THE EARTH GEOMETRY

 In Earth Geometry we consider the earth as a sphere (as if it is round like a ball).
 All irregularities such as mountains, valleys and plateaus are ignored.
 For mathematical purposes, the earth is assumed as a sphere with a smooth surface

Content
 The longitudes
 The latitudes
 Location of places
 Distances between places along the same longitudes/ equator (great circles)
 Distances between places along the same latitudes (small circles)
 Nautical miles
 The shortest distance
 Speed in nautical miles
 The time difference

0.1. Longitudes: These are imaginary lines that pass through the North and South poles.
They are also called Meridians.
N
Longitudes

The meridian 0⁰ is called the prime meridian or the Greenwich meridian. The meridian 0⁰
is used as standard from which the positions of other meridians are measured.
Meridians are measured in degrees.
Since meridians are lines that pass through the poles, they are either west or east of the
Prime meridian.

Meridians are NOT parallel.

Longitudes viewed above the North Pole.

180⁰

135⁰W 135⁰E North Pole

90⁰W 90⁰E

45⁰W 45⁰E
0⁰

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0.2. Latitudes: These are also imaginary lines perpendicular to the polar axis.
 Latitudes are parallel to each other. Each circle of latitude has its own centre.
 The equator 0⁰ cuts the earth in two equal parts called the northern and southern
hemispheres.
 Latitudes are also measured in degrees and are either North or South.
 Latitudes become small as they approach either the North or South Pole.
 The circle of latitude whose centre is also the centre of the earth is called the
equator.
N
Polar axis (this is a straight line through the centre of the
Earth joining the North and South poles)

0⁰ (equator)

0.3. LOCATION OF PLACES

Places on the earth’s surface are found by considering the latitudes and then the longitudes
E.g. If Lusaka is on the latitude 15⁰ east of the prime meridian and 30⁰ South of the equator,
Then the position of Lusaka is (15⁰E, 30⁰S).

Consider the diagram below

20⁰W 10⁰ W 0⁰ 10⁰E 20⁰E

A B C
10⁰N

00

D 10⁰S

E
200S

If A, B, C, D and E are places on the earth’s surface, then;

= (10⁰ , 10⁰ ), = (10⁰ , 0⁰),
= (10⁰ , 10⁰ ), = (10⁰ ,20⁰ ) = (20⁰ , 10⁰ ).

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0.4. DISTANCES BETWEEN TWO PLACES ON THE SAME GREAT CIRCLE
The great circle
The great circles on the surface of the earth are
1. The equator
2. Meridians (longitudes)
The radius of the earth
The radius of the earth is often denoted by R.
The radius of the earth(R) = 6 370 kilometers correct to 3 significant figures
Circumference of the earth (great circle)
The circumference of the earth (great circle) is found by considering the formula,
= .
Taking π to be 3.142 and R to be 6 370km,
=2 ,
= 2 3.142 6 370,
= 40 029.08 OR = ,
Consider the diagram below
N

A 60⁰N

o
B 60⁰S
S

Distance AB = 360 2 , where 2 is the circumference of the earth (great circle).

A = 60 N⁰ and B = 60 S⁰
= 60 + 60 = 120
120
= × 2 3.142 × 6 370
360
= 13 343.02667
=
Example1
If San Francisco (F) is (50N⁰,20⁰W), San Paulo(P) is (25⁰N, 20⁰W) and Santa Maria(M) is
(60⁰S, 20⁰W), calculate
i. The distance FP
ii. The distance FM
Solutions

In part (i), towns F and P lie in the same hemisphere, therefore;

Difference in latitude; 50⁰N - 25⁰N = 25
In part (ii), towns F and M lie in two different hemispheres, therefore;
Difference in latitudes; 50⁰N + 60⁰S = 110⁰

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 25
= × 2 × 3.142 × 6 370 = . 1 .
360
110
= × 2 × 3.142 × 6 370 = . 1 .
360

0.4. DISTANCES BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE SAME LATITUDE(SMALL CIRCLE)

Latitudes are also called other circles or small circles.
Let’s workout the radius of a latitude θ⁰N or S.

N N
0
r θ⁰N

0⁰ θ⁰ 0⁰ (cross section)
θ⁰
θ⁰S r θ⁰S

S S

Consider trigonometric ratio to find the size of the radius of a small circle θ⁰ N or θ⁰S.
cos = ,

cos = ,
= , ℎ = ,
= ℎ ℎ = ℎ ℎ ℎ

Example 2.
Find the radius of the following circles: (a) latitude 46⁰N (b) latitude 4⁰ S
(a) =
= 6 370 × cos 46
= .
(b) =
= 6 370 × cos 4
= 6 370 × 0.99756404
= 6 354.483
= ,
Circumference of other circles (latitudes).
=2 : =
( )=

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Example 3.
Find the circumference of latitude 60⁰S.
=2
= 2 × 3.142 × 6 370 × cos 66
= 2 × 3.142 × 6 370 × 0.406736643
= .

Example 4
Given that P is (20⁰N, 40⁰E) and Q is (20⁰N, 70⁰E). Calculate the distance between P and
Q. Take π to be 3.142 the radius of the earth to be 6 370
km. ℎ ∴ 70 − 40 = 30°
, ℎ= 2 ; =
360

= 2
360

30
= × 2 × 3.142 × 6 370 × cos 20,
360

= 3134.58592440407

= ,

Example 5
Given that town A and town B are (30⁰S, 50⁰E) and (30⁰S, 20⁰W) respectively. Calculate the
distance between the two places.
Towns A and B are in two different parts of the world. Take π to be 3.142
= 50 + 20 = 70
= 2 20
360
70
= × 2 × 3.142 × 6 370 × cos 30
360
= 6740.65
= .

THE NAUTICAL MILE

 An angle of 1 minute (1”) = a distance of 1 nautical mile
 An angle of 60 minutes (60”) = a distance of 60 nautical miles
 An angle of 60 minutes (60”) is also = an angle of 1 degree
This implies that; 1 degree = 60 nautical miles
 1 complete turn (the circumference of the earth) = 60 x 360 = 21 600 nautical miles.
 Arc length in nautical miles = × =

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 circumfernce in nautical miles
=
Radius nautical miles
40 029.08 21 600
6 370
= Radius in n.m
Radius of the great circle = . ,

Example 6

P 60⁰N

0⁰

Q 50⁰S

i. If P and Q lies on the same longitude and is such that P is 60⁰N and Q is 50⁰S, find
the distance between the two places in nautical miles.
ii. If K is 10⁰E and L is 40⁰E, find the distance between the two places in nautical miles,
given also that they lie on the same latitude 600N.

Solutions.

i. 60 + 50 = 110°
These two places are in different hemispheres that’s why we have added.
= 60 ×
= 60 × 110
=
ii. Arc length of the circle of latitude in nautical miles = 60 cos ,
Where ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ.
= 60 × 30 × cos 60
=

The shortest distances between two places

The shortest distance can be found by considering places along the earth’s greatest circles.
If two places A and B are on the earth’s surface, the shortest distance from A to B or vice –
versa is the length of the arc along the great circle.
A B

.
66⁰ θ 66⁰

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If A and B are in the polar region, the shortest distance will be the distance through the North
Pole along the same longitude

= 2πR = [180 – (66+66)] = 48

360
48
= × 2 × 3.142 × 6 370
360
= 5 337.210667
= ,

Speed in Nautical miles

If we recall very well, the unit of measure of speed over a number of kilometers per hour is
km/h. Similarly the unit of measure of speed in nautical miles per hour is a knot.
e.g. 100 knots means 100 nautical miles per hour.

Example 7: A plane flies due North from town A (30⁰S, 15⁰E) to town B(30⁰N, 15⁰E) in 12 hours.
Find the speed of the plane. Take π = 3.142.
Difference = 30 + 30 = 60⁰ (A and B are in two different hemispheres)
= 60 × =
3 600
= 60 × 60 = 12
= 3 600 =

Time

The earth rotates on its axis from west to east making a complete turn of 360⁰ in 24 hours.
360
Hence the ratio = 24
360
The earth rotates 24 = 15° ℎ .
Time is determined from the universal time line called the Greenwich meridian (0⁰).

Greenwich Mean Time

45⁰W 30⁰W 15⁰W 0⁰ 15⁰E 30⁰E 45⁰E

9hrs 10hrs 11hrs 12hrs 13hrs 14hrs 15hrs

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Example 8.
Alexandra is on longitude 30⁰E. What is the local time in Alexandra if it is 06: 00 hours GMT?
Difference in longitude = 30⁰
30
Difference in Time = 15 = 2 ℎ
= + = :
Activity

N 20⁰W
1.
P 66⁰N

Q 0⁰

T 44⁰S

Calculate the difference in latitude between the following places

a.
i. P and Q
ii. Q and T
iii. P and T
a. Calculate the distance between P and Q in nautical miles.
b. A ship leaves T and sails due north to V (30⁰S) at a steady speed of 200knots, how long
does it take to reach V?
22
c. Calculate the circumference of latitude 10.6⁰N. Take π to be 7 and R to be 6 370 km.
correct to 3 significant figures.
d. Given that the radius of latitude x⁰ is 1 004 nautical miles, find latitude x⁰.
A ; .. ° . ° . + = ° .
. . . ⁰
2. Find the difference in latitude between the following places
i. Cynthia (19.5⁰S, 30⁰E) and Faith (23.4⁰N, 30⁰E)
ii. Bwana Mukubwa (58⁰N, 31⁰W) and Lubuto (5⁰N, 31⁰W) ;. . ° . °
3. Lusaka is on latitude 15⁰S and longitude 30⁰E. Pretoria is on latitude 25⁰S and longitude
30⁰E. Calculate the distance between the two cities in kilometers. Take the radius of the
earth to be 6 370 km and π to be 3.142.
; .

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4. Two towns P and Q are on the same parallel of latitude 35⁰N. Given that the distance
between the two places is 1 966 nautical miles and that the longitude of town P is 25.5⁰E,
find the position of town Q if it is west of town P.
; ° , . °

5. An aircraft leaves Newtown (15⁰N, 36⁰E) and flies due east to fort Jameson (15⁰N, 102⁰E) at
an average speed of 250 knots. Calculate the time taken. ;

6. Two towns Spar and Twin are on the same circle of latitude 67⁰N. Given that Spar is due
west of Twin 30⁰E and the distance between the two places is 2 023 nautical miles, find the
longitude of Spar. ; . °
7.
i. Draw a sketch of the earth and label on it the meridians of longitude, 0⁰, 83⁰E and
52⁰W.
ii. What fraction of the earth’s surface area is covered by the region stretching
eastwards from 52⁰W to 83⁰E?
iii. Taking π = 3.142, the radius of the earth(R) to be 6 370 km and the surface area of a
sphere to be 4 2 , calculate the surface area south of the equator stretching
eastwards from 52⁰W to 83⁰E, giving your answer in standard form correct to 3
significant figures.
Ans; . N
83⁰E
52⁰W
0⁰

S
; . . . ×

8. Oslo lies on the circle of latitude 60⁰N. Given that the radius of the earth is
6 370 km and cos 60⁰ = 0.5, calculate the circumference of the circle of latitude on which
Oslo lies correct to the nearest km (take π to be 3.142)
;
9. [ECZ.2006 p.2] The diagram shows the model of the earth. The circle of latitude in the north
is 68⁰N and the circle of latitude in the south is 80⁰S.
N

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 54⁰W B 68⁰N
A

D
C 80⁰S

Meridian NACS is 54⁰W and meridian NBDS is directly opposite NACS.

i. Write down the position, using latitudes and longitudes, of the points
a. A
b. D
ii. Show that the circumference of a circle of latitude on the earth is 21 600 cos x⁰
nautical miles. Hence calculate the circumference of a circle of latitude of 68⁰N
iii. Calculate the shortest distance between A and B in kilometers.
iv. Express the shortest distance AB as a percentage of the circumference of the earth
v. If the time at A is 08:00hours. What is the time at B

; . ° , ° ° , °
. = . , . . % .

10. Two towns, P and Q lie on latitude 43⁰N. P is on longitude 23⁰W while Q is on longitude ⁰ .
a. If the difference in degrees between P and Q is 63⁰, state the value of x
b. A FIFA World Cup final match is scheduled to kick off at exactly 15 00 hours, at Q. what
will be the kick off time at P?
; . .
11. Two towns lie on the same meridian. Find the difference in latitudes between these two
towns if they are 1800 nautical miles apart.
; °
12. Given that the time at X (30⁰N, 45⁰W) is 02 46 hours. What is the time at Y (40⁰S, 120⁰E)?
;
13. Calculate the distance between two places A (30⁰N, 12⁰E) and B (60⁰N, 12⁰E). take the
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radius of the earth to be 6 370km and π as 7

; , .
14. Given that the earth is a sphere of radius 6 370km and π = 3.142, calculate
i. The length of the equator
ii. The length of the meridian from the North Pole to the South Pole through
Greenwich.
iii. The radius of the latitude 60⁰S.
; . . . . .

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15. N

X Z 70⁰N

168⁰W o

Y 80⁰S

S
In the diagram above X and Y lie along the same longitude and Z is directly opposite to X.
Longitude NXYS is 168⁰W
i. Find the following positions
a. X
b. Y
c. Z
ii. A ship leaves X and sails due south to Y. Given that its speed is 200 knots, how
long does it take to reach Y?
iii. Calculate the shortest distance between X and Z correct to 3 significant figures.
Take π to be 3. 142 and the radius of the earth to be 6 370 km.
iv. Calculate the radius of latitude 80⁰S. Give your answer to the nearest hundred.
Take the radius of the earth to be 3 437 nautical miles.
; . . = ° , ° . = ° , ° . =( ° , ° )
. . , . .

80⁰W N 50⁰W

P Q 45⁰N

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 20⁰N
S R

S
The diagram above shows positions of four towns P, Q, R and S on the earth’s surface.
Two jets QZA and QZB are to fly to town R from P. QZA flies along the circle of latitude
45⁰N to Q andthen due south to R, while QZB flies due south to S and then along the
circle of latitude 20⁰N to R.
a. Calculate the total distance travelled by each jet giving your answer in nautical
miles.
b. Given that jet QZA has speed of 259 knots and assuming that it flies at this speed
from P to R, calculate its flight time, giving your answer to the nearest hour.
; . = = .

17. Given that Sir Kelvin’s airport is (600 ,1200 ) and Sir Gabriel’s airport is
22
300 ,1200 . Calculate the distance between the two airports. Take π to be and the
7
radius of the earth to be 6 370 km.
;
18. Two towns K and M are on latitude 120 . Town K is on longitude 58.40 while town M
is on longitude 25.60 .
i. Show the positions of towns K and M on a sketch of the earth
ii. Taking = 3.142 and = 6370 , calculate the distance KM
iii. Given that the time at town K is 13:00 hours, what is the time at town M?
;. N
25.60
0
58.4

K M

S
. , . :

Summary

KILOMETERS NAUTICAL MILES

1.853 1

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CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE EARTH = 40 029.08 = 21 600
CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE SMALL =2 = 21 600 cos
CIRCLE
RADIUS OF THE EARTH = 6 370 = 3 437.3
RADIUS OF THE SMALL CIRCLE = =
DISTANCES BETWEEN PLACES = 60 ×
= 2
ON THE SAME GREAT CIRCLE 360
DISTANCES BETWEEN PLACES = 2 , = 60° × cos
ON THE SAME SMALL CIRCLES 360
SHORTEST DISTANCE = 60 ×
= 2
360

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