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First Published 1999 by I

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INTRODUCTION .1
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36 ZP!STE'.(OLOGr.J_·;D .',[ET.-lPHl'SICS AS L'R.J_"·CHES OF ?!-;!LOSO?Hr
Olatunji .A. Oyeshile ------------
Notes
LOGIC AND LIFE
1. D. W. Harnlyn .. The Theory ofK:lO\Yl~cge (London: Macmillan Press
Ltd., 1977).. p. 126. .
(j)
2. Richard Taylor. Metaphysics (New Delhi: Prentice. Hall of India
Private Limited, 199~), pp. 6-~. :".. i
Introduction '- !

Works Consulted. In this paper, I discuss the relationship between logic and life. It
I'·1
I;
is assumed that the meaning of life is clear to all of us or that. we all " ,
L Bahm AJ., Epistemology: Theory oj Knowledge (New Mexico: World
share certain assumptions about life in common. However, the same
Books, 1995).' ! I can not be said of logic even though we all have t11ecapacity for
2. Campell, Keith .. Body and Whind.... (London: The Macmillan Press.' ,
19'71) logical thinking. Therefore, an attempt is made' to provide some · I
; Ii
3. "Copleston,
1966)."
F.G., History of Pthilosophy
. .
(New York: Gardencity. insight into the meaning of logic, its various aspects and how we can
use it to organise our lives in a meaningful way.
·I I
; III
4. Hamlyn W.D., The Theory of Knowedge (London: Macmillan Press ·,
When we talk about logical thinking, it can be understood in two
Ltel, 1977).
related senses, namely, the 'formal and informal senses. Logical
S. Okolo C.B. Philosophy of Education and Education of Philosophy.
(Nigeria: Snaap Press, 1989). thinking in the infonnal sense is what almost every human being is
6. Taylor Richard .. Metraphysics (New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India acquainted with. It is a natural gift either from God or nature. We do
Private Ltd., 1994). not need to be taught about it. It involves the ways thrcugh which man
7. Woodhouse ·M.B., A Preface to Philosophy (California: Wadsworth organizes his experience to fend for himself, to avoid dangers and
Publishing Company. 1994). make his natural and social environments conducive thereby ensuring
that he enjoys best his life on earth.
In man's bid to live successfully on earth, he puts certain laws of
thought into practise even in an unsystematic manner.' It is for this
reason that man is often said to rely on his native intelligence. For
example, if Mr •A' put his hand in fire for the first, second and third r
times and it burnt him on each of these occasions, he will conclude
that "fire burns" and will try to avoid going near a naked fire. .
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From the foregoing, it 'is obvious that, "thinking is a natural ! \1

attribute of man and everyone can reason to an extent concerning I· i
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certain things".' Notwithstanding this, we also know from our daily I I
experiences that our thoughts sometimes miss their track and \ve fall
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into error due to lack of method. The. proneness to error in thought
raises the questions of whether rules can actually be laid down, which L· I
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38 LI)( a(' .c:» LIFE ocm.sn A, orESHiU 39
when adhered to. can help us in avoiding these errors. The possibility philcrophy. This he did by trying to express in s.ztic terms something
of establishing such rules has led to logical thinking in the formal which is essentially in a continuous mctioa However, it is
\\ay:. Accor~n~!y, unanimously agreed that the founder of logic as 2. coherent system is
Aristotle and his system is said to have stood the test of time [or more
". 6
Through rigorous reflections and observations of the mind. than twenty centunes.
man has been able to establish principles and rules which
must be observed in reasoning. if we are to arrive at a true Central to fonnal!)tillnking or logic are the three laws of thought,
result. The science which embodies these principles and namely, the laws of identity, contradiction (non-contradiction) and
rules is called logic.'
Logical thinking in the formal sense therefore involves certain
I excluded middle. The law of identitv holds that if a statement is true,
then it is true (A' = A). It can also be put in the following! forms~
-I "what is, is": "everything is what it is"; "whatever is true in one form
principles of reasoning which have been laid down by logicians and
of words, is true in every other forms of words which convey the same
modified from time to time. This sphere of thinking, is very
sophisticated and thus requires some training of the mind. It has been
. ~
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meaning", etc.

asserted that when we are dealing with two people with native I. _ The Law of ::ontradiction states that "contradictory judgements
intelligence, the person who has studied logic is more likely to reason i
i
can not both be true" or it is impossible for the samething "to be" and
correctly than the one who has never thought about the general I "pot to be" at the same time". For example, it would be contradictory
I
principles involved in reasoning.' to say that, "Mr X is in the office at 10 a. m. and That Mr X is also at
the stadium at lOa. m. of the same day".
Before we proceed to show the interrelationship between logic
and life, it is necessary to note that logic differs from psychology in The L:lW of excluded middle states that "my statement is either
that the former does not deal with all types of thinking such as true or false". It conveys the notion that there can be no middle point
learning, remembering, day dreaming, supposing and so forth but only between certain relational terms such as "truth and falsity"; "male and
with that type of thinking called reasoning ..! Furthermore, logic deals female", etc.
only with declarative sentences, that is, sentences used for the purpose
It should be noted that these laws do not operate in a vacuum;
of making assertions. This is because declarative sentences which are
they operate in arguments which are used in daily life. The term
used to' make assertions about the world are the ones which' could
"argument" refers to a group of statements, one of which (the
either be true or false.
conclusion) fellow from others (the premises) which provide
Historical Development and Various Aspects of Logic reasonable grounds or evidence for it
It is germane to consider briefly the history of development of As Brink - Budgen has put it,
logic. Though it is truism that man has been performing acts of
inferential reasoning since he reached the state of 'homo sapiens", it arguments for the critical thinker are not like arm - twisting
was however during the time of the ancient· Greeks thatthe art of attempts to make other people accept a particular position.
They are not bullying orders to see things one way rather
reasoning began to be systematized into a coherent system of rules, ·1
than another. Instead, they set up reasons in such a way that
principles and laws. S Parmenides was said to be the first to formulate
if you accept those reasons. you are likely to be persuaded of
!
the principles of identity and non-cop. -adiction. His disciple, Zeno, a particular position. 7
through I?s arguments against motion, introduced logical paradox in

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OL4.TUNJI A. OYESHll£ 41
40 WGICANDUFE
Conclusion: Therefore, General Olusegun Obasanjo is an African.
The import of the above comment is that argument;> involve critical
mind and the persuasive ability of the premises which support a The Importance of Logic to Life
particular position or conclusion. Therefore, any attempt to compel
The cardinal objective of this paper is to demonstrate. the
the acceptance of a view or claim or conclusion through. threat or
relevance of logic to life. So far we have been engaged in relevant
coercion would be illogical. preambles about thinking, logic, history of logic, laws of thought,
Now, there are two types of arguments, namely, Deductive and nature of arguments and types of arguments. TIe motive for doing
Inductive arguments. In deductive .argurnents the premises provide this was to enable us establish the connection between logic and life.
total support for the conclusion, while in inductive arguments the
According to Copi, the following obvious benefits could be
premises only provide probable support to the conclusion. gained from logic. These include:
Examples: Deductive argument
heightened ability to express ideas clearly and concisely:
Premises: All Nigerian workers got salary increase in Sept. 98. increase skill in defining one's terms. enlarged capacity to
Arije is a Nigerian worker. formulate arguments rigorously and 10 analyse them
critically. But the greatest benefit. .. is the recognition that
Conclusion: Therefore, Arije got a salary increase in Sept. 98.
reason can be applied in every aspect of humaa affairs."
Inductive argument
The import of Copi's position is that logic plays a prominent role in
Premises: Most of the people who work in private companies the development of the mind. Copi goes on to show the relevance of
. ,. logic to human affairs, particularly in the political sphere when he
enjoy good pay .
~ writes that:
Ade works in a private company.
Conclusion: Therefore, probably Ade enjoys good pay. Democratic institutions require that ciuzeas think for
themselves. discuss problems freely with one another. and I
In deductive arguments, once you accept the premises you have decide issues on the basis of deliberation and 11£ weighing of II
to accept the conclusion. In an inductive argument this is not so. evidence Through the study of logic we C;lJ1 :JOlIuircnor only I

The scope of logical thinking has to do with the relationship practice in reasoning. but also respect for rc.son. and thus
reinforce and secure the values we prize."
between the premises and conclusion of a deductive argument. The
premises of a deductive argument must provide enough ground for the It should be clear from the above that the study of ogic can contribute.
acceptance of the conclusion. When this happens, the argument is 'said to the entrenchment of democratic values in our society. ThiS':
to be valid. And invalid if 'Otherwise. Apart from the argument being perhaps, is one reason why the National Univ cssitics Commission
valid, if the premises and the conclusion of the argument contain true (NUC) has made the study of philosophy and Lcgic compulsory in
statements, then it is said to be sound. Otherwise, it is unsound. Nigerian Universities.

Example of a sound argument: One of the ways in which logic helps in developing a critical
frame of mind is through certain logical exercises. Let us demonstrate
Premises: All Nigerians are Africans.
this with the following exercise.
Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo IS a Nigerian.
 ·... - ,-. '., -... -'-' ..'-.- ,-,,--=--,-,,-~,,::,--,-- ,--.::.-'-..:..••-- •... r;;....--· -.. ---

~2 LOGIC ,JND UFE ot.acxn _4. OrESHlLE ~3

Consider the following categorical propositions: ( I) It forces us to search for reasonable decisions and reasonable
persons.
A: All Nigerians are honest
(2) Logical thinking also helps us in making an important decision in
E: No Nigerians are honest
the heat of the moment in such a way that vital mistakes are
I: Some Nigerians are honest avoided.
0: Some Nigerians are not honest (3) Logical thinking also helps us to play down ow- emotions when
crucial decisions are to be taken.
The following inferences can be drawn from them: I (4) Rational ideals, through logical thinking. help to resolve and co-
(I) If we assume that statem. .r A is true. then statements E is false, I ordinate important non-rational feelings.
is true and 0 is false. I. (5) Rational ideals. through logical. thinking. is a veritable wav of
i,
(2) If we assume that statement E is true. then statements A is false, I I
dealing with conflict of opinions among different people.
! According to Stewart and Blocker. if everyone in the same society
.is false and 0 is true.
held the same ooinion on even thing. the search fur reasons would
(3) If we assume that statement I is true, then statements E is false. •probably be unnecessary. But'this is not SO.III
while A and 0 arc undetermined.
(6) Logical thinking enhances communication beraeen people and
(4) If we assume that statement 0 is truc. then statements A is false. reinforces the idea that despite our differences •.'~\l:live in the same
while E and I arc undetermined. world and it is possible to come to some agreement.
(5) If we assume that statement A is false. then statements 0 is true. Common Errors in Reasoning
while E and I are undetermined. ....,
One very important function of logic is that it :helps us to avoid
(6) If-wc assume that statement E is false, then statements I is true. errors in thinking. The danger of error in thinkil1:! has been apty
while A and 0 are undctcrrnincd. expressed thus: .;..
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(7) If we assume that statement I is false. then statements A is false E
is true and 0 is true. thought. like all potent weapons. is exceedingly dmgerous if
mishandled. Clear thinking is therefore desirable not only in
(8) If we assume that statement 0 is faisc. then statements A is true. order to develop the full potentialities of mind. but also to
while E is false and I is true, avoid disaster. I I -

-. A statement is undetermined if it cannot be determined whether it Plato has also said that, "arguments like men, are o&n pretenders". I:
is true or false. 111:lt is. it can be either of the two depending on the Errors occur in our arguments from time to time due to various
prevailing situation. reasons. TI1ey may occur to deceive, persuade. elicit s)mpathy,
convince. manoeuvre, manipulate and may e\.en be unintended. The
In our daily life. particularly in organizational set-ups. we do
recognition of these errors, which are usually referred to as informal
well if we live a life of reason and follow the dictum of Socrates that
fallacies. will go a long way to enhance the performaice of our roles
--the uncxarnincd life is not worth liv ing". Logical thinking can help us
as individuals within social organizations.
to achieve this examined life in the following ways.
 LOGIC AND UFE (}UTC\JI ..~ UlESi-fILE
44 -15

Some of these errors include: 7. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam: This is argument from ignorance
1. Argumentum ad Misccrico.diam (Appeal" to pity): This is .in which you argue that something is true because it has not been
when somebody appeals to pity to get his belief accepted. proved fal.se ?r/alse because it :1as nor been proved true.
Example: I should be promoted because I have ten children. Example: .;.
2. Argumentum ad Baculum: This is appeal to force or threat. It is not true that Nigerian government can provide free
Example: You must do everything I ask you to do because I can education for all because I have not seen \\ here such is done in
sack you if you do not co-operate. .West-Africa ..
3. Argumentum ad Verencundiam: This is when we appeal to 8. Fallacy of Division: It is committed when the characteristics of a
authority in an irrelevant way. Example: That view on labour whole are thought to necessarily apply to its parts.
matter must be correct because it has been expressed by a
r' Example: The Ministry is making progress therefore everyone
professor of physics.
. of its staff is making progress.
4. Complex question: This occur when a question is put to you on
which you can not answer 'yes' or 'No' because a 'yes' answer I 9 Fallacy of Composition: It occurs when vou attribute the
has been silently provided to an unasked question. qualities of parts of whole.
Example:
Example:
(a) Would you become a responsible family man with your new Mr A who works for company X is dubious
~e increase? ." Mr B who works for company X is dubious
(b) Was your sales increase as a result of your misleading Therefore, company X is dubious.
advertisement?
The Limitation of Logic
5. Argumentum ad Populum: This involves appealing to people or
This paper has shown the various ways in which logic can be
popular sentiment to get your belief across.
useful to life. It is also a fact that logical thinking and life are
Example: The minister of Information argued that the attempt interconnected. After all, man is, among other things, a reasoning
by the European Community to impose economic sanction on being. As society becomes more and more complex, it becomes
Nigeria as a result of the annulment of June 12, 1993 election imperative ..for people to develop some svstematic reasoning
' ~
is because of the growing influence of Nigeria among the black procedures for' tackling certain specialized problems. These
. people. Therefore, the sanction is unfair. advantages notwithstanding, life is larger than l~jc. In this sense
6. Argumentum ad Hominem (abusive): This occurs when you logic can. only be applied to certain things about lire, not everything.
attack the personality of your opponent instead of the issue at Issues that border on religion, faith, the ultimate gcal of life, creation
stake and so forth are issues that. may not be easily arrenable to logical
thinking.
Example: You will be a bad secretary because you are a bad
house wife. Another fundamental limitation of logic is that it can be used to
manipulate and deceive others by those who have a proper grasp of it.

__
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 ux:« A.\'0
· ../6 LIFE

In fact. some professions thrive on the ability to convince people to

Adebola Babotunde Ekanola ----

believe in your story. This may well violate some ethical principles. ETIHCS AND SC£lEIT
Another limitation of logic is that a supposed strong and
unassailable argument may be based on the illusion of the person
carrying out the thinking.
Introduction
In spite of the limitation of logic, its role in life can not be
The focus of this paper shall be on the nature of ethics and its
underestimated. In fact, it is tlirough logic that the perceived limitation
function in society. Attempts shall be made to highlight the intricate
of logic can be corrected. relationship between. society ana ethics.
Man and Society
Notes
In any discussion on ethics or scciety "man" must be central.
1. F. U. Okafor, Logic: An Outline for Beginners. (Enugu.Auto-Century. Apart from being an individual, man is also essentially a social being.
1990). p.3. As an individual, each man is complete, independent and distinct from
2. Ibid... other men. As a social being, he cannot fully live as man nor fully
3. _1. M. Copi, Introduction to logic (New York: Macmillan. sixty develop and actualise his potentials outside of fellowship with other
Edition. 1982). p.3. men. It'is this inability of man to. bv himself meet his existential
4. A. O. Oyeshile & O. L. Ugwuanyi, Elements of Philosophy And Logic needs and develop his potentials that led to the emergence of society. I
(Benin City: Favourite, 1997), p. 81. Society is formed by men in order to overcome their individual
5. E. A. Ruch. The ways of Knowing And Thinking (New Delhi: Allied inabilities in the attainment of their common ends. For example, the
Publishers; 1977). p. 238. protection of lives, properties and rights is an aspect of the goal of
-&. Ibid. pp. 238-239. self-perservation which human beings share in ccmmcn. .. .
7. R V. Brink-Budgen, Critical Thinking for Students (plymouth: How While each individual may not be capable of providing such
To Books, 1996), p.10. protection, it can be adequately provided when they act in concert in
8. I. M. Copi, op. cit...• p. vii. society or political community. 'Hence, society may be aptly described
9. Ibid as a voluntary unity constituted by a group of men bound together by
their need of mutual supplementation.' lis essence seems to lie in the
10. D. Stewart and H. Gene Blocker, Fundamentals of Philosophy New
cooperation between men for the purpose of complimenting their
York: Macmillan. 1982). pp.48-50.
various potentials in order to satisfy their existential needs. These
11. This statement is credited to Giles St. Aubyn. See A. O. Oyeshile, A.
needs include those of self-preservation and self-development.
Compendium of Philosophical and Political Quotations (Ibadan: Hope
Publications, 1998),p. 129. Given the essence of society as a product of the cooperation
12. Ibid.. between men. it is inevitable that men must interne: with each otter in
society. In the course of this interaction, questioas about the right

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