Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed.

Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.1. The gradient operator in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) is:

∇ = e x (∂ ∂x ) + e y (∂ ∂y ) + e z (∂ ∂z) where e x , e y , and e z are the unit vectors. In cylindrical polar
coordinates (R, ϕ, z) having the same origin, (see Figure 3.3b), coordinates and unit vectors are
related by: R = x 2 + y 2 , ϕ = tan−1 ( y x ) , and z = z; and e R = e x cosϕ + e y sin ϕ ,
€ eϕ = −e x sin ϕ + e y cosϕ , and e z€= e€
z . Determine
€ the following in the cylindrical polar coordinate
system.
a) ∂e R ∂ϕ and ∂€ eϕ ∂ϕ
€ €
€ b) the gradient operator
€ ∇
c) the divergence of the velocity field ∇⋅u
€ d) the Laplacian operator ∇ ⋅ ∇ ≡ ∇ 2
€
e) the advective acceleration term (u⋅∇)u

Solution 3.1. The

€ Cartesian unit vectors do not depend on the coordinates so the unit vectors
from the cylindrical coordinate system can be differentiated when they are written in terms of ex,
ey, and ez.
a) First work with eR, use the given unit vector definition, and proceed with straightforward
differentiation. The variables R and z do not appear in the formula for eR, so
∂e R ∂R = ∂e R ∂z = 0 . However eR does depend on the angle ϕ. Thus,
∂e R ∂
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= (e x cosϕ + e y sinϕ ) = −e x sinϕ + e y cosϕ = eϕ .
€ Proceed to determine the derivatives of eϕ. Again note that the variables R and z do not appear in
the formula for eϕ, so ∂eϕ ∂R = ∂eϕ ∂z = 0 . However, like eR, eϕ does depend on the angle ϕ.
Thus, €
∂eϕ ∂
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= (−e x sinϕ + e y cosϕ ) = −e x cosϕ − e y sinϕ = −e R .
€
The third unit vector, ez, is the same as the Cartesian unit vector and does not depend on the
coordinates.
b) Start by constructing the expressions for ex, ey, and ez in terms of eR, eϕ, and ez. This can be
€ $ cosϕ sin ϕ 0($e x ( $e R (
& && & & &
done my inverting the linear system %−sin ϕ cosϕ 0)%e y ) = % eϕ ) to find
& 0 0 1&*&'e z &* &' e z &*
'

e x = e R cosϕ − eϕ sin ϕ , e y = e R sin ϕ + eϕ cos ϕ , and e z = e z (1,2,3)

The next step is to use the coordinate definitions:
€
R = x 2 + y 2 , ϕ = tan−1 ( y x ) , and z = z (4,5,6)
to transform
€ the Cartesian partial derivatives.
€ €
∂ ∂R ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ ∂z ∂ x ∂ 1 % y( ∂ ∂
= + + = − 2 ' − 2 * + (0)
∂x ∂x ∂R ∂x ∂ϕ ∂x ∂z x 2 + y 2 ∂R 1+ ( y x ) & x ) ∂ϕ ∂z
€ €
∂ sin ϕ ∂
= cosϕ −
∂R R ∂ϕ
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

∂ ∂R ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ ∂z ∂ y ∂ 1 $ 1' ∂ ∂
= + + = + 2 & ) + (0)
∂y ∂y ∂R ∂y ∂ϕ ∂y ∂z x 2 + y 2 ∂R 1+ ( y x ) % x ( ∂ϕ ∂z
∂ cosϕ ∂
= sin ϕ +
∂R R ∂ϕ
∂ ∂R ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
€ = + + = (0) + (0) + (1) =
∂z ∂z ∂R ∂z ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂R ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
Now€reassemble the gradient operator ∇ = e x + e y + e z using the cylindrical coordinate
∂x ∂y ∂z
unit vectors and differentiation definitions:
€
& ∂ sinϕ ∂ ) & ∂ cos ϕ ∂ ) ∂
∇ = (e R cos ϕ − eϕ sin ϕ )( cosϕ − + + ( e R sin ϕ + e ϕ cos ϕ )( sin ϕ + + + ez .
' € ∂R R ∂ϕ * ' ∂R R ∂ϕ * ∂z
Collect all of the terms with like unit vectors and differential operators together:
∂ 1 ∂
∇ = e R (cos2 ϕ + sin 2 ϕ ) + e R (−cosϕ sin ϕ + sin ϕ cosϕ )
∂R R ∂ϕ
€
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
eϕ (−sin ϕ cos ϕ + cosϕ sin ϕ ) + eϕ (sin 2 ϕ + cos2 ϕ ) + ez
∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z
The terms in (,)-parentheses are either +1 or 0. When evaluated they produce:
€
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇ = eR + eϕ + ez .
∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z
€
c) In cylindrical coordinates, the divergence of the velocity is:
& ∂ 1 ∂ ∂)
∇ ⋅ u = (e R + eϕ + e z + ⋅ (e R uR + eϕ uϕ + e z uz ) .
€ ' ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z *
Further simplification requires that both the unit vectors and the u's be differentiated.
Completing this task term by term produces:
∂ ∂u ∂e ∂u
e R € ⋅ (e R uR ) = e R ⋅ e R R + uR e R ⋅ R = R ,
∂R ∂r ∂R ∂ R
∂ ∂ u ∂ e
eR ⋅ (eϕ uϕ ) = e R ⋅ eϕ ϕ + uϕ e R ⋅ ϕ = 0 ,
∂R ∂R ∂R
∂ ∂uz ∂e z
€ eR ⋅ (e z uz ) = e R ⋅ e z + uze R ⋅ = 0,
∂R ∂R ∂r
eϕ ∂ e ⋅ e ∂u u ∂e u u
€ ⋅ (e R uR ) = ϕ R R + R eϕ ⋅ R = 0 + R eϕ ⋅ eϕ = R ,
R ∂ϕ R ∂ϕ R ∂ϕ R R
€ e ∂ e ⋅ e ∂ u u ∂ e 1 ∂ u u 1 ∂uϕ
ϕ
⋅ (eϕ uϕ ) = ϕ ϕ ϕ + ϕ eϕ ⋅ ϕ = ϕ
− ϕ eϕ ⋅ e R = ,
R ∂ϕ R ∂ϕ R ∂ϕ R ∂ϕ R R ∂ϕ
€ eϕ ∂ e ⋅ e ∂u u ∂e
⋅ (e z uz ) = ϕ z ϕ + z eϕ ⋅ z = 0
R ∂ϕ R ∂ϕ R ∂ϕ
€ ∂ ∂ u ∂ e
e z ⋅ (e R uR ) = e z ⋅ e R R + uR e z ⋅ R = 0 ,
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂ ∂u ∂e
€ e z ⋅ (eϕ uϕ ) = e z ⋅ eϕ ϕ + uϕ e z ⋅ ϕ = 0 , and
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂ ∂uz ∂e z ∂uz
€ e z ⋅ (e z uz ) = e z ⋅ e z + uz e z ⋅ = .
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂ z
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Reassembling the equation produces:

∂uR uR 1 ∂uϕ ∂uz
∇⋅u= + + + .
∂R R R ∂ϕ ∂z
The 1st & 2nd terms on the right side are commonly combined to yield:
1 ∂ 1 ∂uϕ ∂uz
∇⋅u= (RuR ) + + . (10)
€ R ∂ R R ∂ϕ ∂ z
d) The Laplacian operator is ∇ 2 ≡ ∇ ⋅ ∇ , and its form in cylindrical coordinates can be found by
evaluating the dot product. Fortunately, the results of part c) can be used via the following
replacements for the second gradient operator of the dot product:
€ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
€ uR ↔ , uϕ ↔ , and uz ↔ . (7,8,9)
∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z
Inserting the replacements (7,8,9) into (10) produces:
1 ∂ $ ∂ ' 1 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = &R ) + 2 2 + 2 .
€ € R ∂R % ∂R ( €R ∂ϕ ∂z
e) Start with the answer to part b) and compute the first dot product to find:
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
u ⋅ ∇ = uR + uϕ + uz
∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z
€
This is the scalar operator applied to u = uR e R + uϕ eϕ + uz e z to find the advective acceleration:
& ∂ 1 ∂ ∂)
(u ⋅ ∇)u = ( uR + uϕ + uz +( uR e R + uϕ eϕ + uze z ) .
€ ' ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z *
Here the components of u and the unit vectors eR and eϕ depend on the angular coordinate.
& ∂u 1 ∂uR ∂u ) 1 ∂e R
(u ⋅ ∇)u = e R ( uR R + uϕ + uz R + + uR uϕ +
€ ' ∂ R R ∂ϕ ∂ z * R ∂ϕ
! ∂u 1 ∂ uϕ ∂u $ 1 ∂ eϕ ! ∂u 1 ∂ uz ∂u $
eϕ # uR ϕ + uϕ + uz ϕ & + uϕ2 + e z # uR z + uϕ + uz z &
" ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z % R ∂ϕ " ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z %
€ Use the results of part a) to evaluate the unit vector derivatives.
& ∂u 1 ∂uR ∂u ) e
(u ⋅ ∇)u = e R ( uR R + uϕ + uz R + + uR uϕ ϕ +
' ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z * R
$ ∂uϕ 1 ∂uϕ ∂u ' e $ ∂u 1 ∂uz ∂u '
eϕ & uR + uϕ + uz ϕ ) − uϕ2 R + e z & uR z + uϕ + uz z )
% ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z ( R % ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z (
€ Collect components
' ∂u 1 ∂uR ∂u u2 *
(u ⋅ ∇)u = e R ) uR R + uϕ + uz R − ϕ , +
€ ( ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z R+
$ ∂u 1 ∂uϕ ∂u u u ' $ ∂u 1 ∂uz ∂u '
eϕ & uR ϕ + uϕ + uz ϕ + R ϕ ) + e z & uR z + uϕ + uz z )
% ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z R ( % ∂R R ∂ϕ ∂z (
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.2. Consider Cartesian coordinates (as given in Exercise no. 1) and spherical polar
coordinates (r, θ, ϕ) having the same origin (see Figure 3.3c). Here coordinates and unit vectors
are related by: r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , θ = tan−1 ( )
x 2 + y 2 z , and ϕ = tan−1 ( y x ) ; and
e r = e x cosϕ sin θ + e y sin ϕ sin θ + e z cos θ , eθ = e x cosϕ cos θ + e y sin ϕ cos θ − e z sin θ , and
eϕ = −e x sin ϕ + e y cosϕ . In the spherical polar coordinate system, determine the following items.
a) ∂e€ r ∂θ , ∂e r ∂ϕ , ∂eθ€∂θ , ∂eθ ∂ϕ , and ∂eϕ ∂ϕ €

€ b) the gradient operator ∇ €

€ c) the divergence of the velocity field ∇⋅u
€ d)€the Laplacian
€ ∇ ⋅€∇ ≡ ∇ 2
€
e) the advective acceleration term (u⋅∇)u

Solution€ 3.2. The Cartesian unit vectors do not depend on the coordinates so the unit vectors
from the spherical coordinate system can be differentiated when they are written in terms of ex,
ey, and ez.
a) First work with er, use the given unit vector definition, and proceed with straightforward
differentiation. The variable r doesn’t even appear in the formula for er, so ∂e r ∂r = 0 . However
er does depend on both angles. Thus,
∂e r ∂
= (e x cosϕ sin θ + e y sin ϕ sin θ + e z cos θ ) = e x cos ϕ cosθ + e y sin ϕ cos θ − e z sin θ = eθ
∂θ ∂θ
and, €
∂e r ∂
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= (e x cosϕ sinθ + e y sinϕ sinθ + e z cosθ ) = −e x sinϕ sinθ + e y cosϕ sinθ = eϕ sinθ .
€
Proceed to determine the derivatives of eθ. Again note that the variable r doesn’t appear in its
formula, so ∂eθ ∂r = 0 . However, like er, eθ does depend on both angles. Thus,
∂eθ ∂
€ = (e x cosϕ cos θ + e y sin ϕ cos θ − e z sin θ ) = −e x cosϕ sin θ − e y sin ϕ sin θ − e z cos θ = −e r
∂θ ∂θ
and,
€ ∂e ∂
θ
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= (e x cosϕ cosθ + e y sinϕ cosθ − e z sinθ ) = −e x sinϕ cosθ + e y cosϕ cosθ = eϕ cosθ .
€
Now consider eϕ and note that the variables r and θ don’t appear in its formula, so
∂eϕ ∂r = ∂eϕ ∂θ = 0 . However, eϕ does depend on ϕ. Thus,
€ ∂eϕ ∂
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= (−e x sinϕ + e y cosϕ ) = −e x cosϕ − e y sinϕ . ($)

€ The question now is how to relate the right side of this equation back to er, and eθ [note: because
( )
eϕ ⋅ ∂eϕ ∂ϕ = 0 , ∂eϕ ∂ϕ can only be a linear combination of er and eθ]. Assuming
∂eϕ ∂ϕ = ae r + be€ θ , then ($) and the unit vector definitions require:
acosϕ sin θ + bcosϕ cos θ = −cosϕ ,
€ asin ϕ sin θ + bsin ϕ cosθ = −sin ϕ , and
€
acosθ − bsin θ = 0 .
€ After dividing out common factors, the first two equations are the same: asin θ + bcos θ = −1.
When this simplified € equation is combined with the third equation, we obtain: a = −sin θ and
b = −cosθ . Thus, ∂€eϕ ∂ϕ = −e r sin θ − eθ cos θ .
€
€
€
€ €
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

b) Start by constructing the expressions for ex, ey, and ez in terms of e r , eθ , and eϕ . This can be
% cosϕ sin θ sin ϕ sin θ cosθ )%e x ) % e r )
' '' ' ' '
done my inverting the linear system &cos ϕ cosθ sin ϕ cosθ −sin θ *&e y * = &eθ * to find
' −sin ϕ cosϕ € € 0 '+'(€e z '+ '(eϕ '+
(
e x = e r cosϕ sin θ + eθ cosϕ cos θ − eϕ sin ϕ
e y = e r sin ϕ sin θ + eθ sin ϕ cosθ + eϕ cos ϕ (1,2,3)
€ e z = e r cosθ − eθ sin θ .
The next step is to€use the coordinate definitions:
2 2 2
€ r = x + y + z , θ = tan
−1
(
x2 + y2 z ) , and ϕ = tan
−1
( y x) (4,5,6)
€
to transform the Cartesian partial derivatives.
∂ ∂r ∂ ∂θ ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ x ∂ 1 2x ∂ y ∂
= + + = + − 2
∂x ∂x ∂r ∂x ∂θ ∂x ∂ϕ r ∂r 1+ x 2 + y 2 z 2 2z 2
x + y ∂θ x + y ∂ϕ
2 2
€ € ( € )
∂ cos ϕ cosθ ∂ sin ϕ ∂
= cosϕ sin θ + −
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
€ ∂ ∂r ∂ ∂θ ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ y ∂ 1 2y ∂ x ∂
= + + = + + 2
∂y ∂y ∂r ∂y ∂θ ∂y ∂ϕ r ∂r 1+ x 2 + y 2 z 2 2z 2
x + y ∂θ x + y ∂ϕ
2 2
( )
€ ∂ sin ϕ cos θ ∂ cos ϕ ∂
= sin ϕ sin θ
+ +
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
€ ∂ ∂r ∂ ∂θ ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ z ∂ 1 − x2 + y2 ∂ ∂ sin θ ∂
= + + = + 2 2
= cos θ −
∂z ∂z ∂r ∂z ∂θ ∂z ∂ϕ r ∂r 1+ x 2 + y 2 z z ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
€
( )
∂ ∂ ∂
Now reassemble the gradient operator ∇ = e x + e y + e z using the spherical coordinate unit
∂x ∂y ∂z
€ vectors and differentiation definitions:
' ∂ cos ϕ cosθ ∂ sin ϕ ∂ *
∇ = (e r cos ϕ sin θ + eθ cos ϕ cosθ − eϕ sin ϕ )) cosϕ sin θ + − ,
€ ( ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ +
% ∂ sin ϕ cosθ ∂ cos ϕ ∂ (
+(e r sin ϕ sin θ + eθ sin ϕ cosθ + eϕ cos ϕ )'sin ϕ sin θ + + *
& ∂r r ∂θ r sinθ ∂ϕ )
€ % ∂ sin θ ∂ (
+(e r cosθ − eθ sin θ )'cos θ − *.
& ∂r r ∂θ )
€ Collect all of the terms with like unit vectors and differential operators together:
∂
∇ = e r (cos2 ϕ sin 2 θ + sin 2 ϕ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ )
∂r
€ 1 ∂
+e r (cos 2 ϕ cosθ sin θ + sin 2 ϕ cosθ sin θ − cosθ sin θ )
r ∂θ
1 ∂
€ +e r (−cos ϕ sin ϕ sin θ + sin ϕ cosϕ sin θ )
r sin θ ∂ϕ
∂
€ +eθ (cos 2 ϕ cosθ sin θ + sin 2 ϕ cosθ sin θ − sin θ cosθ )
∂r
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

1 ∂
+eθ (cos 2 ϕ cos2 θ + sin 2 ϕ cos2 θ + sin 2 θ )
r ∂θ
1 ∂
+eθ (−cos ϕ sin ϕ cos θ + sin ϕ cosϕ cos θ )
r sin θ ∂ϕ
∂
€ +eϕ (−sin ϕ cosϕ sin θ + cos ϕ sin ϕ sin θ )
∂r
1 ∂
€ +eϕ (−sin ϕ cosϕ cos θ + cosϕ sin ϕ cos θ )
r ∂θ
1 ∂
€ +eϕ (sin ϕ + cos ϕ )
2 2

r sin θ ∂ϕ
The terms in (,)-parentheses are either +1 or 0. When evaluated they produce:
€
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ = e r + eθ + eϕ .
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
€
c) In spherical coordinates, the divergence of the velocity is:
' ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ *
∇ ⋅ u = )e r + eθ + eϕ , ⋅ (e r ur + eθ uθ + eϕ uϕ ) .
€ ( ∂ r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ +
Further simplification requires that the unit vectors and the u's be differentiated. Completing this
task term by term produces:
∂ ∂u ∂e ∂ u
e r ⋅ (e r€ ur ) = e r ⋅ e r r + ure r ⋅ r = r ,
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂ r
∂ ∂uθ ∂e
e r ⋅ (eθ uθ ) = e r ⋅ eθ + uθ e r ⋅ θ = 0 ,
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂ ∂uϕ ∂eϕ
€ e r ⋅ (eϕ uϕ ) = e r ⋅ eϕ + uϕ e r ⋅ = 0,
∂r ∂r ∂r
eθ ∂ e ⋅ e ∂u u ∂e u u
€ ⋅ (e r ur ) = θ r r + r eθ ⋅ r = 0 + r eθ ⋅ eθ = r ,
r ∂θ r ∂θ r ∂θ r r
eθ ∂ eθ ⋅ eθ ∂uθ uθ ∂eθ 1 ∂uθ uθ 1 ∂uθ
€ ⋅ (eθ uθ ) = + eθ ⋅ = − eθ ⋅ e r = ,
r ∂θ r ∂θ r ∂θ r ∂θ r r ∂θ
eθ ∂ e ⋅ e ∂u u ∂e
€ ⋅ (eϕ uϕ ) = θ ϕ ϕ + ϕ eθ ⋅ ϕ = 0
r ∂θ r ∂θ r ∂θ
eϕ ∂ eϕ ⋅ e r ∂ur ur ∂e ur u
€ ⋅ (e r ur ) = + eϕ ⋅ r = eϕ ⋅ (eϕ sin θ ) = r ,
r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ r
€ eϕ ∂ eϕ ⋅ eθ ∂uθ u ∂e u u
⋅ (eθ uθ ) = + θ eϕ ⋅ θ = θ eϕ ⋅ eϕ cosθ = θ ,
r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ r tan θ
€ eϕ ∂ 1 & ∂uϕ ∂e )
⋅ (eϕ uϕ ) = ( eϕ ⋅ eϕ + uϕ eϕ ⋅ ϕ +
r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ' ∂ϕ ∂ϕ *
€ 1 ' ∂uϕ * 1 ∂uϕ
= ) − uϕ eϕ ⋅ (e r sin θ + eθ cos θ ), =
r sin θ ( ∂ϕ + r sin θ ∂ϕ
€ Reassembling the equation produces:
∂u 2u 1 ∂uθ u 1 ∂uϕ
∇⋅u= r + r + + θ +
€ ∂r r r ∂θ r tan θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
The 1st & 2nd terms, and the 3trd and 4th terms on the right side are commonly combined to yield:

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂uϕ
∇⋅u= 2
r ∂r
( r ur ) +
r sin θ ∂θ
(sin θ uθ ) +
r sin θ ∂ϕ
. (10)
d) The Laplacian operator is ∇ 2 ≡ ∇ ⋅ ∇ , and its form in spherical polar coordinates can be found
by evaluating the dot product. Fortunately, the results of part c) can be used via the following
replacements for the second gradient operator of the dot product:
€ ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
€ ur ↔ , uθ ↔ , and uϕ ↔ . (7,8,9)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
Inserting (7,8,9) into (10), the Laplacian then becomes:
1 ∂$ ∂' 1 ∂ $ ∂ ' 1 ∂2
∇2 = 2 &r2 ) + 2 & sin θ )+ 2 2 .
€ r €∂r % ∂r ( r sin θ€∂θ % ∂θ ( r sin θ ∂ϕ 2
e) Start with the answer to part b) and compute the first dot product to find:
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
u ⋅ ∇ = ur + uθ + uϕ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
€
This is the scalar operator applied to u = ure r + uθ eθ + uϕ eϕ to find the advective acceleration:
' ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ *
(u ⋅ ∇)u = ) ur + uθ + uϕ ,( ure r + uθ eθ + uϕ eϕ ) .
€ ( ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ +
Here the components of u and € the unit vectors depend on the angular coordinates.
' ∂ur 1 ∂ur 1 ∂ ur * 1 ∂e r 1 ∂e r
(u ⋅ ∇)u = e r ) ur + uθ + uϕ , + ur uθ + ur uϕ +
€ ( ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ + r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
% ∂u 1 ∂uθ 1 ∂uθ ( 2 1 ∂eθ 1 ∂eθ
eθ ' ur θ + uθ + uϕ * + uθ + uθ uϕ +
& ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ) r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
€ % ∂u 1 ∂uϕ 1 ∂uϕ ( 1 ∂eϕ 1 ∂eϕ
eϕ ' ur ϕ + uθ + uϕ * + uϕ uθ + uϕ2
& ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ) r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
Use
€ the results of part a) to evaluate the unit vector derivatives.
' ∂u 1 ∂ur 1 ∂ur * eθ e sin θ
(u ⋅ ∇)u = e r ) ur r + uθ + uϕ , + ur uθ + ur uϕ ϕ +
€ ( ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ + r r sin θ
% ∂u 1 ∂uθ 1 ∂uθ ( 2 e r eϕ cosθ
eθ ' ur θ + uθ + uϕ * − uθ + uθ uϕ
& ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ) r r sin θ
€ % ∂uϕ 1 ∂uϕ 1 ∂uϕ ( 2 1
eϕ ' ur + uθ + uϕ * + 0 + uϕ (−e r sin θ − eθ cosθ )
& ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ) r sin θ
Collect
€ components
( ∂u 1 ∂ur 1 ∂ur uθ + uϕ +
2 2

(u ⋅ ∇)u = e r * ur r + uθ + uϕ − -+
€ ) ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r ,
& ∂u 1 ∂uθ 1 ∂uθ ur uθ uϕ
2 )
θ
eθ ( ur + uθ + uϕ + − cot θ +
' ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r r *
€ % ∂uϕ 1 ∂uϕ 1 ∂uϕ ur uϕ uθ uϕ (
eϕ ' ur + uθ + uϕ + + cot θ *
& ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r r )
€

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.3. In a steady two-dimensional flow, Cartesian-component particle trajectories are

given by: x(t) = ro cos (γ (t − to ) + θ o ) and y(t) = ro sin (γ (t − to ) + θ o ) where ro = xo2 + yo2 and
θ o = tan −1 ( yo xo ) .
a) From these trajectories determine the Lagrangian particle velocity components u(t) = dx/dt and
v(t) = dy/dt, and convert these to Eulerian velocity components u(x,y) and v(x,y).
b) Compute Cartesian particle acceleration components, ax = d2x/dt2 and ay = d2y/dt2, and show
that they are equal to D/Dt of the Eulerian velocity components u(x,y) and v(x,y).

Solution 3.3. a) Differentiate as suggested to find:

dx(t) dy(t)
u(t) = = −γ ro sin (γ (t − to ) + θ o ) and v(t) = = γ ro cos (γ (t − to ) + θ o ) .
dt dt
Now use the original trajectory equations to eliminate the trig-functions:
u = −γ y and v = γ x .
b) Again differentiate as suggested to find:
d 2 x(t)
ax (t) = 2
= −γ 2 ro cos (γ (t − to ) + θ o ) = −γ 2 x and
dt
d 2 y(t)
ay (t) = 2
= −γ 2 ro sin (γ (t − to ) + θ o ) = −γ 2 y .
dt
Compute Du/Dt and Dv/Dt from the final two answers of part a):
Du ∂u ∂u ∂u
= + u + v = 0 − γ y(0) + γ x(−γ ) = −γ 2 x and
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y
Dv ∂v ∂v ∂v
= + u + v = 0 − γ y(γ ) + γ x(0) = −γ 2 y .
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y
The final equalities match as appropriate: ax = Du/Dt, and ay = Dv/Dt.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.4. In a steady two-dimensional flow, polar coordinate particle trajectories are given
by: r(t) = ro and θ (t) = γ (t − to ) + θ o .
a) From these trajectories determine the Lagrangian particle velocity components ur(t) = dr/dt
and, uθ (t) = rdθ/dt, and convert these to Eulerian velocity components ur(r,θ) and uθ (r, θ ) .
2
b) Compute polar-coordinate particle acceleration components, ar = d 2 r dt 2 − r ( dθ dt ) and
aθ = rd 2θ dt 2 + 2 ( dr dt ) ( dθ dt ) , and show that they are equal to D/Dt of the Eulerian velocity
with components ur(r,θ) and uθ (r, θ ) .

Solution 3.4. a) Differentiate as suggested to find:

dr(t) dθ (t)
ur (t) = = 0 and uθ (t) = r = rγ .
dt dt
These equations are readily interpreted as Eulerian velocity components:
ur = 0 and uθ = γ r .
b) Start with the particle accelerations:
2
ar = d 2 r dt 2 − r ( dθ dt ) = 0 − r(γ )2 = −γ 2 r and aθ = rd 2θ dt 2 + 2 ( dr dt ) ( dθ dt ) = 0 + 2(0)γ = 0 .
Compute Dur/Dt and Duθ/Dt from the forms given in Appendix B and the two answers of part a):
Dur ∂ur ∂u u ∂u u 2 (γ r)2
= + ur r + θ r − θ = 0 + 0 − = −γ 2 r and
Dt ∂t ∂r r ∂θ r r
Duθ ∂uθ ∂uθ uθ ∂uθ ur uθ
= + ur + + = 0 + 0(γ ) + γ (0) + 0 = 0 .
Dt ∂t ∂r r ∂θ r
The final equalities match as appropriate: ar = Dur/Dt, and aθ = Duθ/Dt.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.5. if ds = (dx, dy, dz) is an element of arc length along a streamline (Figure 3.5) and u
= (u, v, w) is the local fluid velocity vector, show that if ds is everywhere tangent to u then
dx u = dy v = dz w .

Solution 3.5. If ds = (dx, dy, dz) and u are parallel, then they must have the same unit tangent
vector t:
€ ds (dx,dy,dz) (u,v,w) u
t= = = = .
ds (dx) 2 + (dy) 2 + (dz) 2 u2 + v 2 + w 2 u
The three components of this equation imply:
dx u dy v dz w
= , = , and = .
ds u ds u ds u
€
But these can be rearranged to find:
ds dx dy dz
= = = .
€ € u u€ v w

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.6. For the two-dimensional steady flow having velocity components u = Sy and v =
Sx, determine the following when S is a positive real constant having units of 1/time.
a) equations for the streamlines with a sketch of the flow pattern
b) the components of the strain rate tensor
c) the components of the rotation tensor
d) the coordinate rotation that diagonalizes the strain rate tensor, and the principal strain rates.
e) How is this flow field related to that in Example 3.5.

Solution 3.6. a) For steady streamlines in two dimensions:

dx dy dy v Sx x y
= or = = = , which implies:
u v dx u Sy y
ydy = xdx → y 2 2 = x 2 2 + const.
Solving for y(x) produces: y = ± x 2 + const . These
€ are hyperbolae
€ that asymptote to the lines y = ±x.
b)
€ Compute the strain rate tensor from its definition:
1 # ∂u ∂u &
Sij = %% i + j ((€ x
2 $ ∂x j ∂x i '
# 1
∂u ∂y + ∂v ∂ x ) &
2(
∂u ∂x
= $1 '
% 2 (∂v ∂x + ∂u ∂y ) ∂v ∂y (
€ " 0 1
S + S )% " 0 S %
2(
= #1 &=# &
$ 2 ( S + S) 0 ' $S 0'
€ c) Compute the rotation tensor from its definition:
∂u ∂ u $ 0 ∂u ∂ y − ∂v ∂x ' $ 0 S − S ' $0 0'
Rij = i − j = % (=% (=% (
€ ∂x j ∂x i &∂v ∂x − ∂u ∂y 0 ) &S − S 0 ) &0 0)
d) From Example 2.4, a θ = 45° coordinate rotation diagonalizes the strain rate tensor. The
$cosθ −sin θ ' 1 $1 −1'
direction cosine matrix is: Cij = % (= % ( , and the rotated strain rate matrix
€ & sin θ cosθ ) 2 &1 1 )
S´ is:
1 % 1 1(% 0 S ( 1 %1 −1( 1 % S S (%1 −1( % S 0 (
S" = CT ⋅ S ⋅ C = & )& ) & )= & )& )=& ).
€ 2 '−1 1*' S 0 * 2 '1 1 * 2 ' S −S *'1 1 * ' 0 −S *
e) When this flow field is rotated 45° in the clockwise direction, it is the same as the flow field in
Example 3.5.
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.7. At the instant shown in Figure 3.2b, the (u,v)-velocity field in Cartesian
coordinates is u = A(y 2 − x 2 ) (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 , and v = −2A xy (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 where A is a positive
constant. Determine the equations for the streamlines by rearranging the first equality in (3.7) to
read udy − vdx = 0 = (∂ψ ∂y ) dy + (∂ψ ∂x ) dx and then looking for a solution in the form ψ(x,y) =
const.
€ €
Solution 3.7. Rearrange the two-dimensional streamline condition, dx/u = dy/v, to obtain udy –
€ vdx = 0 as the description of a streamline. Assume this differential equation is solved by the
function ψ(x,y) = const, so that (∂ψ/∂x)dx + (∂ψ/∂y)dy = 0. Comparing the two equations
requires:
u = ∂ψ/∂y , and v = –∂ψ/∂x.
Now use the given velocity field to find:
∂ψ ∂y = A(y 2 − x 2 ) (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 , and ∂ψ ∂x = +2A xy (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 . (a,b)
Integrate (b) treating y as a constant:
∂ψ 2x 2xdx ' −1 *
= Ay 2 2 2
→ ψ − ψ o = Ay ∫ 2 2 2
= Ay) 2 2 ,,
€ ∂ x (x + y ) € (x + y ) ( x + y +
where ψo may depend on y. Differentiate this result with respect to y to determine ψo:
∂ ∂ % −Ay ( −A (−Ay) A(y 2 − x 2 )
(ψ − ψ o ) = ' 2 2 * = 2 2 − 2 2 2 (2y) = 2 2 2 = u .
€ ∂y ∂y & x + y ) x + y (x + y ) (x + y )
This result and equation (a) implies ∂ψo/∂y = 0, so it is at most a constant. Thus, the streamlines
are given by:
Ay
€ ψ (x, y) = const. = − 2 .
x + y2

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.8. Determine the equivalent of the first equality in (3.7) for two dimensional (r,θ)-
polar coordinates, and then find the equation for the streamline that passes through (ro, θo) when
u = (ur, u ) = (A/r, B/r) where A and B are constants.
θ

Solution 3.8. The two-dimensional streamline condition in Cartesian coordinates is dx/u = dy/v,
and is obtained from considering the streamline-tangent vector t:
ds e dx + e dy e u+e v u
t= = x 2 y 2 = x 2 y2 = .
ds (dx) + (dy) u +v u
In two-dimensional polar coordinates this becomes:
ds e dr + e rdθ e u +e u u
t= = r 2 θ = r r 2 θ 2θ = .
ds (dr) + (rdθ ) 2
ur + uθ u
€
Equating components produces two equations:
dr ur rdθ uθ ds dr rdθ
= and = , or = = .
€ ds u ds u u ur uθ
Thus, using the last equality and the given velocity field:
1 dr ur A r A A
= = = → ln(r) = θ + const.
€ r dθ € uθ B r B B
€
The initial condition allows the constant to be evaluated:
A "r% A $A '
ln(ro ) = θ o + const., which leads to ln$ ' = (θ − θ o ) or r = ro exp& (θ − θ o )) .
€B # ro & B %B (

€ € €
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.9. Determine the streamline, path line, and streak line that pass through the origin of
coordinates at t = t´ when u = Uo + ωξocos(ωt) and v = ωξosin(ωt) in two-dimensional Cartesian
coordinates where Uo is a constant horizontal velocity. Compare your results those in Example.
3.3 for U o → 0 .

Solution 3.9. (i) For the streamline, time is a constant. Use the first equality of (3.7) to find:
dy v ωξ o sin(ωt)
€ = = = m(t) ,
dx u U o + ωξ o cos(ωt)
where m is the streamline slope. Since m does not depend on the spatial coordinate, this equation
is readily integrated to find straight time-dependent streamlines: y = m(t)x + const. Thus, the
streamline that passes through (0,0) at t = t´ is:
€ ωξ o sin(ωt $)
y= x.
U o + ωξ o cos(ωt $)
(ii) For the path line, use both components of (3.8):
dx dy
= U o + ωξ o cos(ωt) and = ωξ o sin(ωt) ,
dt dt
and integrate in time to find: €
x − x o = U o t + ξ o sin(ωt) and y − y o = –ξ o cos(ωt) .
Determine xo and yo by requiring the path line to pass through the origin at at t = t´:
€ 0 − x o = U o t # + ξ o sin(ω €t #) and 0 − y = –ξ cos(ωt %) .
o o
The final component equations are:
€ €
x = U o (t − t #) + ξ o (sin(ωt) − sin(ωt #)) and y = –ξ o (cos(ωt) − cos(ωt %)) .
These two parametric equations for x(t) and y(t) can be combined to eliminate some of the t-
€ €
dependence:
2 2
( x − U o (t − t #) + ξ o sin(ωt #)) + ( y − ξ o cos(ωt #)) = ξ o2 ,
€ €
which describes a moving circle with center located at (U o (t − t #) − ξ o sin(ωt #),ξ o cos(ωt #)) .
(iii) For the streak line, use the path line results but this time evaluate the constants at t = to
instead of at t = t´ to find:
€
x = U o (t − t o ) + ξ o (sin(ωt) − sin(ωt o )) and y = –ξ o (cos(ωt) − cos(ωt o )) .
Now evaluate these equations at t = t´ to produce € two parametric equations for the streak line
coordinates x(to) and y(to):
x = U o ( t " − t o ) + ξ o (sin(ωt ") − sin(ωt o )) and y = –ξ o (cos(ωt $) − cos(ωt o )) .
€
Some of the to dependence can be eliminated by € combining the equations:
2 2
( x − U o (t # − t o ) − ξ o sin(ωt #)) + ( y + ξ o cos(ωt #)) = ξ o2 ,
which
€ describes a circle with € a to-dependent center located at
(U o (t " − t o ) + ξ o sin(ωt "),−ξ o cos(ωt ")) .
These results differ from those in Example 3.3 by the uniform translation velocity Uo so
€
they can be put into correspondence with a Galilean transformation x´ = x – Uo(t – t´).
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.10. Compute and compare the streamline, path line, and streak line that pass through
(1,1,0) at t = 0 for the following Cartesian velocity field u = (x, –yt, 0).

Solution 3.10. (i) For the streamline, time is a constant. Use the first equality of (3.7) to find:
dy v yt dy dx
= =− → = −t → ln y = −t ln x + const. , or y = const.x–t.
dx u x y x
Evaluating at x = y = 1 and t = 0 requires the constant to be unity, so the streamline is: y = 1.
(ii) For the path line, use both components of (3.8):
dx dy
€ = x and = −yt ,
dt dt
and integrate these in time to find:
x = C1e t and y = C2 exp{−t 2 2} ,
where C1 and C2 are constants.€ Evaluating € at x = y = 1 and t = 0 requires C1 = C2 = 1. Eliminate t
from the y-equation using t = ln(x) to find the path line as:
€ y = exp{−(ln x) 2 2} .
€
(iii) For the streak line, use the path line results but this time evaluate the constants at t = to
instead of at t = 0 to find:
x = exp{t − t o } and y = exp{(t o2 − t 2 ) 2} .
€
Evaluate at t = 0, and eliminate to from the resulting equations to find:
y = exp{+(ln x) 2 2} .
€ €

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.11. Consider a time-dependent flow field in two-dimensional Cartesian coordinates

where u = τ t 2 , v = xy τ , and  and τ are constant length and length time scales, respectively.
a) Use dimensional analysis to determine the functional form of the streamline through x´ at time
t´.
b) Find the equation for the streamline through x´ at time t´ and put your answer in
€
€ dimensionless form. €
c) Repeat b) for the path line through x´ at time t´.
d) Repeat b) for the streak line through x´ at time t´.

Solution 3.11. a) The streamline y(x) will depend on x, t, t´, x´= (x´,y´),  , and τ. There are eight
y % x x # y # t t #(
parameters and two dimensions, thus there are six dimensionless groups: = Ψ' , , , , * .
 &   τ τ)
Here there are too many variables and parameters for dimensional analysis to be really useful.
However, this effort provides a reminder to check units throughout € the remainder of the solution.
i) For the streamline, time is a constant. Use the first equality of (3.7) to find:
€2 2
dy v xy τ dy t 2 xdx t x
= = → = → ln y = + const.
dx u τ t 2
y τ  2 2
τ 2 2 2
The initial condition requires, x = x´ and y = y´ at t = t´, and this allows the constant to be
determined, yielding:
# y & (t 2 x 2 − t "2 x "2 )
€ ln% ( = .
$ y"' 2 2τ 2
(ii) For the path line, use both components of (3.8):
dx τ dy xy
= 2 and = ,
dt t dt τ
€ in time and use the initial condition to find:
and integrate the first of these
x = −τ t + const. or x − x # = −τ ( t −1 − t #−1 ) .
Use this result for x(t) in the€ second equation € for y(t):
dy y % % 1 1 ( ( dy % 1 1 1 (
= ' −τ ' − * + x $* or =' − + x "* dt .
€ dt τ & & t € t $) ) y & t " t τ )
The last expression can be integrated to find:
−1
#y& t x" # t & # x" 1 & #t& y #t& +# x "t " &# t &.
ln% ( = −1+ − ln% ( = % + ((t − t ") − ln% ( or = % ( exp-% + 1(% −1(0 .
$ y"' € t" τ $ t " ' $ τ t " '€ $ t "' y" $ t"' ,$ τ '$ t " '/
Now use the final equations for x(t) and y(t) to eliminate t. The equation for x(t) can be
rearranged to find:
t" (x − x ") t "
€ = 1− € ,
t τ
so the equation for y becomes:
y % (x − x ") t " ( +% x "t " (%% (x − x ") t " ( (.
−1

= '1− * exp-' + 1*'''1− * −1**0.

y " & € τ ) -,& τ )&& τ ) )0/
(iii) For the streak line, use the path line results but this time evaluate the integration constants at
t = to instead of at t = t´ to find:
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

−1
y #t& +# x "t &# t &.
x − x # = −τ ( t − t
−1 −1
o ) , and = % ( exp-% o + 1(% −1(0.
y" $ to ' ,$ τ '$ t o '/
Now eliminate to find:
y % (x − x ")t (
−1 +% x " % 1 (x − x ") (−1 (% (x − x ")t (.
€ = '1+ * exp-'' ' + * + 1**' *0.
y" & τ €) -,& τ & t τ ) )& τ )0/
And evaluate at t = t´ to reach:
y % (x − x ") t " (
−1 +% x " % 1 (x − x ") (−1 (% (x − x ") t " (.
= '1+ * exp-'' ' + * + 1**' *0.
€ y" & τ ) -,& τ & t " τ ) )& τ )0/

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.12. The velocity components in an unsteady plane flow are given by u = x (1+ t) and
v = 2y (2 + t) . Determine equations for the streamlines and path lines subject to x = x0 at t = 0.

Solution 3.12. i) For the streamline, time is a constant. Use the first equality of (3.7) to find:
dy v 2y (2 + t) dy 2(1+ t) dx € t)
2(1+
€ = = → = → ln y = ln x + const.
dx u x (1+ t) y (2 + t) x (2 + t)
Use of the initial condition produces:
2(1+ 0)
ln y 0 = ln x 0 + const.,
(2 + 0)
€
so the final answer is:
2(1+t )
" y % 2(1+ t) " x % y " x % (2+t )
ln$ ' = ln$ ' or =$ ' .
€ # y 0 & (2 + t) # x 0 & y0 # x0 &
(ii) For the path line, use both components of (3.8):
dx x dy 2y
= and = ,
dt 1+ t dt 2 + t
and integrate the €these in time to find: €
ln x = ln(1+ t) + const. and ln y = 2ln(2 + t) + const.
Use the initial condition to determine the two constants, and exponentiate both equations:
€ € 2
x = x 0 (1+ t) and y = y 0 (1+ t 2) .
To determine the path line, eliminate t to find:
€
€ 2
y = y 0 (1+ (x − x 0 ) 2x 0 ) .
€ €

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.13. Using the geometry and notation of Fig. 3.8, prove (3.9).

Solution 3.13. Before starting this problem, it is worthwhile to note that the acceleration of a
fluid particle is invariant under the specified Galilean transformation so the components of U
cannot be part of the final answer. Thus, transformation errors can be readily detected if terms
are missing in the final results or extra ones have appeared.
Figure 3.8 supports the following vector addition formula: x = Ut + x "o + x " . Thus, the
Cartesian-coordinate transformations in this case are given by: x " = x − (e x ⋅ U) t − x o" ,
y " = y − (e y ⋅ U) t − y "o , z" = z − (e z ⋅ U) t − z"o , and t " = t . The transformation of the spatial
derivatives between the stationary frame of reference, Oxyz, € and the steadily moving frame,
O´x´y´z´ is straightforward mathematics: €
∂ ∂x # ∂ ∂y # ∂ ∂z#€∂ ∂t # ∂ ∂
€ € = + + + = ,
∂x ∂x ∂x # ∂x ∂y # ∂x ∂z# ∂x ∂t # ∂x #
∂ ∂x # ∂ ∂y # ∂ ∂z# ∂ ∂t # ∂ ∂
= + + + = , and
∂y ∂y ∂x # ∂y ∂y # ∂y ∂z# ∂y ∂t # ∂y #
∂ ∂x # ∂ ∂y # ∂ ∂z# ∂ ∂t # ∂ ∂
€ = + + + = ,
∂z ∂z ∂x # ∂z ∂y # ∂z ∂z# ∂z ∂t # ∂z#
where the final equality on each line follows from differentiating the definitions of the moving
€
coordinate variables given above. The time derivative requires more effort
∂ ∂x # ∂ ∂y # ∂ ∂z# ∂ ∂t # ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
€ = + + + = −e x ⋅ U − ey ⋅ U − ez ⋅ U + .
∂t ∂t ∂x # ∂t ∂y # ∂t ∂z# ∂t ∂t # ∂x # ∂y # ∂z# ∂t #
∂
The first three equations imply: ∇ = ∇ # and the fourth implies: −U ⋅ ∇ $ + . The velocities will
∂t $
be related by: u = U + u´. Now use these results to assemble the fluid particle acceleration
€
starting in the stationary coordinate system, and converting each velocity and differential
operation to the moving€coordinate system.
∂u ' ∂* €
+ (u ⋅ ∇ )u = ) −U ⋅ ∇ & + ,[U + u&] + ([U + u&] ⋅ ∇ &)[U + u&]
∂t ( ∂t & +
∂U ∂u$
= −U ⋅ ∇ $U + − U ⋅ ∇ $u$ + + (U ⋅ ∇ $)U + (u$ ⋅ ∇ $)U + (U ⋅ ∇ $)u$ + (u$ ⋅ ∇ $)u$
∂t $ ∂t $
∂u$ ∂u$
€ = −U ⋅ ∇ $u$ + + (U ⋅ ∇ $)u$ + (u$ ⋅ ∇ $)u$ = + (u$ ⋅ ∇ $)u$
∂t $ ∂t $
Here most of the simplifications occur because all derivatives of U are zero; it is a constant.
Thus,€ as expected, the form of the fluid particle acceleration is frame invariant for coordinate
systems related by Galilean transformations.
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.14. Determine the unsteady, ∂u/∂t, and advective, (u⋅∇)u, fluid acceleration terms for
the following flow fields specified in Cartesian coordinates.
a) u = ( u(y,z,t),0,0)
b) u = Ω × x where Ω = (0,0,Ωz (t))
c) u = A(t)( x,−y,0)
€ d) u = (Uo + uosin(kx – Ωt), 0, 0) where Uo, uo, k and Ω are positive constants
€ €
Solution 3.14. a) Here there is only one component of the fluid velocity; thus
€ ∂u ∂t = (∂ ∂t )( u(y,z,t),0,0) = (∂u ∂t,0,0) , and
[u ⋅ ∇]u = [(u(y,z,t),0,0) ⋅ (∂ ∂x,∂ ∂y,∂ ∂z)]( u(y,z,t),0,0) = [u(∂ ∂x)]( u(y,z,t),0,0) = 0 .
b) Here the fluid velocity has two components: u = Ω × x = (–Ωzy, +Ωzx, 0), so
€ % dΩz dΩz ( dΩz
∂u ∂t = (∂ ∂t )(−Ωz y,Ωz x,0) = ' −y ,x ,0* = (−y, x,0) , and
€ & dt dt ) dt
[u ⋅ ∇]u = [(−Ωz y,Ωz x,0) ⋅ (∂ ∂x,
€ ∂ ∂y,∂ ∂z)](−Ωz y,Ωz x,0)
= [−Ωz y(∂ ∂x) + Ωz x(∂ ∂y)](−Ωz y,Ωz x,0) = (−Ω2z x,−Ω2z y,0) = −Ω2z ( x, y,0) .
€ c) Again the fluid velocity has two components: (Ax, –Ay, 0), so
€ $ dA dA ' dA
∂u ∂t = (∂ ∂t )( Ax,−Ay,0) = & x ,−y ,0) = ( x,−y,0) , and
€ % dt dt ( dt
[u ⋅ ∇]u = [( Ax,−Ay,0) ⋅ (∂ ∂x,∂ ∂y,∂ ∂z)]( Ax,−Ay,0)
= [ Ax(∂ ∂x) − Ay(∂ ∂y)]( Ax,−Ay,0) = ( A 2 x, A 2 y,0) = A 2 ( x, y,0) .
€ d) Here again there is only one component of the fluid velocity; thus
€ ∂u ∂t = (∂ ∂t )(U o + uo sin(kx − Ωt),0,0) = (−Ωuo cos(kx − Ωt),0,0) , and
€[u ⋅ ∇ ]u = [(U o + uo sin(kx − Ωt),0,0) ⋅ (∂ ∂x,∂ ∂y,∂ ∂z)](U o + uo sin(kx − Ωt),0,0) .
= [(U o + uo sin(kx − Ωt))(∂ ∂x)](U o + uo sin(kx − Ωt),0,0)
€ = ((U o + uo sin(kx − Ωt)) kuo cos(kx − Ωt),0,0)
€ (
= kU o uo cos(kx − Ωt) + 12 kuo2 sin[2(kx − Ωt)],0,0 . )
€
€
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.15. Consider the following Cartesian velocity field u = A(t)( f (x),g(y),h(z)) where
A, f, g, and h are non-constant functions of only one independent variable.
a) Determine ∂u/∂t, and (u⋅∇)u in terms of A, f, g, and h, and their derivatives.
b) Determine A, f, g, and h when Du/Dt = 0, u = 0 at x = 0, and u is finite for t > 0.
c) For the conditions in b), determine the equation for€the path line that passes through xo at time
to, and show directly that the acceleration a of the fluid particle that follows this path is zero.

Solution 3.15. a) Here there are three components of the fluid velocity; thus
∂u ∂ # dA dA dA & dA
= ( Af , Ag, Ah ) = % f ,g ,h ( = ( f ,g,h ) , and
∂t ∂t $ dt dt dt ' dt
+ % ∂ ∂ ∂ (.
[u ⋅ ∇]u = -A( f ,g,h) ⋅ ' , , *0( Af , Ag, Ah)
, & ∂x ∂y ∂z )/
€ # ∂ ∂ ∂& ) df dg dh ,
= A 2% f + g + h (( f ,g,h ) = A 2 + f ,g ,h . ,
$ ∂x ∂y ∂z ' * dx dy dz -
€ where the partial derivatives have become total derivatives because f, g, and h are only functions
of one variable.
b) For the given velocity field, Du/Dt = 0 implies:
€ dA df dA dg dA dh
f + A2 f =0 , g + A 2g = 0 , and h + A 2h = 0.
dt dx dt dy dt dz
Start with the first equation, assume A2f is not zero, and divide by it to find:
1 dA df
+ = 0.
€ A 2 dt dx €
The first term in this equation € only depends on t while the second one only depends on x, thus,
each must be equal and opposite, and constant (= C). So,
1 dA dA 1 1 df
2
= −C → − 2 = Cdt € → = C(t − t o ) → A = , and = C → f = C(x − x o ) ,
A dt A A C(t − t o ) dx
where to and xo are constants of integration. Similarly, for the other two component directions:
g = C(y − y o ) and h = C(z − zo ) .
Here, we presume to ≤ 0 so that A is finite for t > 0.
€ €
c) The x-component of the path line is defined by:
dx C(x − x o ) dx dt
= u = Af = € → = €→ ln(x − x o ) = ln(t − t o ) + const. → x − x o = U(t − t o ) ,
dt C(t − t o ) x − x o t − to
where U is a constant. Similarly for the other Cartesian directions: y − y o = V (t − t o ) , and
z − zo = W (t − t o ) , where V and W are constants. So defining the constant vector U = (U, V, W),
the path line of interest is:
€
x – xo = U(t – to).
Thus, x(t) is linear function of t, so dx(t)/dt = U, and a = d€2x(t)/dt2 = 0. This exercise illustrates
€ how the unsteady and advective acceleration terms may be equal and opposite.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.16 If a velocity field is given by u = ay and v = 0, compute the circulation around a
circle of radius ro that is centered on at the origin. Check the result by using Stokes’ theorem.

Solution 3.16. In plane polar coordinates, the vector path-length element, ds, on a circle of radius
ro is ds = tds = eθ ro dθ . From Example 2.1, the radial and angular velocity component are:
ur = ucosθ + vsinθ = arsinθcosθ + 0, and u = –usinθ + vcosθ = –arsin2θ ,
θ

where u = ay = arsinθ and v = 0 has been used. Thus, circulation is:

θ = 2π θ = 2π θ = 2π
€ Γ = ∫ u ⋅ ds = ∫θ = 0 u ⋅ eθ ro dθ = ∫θ = 0 uθ ro dθ = − ∫θ = 0 aro2 sin 2 θdθ = −aπro2 .
Now use Stokes' theorem to reach the same result. Start by computing the vorticity:
ex ey ez
€ ∇ × u = ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z = −ae z .
ay 0 0
Insert this into the Stokes' theorem area integral using n = ez, and dA = rdrdθ:
θ = 2π r= r
Γ = ∫∫ (∇ × u) ⋅ ndA = ∫θ = 0 ∫ r= 0o (−ae z ) ⋅ e z rdrdθ = −aπro2 ,
A
€ of the prior circulation calculation.
and this matches the result

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.17. Consider a plane Couette flow of a viscous fluid confined between two flat plates
a distance b apart. At steady state the velocity distribution is u = Uy/b and v = w = 0, where the
upper plate at y = b is moving parallel to itself at speed U, and the lower plate is held stationary.
Find the rates of linear strain, the rate of shear strain, and vorticity in this flow.

Solution 3.17. Here there is only one velocity component: u = Uy/b. The strain rate tensor is:
1 # ∂ui ∂u j & * ∂u ∂y + ∂v ∂x )- * 0
1
2(
∂ u ∂x U 2b-
Sij = %% + (( → Sij = + 1 .=+ ..
2 $ ∂x j ∂x i ' , 2 (∂v ∂x + ∂u ∂y ) ∂ v ∂y / ,U 2b 0 /
Thus, the linear strain rates are both zero, and the shear strain rate is U/2b.
The vorticity vector has one non-zero component:
∂v ∂u U
€ ωz = − = − .
∂x ∂y b

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.18. The steady two-dimensional flow field inside a sloping passage is given in (x,y)-
(
Cartesian coordinates by u = (u, v) = (3q 4h ) 1− ( y h )
2
) ( 1, ( y h) (dh dx)) where q is the volume
flow rate per unit length into the page, and h is the passage's half thickness. Determine the
streamlines, vorticity, and strain rate tensor in this flow away from x = 0 when h = αx where α is
a positive constant. Sample profiles of u(x,y) vs. y are shown at two x-locations in the figure.
What are the equations of the streamlines along which the x- and y-axes are aligned with the
principal axes of the flow? What is the fluid particle rotation rate along these streamlines?
y!

h(x)!
x!

Solution 3.18. For planar flow in Cartesian coordinates, the streamlines are determined from:
dy v ( y h ) ( dh dx )
= = = ( y α x )α = y x .
dx u 1
Separate the differentials and integrate to find: ln(y) = ln(x) + const. Exponentiate to find: y = Cx,
where C is a constant. Thus, the streamlines are straight lines through the origin of coordinates.
The vorticity ωz is determined from:
∂v ∂u ∂ )# 3q &# y 2 & y dh , ∂ )# 3q &# y 2 &,
ω z = − = +% (%1− 2 ( . − +% (%1− (.
∂x ∂y ∂x *$ 4h '$ h ' h dx - ∂y *$ 4h '$ h 2 '-
3q ∂ ) 1 # y 2 & y , 3q ∂ ) 1 # y 2 &,
= + %1− 2 2 ( α . − + %1− 2 2 (.
4 ∂x *α x $ α x ' α x - 4 ∂y *α x $ α x '-
3q ) 2y 4y 3 , 3q ) 2y , 3qy ) 2y 2 1,
= +− 3 + 3 5 . − +− 3 3 . = +−1+ + .
4 * α x α x - 4 * α x - 2α x 3 * α 2 x2 α 2 -
The strain-rate tensor Sij is computed from the following velocity derivatives:
∂u ∂ )" 3q %" y 2 %, 3q ∂ ) 1 " y 2 %, 3q ) 1 3y 2 , 3q ) 3y 2 ,
S11 = = +$ '$1− 2 '. = + $1− 2 2 '. = +− 2 + 3 4 . = + −1+ .
∂x ∂x *# 4h &# h &- 4 ∂x *α x # α x &- 4 * α x α x - 4α x 2 * α 2 x2 -
∂v ∂ )" 3q %" y 2 % y dh , 3q ∂ ) 1 " y2 % y , 3q " 3y 2 %
S22 = = +$ '$1− 2 ' .= + $1− ' α. = $1− ' , and
∂y ∂y *# 4h &# h & h dx - 4 ∂y *α x # α 2 x 2 & α x - 4α x 2 # α 2 x 2 &
1 " ∂u ∂v % 1 ∂ /( 3q +( y 2 +2 1 ∂ /( 3q +( y 2 + y dh 2 3qy / 1 2y 2 2
S12 = S21 = # + & = 1* -* 1− -4 + 1* -* 1− - 4 = 1− −1+ 4,
2 $ ∂y ∂x ' 2 ∂y 0) 4h ,) h 2 ,3 2 ∂x 0) 4h ,) h 2 , h dx 3 4α x 3 0 α 2 α 2 x2 3
where the differentiation details for S12 are available above in the calculation of ωz.
The principle axes occur then the off-diagonal strain rate components are zero. This
occurs when
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

3qy " 1 2y 2 %
S12 = S21 = $− −1+ '= 0 .
4α x 3 # α 2 α 2 x2 &
This equality is satisfied along the x-axis where y = 0, and when the contents of the [,]-brackets
are zero:
1 2y 2
2
+1 = 2 2
or y = ±x (1+ α 2 ) 2
α α x
These streamlines only occur inside flow wedge when α > 1.
The fluid particle rotation rate is ωz/2, so from the results above for ωz:
!ωz $ !ω $ 3q (1+ α 2 ) 2
# & = 0 , and # z & =± .
" 2 %y=0 " 2 %y=± x (1+α 2 ) 2 2α 3 x 2
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.19. For the flow field u = U + Ω × x , where U and Ω are constant linear- and angular-
velocity vectors, use Cartesian coordinates to a) show that Sij is zero, and b) determine Rij.

Solution 3.19. Since no€simplifications are given, all the components of U = (U1, U2, U3) and Ω
= (Ω1, Ω2, Ω3) should be treated as being non-zero. In Cartesian coordinates, the velocity field is
e1 e 2 e 3
u = U + Ω × x = U1e1 + U 2e 2 + U 3e 3 + Ω1 Ω2 Ω3
x1 x 2 x 3
= (U1 + Ω2 x 3 − Ω3 x 2 )e1 + (U 2 + Ω3 x1 − Ω1 x 3 )e 2 + (U 3 + Ω1 x 2 − Ω2 x1 )e 3
a) Use this velocity field result to compute the velocity gradient tensor, and its transpose
(indicated with a superscript "T" below) to sort out which derivatives are zero and which ones
€
are not.
€ #∂u1 ∂x1 ∂u1 ∂x 2 ∂u1 ∂x 3 ' # 0 −Ω3 +Ω2 '
∂ui % % % %
= $∂u2 ∂x1 ∂u2 ∂x 2 ∂u2 ∂x 3 ( = $+Ω3 0 −Ω1 (
∂x j % % %
&∂u3 ∂x1 ∂u3 ∂x 2 ∂u3 ∂x 3 ) &−Ω2 +Ω1 0 %)
T )∂u1 ∂x1 ∂u2 ∂x1 ∂u3 ∂x1 - ) 0 +Ω3 −Ω2 -
∂u j # ∂ui & + + + +
= %% (( = *∂u1 ∂x 2 ∂u2 ∂x 2 ∂u3 ∂x 2 . = *−Ω3 0 +Ω1 .
∂x i $ ∂ x j ' + + +
€ ,∂u1 ∂x 3 ∂u2 ∂x 3 ∂u3 ∂x 3 / ,+Ω2 −Ω1 0 +/
This result can be used to construct the strain rate tensor Sij:
+ 1
−Ω3 + Ω3 ) 12 (+Ω2 − Ω2 )/
2(
# T& 0
#
1 ∂ui ∂u j & 1 ∂u # ∂u & - -
€ Sij = %% + (( = % i + %% i (( ( = , 12 (+Ω3 − Ω3 ) 0 1
2 (−Ω1 + Ω1 ) 0
2 $ ∂x j ∂x i ' 2 % ∂x j $ ∂x j ' ( - 1 -
$ ' . (−Ω2 + Ω2 ) 1 (+Ω1 − Ω1 ) 0 1
2 2
"0 0 0&
$ $
= #0 0 0' .
$0 0 0$
€ % (
b) Similarly for the rotation tensor:
T + 0 −Ω3 − Ω3 +Ω2 + Ω2 /
∂ui ∂u j ∂ui $ ∂ui ' - -
€ Rij = − = − &
& )
) = , +Ω 3 + Ω 3 0 −Ω − Ω 1 0
∂x j ∂ x i ∂x j % ∂ x j ( - -
. −Ω2 − Ω2 +Ω1 + Ω1 0 1
$ 0 −2Ω3 +2Ω2 (
& &
= %+2Ω3 0 −2Ω1 ) .
&−2Ω +2Ω 0 &*
€ ' 2 1

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.20. Starting with a small rectangular volume element δV = δx1δx2δx3, prove (3.14).

Solution 3.20. The volumetric strain rate for a fluid element is:
1 D 1 D 1 D 1 D 1 D
(δV ) = (δx1δx 2δx 3 ) = (δx1 ) + (δx 2 ) + (δx 3 ) .
δV Dt δx1δx 2δx 3 Dt δx1 Dt δx 2 Dt δx 3 Dt
From Section 3.4 in the text, the linear strain rate corresponding to elongation or contraction of a
fluid element in the first direction is:
1 D ∂u
€ (δx1) = S11 = 1 ,
δx1 Dt ∂x1
and this can be immediately extended to the other two directions,
1 D ∂u 1 D ∂u
(δx 2 ) = S22 = 2 and (δx 3 ) = S33 = 3 ,
δx 2 Dt ∂x 2 δx 3 Dt ∂x 3
€
because its geometric derivation (see Figure 3.10) did not rely on any special properties of the
first direction. Substitution of these relationships into the final version of the volumetric strain
rate given above produces:
€ 1 D € ∂ u ∂u ∂u ∂u
(δV ) = S11 + S22 + S33 = 1 + 2 + 3 = i = Sii .
δV Dt ∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂x 3 ∂x i

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.21. Let Oxyz be a stationary frame of reference, and let the z-axis be parallel with the
fluid vorticity vector in the vicinity of O so that ω = ∇ × u = ω ze z in this frame of reference. Now
consider a second rotating frame of reference Ox "y "z" having the same origin that rotates about
the z-axis at angular rate Ωez. Starting from the kinematic relationship, u = (Ωe z ) × x + u$ , show
that in the vicinity of O the vorticity € ω " = ∇ " × u" in the rotating frame of reference can only be
zero when 2Ω = ωz, where ∇ " is the € gradient operator in the primed coordinates. The following
unit vector transformation rules may be of use: e"x = e x cos(Ωt) + e y sin(Ωt) ,
€
e"y = −e x sin(Ωt) + e y cos(Ωt)€
, and e"z = e z .
€
Solution 3.21. The approach here is to compute ω " = ∇ " × u" in the stationary frame of reference
€
and then determine the parameter choice(s) necessary for ω´ to be zero. The vector x must have a
€ €
consistent representation in either frame, so
x = xe x + ye y = x "e"x + y "e"y = x "(e x€cos(Ωt) + e y sin(Ωt)) + y "(−e x sin(Ωt) + e y cos(Ωt)) .
Equating components in the stationary frame of reference produces:
x = x " cos(Ωt) − y " sin(Ωt) , and y = x " sin(Ωt) + y " cos(Ωt) .
The remaining independent variables are the same in either frame: t = t ", and z = z". Thus, spatial
€ derivatives are related by:
∂ ∂x ∂ ∂ y ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂ t ∂ ∂ ∂
€ = + + € + = cos(Ωt) + sin(Ωt) ,
∂x # ∂x # ∂x ∂x # ∂y ∂x # ∂z ∂x # ∂t € ∂x € ∂y
∂ ∂x ∂ ∂ y ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂ t ∂ ∂ ∂
= + + + = −sin(Ωt) + cos(Ωt) , and
∂y # ∂y # ∂x ∂y # ∂y ∂y # ∂z ∂y # ∂t ∂x ∂y
∂ ∂x ∂ ∂ y ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂ t ∂ ∂
€ = + + + = .
∂z# ∂z# ∂x ∂z# ∂y ∂z# ∂z ∂z# ∂t ∂z
Using the above information, the gradient operator in the rotating coordinates can be rewritten in
€
terms of the stationary frame coordinates and unit vectors:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇" = €e"x + e"y + e"z
∂x " ∂y " ∂z"
$ ∂ ∂'
= (e x cos(Ωt) + e y sin(Ωt))&cos(Ωt) + sin(Ωt) )
% ∂x ∂y (
€ % ∂ ∂( ∂
+(−e x sin(Ωt) + e y cos(Ωt))'−sin(Ωt) + cos(Ωt) * + e z
& ∂x ∂y ) ∂z
€ & ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂)
∇ " = (e x cos 2 (Ωt) + e x sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) + e y sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) + e y sin 2 (Ωt) +
' ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y *
€ % ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂( ∂
+' e x sin 2 (Ωt) − e x sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) − e y sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) + e y cos 2 (Ωt) * + e z
& ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ) ∂z
€ & ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ )
∇ " = (e x cos 2 (Ωt) + e x sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) + e y sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) + e y sin 2 (Ωt) +
' ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y *
€ % ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂( ∂
+' e x sin 2 (Ωt) − e x sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) − e y sin(Ωt)cos(Ωt) + e y cos 2 (Ωt) * + e z
& ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ) ∂z
€ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇" = e x + e y + e z .
∂x ∂y ∂z
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

This result seems too simple, but should not be a surprising to a routine user of vector calculus.
Now resolve rotating-frame velocity components in the stationary frame of reference:
u" = u − (Ωe z ) × x = ue x + ve y + we z + Ωye x − Ωxe y .
Using the stationary frame components and unit vectors, the vorticity in the rotating frame is:
ex ey ez ex ey ez ex ey ez
ω " = ∇ " × u" = ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z = ∂ ∂ x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z + ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂ y ∂ ∂z
€
u + Ωy v − Ωx w u v w Ωy −Ωx 0
ex ey ez
= ∇ × u + ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z = ω ze z + e x (0) + e y (0) + e z (−Ω − Ω) = e z (ω z − 2Ω)
€ Ωy −Ωx 0
Thus, ω´ will be zero when ωz = 2Ω.

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.22. Consider a plane-polar area element having dimensions dr and rdθ. For two-
dimensional flow in this plane, evaluate the right-hand side of Stokes’ theorem
∫ ω ⋅ ndA = ∫ u ⋅ ds and thereby show that the expression for vorticity in plane-polar coordinates
1∂ 1 ∂u
is: ω z = (ruθ ) − r .
r ∂r r ∂θ
€
Solution 3.22. Using the element shown with angular width dθ,
€ ur + (!ur/!!)d!
u! + (!u!/!")dr
dr
u! ur

application of Stokes' theorem provides:

( ∂uθ + ( ∂u +
∫ ω ⋅ ndA = ∫ u ⋅ ds → ω z rdθdr = ur dr + *) uθ + dr-( r + dr) dθ − * ur + r dθ -dr − uθ rdθ , or
∂r , ) ∂θ ,
∂u ∂u
ω z rdθdr = ur dr + ruθ dθ + r θ drdθ + uθ drdθ − ur dr − r dθdr − uθ rdθ + ...
∂r ∂θ
∂uθ ∂ur
€ =r drdθ + uθ drdθ − dθdr + ...
∂r ∂θ
where + ... indicates the presence of higher order terms in dr and dθ. Division by rdθdr and
€
passing to the limit where dr and dθ go to zero produces:
€ ∂u 1 1 ∂ur 1 & ∂ ∂u )
ω z = θ + uθ − = ( ( ruθ ) − r + .
∂r r r ∂θ r ' ∂θ ∂θ *

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.23. The velocity field of a certain flow is given by u = 2xy 2 + 2xz 2 , v = x 2 y , and
w = x 2 z . Consider the fluid region inside a spherical volume x2 + y2 + z2 = a2. Verify the validity
of Gauss’ theorem ∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ udV = ∫∫ u ⋅ ndA by integrating over the sphere.
V A
€ €
€ Solution 3.23. First compute the divergence of the velocity field.
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ⋅€u = + + = (2xy 2 + 2xz 2 ) + ( x 2 y ) + ( x 2 z) = 2y 2 + 2z 2 + 2x 2 = 2r 2 .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂ x ∂y ∂z
The volume integral of ∇ ⋅ u is:
r= a
8
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ udV = ∫ (2r 2 ) 4πr 2 dr = 5 πa 5 .
V r= 0
€
Now work on the surface integration using spherical coordinates (see Figure 3.3d, and Appendix
B). Here, n = €
e r = e x cosϕ sin θ + e y sin ϕ sin θ + e x cos θ , so
u ⋅ n = ucosϕ sin θ + v sin ϕ sin θ + w cos θ
€
= (2xy 2 + 2xz 2 ) cosϕ sin θ + ( x 2 y ) sin ϕ sin θ + ( x 2 z) cos θ
Unfortunately, this result is in mixed variables so convert everything to spherical polar
€
coordinates
€ using
x = r cosϕ sin θ , y = r sin ϕ sin θ , z = r cosθ .
€
This conversion produces:
u ⋅ n = 2r 3 (cos ϕ sin 2 ϕ sin 3 θ + cos ϕ sin θ cos 2 θ ) cos ϕ sin θ
+r 3 (cos 2 ϕ€
sin ϕ sin 3 θ ) sin ϕ sin
€ θ + r (cos ϕ sin
3 2
€ 2 θ cos θ ) cos θ
= 2r 3 (sin 2 ϕ sin 2 θ + cos2 θ ) cos2 ϕ sin 2 θ + r 3 (sin 2 ϕ sin 2 θ ) cos2 ϕ sin 2 θ + r 3 (cos 2 θ ) cos 2 ϕ sin 2 θ
€
€
= r 3 ( 3sin 2 ϕ sin 2 θ + 3cos 2 θ ) cos 2 ϕ sin 2 θ = r 3 ( sin (2ϕ)(1− cos θ) + 3cos ϕ cos θ(1− cos θ))
3
4
2 2 2 2 2 2

So, the surface integral produces:

€ ϕ = 2π θ = π

€
∫∫ u ⋅ ndA = ∫ ∫
A ϕ= 0 θ = 0
a3 ( sin (2ϕ)(1− cos θ) + 3cos ϕ cos θ(1− cos θ))a sinθdθdϕ
3
4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

ϕ = 2π θ=π ϕ = 2π θ=π
2
=a 5
∫ 3
4
2
sin (2ϕ )dϕ ∫ (1− cos2 θ ) sinθdθ + a5 ∫ 3cos2 ϕdϕ ∫ cos2 θ (1− cos2 θ ) sin θdθ
ϕ= 0 θ=0 ϕ= 0 θ=0
+1 +1
€ #3 & 2
= a % π ( ∫ (1− β 2 ) dβ + a 5 ( 3π ) ∫ β 2 (1− β 2 )dβ
5

$ 4 ' −1 −1

€ # 3 & 16 4 # 12 12 & 8
= a % π ( + a ( 3π ) = % + (πa 5 = πa 5 ,
5 5

$ 4 ' 15 15 $ 15 15 ' 5
€which is the same as the result of the volume integration.

€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.24. A flow field on the xy-plane has the velocity components u = 3x + y and v = 2x –
3y. Show that the circulation around the circle (x − 1)2 + (y − 6)2 = 4 is 4π.

Solution 3.24. The circle is centered at (1,6) and its radius is 2. So, if (x,y) is a point on the circle
then x = 1 + 2cosθ, and y = 6 + 2sinθ, where θ is the angle from the horizontal. The velocity
component tangent to the circle will be
uθ = eθ ⋅ u = (−sin θ,cos θ ) ⋅ (u,v) = −usin θ + v cos θ .
Evaluate this velocity component.
uθ = −(3x + y)sin θ + (2x − 3y)cos θ = (−3sin θ + 2cosθ )x − (sin θ + 3cosθ )y
= (−3sin θ + 2cos θ )(1+ 2cosθ ) − (sin θ + 3cos θ )(6 + 2sin θ )
€
= −3sin θ − 6sin θ cosθ + 2cos θ + 4 cos2 θ − 6sin θ − 2sin 2 θ −18cosθ − 6cos θ sin θ
€ = −9sin θ −12sin θ cosθ −16cos θ + 4 cos2 θ − 2sin 2 θ
Now compute the circulation:
2π 2π
Γ= ∫ uθ rdθ = ∫ (−9sin θ −12sinθ cosθ −16cosθ + 4 cos2 θ − 2sin 2 θ )2dθ
θ=0 θ=0
€
= (0 + 0 + 0 + 4 π − 2π )2 = 4 π

€
€
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.25. Consider solid-body rotation about the origin in two dimensions: ur = 0 and uθ =
ω0r. Use a polar-coordinate element of dimension rdθ and dr, and verify that the circulation is
vorticity times area. (In Section 5 this was verified for a circular element surrounding the origin.)

Solution 3.25. Using the element shown with angular width dθ,

ur + (!ur/!!)d!
u! + (!u!/!")dr
dr
u! ur

the circulation is around the element is the sum or four terms:

' ∂u * ' ∂u *
Γ = ∫ u ⋅ ds = ur dr + ) uθ + θ dr,( r + dr) dθ − ) ur + r dθ , dr − uθ rdθ .
( ∂r + ( ∂θ +
Now substitute in the velocity field: ur = 0 and uθ = ω0r.
Γ = (ω 0 r + ω 0 dr)( r + dr) dθ − ω 0 r 2 dθ = 2ω 0 rdrdθ + ω 0 (dr) 2 dθ = (2ω 0 )rdrdθ ,
2
where
€ the final equality holds in the limit as the differential elements become small and (dr) dθ
is negligible compared to rdrdθ. Thus, since the voriticity is 2ω0 and rdrdθ is the area of the
element, the final relationship states: circulation = (vorticity) x (area).
€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

$ '
& −Ay + Ax
Exercise 3.26. Consider the steady Cartesian velocity field u = , ,0) .
& ( x 2 + y 2 )β ( x 2 + y 2 )β )
% (
a) Determine the streamline that passes through x = (x o , y o ,0)
b) Compute Rij for this velocity field.
c) For A > 0, explain the sense of rotation (i.e. clockwise or counter clockwise) for fluid elements
for β < 1, β = 1, and β > 1. €
€
β
dy v Ax ( x 2 + y 2 ) x
Solution 3.26. a) Use the definition of a streamline: = = β = − . Use the
dx u −Ay ( x 2 + y 2 ) y
two ends of this extended equality to find: ydy = −xdx , and integrate the resulting differential
relationship to get: y 2 2 = −x 2 2 + const . Evaluate the constant using the required condition:
x 2 + y 2 = x o2 + y o2 . This is a circle with radius€ x o2 + y o2 . Therefore the streamlines are circles.
€ " 0 ∂u ∂ y − ∂v ∂ x 0 &
∂u ∂u $ $
b) The rotation tensor is: Rij = i − j = # ∂ v ∂ x − ∂ u ∂ y 0 0 ' , where the
€ ∂ x€j ∂ xi $ $
$% 0 0 0 $(
second equality comes from putting the specified velocity field into the definition of Rij with
u = (u, v, w) = (u1, u2 , u3 ) = ui as usual. Evaluating the derivatives produces:
" &
$ 0 −x 2 − y 2 + 2 β y 2 − ( x 2 + y 2 − 2 β x 2 ) 0 $
A $ 2 2 $
Rij = β +1 # x + y − 2 β x 2 − (−x 2 − y 2 + 2 β y 2 ) 0 0 '
( x 2 + y2 ) $$ 0 0
$
0 $
% (
" 0 −1 0 &
2A(1− β ) $ $
= β # 1 0 0 '
( x 2 + y2 ) $% 0 0 0 $(
c) The following answers are based on A > 0. For β < 1, fluid particles rotate counter clockwise
(positive ωz). For β = 1, fluid particles do not rotate. For β > 1, fluid particles rotate clockwise
(negative ωz). Interestingly, the streamlines are the same (circular!) for all three possibilities.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.27. Using indicial notation (and no vector identities) show that the acceleration a of a
fluid particle is given by: a = ∂u ∂t + ∇ ( u ) + ω × u where ω is the vorticity.
1
2
2

Solution 3.27. The acceleration of a fluid particle is a = Du Dt ≡ ∂u ∂t + ( u ⋅ ∇) u . Thus, the task

is to prove (u ⋅€∇ )u = ∇ ( u ) + ω × u. Start from the advective acceleration written in index
1
2
2

notation and force the rotation tensor to appear:

∂u $ ∂u ∂u ' ∂u 1 ∂ 2
u j i = u j && i − j )) − u j j = u j Rij +
∂x j
(u j ) .
€ % ∂x j ∂x i ( ∂x i 2 ∂x i
From (3.15), Rij = −εijkω k , so this becomes
∂u 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 (1 2+
u j i = −εijk u jω k + ( u j ) = εikjω k u j + ( u j ) = ω × u + ∇* u - ,
€ ∂x j 2 ∂x i 2 ∂x i )2 ,
where
€ the final equality follows from the index notation definitions of the cross product (2.21),
2
gradient (2.22), and vector magnitude ( u 2j = u ).
€

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.28. Starting from (3.29), show that the maximum uθ in a Gaussian vortex occurs
when 1+ 2(r 2 σ 2 ) = exp(r 2 σ 2 ) . Verify that this implies r ≈ 1.12091σ.

Solution 3.28. Differentiate the uθ equation from (3.29) with respect to r and set this derivative
equal to zero.
€
Γ d '1− exp(−r σ ) * Γ ' 1− exp(−r σ ) exp(−r σ ) ' 2r **
2 2 2 2 2 2
d
(uθ (r)) = ) ,= ) )− 2 ,,, = 0 .
dr 2π dr )( r , 2π )− r2
−
r ( σ ++
+ (
Eliminate common factors assuming r ≠ 0.
0 = −1+ exp(−r 2 σ 2 ) + (2r 2 σ 2 ) exp(−r 2 σ 2 ) = −1+ (1+ 2r 2 σ 2 ) exp(−r 2 σ 2 ) .
€ This can be rearranged to:
exp( r 2 σ 2 ) = 1+ 2r 2 σ 2 ,
which
€ is the desired result. When r/σ ≈ 1.12091, then
exp( r 2 σ 2 ) = 3.51289 and 1+ 2r 2 σ 2 = 3.51288 ,
which is suitable numerical€agreement.

€ €
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.29. Using (3.35) in two dimensions with F = 1, show that the time-rate-of-change of
the area of the parallelogram shown is hl(dθ/dt)cosθ when θ depends on time while h and l are
constants.
y!
l!

θ(t)! h!

x!

Solution 3.29. With F = 1, the volume integral of ∂F/∂t on the right side of (3.35) is zero, and
the integrands are simplified, so (3.35) simplifies to:
d
∫ dV = + ∫ A*(t ) b ⋅ n dA .
dt V*(t )
(Here the volume integration is two dimensional, and produces the parallelogram's area, hlsinθ,
which can be time differentiated, d(hlsinθ)/dt, to reach the desired result. However, this is not the
intended solution path for this problem.)
When θ is time-dependent, the parallelogram has three moving sides (a left side of length
h, a right side of length h, and a top side of length l). Thus, the simplified version of (3.35)
reduces to:
d
{ }
∫ dV = ∫ left si de + ∫ right si de + ∫ top si de b ⋅ ndA .
dt V*(t )
Here we note that the left and right sides move identically, so b will be the same. However, n
points in opposite directions on these two sides, so the contributions from these two sides cancel.
The x-coordinates of points on the parallelogram's top side are hcosθ ≤ x(t) ≤ l + hcosθ. The y-
coordinate of the parallelogram's top side is y(t) = hsinθ. Time differentiate the location of any
point on the parallelogram's top side to find b:
b = (dx/dt, dy/dt) = (–hsinθ, hcosθ)(dθ/dt).
And, on the parallelogram's top side, n is ey, so
b ⋅ n = ( h cosθ ) ( dθ dt ) ,
and in two dimensions dA is just dx. Thus, the simplified version of (3.35) is:
l+h cosθ
d dθ dθ
dt
∫ V*(t )
dV = ∫ top si de
b ⋅ ndA = ∫ h cosθ
dt
dx = hl cosθ
dt
,
h cosθ
and this is the desired result.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.30. Using (3.35) in two dimensions with F = 1, show that the time-rate-of-change of
the area of the triangle shown is 12 b ( dh dt ) when h depends on time and b is constant.
y!
b!

h(t)!

x!

Solution 3.30. With F = 1, the volume integral of ∂F/∂t on the right side of (3.35) is zero, and
the integrands are simplified, so (3.35) simplifies to:
d
∫ dV = + ∫ A*(t ) b ⋅ n dA .
dt V*(t )
(Here the volume integration is two dimensional, and produces the triangle's area, hb/2, which
can be time differentiated, (d/dt)(hb/2) to reach the desired result. However, this is not the
intended solution path for this problem.)
When h is time-dependent, the triangle has two moving sides (a top side of length b, and
a hypotenuse of length [h2 + b2]1/2). Thus, the simplified version of (3.35) reduces to:
d
{ }
∫ dV = ∫ top si de + ∫ hypotenuse b ⋅ ndA .
dt V*(t )
The x-coordinates of the triangle's top side are 0 ≤ x ≤ b. The y-coordinate of the triangle's top
side is y(t) = h(t). Time differentiate the location of any point on the triangles's top side to find b:
b = (dx/dt, dy/dt) = (0, dh/dt).
And, on the triangle's top side, n is ey, so
b ⋅ n = dh dt ,
The x-y coordinates of the triangle's hypotenuse fall on the line y = (h/b)x for 0 ≤ x ≤ b.
The motion of points on the hypotenuse can be described by a purely vertical velocity. So, for
any constant x-location, differentiate the equation of this line to find b:
b = (dx/dt, dy/dt) = (0, (x/b)dh/dt).
Tangent and normal vectors to an x-y curve are (1, dy/dx) and (dy/dx, –1), respectively. Thus, the
outward unit normal on the hypotenuse of the triangle is:

n=
(h b, −1) = (h, −b) , so b ⋅ n = − x ( dh dt ) .
(h / b)2 +1 h2 + b2 h2 + b2
Thus, the simplified version of (3.35) can be written:
b b
d dh x ( dh dt ) $
∫ dV = ∫ b ⋅ ndA + ∫ b ⋅ ndA = ∫ dx − ∫ % 1+ (h / b)2 dx &' ,
dt V*(t )
top si de hypotenuse 0 dt 0
2
h +b 2

where, in two dimensions, dA is just dx on the top side and dA is a path length element along the
hypotenuse, ds = [1 + (dy/dx)2]1/2dx. The factor in [,]-brackets is this path length element in terms
of dx. Perform the integrations to find:
b
d dh 1 dh # x 2 & b dh
∫ dV = b dt − b dt %$ 2 (' = 2 dt ,
dt V*(t ) 0
and this is the desired result.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.31. Using (3.35) in two dimensions with F = 1, show that the time-rate-of-change of
the area of the ellipse shown is π b ( da dt ) when a depends on time and b is constant.
y!

b!
x!
a(t)!

Solution 3.31. With F = 1, the volume integral of ∂F/∂t on the right side of (3.35) is zero, and
the integrands are simplified, so (3.35) simplifies to:
d
∫ dV = + ∫ A*(t ) b ⋅ n dA .
dt V*(t )
(Here the volume integration is two dimensional, and produces the ellipse's area, πab, which can
be time differentiated, (d/dt)( πab) to reach the desired result. However, this is not the intended
solution path for this problem.)
When a is time-dependent, the contour that defines the ellipse, (y/b)2 + (x/a)2 = 1, is also
time dependent. However, the symmetry of the ellipse allows the analysis to completed in the
first quadrant alone and then multiplied by 4. Thus, the simplified version of (3.35) reduces to:
d
∫ dV = 4 ∫ b ⋅ ndA .
dt V*(t ) first qua drant

The equation for the ellipse in the first quadrant is:

2 2
x = +a 1− ( y b) or y = +b 1− ( x a ) .
The motion of points on this curve can be described by a purely horizontal velocity when a
varies but b is constant. So, for any constant y-location, differentiate the first equation to find b:
! dx $ ! da 2 $ ! x da $
b = # , 0& = # 1− ( y b) , 0 & = # , 0& ,
" dt % " dt % " a dt %
where the final equality comes from changing the independent variable from y to x.
Tangent and normal vectors to an x-y curve are (1, dy/dx) and (–dy/dx, 1), respectively.
Thus, the outward unit normal on the ellipse in the first quadrant is:

n=
(−dy / dx,1) , so b ⋅ n = x(−dy / dx) da .
(dy / dx)2 +1 a (dy / dx)2 +1 dt
Thus, the simplified version of (3.35) can be written:
a
d x(−dy / dx) da $
∫ dV = 4 ∫ b ⋅ ndA = 4 ∫ % 1+ (dy / dx)2 dx &' ,
dt V*(t )
first qua drant 0 a (dy / dx) +1 dt
2

where, in two dimensions, dA is a path length element, ds = [1 + (dy/dx)2]1/2dx, along the first-
quadrant portion of the ellipse. This path length element is the factor in [,]-brackets above.
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Simplify the integrand, insert –dy/dx = (bx/a2)/[1 – (x/a)2]1/2, and perform the integration using
the substitution x = asinθ to find:
a
d x(−dy / dx) da 4 da a xb(x / a 2 )
∫
dt V*(t )
dV = 4 ∫
a dt
dx = ∫
a dt 0 1− (x / a)2
dx
0
π 2 π 2
da sin 2 θ da 2 da π da
= 4b
dt
∫ 2
cosθ dθ = 4b
dt
∫ sin θ dθ = 4b
dt 4
= πb ,
dt
0 1− sin θ 0
and this is the desired result.
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.32. For the following time-dependent volumes V*(t) and smooth single-valued
integrand functions F, choose an appropriate coordinate system and show that ( d dt ) ∫ V *(t ) FdV
obtained from (3.30) is equal to that obtained from (3.35).
a) V*(t) = L1(t)L2L3 is a rectangular solid defined by 0 ≤ xi ≤ Li, where L1 depends on time while
L2 and L3 are constants, and the integrand function F(x1,t) depends only on the first coordinate
and time. €
2
b) V*(t) = (π/4)d (t)L is a cylinder defined by 0 ≤ R ≤ d(t)/2 and 0 ≤ z ≤ L, where the cylinder’s
diameter d depends on time while its length L is constant, and the integrand function F(R,t)
depends only on the distance from the cylinder’s axis and time.
c) V*(t) = (π/6)D3(t) is a sphere defined by 0 ≤ r ≤ D(t)/2 where the sphere’s diameter D depends
on time, and the integrand function F(r,t) depends only on the radial distance from the center of
the sphere and time.

d x =b(t ) b
∂F db da
Solution 3.32. The two equations are (3.30) ∫ F(x,t)dx =
dt x =a(t )
∫ ∂t
dx +
dt
F (b,t ) −
dt
F ( a,t ) ,
a
d ∂F(x,t)
and (3.35) ∫
dt V *(t )
F(x,t)dV = ∫
∂t
dV + ∫ F(x,t)b ⋅ ndA .
V *(t ) A *(t )
a) Use Cartesian coordinates with the€origin at xi = 0. The cross sectional area of the rectangular
solid, L2L3, is constant, so dV = L2L3dx1. The volume integral proceeds from x1 = 0 (= a) to x1 =
L1(t) (= b) so (3.30) implies:
€ d d x =L1 (t ) L1
∂F dL
∫ F (x,t)dV = ∫ F(x 1,t)L L
2 3 dx 1 = ∫ L2 L3 dx1 + 1 F ( L1,t ) L2 L3 . (a1)
dt V *(t ) dt x1 =0 0 ∂t dt
Now start from (3.35) using a control volume that encloses the rectangular solid. In this case the
only control surface that moves lies at x1 = L1, has outward normal n = e1, and moves with
velocity b = (dL1/dt)ex. First evaluate the left side term from (3.35).
€
d d L1 (t ) L2 L3 d L1 (t )
∫ F(x,t)dV
dt V *(t )
= ∫ ∫ ∫ 1 1 2 3 2 3 dt ∫ F( x1,t)dx1 .
F(
dt x1 = 0 x 2 = 0 x 3 = 0
x ,t) dx dx dx = L L
x1 = 0

Now evaluate the right side terms from (3.35).

L1 (t ) L 2 L 3 L2 L3
d ∂F( x1,t) $ dL '
∫ F(x,t)dV = ∫ ∫ ∫ dx 1dx 2 dx 3 + ∫ ∫ F(L1,t)& 1 e1 ) ⋅ e1dx 2 dx 3
€ dt V *(t ) x1 = 0 x 2 = 0 x 3 = 0 ∂t x2 = 0 x3 = 0 % dt (
L1 (t )
∂F( x1,t) dL
= L2 L3 ∫ dx1 + L2 L3 1 F(L1,t)
x1 = 0 ∂t dt
Setting the left and right side terms equal produces
d L1 (t ) L1 (t )
∂F( x1,t) dL
L2 L3 ∫ F( x1 ,t)dx 1 = L 2 3 ∫
L dx1 + L2 L3 1 F(L1,t) , (a2)
€ dt x1 = 0 x1 = 0 ∂ t dt
which is identical to (a1).
b) Use cylindrical coordinates with the origin at R = z = 0. The length area of the cylinder, L, is
constant, so dV = L(2πRdR). The volume integral proceeds from R = 0 (= a) to R = d(t)/2 (= b) so
€
(3.30) implies:
d d d (t )/ 2 d /2
∂F d ( d 2) d
∫ F (x,t)dV = 2πL
dt V *(t )
∫
dt R =0
F(R,t)RdR = 2πL ∫ RdR + 2πL
dt
F ( d /2,t ) .
2
(b1)
0 ∂t

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Now start from (3.35) using a control volume that encloses the cylinder. In this case the only
control surface that moves lies at R = d/2, has outward normal n = eR, and moves with velocity b
= (d(d/2)/dt)eR. First evaluate the left side term from (3.35).
d d L d / 2 2π d d /2
∫
dt V *(t )
F(x,t)dV = ∫ ∫ ∫
dt z= 0R = 0 ϕ = 0
F(R,t)RdϕdRdz = 2πL
dt 0
∫ F(R,t)RdR .
Now evaluate the right side terms from (3.35).
L d / 2 2π L 2π
d ∂F(R,t) & d(d /2) ) d
∫ F(x,t)dV
dt V *(t )
= ∫ ∫ ∫ ∂t
Rd ϕ dRdz + ∫ ∫ F(d/2,t)(
' dt
e R + ⋅ e R dϕdz
* 2
z= 0R = 0 ϕ = 0 z= 0ϕ = 0
€
d /2
∂F(R,t) d(d /2) d
= 2πL ∫ RdR + 2πL F(d/2,t)
R= 0 ∂t dt 2
Setting the left and right side terms equal produces
d d /2 d /2
∂F(R,t) d(d /2) d
2πL
dt 0
∫ F(R,t)RdR = 2πL ∫
∂t
RdR + 2πL
dt
F(d/2,t) ,
2
(b2)
R= 0
€
which is identical to (b1).
c) Use spherical coordinates with the origin at r = 0. The sphere expands symmetrically so the
volume element is dV = 4πr2dr. The volume integral proceeds from r = 0 (= a) to r = D(t)/2 (= b)
€ implies:
so (3.30)
d d D(t )/ 2 2
D /2
∂F 2 d ( D 2) % D (2
∫ F (x,t)dV = 4π dt ∫ F (r,t)r dr = 4π ∫ ∂t r dr + 4 π dt F (D /2,t )'& 2 *) . (c1)
dt V *(t ) r =0 0
Now start from (3.35) using a control volume that encloses the sphere. In this case the moving
control surface lies at r = D/2, has outward normal n = er, and moves with velocity b =
(d(D/2)/dt)er. First evaluate the left side term from (3.35).
€
d d D / 2 π 2π d D /2
∫ F(x,t)dV = ∫ ∫ ∫ F(R,t)r 2 dr sin θdθdϕ = 4 π ∫ F(r,t)r 2 dr .
dt V *(t ) dt r= 0 θ = 0 ϕ = 0 dt 0
Now evaluate the right side terms from (3.35).
d D / 2 π 2π
∂F(r,t) 2 π 2π
' d(D /2) * ' D * 2
∫ F(x,t)dV
dt€V *(t )
= ∫ ∫ ∫ ∂t r dr sin θ d θ d ϕ + ∫ ∫ F(d/2,t) )
( dt
e R , ⋅ e R ) , sin θdθdϕ
+ (2+
r= 0 θ = 0 ϕ = 0 θ = 0ϕ = 0

D /2
∂F(r,t) 2 d(D /2) ' D *2
= 4π ∫ r dr + 4 π F(D/2,t)) ,
r= 0 ∂t dt (2+
Setting the left and right side terms equal produces
d D /2 2
D /2
∂F(r,t) 2 d(D /2) % D (2
4π ∫ F(r,t)r dr = 4π ∫ ∂t r dr + 4π dt F(D/2,t)'& 2 *) ,
dt 0
(c2)
€ r= 0
which is identical to (c1).

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.33. Starting from (3.35), set F = 1 and derive (3.14) when b = u and V*(t) = δV → 0 .

Solution 3.33. With F = 1, b = u, and V*(t) = δV with surface δA, (3.35) becomes:
d €
dt δV
∫ dV = 0 + ∫ u ⋅ ndA .
δA
The first integral is merely δV. Use Gauss' divergence theorem on the second term to convert it
to volume integral.
d
€ (δV ) = ∫ ∇ ⋅ udV .
dt δV
As δV → 0 the integral reduces to a product of δV and the integrand evaluated at the center point
of δV. Divide both sides of the last equation by δV and take the limit as δV → 0 :
1 d 1 1
€
lim
δV →0 δV dt
(δV ) =€ lim
δV →0 δV
∫ ∇ ⋅ udV = lim
δV →0 δV
[(∇ ⋅ u)δV + ...] = ∇ ⋅ u = Sii ,
δV
and this is (3.14). €

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

Exercise 3.34. For a smooth single valued function F(x) that only depends on space and an
arbitrarily-shaped control volume that moves with velocity b(t) that only depends on time, show
( )
that ( d dt ) ∫ V *(t ) F(x)dV = b ⋅ ∫ V *(t ) ∇F(x)dV .

Solution 3.34. Start from Reynolds transport theorem (3.35):

d ∂F(x,t)
€ ∫ F(x,t)dV = ∫
dt V *(t ) ∂t
dV + ∫ F(x,t)b ⋅ ndA .
V *(t ) A *(t )
When F does not depend on time, the first term on the right drops out.
d
∫ F(x,t)dV = ∫ F(x,t)b ⋅ ndA .
dt V *(t ) A *(t )
€
When b does not depend on location, it can be taken outside the surface integral.
d $ '
∫ F(x,t)dV = b ⋅ & ∫ F(x,t)ndA) .
dt V *(t )
€ % A *(t ) (
Apply Gauss' theorem to the integral in large parentheses, to reach the desired form:
d % (
dt
∫ F(x,t)dV = b ⋅ ' ∫ ∇F(x,t)dA *.
€ V *(t ) & V *(t ) )

€
 Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. Kundu, Cohen, and Dowling

3.35. Show that (3.35) reduces to (3.5) when V*(t) = δV → 0 and the control surface velocity b is
equal to the fluid velocity u(x,t).

Solution 3.35. When V*(t) = δV with surface€δA, δV is small, and b = u, δV represents a fluid
particle. Under these conditions (3.35) becomes:
d ∂F(x,t)
∫
dt δV
F(x,t)dV = ∫
∂t
dV + ∫ F(x,t)u ⋅ ndA ,
δV δA
and the time derivative is evaluated following δV. Use Gauss' divergence theorem on the final
term to convert it to a volume integral,
€ ∫ F(x,t)u ⋅ ndA = ∫ ∇ ⋅ ( F(x,t)u)dV ,
δA δV
so that (3.35) becomes:
d '∂F(x,t) * '∂F(x,t) *
∫
dt δV
F(x,t)dV = ∫ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( F(x,t)u),dV = ∫ ) + F(x,t)∇ ⋅ u + (u ⋅ ∇ ) F(x,t),dV ,
€ ∂t
δV ( ∂t
+ δV ( +
where the second equality follows from expanding the divergence of the product Fu.
As δV → 0 the various integrals reduce to a product of δV and the integrand evaluated at
the center point of δV. Divide both sides of the prior equation by δV and take the limit as δV → 0
€
to find:
€ 1 d 1 (∂F(x,t) +
lim
δV →0 δV dt
∫ F(x,t)dV = lim
δV →0 δV
∫ * ∂t
+ F(x,t)∇ ⋅ u + (u ⋅ ∇ ) F(x,t)-dV ,
δV δV ) ,€
1 d 1 -' ∂F(x,t) * 0
lim
δV →0 δV dt
[ F(x,t)δV + ...] = lim /
δV →0 δV .(
) + F(x,t)∇ ⋅ u + (u ⋅ ∇ ) F(x,t),δV + ...2, or
∂t + 1
€ d 1 d ∂F(x,t)
F(x,t) + F(x,t) lim (δV ) = + F(x,t)∇ ⋅ u + (u ⋅ ∇) F(x,t) ,
dt δV →0 δV dt ∂t
where the product rule for derivative has been used on product FδV in [,]-braces on the left.
€
1 d
From (3.14) or Exercise 3.33: lim
δV →0 δV dt
(δV ) = ∇ ⋅ u , so the second terms on both sides of the
€
last equation are equal and may be subtracted out leaving:
d ∂F(x,t)
F(x,t) = + (u ⋅ ∇ ) F(x,t) ,
dt ∂t
and this is (3.5) when€the identification D Dt ≡ d dt is made.

€
€