Psychological Statistics (Notes)

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Lesson 1: Introduction to Statistics 3.

Method of Intuition
- With intuition, a person relies on
hunches and “instinct” to answer
Statistics questions.
- A branch of mathematics that deals
with the systematic collection, 4. Scientific method
tabulation, presentation, analysis, - An approach to acquiring knowledge
and interpretation of quantitative that involves formulating specific
data or facts. questions and then systematically
finding answers.
- Method of acquiring knowledge.
- Is a carefully developed system for
Methods of Knowing asking and answering questions so
that the answers we discover are as
1. Method of Authority accurate as possible.
- Something is considered true
because of tradition or because
some person of distinction says it’s The Steps of the Scientific Method
true.
Step 1: Observe behavior or other
phenomena
Method of Faith- a variant of the method
- The initial observations could be the
of authority in which people have
unquestioning trust in the authority figure results of your own personal
and, therefore, accept information from experience (method of empiricism),
the authority without doubt or challenge. and might involve watching the
behavior of other people or
2. Method of Rationalism monitoring your own behavior.
- Uses reasoning alone to arrive at
knowledge. It assumes that if the Step 2: Form a tentative answer or
premises are sound and the explanation (a hypothesis)
reasoning is carried out correctly - Usually begins by identifying other
according to the rules of logic, then factors, or variables, that are
the conclusions will yield truth. associated with your observation.
- Tautologies and Fallacies.
Step 3: Use your hypothesis to generate
a testable prediction
Example: - Involves taking the hypothesis and
- All statistics professors are applying it to a specific, observable,
beautiful real-world situation.
- Ms. Arlene is a stats prof therefore
ms Arlene is a beautiful person.
Step 4: Evaluate the prediction by - In an experiment, for economical
making systematic, planned reasons, the investigator usually
observations collects data on a smaller group of
- The actual research or data subjects than the entire population.
collection phase of the scientific This smaller group is called the
method. sample.

Step 5: Use the observations to support, Population and Sample


refute, or refine the original hypothesis
- The final step of the scientific
method is to compare the actual
observations with the predictions
that were made from the hypothesis.
To what extent do the observations
agree with the predictions?

Descriptive & Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics
- Concerned with techniques that are
used to describe or characterize the
obtained data. Variable
- Is any property or characteristic of
Inferential Statistics some event, object, or person that
- Involves techniques that use the may have different values at different
obtained sample date to infer to times depending on the conditions.
populations.
Independent Variable
- Is the variable that is systematically
Definitions: Technical Terms manipulated by the investigator.
- Example: number of hours studying
Population
- Is the complete set of individuals, Dependent variable
objects, or scores that the - The variable that the investigator
investigator is interested in studying. measures to determine the effect of
In an actual experiment, the the independent variable.
population is the larger group of - Example: your GWA
individuals from which the subjects
run in the experiment have been Continuous Variables
taken. - It can assume any of an infinite
number of values and can be
Sample associated with points on a
- Is a subset of the population continuous line interval
- Ex: height, weight, volume.
Continuous data
Discrete variables - Measurement scale between two
- Some measures of behavior of realistic points.
subjects and expected to be
influenced by the independent
variable Primary data
- Gender, courses, Olympic games - Data that came from the original
source
Statistic
- Is a number calculated on sample
Examples:
data that quantifies a characteristic
- Interview
of the sample. Thus, the average
- Survey
value of a sample set of scores
- Mail-in Questionnaire
would be called a statistic.
- Google forms
- Numerical index describing a
- Experimentation
characteristic of a sample.

Parameter Secondary data


- A number calculated on population - Data that came from previously
data that quantifies a characteristic recorded data
of the population.
- Numerical index describing a Examples:
characteristic of a population. - Information in research
- Financial Statements
Data - Business periodicals
- The measurements that are made - Government reports
on the subjects of an experiment. - School records
- Usually consists of the
measurements of the dependent
variable or of other subject
characteristics, such as age, gender,
number of subjects, and so on. Levels of measurements table to

Types of data Scale Legitimate


statistics
Nominal data
Nominal Indicates a
- Used to label variables
difference

Ordinal data Ordinal Indicates a


- Ordered categories difference

Indicates a
Discrete data
direction of the
- Specific countable values
difference (more or Others, None
less than)

Interval Indicates a Ordinal scale


difference - Is one in which the numbers of scale
represent rank order things, rather
Indicates a than raw score magnitudes.
direction of the
difference
Example:
Indicates the Qualitative Variable Categories
amount of
difference (in equal Student class Freshman,
intervals) designation sophomore, junior,
senior
Ratio Indicates a
difference Product satisfaction Unsatisfied, neutral,
satisfied, very
Indicates a satisfied
direction of the
difference Movie classification G, PG, PG-13,
R-18, X
Indicates the
amount of Faculty Rank Professor,
difference Associate Prof.,
Assistant Prof,
Indicates an Instructor
absolute zero

Interval scale
Nominal level
- Is one in which the units represent
- The lowest level of measurement
raw score magnitudes, there are
and its most often used with
equal intervals between adjacent
variables that are qualitative in
units on the scale, and there is no
nature rather than quantitative.
absolute zero point.
- One of them has categories for the
units.
Example:
Examples: - Temperature (in degree Celsius or
Fahrenheit)
Qualitative Categories
- Calendar Time (Gregorian,
Variable
Hebrew, or Islamic)
Gender Male, Female

Automobile Yes, no Ratio scale


Ownership - Represent raw score magnitudes,
there are equal intervals between
Type of Life Term, Endowment, adjacent units on the scale, and
Insurance Owned Straight-Life, there is an absolute zero point.
5. Experimental Method
Example:
- It is a system used to gather data
- Weight (in pounds or kilograms)
from the results of performed series
- Age (in years or days)
of experiments on some controlled
- Salary (in Philippine Peso)
and experimental variables. This is
commonly used in scientific
inquiries.

Lesson 2: Statistics and the Real


World Different ways to present data

Textual Form
Methods used in Data Gathering & - The data is presented in paragraph
Collecting Data form.

1. Direct or Interview Method Example:


- It is a person-to-person encounter - Table 1 presents the frequency
between the source of information, and percentage distribution of the
the interviewee, and the one who respondents according to gender.
gathers information; the interviewer. The table shows that majority of
- It can be done personally, through the respondents are female
phone or internet access. with3,625 or 72.5%, while 1,375 or
27.5% are male.
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method - Most of the Nursing students are
- It is the technique in which a female, it only shows that Nursing
questionnaire is used to elicit the is a course more favorable for
information or data needed. females (Malabanan, 2020).

3. Registration Method
- It obtains data from the records of Tabular Form
government agencies authorized by - The data is present in rows and
law to keep such data or information columns.
and made these available to
researchers. Example: Frequency and percentage
distribution of the nursing students
4. Observation Method according to Gender
- A technique in which data Gender Frequency Percentage
particularly those pertaining to the
behaviors of individuals or groups of Male 1375 27.5
individuals during the given situation Female 3625 72.5
are best obtained through
observations. Total 5000 100
Graphical Form
- The data is presented in visual form

3. Stratified Random Sampling


- is a method of sampling that
involves the division of a population
into smaller sub-groups known as
strata.

Sampling Techniques

1. Simple Random Sampling


- A simple random sample is chosen
in such a way that every set of
individuals has an equal chance to 4. Cluster Sampling
be in the selected sample. - Divides the population into groups,
then takes a random sample from
each cluster.
- This method is used when there are
different subsets of groups present
in a larger population.

2. Systematic Sampling
- Is a probability sampling method in
which a random sample, with a fixed
periodic interval, is selected from a
larger population. 5. Multi-Stage Sampling
- The fixed periodic interval, called the - The researcher chooses the
sampling interval, is calculated by samples randomly at each stage.
dividing the population size by the Here, the researcher does not create
desired sample size. clusters, but he/she narrows down
the sample by applying random 8. Quota Sampling
sampling. - Involves dividing the respondents
into subgroups.
- First, we identify the subgroups and
their proportions in the population.
Next, we use convenience sampling
to select the required number of
subjects from each subgroup.

6. Purposive Sampling
- It is a non-probability sampling
method and it occurs when
“elements selected for the sample
are chosen by the judgment of the
9. Snowball Sampling
researcher.
- It is a method used to collect data
when it is difficult to locate
respondents.
- This type of sampling technique
relies on referrals from initial
respondents to generate additional
respondents.

7. Convenience Sampling
- It is a type of nonprobability
sampling in which people are
sampled simply because they are
"convenient" sources of data for
researchers.

Situational Analysis

Mode of Presentation and Retention


- An educator conducts an experiment
to determine whether the mode of
presentation affects how well prose
material is remembered. For this
experiment, the educator uses
several prose passages that are parameter calculated in this
presented visually or auditorily. experiment.
- At the end of their respective
presentations, the subjects are
asked to write down as much of the Lesson 3: Real limits, Rounding
material as they can remember. The Numbers, and Frequency Distribution
average number of words
remembered by each group is
calculated, and the two group Real Limits of a Continuous Variable
averages are compared to see - The real limits of a continuous
whether the mode of presentation variable are those values that are
had an effect. above and below the recorded value
by one-half of the smallest
A. Independent Variable measuring unit of the Scale.
- The mode of presentation of the
prose passages. (auditory or visual) Rounding Numbers
1. Divide the number you wish to round
B. Dependent Variable into two parts: the potential answer
- The number of words remembered and the remainder. The potential
answer is the original number
C. The Sample extending through the desired
- The 50 students who participated in number of decimal places. The
the experiment. remainder is the rest of the number.

D. The Population 2. Place a decimal point in front of the


- The larger group of individuals from first digit of the remainder, creating a
which the sample was taken, decimal remainder.
namely, the undergraduates
attending the university. 3. If the decimal remainder is greater
than ½ add 1 to the last digit of the
E. The Data answer.
- The number of words recalled by
each student in the sample. 4. If the decimal remainder is less than
½ leave the last digit of the answer
F. The Statistic unchanged.
- The average number of words
recalled by each group is a statistic 5. If the decimal remainder is equal to
because it quantifies a characteristic ½ add 1 to the last digit of the
of the sample scores. answer if it is an odd digit, but if it is
even, leave it unchanged.
G. The Parameter
- Since there was no measurement Frequency Distribution
made of any population - Presents the score values and their
characteristic, there was no frequency of occurrence. When
presented in a table, the scores
values are listed in rank order with
the lowest score value usually at the
bottom of the table.

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