minerals

Article
Iron(II)oxalate Dihydrate—Humboldtine: Synthesis,
Spectroscopic and Structural Properties of a Versatile
Precursor for High Pressure Research
Harald Müller * , Léa Bourcet and Michael Hanfland

ESRF—The European Synchrotron, CS 43220 CEDEX 9, F-38000 Grenoble, France;

bourcet@esrf.fr (L.B.); hanfland@esrf.fr (M.H.)
* Correspondence: mueller@esrf.fr

Abstract: Iron(II)oxalate dihydrate FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O—humboldtine is not only an important syn-

thetic intermediate, but also a key building block for the preparation of various advanced materials.
Interestingly, FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O can be transformed readily into phase-pure siderite FeCO3 . The im-
portance of siderite for earth sciences, in particular for the understanding of the deep carbon cycle of
our planet, is paramount. The availability of high-quality single crystals of FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O is crucial
for diffraction or spectroscopic studies at high pressure. The present article describes a versatile
synthetic approach to single crystals of FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O and its deuterated analogue starting from
metallic iron together with a complete characterization of the products obtained. The same protocol
has been employed successfully for the preparation of 57 FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O, as required for Möβbauer
spectroscopy. In addition, the pressure-dependence of the crystal and molecular structure of the title
compound was investigated up to p ≥ 20 GPa.







Citation: Müller, H.; Bourcet, L.;

Keywords: iron(II)oxalate dihydrate FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O; iron(II)oxalate dideuterate FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O;
57 FeC O × 2 H O; humboldtine; hydrothermal synthesis; single crystal diffraction; high pressure
Hanfland, M. Iron(II)oxalate 2 4 2
Dihydrate—Humboldtine: Synthesis,
Spectroscopic and Structural Properties
of a Versatile Precursor for High
Pressure Research. Minerals 2021, 11, 1. Introduction
113. https://doi.org/10.3390/min Iron(II)oxalate dihydrate FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O is the ferrous salt of ethandicarboxylic acid
11020113
(oxalic acid). The corresponding, naturally occurring mineral is known as humboldtine
and has been described first almost 200 years ago [1]. Humboldtine is a rare mineral often
Academic Editor: Patrizia Fumagalli
associated with coal deposits but may also form by the interaction of fungi and iron-bearing
Received: 22 December 2020
rocks [2]. Iron(II)oxalate dihydrate decomposes easily upon heating [3,4]. This thermal
Accepted: 18 January 2021
instability has been employed widely for the preparation of various iron oxides [5–7].
Published: 23 January 2021
FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O has emerged as an important building block for the preparation
of new, functional advanced materials. In this context, high, thermally activated proton
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
conductivity of synthetic humboldtine has been reported [8]. In addition, iron(II)oxalate
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
dihydrate displays remarkable photocatalytic properties [9]. Anhydrous iron oxalates have
iations.
been used extensively as promising anode materials for Li-ion batteries [10,11].
While an impressive body of information is available on the thermal, spectroscopic,
magnetic, and structural properties of iron(II)oxalate dihydrate at ambient conditions,
little if anything is known about the pressure-dependence of the molecular and crystal
structure [3–19].
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Synthetic humboldtine is of considerable interest for earth sciences in that it can
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
be used as precursor for the preparation of phase-pure iron(II)carbonate FeCO3 [20–22].
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
The latter is the synthetic equivalent of the mineral siderite, which may act as carbon carrier
conditions of the Creative Commons
and as carbon-host in geochemical reservoirs in the interior of the earth [23,24]. Most natu-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
rally occurring siderites are iron-rich end members of a solid solution series Mg1−x Fex CO3 ,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ composed essentially of the minerals siderite and magnesite MgCO3 together with other
4.0/). carbonates such as manganese(II)carbonate, rhodochrosite, MnCO3 , or calcite; siderite

Minerals 2021, 11, 113. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11020113 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2021, 11, 113 2 of 17

with ideal stoichiometric composition is unknown in nature [25–27]. Hence, investigations

aiming at a better understanding of the role of iron(II)carbonate in the deep carbon cycle
depend on a reliable source of phase-pure, synthetic siderite [21,22,24].
Owing to its poor solubility, the reaction of a ferrous salt with oxalic acid or water-
soluble oxalates in aqueous solution yields iron(II)oxalate, albeit only as microcrystalline
powder. The precipitate can be used without further purification [4,28], hence the synthesis
of the title compound is considered as being straightforward. Iron(II)oxalate powder is a
commercial compound.
The preparation of single crystals of humboldtine suitable for X-ray diffraction or
57 Fe Möβbauer spectroscopy at ambient and elevated pressures is more demanding and

requires the use of inert gas and hydrothermal synthesis technique [19]. The syntheses
of many simple salts of divalent iron have been described in the literature [29], while a
detailed protocol for the preparation of iron(II)oxalate dihydrate has been lacking to date.
In the literature, the Greek prefix α denotes ordered FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O or humboldtine,
while the prefix β refers to polymorphic solids displaying crystallographic disorder [16].
Hereafter, FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O or humboldtine always refer to α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O, the
three terms are used as synonyms.
Here, we present a versatile synthetic approach to single crystals of iron(II)oxalate
dihydrate FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O, iron(II)oxalate dideuterate FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O, and isotopically
labelled 57 FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O starting from metallic iron as precursor and provide a complete
characterization of the products obtained. Moreover, the pressure dependence of the crystal
and molecular structure of the title compound is reported for applied hydrostatic pressures
up to p ≥ 20 GPa.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Chemicals and Instrumentation
All experiments were carried out in inert atmosphere (Ar) using Schlenk techniques.
Degassed water and degassed, dilute sulphuric acid were prepared by bubbling Ar (30 min)
through the reagents in a washing bottle equipped with a Drechsel insert.
Commercial dimethyl oxalate was used as received. For the deuteration experiments
sulphuric acid-d2 solution in D2 O (99.5% D) and deuterium oxide (99% D) were used. 57 Fe
(isotope abundances: 57 Fe, 95.06%; 58 Fe, 1.86%; 56 Fe, 3.04%; 54 Fe, 0.04%) was purchased
from Chemotrade GmbH, Germany.
Hydrothermal reactions were carried out in Teflon-lined stainless steel sample prepa-
ration bombs (model 4749) from Parr Instruments.
FT-IR spectra were recorded on a Bruker Vertex 70 spectrometer either as KBr pellets or
with a Bruker Platinium ATR device (Bruker, Marne-La Vallée, France). UV/VIS solid state
reflectance spectra were recorded on a Shimadzu 3600 UV/VIS/NIR spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with an integration sphere as dispersions in BaSO4 .

2.2. Preparation of Single Crystals of Fe(C2 O4 ) × 2H2 O

Step 1: Iron (filings; 100 mg; 1.79 × 10−3 mol) was transferred into a two-neck round
bottom flask (25 mL) attached to a condenser. Dilute, degassed, aqueous sulphuric acid
(1 M, 5.5 mL; 5.5 × 10−3 mol) was added with stirring via syringe/septum. An excess
of sulphuric acid is indispensable to dissolve iron. Even with a threefold excess of acid,
dissolution was inncomplete. The resulting reaction mixture (slurry) was stirred with
heating (1 h; 40 ◦ C) and transformed slowly with hydrogen evolution into a transparent,
grey-green solution, which still contained unreacted iron filings. After cooling to ambient
temperature (ice-bath), the reaction mixture was filtered through a hydrophilic syringe
filter (por. 0.2 µm) into a round bottom Schlenk flask equipped with a rubber septum.
The two-neck round bottom flask was rinsed thoroughly with degassed water (6 mL),
the rinsings were transferred via syringe filtration into the Schlenk flask with the iron(II)
sulphate solution.
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 3 of 17

Step 2: Dimethyl oxalate (254 mg; 2.15 × 10−3 mol) was transferred into a Teflon-lined
stainless-steel mineralization bomb (Parr; 23 mL). Dimethyl oxalate has to be used in excess
to achieve complete precipitation. The bomb with dimethyl oxalate and the Schlenk flask
containing the previously prepared aqueous FeSO4 solution was loaded into a glove-bag,
which was then evacuated and carefully refilled 10 times with Ar as inert gas. The bomb
was mounted and closed. The reaction mixture was heated in a drying oven (120 ◦ C/24 h).
After the end of the heating, the reaction mixture was allowed to cool slowly to ambient
temperature. Quenching of the reaction vessel in an ice-water bath at the end of the reaction
time did not influence the size and quality of the crystals. The product was collected on
a Büchner funnel, rinsed with water until the washing-water was acid-free, and dried in
vacuo over silica gel to give bright yellow crystals. Typical reaction conditions and yields
are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Typical reaction conditions for the hydrothermal synthesis of single crystals of iron(II)oxalate
dihydrate FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O, iron(II)oxalate dideuterate FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O, and isotopically labelled
57 FeC O × 2 H O.
2 4 2

Fe Reactant Mass (mg) Reaction Time (h) 1) Yield (mg/%) 2) Comment

50 mg 24 106/64 /
50 mg 24 125/78 /
50 mg 24 70/44 57 Fe (see above)

100 mg 24 203/63 D2 O and D2 SO4 3)

200 mg 24 286/45 / 3)
1) The reaction temperature was always 120 ◦ C (air-bath). 2) All products obtained as α-phase (vide infra).
3) Reaction vessel quenched in an ice-bath after indicated reaction time.

FeC2 O6 H4 F.W.: 179.89 g/mol

IR(ATR) ν: 3304, 1615, 1357, 1311, 816, 707, 482 (vs) cm−1 .
FeC2 O6 D4 F.W.: 183.91 g/mol
IR(ATR) ν: 2486, 2445, 1615, 1357, 1311, 802, 707, 482 (vs) cm−1 .

2.3. High Pressure Studies

Suitable single crystals were selected visually under a stereomicroscope and loaded in
diamond anvil cells with large (76◦ ) opening angles and a culet size of 600 µm. Stainless
steel gaskets were indented to 80 µm, the initial sample-hole diameter was 300 µm. Helium
was used as pressure transmitting medium to ensure quasi-hydrostatic pressure conditions.
The pressure was measured with the ruby fluorescence method based on the nonlinear
hydrostatic pressure scale developed by Mao et al. [30].
Single-crystal diffraction data were collected using the rotation method on the ID15B
beamline of the ESRF [31]. The cell was rotated around the ω-axis from −38◦ to 38◦ .
152 diffraction images with a step size of 0.5◦ and an exposure time of 1 s collected for each
dataset with a MAR555 flat panel detector. The detector-to-sample distance was 260 mm.
The beam size, focused by compound refractive lenses, was about 10 × 10 µm2 . Further
details are provided in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.
The single crystal data were indexed and integrated with CrysAlisPRO v.1.171.38.46 [32].
Structural models were refined with CRYSTALS v.12 [33]. In a first step, the structure was
refined without hydrogen atoms. Iron, oxygen, and carbon atoms were refined with
anisotropic temperature factors. After the hydrogen atoms were added via a Fourier search,
a final refinement of the structure was performed, riding the hydrogen atoms. Adding
the hydrogen atoms resulted in a significant amelioration of the R-values by about 0.5%.
The structural models were analyzed and visualized with VESTA [34]. Equation of state
parameters were determined with EosFit [35].
In total, three different samples were studied, two single crystals of iron(II)oxalate
dihydrate FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O, one of iron(II)oxalate dideuterate FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O, from
ambient p up to a pressure well above 20 GPa.
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 4 of 17

3. Results
3.1. Synthesis
In the literature, a plethora of experimental protocols aiming at the preparation of
(isostructural) oxalates of divalent metal ions such as Fe2+ , Co2+ , Zn2+, and Ni2+ has been
described [3,4,6,9–11,14–19].
Most, if not all synthetic approaches to FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O, are based on salt metathesis
reactions. The aqueous solution of a suitable ferrous salt is combined with (usually an
excess of) a solution of oxalic acid or a suitable oxalate. As ferrous oxalate is only sparingly
soluble in water, precipitation occurs upon combination of the reactants, while the counte-
rions remain in solution. The polycrystalline precipitate can be collected and used without
further purification.
Depending on the reaction conditions employed, products with identical chemical
composition, but distinct thermochemical behavior and X-ray powder diffraction patterns
were obtained. Initially interpreted as presence of polymorphic phases, these observations
reflect the propensity of divalent transition metal oxalates to form disordered crystalline
solids. Crystallographic disorder of oxalates of divalent transition metals may result
in considerable alterations of the physical properties and is usually the consequence of
reactions carried out in thermodynamic disequilibrium [14–17].
The double displacement method is operationally simple but has several important
disadvantages. This approach provides only microcrystalline powder and depends on the
(commercial) availability of the precursors. Single crystals of the title compound cannot be
prepared in that way but require hydrothermal synthesis conditions [19].
Particular care has to be taken to avoid the inadvertent formation and pollution of the
product with trivalent iron Fe3+ , particularly when stoichiometric amounts of reactants are
being used. Iron(III)oxalate is a known, stable compound [36].
For the preparation of isotopically substituted derivatives as single crystals, it is
indispensable to start from elemental iron, since the corresponding precursors are not
commercially available.
Our preparative two-step approach starts with the dissolution of iron in dilute sul-
phuric acid and subsequent reaction of the obtained iron(II)sulphate solution with excess
dimethyl oxalate under autogenous pressure according to Equations (1) and (2).
Fe + H2 SO4 (H2 SO4 + H2 O in excess) → Fe2+ + SO4 2− + H2 ↑ + (H2 SO4 + H2 O in excess) (1)
Fe2+ + SO4 2− + HO2 CCO2 H (excess) + (H2 SO4 + H2 O in excess) →
(2)
[FeII (C2 O4 ) × 2H2 O] ↓ + (HO2 CCO2 H + H2 SO4 + H2 O in excess)
For simplicity, dimethyl oxalate (DMO) has been replaced in Equation (2) with oxalic
acid. The latter is released in situ upon heating of the reaction mixture. The use of adequate
inert gas techniques to avoid oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ is of utmost importance.
All reactions were carried out in thermodynamic equilibrium as reflected by the
reaction conditions summarized in Table 1.
It deserves mentioning that the same approach can be used for an efficient deuteration.
Details of the preparation of single crystals of iron(II)oxalate dihyrate FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O,
iron(II)oxalate dideuterate FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O suitable for high resolution neutron diffraction,
and isotopically labelled 57 FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O for Möβbauer Spectroscopy are provided in
Section 2.2.
Figure 1 displays the characteristic morphology of crystals of α- FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O
obtained under hydrothermal conditions.
 Minerals 2021, 11, x 5 of 18

Minerals 2021, 11, 113 5 of 17

Figure 1 displays the characteristic morphology of crystals of α- FeC2O4 × 2 H2O
obtained under hydrothermal conditions.

Figure1.1.SEM-Micrograph
SEM-Micrographofofsingle
singlecrystals
crystalsofofα-FeC
α-FeCO
2O4 × 2 H2O.
Figure 2 4 × 2 H2 O.

3.2.Spectroscopic
3.2. SpectroscopicProperties
Properties
AAtypical
typicalUV/VIS/NIR
UV/VIS/NIR solid-state
solid-statereflectance
reflectancespectrum
spectrumofofsynthetic
synthetichumboldtine
humboldtineisis
displayed
displayedininFigure
Figure2.2.Contrary
Contrarytotothetheblueish-green
blueish-greenappearance
appearanceofofmanymanysimple,
simple,divalent
divalent
iron
ironsalts,
salts,microcrystalline
microcrystallineFeC FeC22OO44 ×× 22HH2O 2 Oisis yellow-brownish,
yellow-brownish, while
while single
single crystals
crystals are
are bright
bright yellow.
yellow. In In accordance
accordance with
with thethe aspect
aspect of of
thethe solid,
solid, thethe spectrum
spectrum exhibits
exhibits ananab-
absorption
sorption belowbelow 250
250 nm
nm followed by another
another shallow
shallowminimum
minimumatat330 330nm.
nm.These
Thesefeatures
features
might be caused by n  * and   * transitions of the resonance-stabilizedcarbonyl
might be caused by n → π* and π → π* transitions of the resonance-stabilized carbonyl
groups.
groups.In Inthetheabsence
absenceofofdetailed
detailedspectroscopic
spectroscopicinvestigations,
investigations,suchsuchinterpretation
interpretationisis
merely
merelyspeculation.
speculation. Another
Another shallow,
shallow,broadbroadabsorption
absorption feature centered
feature at around
centered 1000 nm
at around 1000
might be caused by electronic transitions of the Feof 2+ cation 2+
nm might be caused by electronic transitions the Fe incation
an octahedral crystal field,
in an octahedral as
crystal
observed for other iron(II) containing minerals. The overall appearance
field, as observed for other iron(II) containing minerals. The overall appearance of the of the reflectance
spectrum
reflectance and the observed
spectrum and thefeatures
observed are features
well in line withinthose
are well reported
line with thoseinreported
previousin
work [9,37,38].
previous work [9,37,38].
The
TheFT-IR
FT-IRspectra
spectraofofFeC
FeC2O2O44 ×× 22 H
H22O O and
and itsits deuterated
deuteratedanalogue
analogueare aredisplayed
displayedin
inFigure
Figure3.3.BothBoth graphs
graphs exhibit
exhibit thethe characteristic
characteristic features
features expected
expected forfor a simple
a simple metalmetal
oxa-
oxalate [39,40]. The broad band at 3311 cm −1 can be assigned readily to the O-H stretch
late [39,40]. The broad band at 3311 cm can be assigned readily to the O-H stretch vi-
−1
vibration
bration of of structurally
structurally coordinated
coordinated waterwatermolecules.
molecules.The Thevibrational
vibrationalfinefinestructure
structurere-
reported earlier could not be observed [19,40].
ported earlier could not be observed [19,40]. The antisymmetric The antisymmetric O-C-O stretch
O-C-O stretch gives gives
rise
rise to another broad and intense signal at 1605 cm −1 . The strong absorptions at 1361
to another broad and intense signal at 1605 cm -1. The strong absorptions at 1361 and 1313
−1 are interpreted tentatively as symmetric elongation of the O-C-O bonds,
and
cm−11313
arecm interpreted tentatively as symmetric elongation of the O-C-O bonds, whereas
whereas signals at 822 and −1482 cm−1 could originate from C-C deformations and Fe-O
signals at 822 and 482 cm could originate from C-C deformations and Fe-O stretch vi-
stretch vibrations, respectively. A detailed, full analysis of the IR- and Raman-active
brations, respectively. A detailed, full analysis of the IR- and Raman-active vibrations of
vibrations of FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O has been published [41].
FeC2O4 × 2 H2O has been published [41].
As expected, upon deuteration, the position of the C-D stretch vibration of
FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O moves to higher energies thus giving rise to a broad signal centered
at around 2450 cm−1 . The observed splitting is indicative of additional bands and shoul-
ders reported for the protonated analogue [40]. The other regions of the spectrum are
 Minerals 2021, 11, x 6 of 18
Minerals 2021, 11, x 6 of 18

Minerals 2021, 11, 113 As expected, upon deuteration, the position of the C-D stretch vibration of FeC 2O4 ×
6 of 17
As expected, upon deuteration, the position of the C-D stretch vibration
2 D2O moves to higher energies thus giving rise to a broad signal centered at around 2450 of FeC 2O4 ×

2cm
D2−1O. The
moves to higher
observed energies
splitting thus giving
is indicative ofrise to a broad
additional signal
bands andcentered
shoulders at around
reported 2450
for
cm −1. The observed splitting is indicative of additional bands and shoulders reported for
the protonated analogue [40]. The other regions of the spectrum are only little affected by
the
the protonated
only little affected
replacement analogue
ofbyHthe [40].
with D.The
Theother
replacement O-Dofregions
H withofD.the
deformation spectrum
The asare only little
O-D deformation
appears affected
appears
a low-intensity as by
band aat
the replacement
low-intensity bandof H
at with
1190 D.
cm −
The
1 , O-D
whereasdeformation
the appears
corresponding as a low-intensity
signal of the band
protonated at
1190 cm , whereas the corresponding signal of the protonated counterpart is buried
−1
1190
undercm
counterpart the, is
−1 whereas
O-C-O the corresponding
buriedstretch.
under the
TheO-C-O
absence signal
stretch.
of anyTheof the protonated
absence
signals counterpart
of any signals
originating fromoriginatingis buried
the presencefromof
under
the the
presence O-C-O
of stretch.
spurious The
water absence
confirms of
a any signals
successful,
spurious water confirms a successful, quantitative H/D exchange. originating
quantitative H/Dfrom the
exchange.presence of
spurious water confirms a successful, quantitative H/D exchange.

Figure2.2.UV/VIS
Figure UV/VISsolid
solidstate
statereflectance
reflectancespectrum
spectrumofofFeC
FeC2OO4 ×
× 22 H
H22O.
O.
Figure 2. UV/VIS solid state reflectance spectrum of FeC22O44 × 2 H2O.

Figure 3. FT-IR Spectra of protonated FeC2O4 × 2 H2O (blue) and its deuterated analogue FeC2O4 × 2
Figure 3. FT-IR
D2O (red). FT-IRSpectra of of
protonated FeCFeC
2O4 × 2 H2O (blue) and its deuterated analogue FeC2O4 × 2
Figure 3. Spectra protonated 2 O4 × 2 H2 O (blue) and its deuterated analogue
D2O (red).
FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O (red).
3.2. Structural Properties
3.2.Structural
3.3. StructuralProperties
Properties
In the present work, all synthetic operations were performed in thermodynamic
Inthe
In thepresent
equilibrium present work,
work,
and gave all
all
only synthetic
synthetic
the operationswere
operations
stable -polymorph were performed
performed
as evidenced inthermodynamic
thermodynamic
byinsingle crystal X-ray
equilibriumand
equilibrium andgave
gaveonly
onlythe
thestable -polymorphasasevidenced
stablea-polymorph evidencedby
bysingle
singlecrystal
crystalX-ray
X-ray
diffraction. Lattice parameters and space groups are in excellent agreement with those
reported in previous work [19]. The lattice parameters of synthetic humboldtine and its
 diffraction. Lattice parameters and space groups are in excellent agreement with those
reported in previous work [19]. The lattice parameters of synthetic humboldtine and its
deuterated analogue studied in this work were practically identical and match well unit
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 cell data obtained earlier by neutron powder diffraction [18]. 7 of 17
Relevant crystallographic parameters are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Crystallographic parameters of α-FeC2O4 × 2 H2O and β-FeC2O4 × 2 H2O.

deuterated analogue studied in this work were practically identical and match well unit
Phase
 [12] *  [13]cell
** data obtained
 [14] ** earlier by neutron
 [16] ** powder
β [16] ** diffraction
β [9] ** [18].***
 [19] This Work ***
[Ref] Relevant crystallographic parameters are summarized in Table 2.
a [Å ] 12.04(3) 12.060 11.99 12.05 12.26 12.2714 12.011(11) 12.006(4)
b [Å ] 5.58(1) Table 2. Crystallographic
5.550 5.55 parameters
5.57 of α-FeC O
5.57
2 4 × 2 H O and
25.5372 β-FeC O ×
5.557(5)
2 4 2 H 2 O. 5.55245(1)
c [Å ] 9.89(2) 9.804 9.89 9.76 15.48 15.5126 9.701(9) 9.6970(2)
Phase [Ref] a [12] * a [13] ** a [14] ** a [16] ** β [16] ** β [9] ** a [19] *** This Work ***
 [⁰] 127.34(4) 127.58 128.3 124.18 90 90 126.924(3) 126.900(4)
a [Å] 12.04(3) 12.060 11.99 12.05 12.26 12.2714 12.011(11) 12.006(4)
V [Å 3] 528.26 520.49 516.48 520.94 1053 1054.21 518.0(8) 516.91(19)
b [Å] 5.58(1) 5.550 5.55 5.57 5.57 5.5372 5.557(5) 5.55245(1)
Spacec [Å] C2/c9.89(2) / 9.804 / 9.89 / 9.76 Cccm15.48 Cccm 15.5126C2/c 9.701(9) C2/c9.6970(2)
groupb [0 ] 127.34(4) 127.58 128.3 124.18 90 90 126.924(3) 126.900(4)
[Å3 ]
* Vdetermined by 528.26
Weissenberg520.49
technique. ** Cell parameters
516.48 520.94 determined
1053 by powder diffraction.518.0(8)
1054.21 *** Cell determined at
516.91(19)
ambient
Space groupconditions by X-ray single
C2/c / crystal diffraction.
/ The
/ lattice parameters
Cccm givenCccmin ref [19] were
C2/ctransformedC2/c to a
standard setting
* determined (transformation:
by Weissenberg technique.−a, −b, parameters
** Cell a + c). determined by powder diffraction. *** Cell determined at ambient conditions by X-ray
single crystal diffraction. The lattice parameters given in ref [19] were transformed to a standard setting (transformation: −a, −b, a + c).
α-FeC2O4 × 2 H2O may be viewed as a polymeric coordination compound or poly-
mericα-FeCchelate-complex composed of bidentate oxalate dianions (ox) C2O42−, divalent fer-
2 O4 × 2 H2 O may be viewed as a polymeric coordination compound or poly-
rous
meric Fechelate-complex
2+ ions, and watercomposed
molecules. ofThe alternating
bidentate planar
oxalate arrangement
dianions (ox) C2 Oof oxalate di-
2−
4 , divalent
anions and 2+Fe 2+ cations result in one-dimensional infinite linear chains … oxFeoxFeox…
ferrous Fe ions, and water molecules. The alternating planar arrangement of oxalate
along
dianionsthe b-axis
and Feas 2+ shown
cationsinresult
Figurein 4. The octahedral infinite
one-dimensional coordination
linearsphere
chains of. . .each Fe2+-ion
oxFeoxFeox
comprises
. . . along the fourb-axis
oxygen atoms in
as shown of Figure
two oxalate
4. Thedianions
octahedralon coordination
equatorial positions
sphere of and is
each
completed
2+ by the oxygen atoms of two water molecules on axial positions
Fe -ion comprises four oxygen atoms of two oxalate dianions on equatorial positions and approximately
parallel
is completedto a asbyshown in Figure
the oxygen atoms 5. of
Water is thus
two water an integral
molecules part of
on axial the crystal
positions structure.
approximately
The
parallel to a as shown in Figure 5. Water is thus an integral part of the crystal atom
angle H 2O-Fe-OH 2 defined by the axial oxygen atoms and the central iron de-
structure.
viates slightly from linearity (182 at ambient p; Figure 9). The H
The angle H2 O-Fe-OH2 defined by the axial oxygen atoms and the central iron atom devi-
2 O molecules dispose of
lone
ates electron
slightly from pairs, can act(182
linearity ◦
as electron
at ambientdonors, and form
p; Figure coordinate
9). The covalent
H2 O molecules bonds
dispose ofpro-
lone
voking
electronin turncanslightly
pairs, obliquedonors,
act as electron attachments
and form relative to the
coordinate polymeric
covalent chains. The
bonds provoking in
three-dimensional
turn slightly oblique structure of FeC
attachments 2O4 × 2
relative toH 2Opolymeric
the consists ofchains.
linearThe
infinite chains along
three-dimensional
[010],
structureneighbouring
of FeC2 O4 chains
× 2 H2inO the b-c-plane
consists are infinite
of linear linked by hydrogen
chains bondsneighbouring
along [010], between the
oxygen
chains in the b-c-plane are linked by hydrogen bonds between the oxygen atomschains
atoms of water molecules and oxalate dianions belonging to adjacent as
of water
shown
molecules in Figure 5.
and oxalate dianions belonging to adjacent chains as shown in Figure 5.

Figure
Figure4.4.Representation
Representationof
of the
the single,
single, infinite, planar 1-D
1-D chain
chainof
ofα-FeC
α-FeC22O ×22H
O44 × H22OOwith
withrepetitive
repetitive
units
unitscomposed
composedofofaadivalent
divalentiron(II)cation,
iron(II)cation,a abidentate
bidentateoxalate
oxalatedianion,
dianion,and
andtwo
twowater molecules.
water molecules.
Iron
Ironatoms
atomsarearebronze,
bronze,oxygen
oxygenatomsatomsare red,
are carbon
red, carbonatoms
atomsareare
brown, andand
brown, hydrogen atoms
hydrogen are are
atoms
white (top).
white (top).
 Minerals
Minerals x 11, 113
2021,
2021, 11, 8 of 188 of 17

Figure 5. The5.slight
Figure distortion
The slight of the octahedral
distortion coordination
of the octahedral sphere sphere
coordination of the central iron(II)cations
of the central iron(II)cations
results from the presence of six oxygen atoms around the central iron ions: The oxygen
results from the presence of six oxygen atoms around the central iron ions: The oxygen atoms ofatoms of
two water ligands
two water are inare
ligands axial
in positions whilewhile
axial positions four oxygen atomsatoms
four oxygen of twoofbidentate oxalate
two bidentate dianions
oxalate dianions
occupy equatorial positions. Alternating layers are connected through hydrogen bonds shown as
occupy equatorial positions. Alternating layers are connected through hydrogen bonds shown as
dashed lines. Iron atoms are located in the center of the brown, shaded octahedron, oxygen atoms
dashed lines. Iron atoms are located in the center of the brown, shaded octahedron, oxygen atoms
are displayed as red, carbon atoms as brown, and hydrogen atoms as white spheres.
are displayed as red, carbon atoms as brown, and hydrogen atoms as white spheres.
Compression of iron(II)oxalate dihydrate was performed up 20 GPa with He as
Compression of iron(II)oxalate dihydrate was performed up 20 GPa with He as
pressure transmission medium. Refined structural models for iron(II)oxalate dihydrate at
pressure transmission medium. Refined structural models for iron(II)oxalate dihydrate at
pressures of 0.1 and 16.7 GPa are shown in Figure 6a,b, respectively. Refinement details
pressures of 0.1 and 16.7 GPa are shown in Figure 6a,b, respectively. Refinement details
and structural parameters are given in Tables 3 and 4. Low R-values of 0.034 and 0.023,
and structural parameters are given in Tables 3 and 4. Low R-values of 0.034 and 0.023,
respectively, demonstrate the excellent agreement of measured data and models, which
respectively, demonstrate the excellent agreement of measured data and models, which
improved
improvedeveneven
at high pressure.
at high pressure.
The pressure dependence
The pressure dependence of of
thethe
unit
unitcell
cellvolume
volume and thelattice
and the latticeparameters
parameters areare
shown
shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. The large volume change from
in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. The large volume change from 719 Å at ambient pressure 719
3 Å 3 at ambient

pressure to around
to around 360 Å 360 Å p3 at
3 at ≤p20≤ GPa
20 GPa reflects
reflects thethe
highhigh compressibility
compressibility along
along thethe a- and
a- and c-axes,
c-axes, while the b-axis shows a much lower, almost linear
while the b-axis shows a much lower, almost linear pressure dependence. pressure dependence.
The monoclinic
The monoclinic angleangle
β decreases rapidly
β decreases from 127°
rapidly fromto127 122°
◦ toup to◦ pup
122 ≈ 5toGPa
p ≈but re- but
5 GPa
mains almost constant up to around p ≈ 20 GPa. At p ≈ 20 GPa, the
remains almost constant up to around p ≈ 20 GPa. At p ≈ 20 GPa, the title compound title compound un-
dergoes eventually
undergoes a reversible
eventually structural
a reversible phase phase
structural transition, accompanied
transition, accompanied by a by volume
a volume
reduction of about 3.5%.
reduction of about 3.5%.
The phase transition
The phase had a had
transition detrimental effect on
a detrimental the quality
effect of the single
on the quality of thecrystal
singledif-
crystal
fraction patternspatterns
diffraction and frustrated to datetoall
and frustrated attempts
date to determine
all attempts a reliable
to determine structural
a reliable structural
model for the
model forhigh pressure
the high pressure(HP)(HP)
phase present
phase at p at20
present p≥GPa.
20 GPa.
As pressure increases oxalate chains approach
As pressure increases oxalate chains approach each other each other andandthethe
hydrogen
hydrogen H…O H ... O
bondbond
distances
distances between neighboring chains shorten from approximately 2.0 Å atGPa
between neighboring chains shorten from approximately 2.0 Å at 0.1 0.1 GPa
to 1.8toÅ 1.8
at 16.7
Å at GPa.
16.7 GPa.
 Minerals 2021, 11, 113 9 of 17

Table 3. Crystal data, refinement details, and structure parameters for α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O at
p = 0.1 GPa.

Chemical Formula FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O

Mr 719.59
Crystal system, space group Monoclinic, C2/c
Temperature (K), Pressure (GPa) 293, 0.1
a, b, c (Å) 11.831 (4), 5.5522 (1), 9.645 (2)
β (◦ ) 126.400 (4)
V (Å3 ) 509.9 (2)
Z 4
Radiation type Synchrotron, λ = 0.41113 Å
µ (mm−1 ) 0.64
Crystal size (mm3 ) 0.020 × 0.020 × 0.010
Data collection
Beamline ID15B, ESRF
Absorption correction –
No. of measured, independent and
878, 699, 584
observed [I > 2.0σ(I)] reflections
Rint 0.035
(sin θ/λ)max (Å−1 ) 0.897
Refinement
R[F2 > 2σ(F2 )], wR(F2 ),
S 0.034, 0.090, 1.03
No. of reflections 693
No. of parameters 48
No. of restraints 2
H-atom treatment Only H-atom coordinates refined
∆ρmax , ∆ρmin (e Å−3 ) 0.40, −0.35
Structure parameters
x y z Occ U Site Sym
1 Fe Fe1 0.00000 0.07613 0.25000 1.000 0.022 4e 2
2O O2 0.17640 0.06980 0.24350 1.000 0.023 8f 1
3H H22 0.18200 0.13900 0.17400 1.000 0.036 8f 1
4H H21 0.24600 0.13000 0.33000 1.000 0.036 8f 1
5O O3 0.41220 0.27860 0.07710 1.000 0.024 8f 1
6C C4 0.45100 0.07810 0.15090 1.000 0.014 8f 1
Minerals 2021, 11, x 11 of 18
7O O5 0.08830 0.37610 0.42400 1.000 0.030 8f 1

Figure 6. StructuralFigure
models6. Structural models of
of iron(II)oxalate iron(II)oxalate
dihydrate at 0.1dihydrate at 0.1
GPa (a) and GPa
16.7 GPa(a) (b),
and respectively,
16.7 GPa (b), respec-
viewed along the b-axis.
tively, viewed along the b-axis. Iron atoms are in the center of the brown shaded octahedron, oxy-
Iron atoms are in the center of the brown shaded octahedron, oxygen atoms are shown in red, carbon atoms in brown, and
gen atoms are shown in red, carbon atoms in brown, and hydrogen atoms in white. Dashed lines
hydrogen atoms inindicate
white. Dashed linesbonds.
the hydrogen indicate the hydrogen bonds.
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 10 of 17

Table 4. Crystal data, refinement details, and structure parameters for α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O at p = 16.7 GPa.

Chemical formula FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O

Mr 719.59
Crystal system, space group Monoclinic, C2/c
Temperature (K), Pressure (GPa) 293, 16.7
a, b, c (Å) 9.360 (4), 5.3680 (1), 8.6813 (18)
β (◦ ) 122.17 (4)
V (Å3 ) 369.2 (2)
Z 4
Radiation type Synchrotron, λ = 0.41122 Å
µ (mm−1 ) 0.88
Crystal size (mm3 ) 0.020 × 0.020 × 0.010
Data collection
Beamline ID15B, ESRF
Absorption correction –
Minerals 2021, 11, x No. of measured, independent and 11 of 18
657, 519, 477
observed [I > 2.0σ(I)] reflections
Rint 0.022
(sin θ/λ)max (Å−1 ) 0.898
Refinement
R[F2 > 2σ(F2 )], wR(F2 ),
S 0.023, 0.057, 1.03
No. of reflections 518
No. of parameters 48
No. of restraints 2
H-atom treatment Only H-atom coordinates refined
Structure parameters
x y z Occ. U Site Sym.
1 Fe Fe1 0.00000 0.01820 0.25000 1.000 0.014 4e 2
2O O2 0.21250 0.04330 0.23300 1.000 0.013 8f 1
3H H22 0.27000 0.12900 0.32200 1.000 0.019 8f 1
4H H21 0.17900 0.14600 0.15100 1.000 0.020 8f 1
5O O3 0.40920 0.22680 0.07230 1.000 0.016 8f
Figure 6. Structural models of iron(II)oxalate dihydrate at 0.1 GPa (a) and 16.7 GPa (b), respec-
1
6 Cviewed along
tively, C4 the b-axis.
0.44720 0.01790
Iron atoms 0.14710
are in the 1.000
center of the 0.013octahedron,
brown shaded 8f oxy- 1
7 O O5 0.09400 0.31340 0.43230 1.000 0.013
gen atoms are shown in red, carbon atoms in brown, and hydrogen atoms in white. Dashed 8f lines 1
indicate the hydrogen bonds.

Figure Theunit
Figure 7. The unitcell
cellvolume
volume of of protonated
protonated FeCFeC ×O
2O 4 2 24H×
2O2(red
H2 O (redand
dots) dots) and its deuterated
its deuterated analogueanalogue
FeC2OO4 × 2O (blue dots) as a function of pressure. The unit cell volumes of the HP phase at p  20
22DD
FeC 2 4 × 2 O (blue dots) as a function of pressure. The unit cell volumes of the HP phase at p ≥ 20 GPa
GPa are indicated as black dots, the fit of the Vinet EOS to experimental data is shown as black line.
are indicated as black dots, the fit of the Vinet EOS to experimental data is shown as black line.
 Minerals
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2021, 2021, 11 of 17
12 of 18

Figure 8. Lattice
Figure parameters
8. Lattice of α-FeC
parameters of2Oα-FeC
4 × 2 H2O
O (red dots) and its deuterated analogue α-FeC2O4 ×
2 4 × 2 H2 O (red dots) and its deuterated analogue α-
2 D2OFeC
(blue dots) as a function of pressure. The black lines indicate the fit of the Vinet EOS to ex-
2 O4 × 2 D2 O (blue dots) as a function of pressure. The black lines indicate the fit of the Vinet
perimental
EOS to experimental data. The insert showsofthe
data. The insert shows the evolution theevolution
monoclinic angle
of the β.
monoclinic angle β.

Simultaneously,
Simultaneously,the interactions between
the interactions neighbouring
between chains
neighbouring strengthen
chains and and
strengthen the the
H2O-Fe-OH 2 oblique
H2 O-Fe-OH angle decreases as indicated in Figures 6a, 6b, and 9, respectively
2 oblique angle decreases as indicated in Figure 6a,b, and Figure 9, respectively
A Vinet equation
A Vinet of state
equation (EOS)
of state was was
(EOS) fittedfitted
to the
tomeasured datadata
the measured withwith
the volume at at
the volume
ambient pressure
ambient V0 fixed
pressure to thetoaveraged
V0 fixed valuevalue
the averaged measured (516.9(516.9
measured A3 ) [42].
A3) [42].
3 ′
(𝐵 −1)(1−𝜂) 3 (3)
𝑃(𝑉)
P(V ) ==3𝐵0 (1 − 𝜂)/𝜂 2 )𝑒
2 2 3 ( B0 −1)(1−,η𝜂) = √𝑉/𝑉30
p
3B 0 (1 − η ) /η ) e 2 , η = V/V0 (3)
The bulk modulus B0, its derivative at zero pressure B’, and the zero-pressure vol-
The bulk modulus B0 , its derivative at zero pressure B’, and the zero-pressure vol-
ume Vo of the lattice parameters and of the octahedron volume as obtained from fitting
ume Vo of the lattice parameters and of the octahedron volume as obtained from fitting
equation 3 to experimental data are shown in Table 5.
Equation (3) to experimental data are shown in Table 5.
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 12 of 17

Table 5. Equation of state parameters for lattice parameters and octahedron. Volume as obtained
from Equation (3).

V0 or x0 B0 or K0 B’ or K’
Unit cell volume 516.9 Å3 (fixed) 12.42(31) GPa 8.67(18)
Octahedron 12.64(14) Å3 143(14) GPa 4.4 (2)
a 12.005 Å (fixed) 9.11(25) GPa 12.81(17)
b 5.553 Å (fixed) 464.3(20) GPa 1 (fixed)
c 9.700 Å (fixed) 32.34(74) GPa 23.44(35)

The small bulk modulus of 12.4 GPa is typical for a molecular solid the volume change
of which is dominated by weak intermolecular interactions. With increasing pressure,
these interactions become significantly stronger and result eventually in an unusually high
derivative B’ of 8.7, a value considerably higher than anticipated.
The small compression modules K0 for a and c directions indicate that both axes are
highly compressible up to p ≈ 10 GPa (Figure 8). The intermolecular interactions between
1-D polymer chains increase as a function of applied pressure, as evidenced by the large K’
values. The c-axis is stiffer than the a-axis because of the alignment of the hydrogen bonds.
By contrast, the b-axis displays an almost linear pressure dependence Kb ’ = 1 and a large
compression module K0b = 464.3 GPa.
This observation can be rationalized by recalling the orientation of the planar, infinite
. . . ox-Fe-ox . . . chains along [010]. The planar geometries of the oxalate dianions result
from the presence of energetically favorable, delocalized π-electron systems with charges
being spread all over the atoms of the C2 O4 2— backbone. Mesomeric effects together with
the “bite angles” of the bidentate ligand result in a relatively rigid atomic arrangement,
which in turn gives rise to a large compression module K0b = 464.3 GPa and an almost
linear pressure dependence, Kb ’ = 1. The length of the 1-D polymeric chains decreases
proportionally to the decrease of the b-axis with increasing pressure.
Consequently, the C-O bond length of the oxalate anions are only little affected by
applied pressure, the value changes from 1.26 Å at 0.1 GPa to 1.245 Å at 16.7 GPa.
While structural changes within the chains, dominated by covalent interactions, are
generally rather small, the value of the oblique angle H2 O-Fe-OH2 decreases continuously
from 182◦ at ambient pressure to 180◦ at 1.7 GPa to 170◦ at 20 GPa (Figure 9), just above
the phase transition.
The volume of the octahedra decreases from 12.6 Å3 at ambient pressure with increas-
ing pressure to 11.3 Å3 at 20 GPa (Figure 10), a value that is small and corresponds to less
than 1% of the change of the unit cell volume. The corresponding bulk modulus and its
derivative amount to 143 GPa and 4.4, respectively, values typical for a molecule crystal
with weak intermolecular interactions.
A measure for the distortion of an octahedron is the distortion index as expressed in
Equation (4).
n
1 |li − lav |
D =
n ∑ lav
(4)
i=1

li is the distance from the central atom Fe to the ith coordinating atom, and lav is the average
bond length. D remains constant to about 10 GPa and increases slightly above (inset,
Figure 10)
Anisotropic changes of lattice parameters and other physical properties are very
common in molecular materials and originate from variable packing motifs and differing
strengths of intermolecular interactions along different unit cell axes [43].
Minerals2021,
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Minerals 2021, 11, x 14 of 18

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Oblique
Oblique angle
angle H
H22O-Fe-OH
O-Fe-OH22between
betweenthe
theoxygen
oxygenatoms
atomsofofaxial
axialwater
watermolecules
moleculesand
andthe
the
Figure 9.iron
Oblique angle H2O-Fe-OH between theand
oxygen atoms of axial waterα-FeC
molecules
2O4 × and the
central iron atom of α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O (red dots) and its deuterated analogue α-FeC2 O4 ×D22O
central atom of α-FeC 2O4 × 2 H2 O (red dots) its deuterated analogue 2 D2 O
central iron as
(blue dots) atom of α-FeC
a function of2Opressure.
4 × 2 H2O (red dots) and its deuterated analogue α-FeC2O4 × 2 D2O
(blue dots) as a function of pressure.
(blue dots) as a function of pressure.

Figure 10. Octahedron volume of iron(II)oxalate dihydrate (red dots) and its deuterated analogue
Figure
Figure 10.
FeC2O410. Octahedron
× 2Octahedron volume
volume
D2O (blue dots) of
as aof iron(II)oxalate
iron(II)oxalate
function dihydrate
dihydrate
of applied (red
(red
pressure. dots)
dots)
The and
and
black its
line its deuterated
deuterated
denotes fitanalogue
the analogue
of the
FeC
FeC 22O
Vinet 4××
O4EOS2D 2O
2toD (blue
2O dots)
(blue as
dots)
experimental a function
as
data.a The of of
function
insertapplied pressure.
applied
shows the The
pressure.
distortion black
The lineline
black
index D. denotes thethe
denotes fit of
fit the
of the
Vinet EOS to experimental data. The insert shows the distortion index D.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
The two-step preparative protocol to α-FeC2O4 × 2 H2O and other, isotopically la-
The two-step
The preparative
two-stepsuch
preparative protocol to toα-FeC2 O24O × 2× H O2and other, isotopically labeled
beled analogues as α-FeCprotocol
2O4 × 2 D2Oα-FeC
and α-574FeC
57 FeC
22O
2H O2and
4 × H2Oother,
reportedisotopically la-
here, opens
analogues
beled such as α-FeC O × 2 D O and α- O × 2 H O reported here, opens up
up ananalogues such simple
operationally as α-FeC
2 4 2O4 versatile
and × 2 D2O and
2 α- FeC2to
procedure 2
57 4 O4high-quality
× 2 H2O reported
2 singlehere, opens
crystals of
an operationally
up simple and versatile
an operationally procedure to high-quality single57crystals of synthetic
synthetic phase-puresimple
productsandforversatile procedure
X-ray and neutronto57 high-quality
diffraction, Fesingle crystals
Möβbauer of
spec-
phase-pure
synthetic products for X-ray and neutron diffraction, Fe Möβbauer spectroscopy, as
troscopy, phase-pure products
as well as for for X-ray
high pressure and
research neutron
[45]. diffraction, 57Fe Möβbauer spec-
well as for high pressure research [44].
troscopy, as well as for high pressure research [45].
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 14 of 17

As the approach starts from readily available elemental iron, no constraints or limita-
tions arising from non-commercial precursors are to be expected. The procedure can easily
be adapted to other transition metal oxalates or salts [29].
All synthetic operations have been carried out in inert atmosphere using appropriate
Schlenk techniques to avoid any possible contamination provoked by the ubiquitous
presence of atmospheric oxygen [9,10].
The preparative protocol given above provides selectively phase-pure α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O
and α-FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O, respectively.
The propensity of FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O to produce solids with stacking faults upon
crystallization has been investigated in detail [14–17].
Naturally occurring humboldtine or its isomorphous, synthetic equivalent
α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O is the thermodynamically stable polymorph. This phase crystallizes in
the monoclinic space group C 1 2/c 1, whereas disordered β-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O crystallizes
in the orthorhombic lattice Cccm.
When employing suitable conditions, the stacking faults of β-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O
can be healed, and the substance transforms irreversibly in a solid state reaction into
α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O [14].
The synthesis of nanoparticles of β-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O was achieved by a mechano-
chemical procedure, the product of which displays photocatalytic properties [9].
β-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O and mixtures of α- and β-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O were prepared by a micellar
approach or a solvothermal synthesis, respectively [10,11]. The latter products were trans-
formed by annealing into anhydrous FeC2 O4 , an amorphous solid of unknown structure,
employed as electrode material.
The spectroscopic properties of α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O obtained correspond to those
described in previous work [9,19,36]. FT-IR data obtained on α-FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O show the
expected shifts and confirm a quantitative exchange of H against D.
The crystal and molecular structure of the mineral humboldtine, FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O
at ambient conditions was described for the first time in 1957 [12]. The sample used was
co-type material from the isle of Elba (Italy) [45]. Improved structural models obtained by
X-ray and neutron diffraction studies were reported in later work [13–18].
The lattice parameters and atomic positions of α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O reported here are
in excellent agreement with the results of a previous single crystal study [19]. No isotopic
effect has been observed upon H/D exchange. The cell parameters of α-FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O
and α-FeC2 O4 × 2 D2 O are indistinguishable.
The oxalate dianion is a conjugated, extended, planar π-system, capable to act as
a bidentate ligand, and thus to form coordination polymers with suitable metal cations.
Despite being formally a salt, the title compound should not be viewed as an ionic com-
pound composed of oxalate anions and iron(II)cations with strong attractive, electrostatic
forces, but rather as a typical molecular solid. The valence electrons of humboldtine are
localized in defined molecular orbitals disabling intermolecular electron transfer, which
makes the compound a poor electrical conductor and accounts for the yellow aspect of the
solid [8,10,11].
Planar polymeric iron oxalate chains form through coordinate covalent bonds between
ligand and central metal and represent the conformationally, relatively rigid backbone
of the molecular and crystal structure. Individual chains are held together essentially
through hydrogen bonds. Water molecules at the axial positions complete the octahedral
coordination sphere of iron(II)cations and act as molecular linkers between neighboring
chains. The infinite . . . oxFeoxFeox . . . chains of humboldtine are arranged in stacks along
a with perpendicular coordinated water molecules and little, if any intrastack interactions.
Each water molecule forms hydrogen bonds to neighboring oxalate ligands, a feature
characteristic of the title compound and isostructural oxalates [14].
Hence, both strong covalent intramolecular interactions, as realized in the polymeric
backbone, and weaker-than-covalent intermolecular forces as represented by hydrogen
bonds, exist in the humboldtine crystal.
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 15 of 17

A similar hierarchy of intra- and intermolecular forces is found also in molecular

solids composed of charged constituents, such as charge-transfer (CT) complexes and
radical salts [46].
Generally, these compounds comprise essentially planar, π-conjugated electron donor
and acceptor molecules arranged in separate stacks or layers with only weak intrastack or in-
tralayer interactions. Contrary to the title compound, the presence of unpaired, delocalized
valence electrons enables intermolecular charge transfer and electronic conduction. These
solids usually exhibit layered structures, which results in anisotropic physico-chemical
properties. The pressure dependence of the structural properties of single crystals of
FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O and its deuterated analogue further corroborates an interpretation of
humboldtine as molecular solid.
The compound can be compressed reversibly up to p = 20 GPa without any major
structural transition, despite a reduction of the unit cell volume by about 50 %. The com-
pressibility along b is low, while this parameter is highest along a, the stacking direction of
the oxalate chains.
In view of the orientation of the stiff polymer chains along [010] and the more flexible
stacking axis along a, this result is not surprising and reflects the pronounced anisotropy
of the molecular edifice of humboldtine. The water molecules act as flexible joints of the
molecular architecture, as evidenced by the decrease of the almost linear, axial H2 O-Fe-OH2
angle at ambient p to a value of about 170◦ at 20 GPa and constitute an essential element of
the crystal structure of the title compound.
As Lewis acid or electron pair acceptor, the iron(II)cation is capable of polarizing the
axial water ligands in such a way that dissociation can occur, and protons become mobile.
The amazingly high proton conductivity of FeC2 O4 × 2 H2 O has been rationalized
following this line of reasoning [8]. Pressure-induced changes of Fe-O bond distances and
H2 O-Fe-OH2 angles are likely to affect the strength of the O-H bond and thus the
proton mobility. As outlined above, the geometry of the oxalate dianions is not much
affected by applied hydrostatic pressure. By contrast, the Fe-O distance of the axial water
molecules decreases from 2.2 Å (p = 0) to 2.08 Å (p = 16.7 GPa) and the H2 O-Fe-OH2 oblique
angle shrinks from 180 ◦ (p = 0) to 173 ◦ at 16.7 GPa. In the same pressure interval, H . . .
O contacts between adjacent polymer chains shorten from 2.0 Å to 1.8 Å. The observed
shortening of the Fe-O distances translates into a strengthening of these bonds, which may
result in additional polarization and weakening of the O-H bonds. This effect could be
amplified possibly by the simultaneous decrease of both intermolecular hydrogen bonds
and H2 O-Fe-OH2 angles (Figure 9), respectively, and cause a considerable rise in proton
conductivity. In the absence of any experimental data and in view of the complex interplay
of intra- and intermolecular interactions, any predictions on the pressure dependence of
the proton conductivity remain speculative.
The elucidation of the crystal structure of the HP phase, which forms at p ≥ 20 GPa as
a consequence of a structural phase transition, shall be an experimental challenge for future
work. An extension of the present study to higher temperatures and possibly pressures
shall provide interesting insights into the properties of anhydrous FeC2 O4 and other
transient phases formed during the transformation of humboldtine into siderite FeCO3 .

Author Contributions: Preparative work and analytical characterizations, L.B. and H.M.; S-XRD
experiments and data analysis, M.H.; writing—original draft preparation, H.M. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research has been funded by the ESRF.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank I. Snigireva, ESRF for taking the SEM image.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Minerals 2021, 11, 113 16 of 17

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