malaria and dengue are positively
correlated with changes in temperature. For example, 2015 (a strong El Niño year) saw a
60 percent increase in dengue compared to 2014. Severe cyclones and rain events
increase the frequency of floods and rain-induced landslides, which bring loss of life and
livelihoods, crop failure and malnutrition. In 2013, Cyclone Yolande was the most
destructive and strongest storm recorded at landfall, affecting 16 million people, displacing
4.1 million, and causing $2.8 billion in damage. (5, 11, 13, 18, 19)

POLICY CONTEXT
The Philippines began to mainstream climate change considerations into
government policy and planning with the 2009 Climate Change Act, which requires local
government units (LGUs) to draft local climate change action plans (LCCAPs). As of July
2016, only 160 of the total 1,700 LGUs had LCCAPs in place.

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INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
The Climate Change Commission (CCC),
established by the Republic Act 9729 and the Philippine
Climate Change Act of 2009, is the lead policy-making
body on climate change concerns. The CCC is tasked
to coordinate, monitor, and evaluate programs and
actions on climate change. The CCC developed the
National Framework Strategy on Climate Change (NFSCC) in 2010 to consolidate climate
policy across all levels of government and to guide national programs.

SELECTED ONGOING EXPERIENCES The table below summarizes recent and ongoing
donor-funded programs related to climate change adaptation in the Philippines, excluding
those focused-on disaster response and rehabilitation from 2013 Cyclone Haiyan
(Yolanda).

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ACTIVITY: PEOPLE AND CLIMATE

• What are the stressors of climate change to human health?

• Give examples of each based on our local experience.

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 WEEK 8

ENERGY (FOSSIL FUELS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY)

OBJECTIVES

1. Understand the energy distribution and consumption in the Philippines.

2. Study the electrical energy demands based on Philippine population and economic
growth.

3. Identify the cause and effect of using renewable and non-renewable energy source.

4. Understand various government policies/laws with regards to the environment,

energy, and natural resource.

ENERGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

The total primary energy consumption of the Philippines in 2012 was 30.2 Mtoe
(million Tons of oil equivalent), most of which came from fossil fuels. Electricity
consumption in 2010 was 64.52 TWh, of which almost two-thirds came from fossil fuels,
21% from hydroelectric plants, and 13% from other renewable sources. The total
generating capacity was 16.36 GW.

The Philippines is an emerging economy and its economy has greatly shifted from
agriculture to industry. In terms of energy use, conventional fossil fuels (oil and gas) are
the main source for its primary energy demands.

According to the 2011 primary energy consumption of the Philippines,

• 31% of the consumption was met by oil,

• 20% by coal, 22% by geothermal,

• 12% by biomass, 6% by hydro and

• 1% by other renewable energy like wind, solar and biofuel.

The Philippines is located in the Pacific Ring of Fire and thus has a high geothermal
potential. In terms of electricity generation,

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 • 41.4% of the electricity demand is met by geothermal energy

• 28% by coal,

• 11.4% by hydro,

• 15% by natural gas and

• 0.1% by wind, solar and biofuel.

In terms of installed capacity for power generation

• 63.2%, is Hydro,

• 35.1% is geothermal,

• 1.1% is biomass and

• 0.6% by wind and 0.1% solar.

The population of the Philippines is over 101 million people, and as a rapidly developing
nation, has seen a rapid increase in GDP, averaging 6.1% from 2011 to 2015. Energy-
intensive manufacturing and retail industries are the driving factors of the Philippines'
economic growth. Given its large population and rapidly growing economy, the country's
energy needs are significant and growing rapidly.

According to the Philippines Department of Energy, the Philippines consumed 75,266

gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity in 2013. Of this,

• 27.39% went to powering residential areas,

• 24.31% to commercial establishments and

• 27.46% to the industrial sector.

With 72.84% of electrical energy being consumed by Luzon, 14.75% by Visayas, and
12.41% by Mindanao in 2013.

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ELECTRICITY

The Philippines’ demand for electrical energy in 2013 represents a 42.17% increase
from 2012, when the demand for energy was at 52,941 GWh. It is expected that the
country’s demand for power will increase as the Philippines’ population and economy
continue to grow.

The Philippines’ current energy mix highly favors fossil fuels, with coal, natural gas,
and oil, accounting for 73.56% of the country's total electrical energy needs, primarily due
to their low cost.

The Philippines's most heavily used energy source is coal. Of the country’s 75,266
GWh electrical energy demand in 2013, 32,081 GWh or approximately 42.62% was
sourced from coal. This heavy dependence on coal is further apparent by the high number
of coal-fired power plants in the country. As of March 2016, there were 32 coal-fired power
generation facilities connected to the energy grid. These facilities are spread throughout
the country, although most of them are in Luzon and Visayas. The number of coal-fired
power plants in the country is set to increase by 25 by the year 2030 to keep up with the
Philippines’ growing energy demands.

Besides coal, the Philippines is also heavily dependent on natural gas. The
Philippines produced 18,791 GWh of electricity from natural gas in 2013. This
corresponded to 24.97% of the Philippines’ electrical energy needs during this period. As
of March 2016, there were a total of 13 natural gas generation facilities connected to the
energy grid, 12 of which are in Luzon and one of which is in Cebu on Visayas.

The Philippines also generates a significant amount of electrical energy from oil,
albeit to a lesser degree than compared to coal and natural gas. In 2013, the Philippines
sourced 5.97% of its energy from oil-based sources. As of March 2016, there were a total
of 212 gas and diesel-powered facilities in the Philippines. The large number of oil-powered
power plants is a result of a lower per plant output compared to coal and natural gas. Oil-

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powered power plants can be found dispersed across several provinces in Luzon, Visayas,
and Mindanao.

RENEWABLE ENERGY

In 2013, renewable energy provided 26.44% of the total electricity in

the Philippines and 19,903 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electrical energy out of a total demand
of 75,266 gigawatt-hours. The Philippines is a net importer of fossil fuels. For the sake of
energy security, there is momentum to develop renewable energy sources.

The types available include:

• Hydropower

• Geothermal Power

• Wind Power

• Solar Power

• Biomass Power.

The government of the Philippines has legislated a number of policies in order to

increase the use of renewable energy by the country.

The government has committed to raising to 50% the contribution of renewables of its
total electricity generating capacity, with 15.3 gigawatts (GW) by 2030. The move would
help the country in its commitment to reduce its carbon emissions by 70% by 2030.

BACKGROUND

There is momentum to decrease reliance on fossil fuels due to the negative effects
such as pollution, climate change and financial uncertainty because of fluctuating fuel
prices. Legislation passed by the Congress of the Philippines to support the use of
renewable energy include the Electric Power Industry Reform Act (2001); the Biofuels Act
(2006), which encourages the use of biomass fuels; the Renewable Energy Act (2008); and
the Climate Change Act (2009), which provides a legal basis for addressing climate change
through sustainable development.

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 Renewable energy implementation is important to the Philippines for several
reasons. The geographic characteristics of the country make it vulnerable to the adverse
effects of climate change. Rising sea levels are a threat because the Philippines is
an archipelago with many cities located in coastal areas. As the coastline recedes due to
rising seas, coastal cities become vulnerable to flooding. Climate change has also been
linked to changing weather patterns and extreme weather events.

Reliance on fossil fuels is detrimental to the energy security of the Philippines. The
Philippines is a net importer of fossil fuels. In 2012, the Philippines imported 20 million tons
of coal. Eight million tons were produced domestically. In 2010, the Philippines imported
54 million barrels of oil and produced 33,000 barrels. Given this dependence on imported
coal and oil, the Philippines is vulnerable to price fluctuations and supply constraints.

The Philippine Department of Energy wrote:

“The harnessing and utilization of renewable energy comprises a critical component of the
government's strategy to provide energy supply for the country. This is evident in the power
sector where increased generation from geothermal and hydro resources has lessened the
country's dependency on imported and polluting fuels. In the government's rural
electrification efforts, on the other hand, renewable energy sources such as solar, micro-
hydro, wind and biomass resources are seeing wide-scale use.”

SOURCES

The Philippines utilizes renewable energy sources including hydropower, geothermal and
solar energy, wind power and biomass resources. In 2013, these sources contributed
19,903 GWh of electrical energy, representing 26.44 percent of the country's energy needs.

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Renewable electricity production (GWh) by source.

ELECTRICITY SITUATION
The table below provides an overview of the electricity tariffs in Philippines

SOURCE: NATIONAL POWER CORPORATION

NOTE: THE CONVERTION RATE FROM PHP TO USD IS 0.0245 (AS OF MARCH 2013)

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POLICY

The Government of Philippines has introduced various

policies to foster renewable energy. Some of the policies
are income tax holiday up to 7 years, duty-free import of
equipment for renewable energy technologies and so on.
In 2012, the government launched the new feed-in tariff
(FIT) and is summarized in the table

SOURCE: ERC 2012

NOTE: THE CONVERTION RATE FROM PHP TO USD IS 0.0245 (AS OF MARCH 2013)

USAGE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energies include wind, solar, biomass and geothermal energy sources. This
means all energy sources that renew themselves within a short time or are permanently
available. Energy from hydropower is only partly a renewable energy. This is certainly the
case with river or tidal power plants. Otherwise, numerous dams or reservoirs also
produce mixed forms, e.g. by pumping water into their reservoirs at night and recovering
energy from them during the day when there is an increased demand for electricity. Since
it is not possible to clearly determine the amount of generated energy, all energies from
hydropower are displayed separately.

In 2015, renewable energies accounted for around 27.5 percent of actual total
consumption in the Philippines. The following chart shows the percentage share from
1990 to 2015:

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ACTIVITY: ENERGY (FOSSIL FUELS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY)

Choose one renewable energy that will provide the best sustainable solution for the
Philippines. Site an example of a renewable energy project implemented in our country.

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MODULE 5 – 8 SOURCES:

• https://www.suffolkwildlifetrust.org/conservationadvice/meadows-and-
grassland/grassland-and-scrub
• http://grasslandsbiome3.weebly.com/human-impact.html
• https://www.thoughtco.com/overview-of-the-grassland-biome-130169
• https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Ocean-
fact-sheet-package.pdf
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/earthscience/chapter/oceans-and-coastal-
environments/
• https://earth.esa.int/web/guest/earth-topics/oceans-and-coasts
• https://www.nap.edu/read/12782/chapter/5
• https://health2016.globalchange.gov/climate-change-and-human-health
• https://www.climatelinks.org/resources/climate-change-risk-profile-philippines
ADB. 2009. The Economics of Climate Change in Southeast Asia: A Regional
Review.
• CIA World Factbook. 2016. Country Profile.
• IFPRI. 2015. Agricultural Growth and Climate Resilience in the Philippines.
• Cinco, T. et. al. 2013. Climate Trends and Projections in the Philippines.
• Department of Health, Republic of the Philippines. 2012. National Objectives for
Health 2011–2016. FAO. 2011. Implications of climate change on fisheries and
aquaculture.
• FAO. 2011. Aquastat Country Profile: Philippines.
• FAO. 2014. Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profile.
• Kahana, R. et. al. 2016. Projections of sea level change.
• Rincon, M. et. al. 2008. Climate Change in the Philippines.
• UNFCCC. 2014. Second National Communication.
• USAID. 2012. Philippines Climate Variability Profile.
• USAID. 2014. Typhoon Yolande Factsheet #22.
• World Bank. 2004. Philippines Environment Monitor.
• World Bank. 2016. Data Country Profile.

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 • World Bank. 2011. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate
Change: Philippines. World Bank. 2013. Turn Down the Heat: Climate Extremes,
Regional Impacts, and the Case for Resilience.
• WHO. 2015. Eliminating Malaria.
• WHO. 2016. Dengue Factsheet. Map Source: Adapted from Center for
Environmental Geomatics - Manila Observatory. 2005.
• https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/climate-change/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_the_Philippines
• https://energypedia.info/wiki/Philippines_Energy_Situation
• https://www.globallegalinsights.com/practice-areas/energy-laws-and-
regulations/philippines

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