.

r
-i
;v
':,1
. -,.i1
'l
i
,'
::l

I
$ j
!

q
.s
-t
.I
24 .1

J. '
'l

SILIC(lN.C(lI{TRtlL .;
I

PR0JECTS
RECTTFTER #
il
f".

'*
'il
J.TRAISTER
ROBERT
!.1
i

.d
. c ' ,

'q
,
1

_**.1:l s
,
.{

'I

..J

:l

BPB PUBLICATIONS -,t

s

376, OLDLAJPATRAIMARKET,DELHI.l1O006 !

.
 i.
Fqi
a::;:

B P B PUBLICATIONS
376 Old LajpatRai Market,Delhi-110@6.
4794, Bharat Ram Road,23, Daryaganj,New Delhi-t1Ooo2
8/1 Ritchie Street, Mounr Road,Madras-6oo 0O2.
i., 4-3-269 GirirajLane.Eank Street,Hyderabad-l.
b*
.: F I R S TI N D I A N E D I T I O N1 9 8 7
e:+.
:.I! F I R S TE D I T I O N
F I R S TP R I N T I N G
Prinred rn lndia under arrangement with
T A B B O O K SI N C . ,U . S . A .

Reproductionor publicalionof lhe contentin any manner,withoutexpress

p€rmissionof the publisher,is prohibited.No liabilityis assumedwith respectto
lhe use of lh€ intormationhsrein.

Published by Manish Jain for B P B Publications

376, Old Lajpat Rai Market, Delhi-l1O 006. and
pnnled at Pfessworks, Delhi
 .l
'1
:t
t;

n
.l

$
.- I

Contents
lntroduction vll

Rectlfiersand OtherThyristors 1
1 Silicon-Controlled
Thyristors-Triacs-Thyristor Construction-Other Thyristor
Rectifiers
Deirices-silicon-Gontr6lbd 1

2 ElectronicComponents 27 ,
Voltage-Current-Conduclors-Resistance-Pow€r-
Capacitance-lnductance-Semiconductor Devices-Diodes-
Rectifiersand Triacs
Transistors-Silicon-Controlled

3 ElectronlcMeasurement 43
Multimeter Precautions-ResistanceMeasuremsnts-Voltagg
Measuremenls-Decibels-CurrentMeasur€ments

4 ElectronicProiect Buildlng 61
Tools and Accessorigs-SolderingTechnique-Circuit Board
MountingMethods--The Workbench-Building
Electronics Habits

5 Obtalnlngand ReferencingComponents 72
JunkBox-SioringElec'
Experimentsr's
Cross-Referencing-The
tronic Components

6 24 ThyristorProiects 83
Project1: Twechannel StereoLightOrgan-Project2: LASCR
Light Meter-Proiect 3: SGR Timer Circuit-Project 4: SCR
TransmitIndicator-Project5: SCRBurglarAlarm-Project6: An-
otherSCRAlarnr-Proiect7: lncandescentLightFlashsr-Proj€cl
Alarm-Proiect9: TriacLightDimmer-Project
8: Rec€iver Signal

lp
10:Optoeloctronic
SCRControl-Projectl1: SCRGarageDoor
Ooener-Proiect12:Solar-Triggerod
Opener-Project Switch-Proiecl 13:Voice.
Solar-Triooerod
Actuat€dSwitch-Project I 4: SGRContinuityChecker-Project
15: SCR ProximityAlarm-Project '16:SCR Power Monitor-
Proiect17:SCF SmokeAlarm-Projrt 18:Battery-Trigg€red ac
Switch-Project19:SCROvervoltage ProtectionCircuit-ProJect
20:Variabledc PowerSupply-Project21:Triac€ontrolledVolt
age Doubler-Project22'.Triacac VoltageContrd-Poect 23:
SCRSfaveFlashUnit-Prcjet24: SGRRelaxationOscillator-
Summary

Appendlx A Letter Symbols for 13G

Slgnal end RectltlerDlodes

Appendfx B Letter Symbols lor Zenet Dlodes 137

Appendlx G Letter Symbols for 138

Thyrlstorsand SCRo

Appendlx D Low-PoweredSCR Packages 141

AppendlxE Moderateto Hlgh 142

Power SCR Packages

Appendlx F Triac Packaglng 143

Appendlx G Thyrlstor Fllter Circult 144

Appendix H Wire Size Chart 147

Glossary 149

Index 157
 Introduction
AS A WHOLE
lS NOT SO MUCH A DFVICE'lNITSELF
THYRISTOR
THE
|' familyof power-controlling components.They are
solid-state
simple,yet they perform highly complex functionsnot possible
a few decadesago. The thyristorfamily is made up of silicon-
controlld rectifiers,
triacs,diacs,asymmetrical rectifiers,and other
components that can be usedas solid-state
switches, for variable
power control, and for low-voltagecontrol of high-voltage/high-
power circuits.
Canyou rememberthe dayswhen a largevariableresistorwas
usedto controlpowerto an electronicload?Thisbulky,extremely
expensivedevicehasbeenreplacedwith a thyristorthatmay have
costonly a coupleof dollars.Thethyristoris quitesmalland can
easilybe held in the palm of the hand.Yet it doeseverythingthe
variableresistordid and muchmoreefficiently,with a negligible
lossof power.The light dimmer controlsin somehomesare ex-
cellentexamplesof what l'm talkingabout. Beforethe thyristor,
thesewere heavyvariableresistors. Now theyare miniaturedevices
that do not even fill the spaceof a normal light switch.
Thisis only a smallsamplingof whatthyristorscanaccomplish.
Froma hobby standpoint,silicon-controlledrectifiersand triacs
are an integralpart of such circuitsas light modulators,or light
organsas they'resometimescalled.The diminutivesignalfrom
a stereosystemis usedto controlthe powerto quite largelighting
systems.Thyristorsmay be usedas motor speedcontrolsand even
in highlyefficientelectronicfilteringcircuitsfordc powersupplies'
Thesecomponentsbridge the gap betweenthe hobbyist and the
electronictechnician,beingusedin devicesfor the homeaswell
as in extremelycomplex scientificequipment.
Aside from their cost effectiveness, thyristorshelp to make
power circuitsquite simple.For a few dollars,you can now per-
iorn] .ontrol functionsthat cost thousandsor even hundredsof
thousandsof dollarsa few decadesago.
The circuits,discussions, and projectsincluded in this book
were specially chosen to provide a learningexperiencefor the
beginnerand a challenge to the experienced builder.combining
thiry with building practical circuitswill yield the mostefficient
resultsfrom this text.
 ChapterI

Silicon-Controlled
Rectifiersand OtherThYristors
? HE YEARI982 MARKEDTHESILVER OF THE DEVELOP-
ANNIVERSARY
I mentof thefirstcommerciallypracticalsilicon<ontrolledrec-
tifier (SCR)by CeneralElectricCompany.lt is hardto believethat
thatfirst,small,35 A, 200 V devicewould triSgera revolutionin
electricpowercontroland conversion.Buttodayit would be even
more difficultto imaginepower controlequipmentwithout the
SCR,since it has proliferatedin so many differenttypes,sizes,
ratingsandapplications. SCRshavegrownsmaller:One hundred
SCRsrated at 200 V, 0.8 A control teletypewriters.They have
grownbigger;4500 V, 3000A brutestransmitmegawafts in HVDC
systems.They have gone out into space and deep into the earth.
They have been made fasterto operate at many kilohertz in in-
ductionheating equipment. Other typical applications include ac
and dc motor speed controls, lighting and temperature controls,
weldi ng, uni nterruptible powersupplies,electromechan icaI refi n-
ing, electrostatic precipitators, fusion and laser power supplies,
tractionand pulse modulators. The list goes on and on.
Because CeneralElectricCompany(CE)wasa pioneerin the
development of the silicon<ontrolled rectifier,I wentto themfor
researchinformationabout SCRs. They respondedwith a wealth
of theoretical and practical application information, muchof which
is includedthroughoutthis book.
While the SCRremainsthe "generalpractitioner"of the in-
dustry,it hasbeenjoined by manyotherspecialtypesof thyristors
 'r ', -.ti

devefopedto fulfill differentcircuitneeds.ln 1962,CE announced

anotherfirst,the triac, which hasfound wide acceptancein con-
sumerand lightindustrialcontrols.Thiswasfollowedin 1963by
the reverseconductingSCR(an SCRin antiparallelwith a diode).
The amplifyinggatestructure,first developedby CE in 1965 to
increaseSCRdi/dt ratings,is now standardon all highcurrentSCRs
to keepgatingcurrentrequirements within reasonablelimits.The
asymmetricSCRis a moreefficientinvertertype that hasevolved
as a resultof technologicalinnovations.The gate turnoff SCR
(CTO)negatesthe requirementfor commutationcircuitry,and the
reverseconductingthyristorincorporatesan antiparalleldiode in
its structureto conduct reactivecurrentswhen driving inductive
loads.
By solid stateelectronicstandards,a 25-yearold product is
consideredmature,if not obsolete.This is not true of the silicon-
controlledrectifier.To the contrary,significantdevelopmentwork
continuesto improvethe dynamic performanceof SCRsand to
inventnew typesfor specializedneeds.New packagingconcepts
haveemergedas beftersilicon passivationtechniquesallow the
silicon subassemblies to be encapsulatedin non-hermetichous-
ingsor evento be immerseddirectlyin a coolingmedium,such
as transformeroil. Engineeredplastic housingsnot only reduce
manufacturingcosb, but can alsoreduceequipmentassemblycosts
by making possiblenew multiple device modulesthat are elec-
trically isolatedfrom their mounting base plate. Light'triggered
SCRs,field<ontrolled,and gate-assisted turn'off SCRsare being
pursued,while new equipmentdesignsdemand higher voltage
and highercurrent SCRs.
In orderto understandthe operationof the silicon<ontrolled
rectifierand other similardevices,it is necessry to first learnabout
the makeupand operationof simple pn junction rectifiers'This
is the simplestform of practical semiconductordevice while
simultaneously beinga fundamentalbuildingblock for all other
bipolarstructuressuchas npn and pnp transistors, thyristors,and
relatedproducts.A knowledgeof the theoretical behavior of a rec-
tifier is thereforevitalto an understandingof the operation of more
complexdevices.
A pn rectifieris the juxtapositionof two dissimilarlayersof
siliconthat havebeen treated(dopedlto provide,in one case,a
surfeitof mobile electrons(n-material)and, in the other case,a
surfeitof mobilepositivecarriers(holes,or pmaterial).When these

2
 g'

two materialsare placd sideby side,as in a pn junction,the nat-

ural affinityof dissimilarchargesthat meetand canceleachother
out createsa region at the meeting plane devoid of all free elec-
trical charge;this regionis characterizedby a high resistance to
the flow of electriccurrent (no To
carriers). force current conduc-
tion, it is necessary to apply a voltage(positiveto anode'p)such
that the electricfield resultingfrom this voltageovercomesthe nat-
ural barrierand permitsthe flow of currentfrom anodeto cath-
ode. lt is this phenomenonthat explainsthe 0.7-volt threshold
voltageassociatedwith fonvard conductionacrossa silicon pn
junction.
When the external voltage is reversedin polarity, however,
the naturalspacechargeregionis expandedinsteadof beingop
posd, makingthe reverseconductioneven more difficult. This
phenomenonexplainsthe absenceof significantreversecurrent
acrossa reverse-biased pn iunction. Despitethe repulsionof like
chargesresulting from reversebias, a few carriers of opposite
polarity on either side of the junction are acceleratedacrossthe
junaion by the presenceof this same electric field. As the
magnitude(voltVmeter)of the electric field is increased,these
"leikage" carriersgain additionalkineticenergy,so that as they
trauette the junction region, they are able, when they ineviAbly
collidewith ii*ed atorr in the crystallinestructure,to liberatead-
ditional caniersthat supplementthe original leakagecurrent.These
additionalcaniers,in tum, are accelerated,and createin their turn
morecunent by subsequentcollisions.Thisphenomenonis known
as reyerse avalanche or reyefse breakdown. The electrical
characterizationof a pn junction under both forward and reverse
bias is shown in Fig. 1.1.
When in the forward biasedmode with significantcurrent
flow, the junction cannot instantaneously revertto the blocking
mode jusi describedbecausethe junction zone is repletewith
chargesalreadyin motion.These charges must first be sweptout
by cunent reversalor by recombination (positive chargesbeing
neutralizedby meetingnegativecharges). The time this reverse
current flows for is called reverse recovery time, and the charge
sweptout is called reverserecovery charge. High frequency cir-
cuiti need rectifiersin which reverse recovery time is held to a
minimumby specialfabrication techniques, such as gold doping
or electronirradiation,thatencouragerapid recombinationof the
carrierscrossingthe junction reg,ion'
 F

Anod€ (A)

?
?::,"#
i* r F
r " l l t t :ru;l
cathode (K)
Electricalsymbol

Reverse Fonivard Loakags

avalanch€ curr€nl la
voltag€dr.op
(typically
50-5000 (volts) Tims

**""{\.rlil,llT
current (-vn) (-vn)
Bshaviorduring
V,u, off

iig. 1'1. Electricarcharactsristicsof a pN junctiondiode(courtesyGeneral

Electric).

A thyristoris any semiconductorswitch whose bistableac_

tion dependson pnpn regenerativefeedback.Thyristorscan be
two, three, or four-terminaldevices,and both unidirectionaland
bidirectionaldevicesare available
The silicon-controlledrectifier(SCR)is by far the bestknown
memberof the thyristorfamily.Becauseit is a three.terminal de_
vice (anode,cathode,and control gate)that can conductcurrent
in one directiononly (anodeto cathode),the scR is classified as
a reverseblockingtriode thyristor.some other reverseblocking
triodethyristorsare the siliconunilateralswitch(SUS),the lightl
activatedsi Iicon-controlled rectifier (LASCR),
the complem"nlry
SCR(CSCR), the gateturnoff switch(CTO)and the programmable
unijunctiontransistor(pUT).A specialcaseis the asymmetrical
SCR(ASCR)which, unlikeconventionalSCRsthatdisplayapprox-

4
imately equal forward and reverse blocking capabilities, is
delibeiatelyconstructedwith a very low reverseblocking voltage.
The silicon<ontrolledswitch (SCS)is a reverseblockingtetrode
thyristor (it has two control gatesreferencedrespectivelyto an-
ode and cathode),while the Shockleydiode is a reverseblocking
diode thyristor(triggeredby anode voltage).
Bidiiectionalthyristorsare categorizedas pnpn devicesthat
can conductin eitherdirection.Typicalexamplesincludethe triac
(for triode bc switch)and the silicon bilateralswitch (SBS).Once
again, a specialcase is the reverseconductingthyristor(RCT),
*:hi.h consistsof an asymmetricalSCRand companionbypass
diode (pn junction)integratedinto a singlechip. Figure1'2 depicts
the symbolsand basicelectricalcharacteristics of thesevarious
thyristor tyPes.
SinceCeneral Electricfirst introducedthe SCRin 1957, cir'
cuit designershavebeenseekingever higherlevelsof deviceper-
formance.Because thyristorsare usedalmostexclusivelyaspower
switches,performancecan be relatedto the ability of the device
to switchefficientlyhigh currentloadsfrom high sourcevoltages
with maximumspeed.The parametersassociated with thesecriteria
are:

I Blockingvoltage'
! CurrentcarryingcaPabilitY.
I Di/dt (permissiblerateof riseof anodecurrentat turn-on)'
I Dv/dt iallowable rate of applicationof forward blocking
voltage).
I Turn-offtime.
I Gating requirements.
I Maximum operatingfrequencY.

Various techniques to improve device performanceare

will show,many
available.However,asthe followingdiscussion
of thesetechniqueslead to performancetradeoffs elsewhere'

Voltage
Surfacecontouring,or beveling,allowshighervoltageopera-
tion by reducingthe electricfieldsat the junction periphery,the
criticai interfacebetweena blockingjunction and its externalen-
vironment. Reducedelectric fields here permit higher voltage
operation before breakdownoccurs. Bevelingis advantag€ous
becauseonly a slightreductionin usablecathodeareais sacrificed'
 (A) REVEBSE BL@KING TRPOE
(or Totrode) THRYISTOF

4l -v
l
I

t_
ouaoranr(i')
(MT,pocilr}f

OrrOrutr
@
(MT, nogslhre)
(8) Br DIFECTTONALTFTODE
THYRTSTOR fiFtAC)

Fig.1-2.Symbols (courteey
of variousthyristors
andcharacteristica General
Electric).

Bevelingtechniquesare usually limited to premium-gradein-

dustrialthyristorsonly, wherethe addedcostof round pelletscan
be justified.Bevelingeffectivenessis seriouslyaffectedby field con-
centrationat the cornerswhen the techniqueis appliedto the rec-
tangularpellea usuallyprescribedfor consumerorientedproducts.
Other techniques,such as modifying base width or silicon
resistivity,or increasingminority carrierlifetime,while effective,
do result in performancesacrificeselsewhere.

Cunent
The allowablecurrentthrougha devicedependsprimarily
upon the on-statevoltage.Any variablethat decreasesthis volt-
agedrop (and hence,internalpower dissipation),raisesthe cur-

6
 ml
vol|'<i
I

(C) ASYttltlETRlC L SCB

(D) BEVERSECONIXTCT|NG (FCT)

THYRTSTOR

rent limit. Favorableeffectsare largerpellets,small Bn base

width,higherlifetimes,and lowersiliconresistivity'

Dr/dr
Di/dtfailuresareessentially precipitated by too higha con-
centration of currentin too small a pellet area duringinitialtum-
on of the thyristor,with the resultant high temperature gradient
leadingto a localized melting. The obvious solution is to turnon
*or" o"" at the instantof gatefiring, and this is precisely theob
jeaiveof thestructures to be shown.Asa starting point,Fig'l-3
rho*r thetraditional sidegate,or point4ate,featured in theearliest
designs andstillusedtoday in some low<ost consumer andlight
in{rytry-oriented products. This is the simplest Sate structure,
7
 \

sidegat€SCR(courtesy
Fig.1-3.Conventional GeneralElectric).

perfectlyadequatefor smallareadevicesor for low di/dt applica-

tionsof largerthyristors.Theareainitiallyturnedon is quite small
and is heavily dependenton the amplitudeof the gate pulse.
'l-4
Figure illustratesa conventionalcenter-gatestructure,
similar in function to the sidegate exceptthat di/dt ratingsare
generallyhigherdue to turn on of a small circle ratherthan of a
point. Figure1-5 portraysa stateof-theartcenter-amplifying gate
structurethat initiatesconductionof a smallSCR.The gatingenergy
in this lafterphaseis derived from the main anode supply' The

G l_
t-.,-..+

::rr-/) \

$- !
lll lll P

P
+
A

csnler gate SCR (courtesyGeneralElectric).

Fig. 1-4.Conventional

I
 /rl ll\'

gateSCR(courtesy
Fig.1-5.Amplifying GeneralElectric).

double switching sequenceis optimized by choice of proper

geometrysuchthatthe principalthyristorswitcheson immediately
afterthe pilot is activated.Theareaof immediateturn-onis sizable
as shown on the plan view of the pellet structurein Fig. 1-5.
Although it is possibleto turn on a ring around the amplify-
ing gateaspreviouslydescribed,a finite spreadingvelocity requires
a finite period of time before conduction moves out from the
peripheryof the amplifyinggateto causethe entireannularpor-
tion of the thyristorto be on. Dependingon the designedvoltage
and speedcharacteristics of a thyristor,the spreadingvelocitycan
range anywhere from 3000 to 8000 cm/second.This represents
spreadingtimes of 50 ps for a 110 A device to better than 300
ps for a 550 A device.One can appreciatethat for narrow pulses
(lessthan the abovetimes),somethinglessthan the entire pellet
is in conduction and wide pulse current capability cannot be
realized.
The solutionemployedto extendthe amplifyinggate princi-
ple to thyristorsdesignedfor narrowpulseapplicationis interdigita-
tion. Figurel{ showsthe extensionof the amplifyinggate
technology to includeinterdigitation.
Thefingersextending out
intothecathodeareaincrease thegateperipheryfroma littlemore
than2 cm to about44 cm.Thedistance thatspreadingmustnow
traverseis muchreduced,sothattotaltumon occursin aboutl0
to 30 ps.Of course,the regionfor conductionis muchreduced
with interdigitation,
butnarrowpulsesdon'trequireanymore,and
an interdigitateddevicewouldnot be usedfor wide pulses. The
previously mentiondnon-interdigiateddevicesaremuchsuperior
for wide pulseapplications.

Dv/dt
As mentionedearlier,a rapidly rising forward voltage
waveform couldswitchon anSCR.Sincethiscanleadto spurious
operation, SCRs to be usedin circuitswith highdv/dt,sshouldbe
of shortedemifterconstruction with its intrinsichighdv/dtwith-
standcapability.
Figure1-7showsa simpleform of shortedemifterthyristor
structure.Externallyappliedgatecurrentlo flows from gateto
cathodelaterallythroughthegatepregion.Thevoltagedropde
velopedacrossthe lateralbaseresistance of p forwardbiasesthe
right-handedgeof the cathodejunction.lf gatecurrentis suffi-
cientlylarge,electrons areinjectedfromthis point,andthede
viceturnson in normalpnpnfashionwhenregeneration begins.
Theeffeaof thepartialgateto cathodeshortis somewhat the
sameasplacinga resistor in parallelwith thegatecathodejunc-
tion of a conventional non-shortedemifterdevice.Thisresistor
divertssomeof thethyristor'sthermallygenerated leakage
current
and/ordv/dtinducedcapacitive chargingcurrentaroundthegate

Actualsize
Flg. 1€. An intordigitatodamplifyinggatestnrc:ture(courtosyGeneralElectric).

10
 rl
ll
il
Eleciron Cun€nt
flo|v lbw

Fig.1-7.Shorted
emitterstruclure(clurtesyGeneralEloctric).

cathodejunction, by prorridingan alternativelower impedance

path to the cathode.Regenerationis reducedand a shortedemit-
ter thyristor has, as a result,superiorhigh temperaturecharac-
teristicsand dv/dt capability.Emittershortsreducethe emifterarea
thatcan conductprinciplecurrentand alsointerferewith the turn-
on of the device, therebyreducingdi/dt.

Turn-offTlme
It was pointedout earlierthat the storedminority chargein
the basemust decay to zero by recombinationbeforefonrard
B.
voltagemay be applied to the SCRwithout its turning on. This
recombinationeffectcan be representedby the simple formula:

dP"I
recombination-
dtl
where P" is the excessminority charge(holesin this case)and ro
is the lifetimeof holesin the B" base.Represdntative
valuesof ro
rangefrom 0.1 to 1000ps and dependupon purity,structureand
dopingof the silicon.High frequencyoperationrequiresshortturn-
off times so that rD must be made small. Usually, this is ac-
complishedby introducingheavymetalor irradiationdamagein-
to 8", which act as additionalrecombinationcenters.However,
as mentiond before,as zegoesdown, so do the voltageand cur-
rent ratings.

GateCurrent
ln designingthyristorsfor high frequencyapplications,almost

11
all of the structurechangesthat are introducedtend to require
greatergatedrive. Loweringthe carrierlifetimeto obtain shonturn-
off time, introducinga shortedemitterto obtain improveddv/dt,
increasingthe amountof cathodeperiphery,usingan n* gateto
reducedelay time-all of thesemodificationsrequire increased
gate current.The amplifying gate mentionedearlier overcomes
some of theseproblems.

Hlgh FrcquencyOPeratlon
High frequencyoperationstretchesall of the SCRratingsto
their limits. The circuit subjectsthe SCRconcurrentlyto high
di/dt's,high dv/dt's,and shortturn-offtimes,as well as high volt-
age and current.From the previousdiscussion,it should be evi-
dent that short turnoff times often conflict with low on-state
voltages;shortedemitterconstructionthatallowshighdv/dt lowers
dildt. Thus,the devicedesigner'sgoal is to providea designwith
a balancedset of attributesto maximize the power switching
capabilityof the device while maintaininggate triggercontrol.

A triac may be thoughtof as two silicon-controlledrectifiers

connectedin a reverseparallelconfigurationand sharingthe same
gatecircuit.When the deviceis turnedon, both SCRportionscon-
duct, but due to the reverseparallelconnection,currentmay flow
throughthe circuit in eitherdirection.Therefore,the triac may be
usedfor power control of alternatingcurrent'This is not possible
using the silicon-controlledrectifier.
ihe basictriac structureis shown in Fig. 1-8.The verticalre'
gion directly betweenterminalsMT, and MT, can be visualized
ir pnpn switch in parallelwith an npnp switch,or, in other
" as a back-tobackconnectedpair of reverseblocking triode
words,
thyristors(SCRs) with a singleexternalgateconnection.ln reality,
the gatedesignis quite complex,but it is this complexitythat
enablesthe triac to be triggeredby a sole conirol electrode,in-
dependentof the polarityof the appliedmain terminalvoltageor
eventhe polarityof the appliedgatingsignal.Figurel-8 also il-
lustratesa triacsymbolorientedin properrelationshipto the struc-
tural diagram.Sincethe terms "anode" and "cathode" are not
applicableto a triac, main terminal connectionsare designated
simply by number.The ac volt-amperecharacteristics of the triac
are based on MT, as the referencepoint.

12
 The first quadrant,Q-1,is the region where MT, is positive
with respectto MT, and vice versafor Q-lll. The breakovervolt-
age,V,ronin eitherquadrant(with no gatesignal)must be higher
than the peak of the normal ac waveformapplied in order to re
tain control by the 8ate.A Satecurrentof specifiedamplitudeof
either polarity will trigger the triac into conduction in either
quadrant,providedthe applied voltageis lessthan V(Bo). lf V(Bo)
is exceeded, even transiently, the triac will switch to the con-
ductingstateand remain conducting until cuirentdrops below the
holdingcurrent, lr. This action provtdes inherent immunity for
the triacfrom excessive transient voltages and generallyeliminates
the needfor auxiliaryprotectivedevices.In someapplications, the
turningon of the triac by a transient could have undesirable or
hazardousresultson the circuit being controlled, in which case
transientsuppressionis requiredto preventturn-on,even though
the triac itself is not damagedby transients.
Triac current ratings are based on maximum iunction
temperature,similarto SCRs.The currentratingis determinedby
conductiondrop; i.e., power dissipationand thermal resistance
junction to case,and is predicatedon proper heat-sinking'lf the
casetemperatureis allowed to go above its ratedvalue,as deter-
mined from the specificationsheet,the triac can no longer be

(A) (B)

TerminalMT,
Heat

TerminalMT,

Fig. 1-8.Simplifiedpelletstructureand schematicsymbolot a triac(courtesy

GeneralElectric).
13
 Buarantd to block its ratedvoltage,or to reliably turn off when
main terminal current goesthrough zero.
For inductiveloads,the phaseshiftbetweenline currentand
line volage meansthat at the time that currentdrops to the I,
valueand the triac changesto the non-conductingstate,a certain
line voltageexistswhich mustthen appearacrostthe triac. lf this
voltageappearctoo rapidly,the triacwill immediatelyresumecon-
duction. ln order to achievepropercommutationwith certainin-
ductive loads,the dvldt must be limited by a seriesRC circuit in
parallelwith the triac,or current,voltage,phaseshift,or junction
temperaturereduced.
l Sincethe triac may be triggeredwith low energypositiveor
negativegatecurrentin both the firstand third quadranr, the cir-
i
cuit designerhasa wide latitudefor selectingthe control means.
t
Triggeringcan be obained from dc, rectifiedac, ac, or pulse
I
sourcessuchasunijunctiontransistors, neon lamps,and switches
diodessuchasthe ST-2diac,the siliconbilateralswitch(SBS), and
the asymmetricaltriggerswitch (ST4).
The triggering modes for the triac are:

MT2 +,Cate+;l+;Firstquadrant,positivegatecurrentand voltage.

MT2 +,Gate-;l-;First quadrant,negativegatecurrentand volage.
MT2-,Cate+;lll+;Third quadrant,positive gate current and
voltage.
MT2-,Gate-;lll-;Third quadrant,negativegate current and
voltage.

Thesensitivityof the triac,at present,is greatestin the l+ and

lll- modes,slightly lower in the l- mode, and much lesssen-
sitive in the lll+ mode. The lll+ mode should not be used,
therefore,unlessspecialcircumstances dicate it. ln sucha case,
triacs which have been speciallyselectedfor the application are
availableand should be specified.
TheVJ characteristics of the triac gateshow a low non-linear
impedancebetweengateand terminalMT'. The characteristic is
similarto a pair of diodesconnectedin an inverseparallelcon-
figuration.Sincein any given mode this characteristicis similar
to that of an SCRgate,gatingbehavioris likewisesimilarto that
of an SCR.

The successful reliable operation of thyristor

predicatedon its properdesignand construction.The fabrication
methodschosenfor a particularthyristortypedependa greatdeal
on the serviceexpectedfrom that type. A 70A SCRdestinedfor
usein a harshmilitaryenvironmentmaydiffer radicallyin design
from a 6A triac intendedfor the light industrialor consumer
markets.

Pellet Fabrlcatlon
The heartof a pnpn device is its multilayeredpellet of alter-
nate p and n-typesemiconductormaterial.This semiconductor
is almost always silicon, althoughgermaniumhas been used.
Pelletsmay be fabricatedby any one of severalmethods,depend-
ing on the desiredcharacteristics, complexity,and sizeof the fin-
ished device. The most popular pellet fabricationmethodsare
diffusedand planar diffused.The manufactureof alldiffused pnpn
pelletsstartswith the preparationof largeareapnp wafers.These
are formedby gaseouslydiffusingptype impuritiessimultaneously
into both facesof a thin wafer of n-typesilicon.Where specific
device characteristics require it, a seconddiffusionstep is used
to complete the final pnpn structure.To do this, each pnp wafer
is selectivelymasked(on one sideonly), and subsequentlydiffused
with n-typeimpuritiesthroughthe windows in the mask.The fin-
ished pnpn wafersare then diced into individual pellets.Triacs
and other more complexstructuresfabricatedusingsimilartech-
niques.Figure1-9 showsthe variousstepsleadingto the fabrica-
tion of a typical diffusedSCRstructure.

PelletEncapsulatlon
Pelletencapsulationmethodsvary widely, dependingon the
in-serviceenvironmentand circuit operatingconditionsimposed
on the finishedproducl,and on the type and sizeof the chip (or
chips)beingencapsulated. Two fundamentallydifferentmethods
are used to house large area pellets.The older, more traditional
methodis to hard solder(using a gold-eutetic
alloy)the anodeside
of the pellet to a refractorymetal(tungstenor molybdenum)back-
up plate, the lafter matchingthe thermal expansionof Si. This
subassembly, along with a cathodemolybdenumback-upplate
and two silvershimsto reducethermalresistance, is held firmly
in place insidea studhousingby internalBellevillespringwashers
(seeFig. 1-10).This PIC-PAKconstruction(Pressurized Internal
Contacts)minimizesthe possibilityof thermalfatigue.

15
 P
N
P
(A) PNPwet€ratlsr 1st dittusion (B) PNP wal€ratler 2nd dittusion

i*i
@Iap
VwM"
t___lP
(D) CompleredPNPN p€ll€t

P
N
P

pran€
(C) PNPNwat€r ready for dicing

Fig. 1-9.All-diffusedp€lletlormation(courtesyGeneralElectric)'

In shouldbe emphasized, however,thatwhile the useof hard

solderis virtuallyindispensablefor the (soldered) mountdownof
largediametersiliconchips,in smallerdevicesit is possibleto
substitutespecialand lowercostsoftsolders(usuallywith a high
leadcontent),withoutsacrificing thermalcyclingcapability.Fig-
ure 1-11 portrays a power diode that utilizessoft-soldermount-
down. Here, for cost and effectiveness, the traditional and
expensive ceramic metal housingis replaced by a molded plastic
cap that, in conjunction with state-of-theartpellet passivation
(polyimide coatings),provides more than adequatelong-term

16
 Hermetic
seals

Ceramic

Bellerville
washers
Steel hex
Mica insulation
Pellet
subassembly

(courtesy
construction
bonded
Fig.1-10.Intemalcompression Electric).
General

blockingstability.In this CE exclusiveHl-LINEdesign,because

the plasticcap is hollow, thereis no contactbetweenplasticand
silicon. Consequbntly,both blocking stability and thermal cy-
clingbehavioraresimultaneously enhancedby eliminationof the
ther"mally mismatched interfacethat resultsfrom
plastic-silicon
classicdirect molding, and is extremely to contamina-
susceptible
tion via capillary action.
The HI-LINEtechnologyextendsto far more complex ar-
rangements than the simplediode just described.Figure1-12 t'
lustiatesa HI-LINEPowerModule, in which two power semi-

GeneralEl€ctric)'
Fig. 1-11.Highcurrentrectifiers(courtosy
17
 Nitrogen
backfilltube
sealed after bakeout
cure of epoxyresinglues
Cover
designedfor U.L.
creep distanc<Sro
& srrike

Upperchamberlilled with
epoxy,
seals housing(patent
pending)

Stresslree lower chamber

enclosingsiliconsubassemblies
free from stress lorming
encapsulants& poisonousgases
createdby encapsulantcuring.
Nitrogenfilled for blocking
life stability.

Copper
baseplate

Fig.1-12.Powermodulein whichtwopowersemiconductor chipscomposod

anddiodesaremounted
rectifiers
ol siliconcontrolled in tandemon a com-
moncopperbasoplate (courtesy
GeneralElectric).

conductorchips(SCRs, diodes,or one of each)are mountedin

tandemon a common copperbaseplate. Electricalisolationbe-
tween chipsaswell asbenveenchipsand the common baseplate
18
 GE proprietarysolderswith high thermalfatigue
life and consistentlyvoid-freeconnections
for minimumthsrmalresistance

Stressrelieving
braidedcopper lead

Enhancedthermal cycling
capacity
(fatiguelife) and surgo rating
achievedthrough uss of stross
relievingtop moly plates
Silicon
subassembly
Extendedblockinglife
achievedwith GE proprietary
passivation& inert gas
atmosphericdesign
Added thermalcycling capacity
and low thermal resistanca
achi€ved through specially
designed(GE patent pending)
thick copperinterconnecting
straps
Low thermal resistance
providedby large area, thick
copper pads directly bonded
to caramic for maximumheat
spreadingarea (GE patent€d)

High isolationvoltage(2500V
RMS)
providedby low stress high
thermal
conductivityceramic

a metallizedberylliumoxide (electrically
is realizedby interposing
insulatingbut thermallyconductive)platebetweenchipsand base
plate.In this way, becausethe baseplate is electricallyisolated,

19
 the module may be mountd directly to any convenientcooling
medium(anequipmentchassis, for example)withoutincurringcost
for additionalisolation.
A variationof the compressionbondingtechnique,in which
the retainingforce is appliedexternallyratherthan by internally
locatedsF,frngwashers,is the PressPak, shown in Fig. 1-13. A
particularadvantageto applyingthe force-externallyis that this
methodallows the semiconductorpellet assemblyto be cooled
from both sides for improved heat transfer.
Becauseplanaror glassivatedtype pelletfabricationinherently
givea largedegreeof environmentalprotectionto the pelletelec-
hermeticglass-metal
trical characteristics, packagingis often not
required for these types of devices. Pellets so passivatedare

subassembly
slugs

Fig. 1-13.Press Pak encapsulationfor the GeneralElectric550 seriesof

semiconductors(courtesyGeneralElectric).

20
 copp€r
@nn€clors

Hgad€r with
Copp€r wire lsads

(courtesy
viewotthePowerPakasssmbly
Fig.1-14.Pictorial Electric).
General

generallyencapsulatedin a transfer-molded, silicone plastic

package,which provides good mechanicalintegrityto the finished
device.Figure1-14 showsa plasticpackageusedfor glassivated
triacsand SCRs.
Anotherlong-soughtmeansof pellet passivationhasrecently
become feasible: glass passivation.A thin coating of low
temperatureglassis fusedonto the siliconchip and performsthe
samefunctionas the SiO, layer mentionedabove.Classpassiva-
tion is superiorto SiO, (in actualiV,alsoa glass),sinceit can be
appliedin thickercoatings,givingsuperiorpassivation and allow-
ing highervoltageratings.Becauseglassivationis a postdiffusion
passivationprocess,it can be readilyappliedto mesa-typepellet
structures.In general,much higherblockingvoltagescan be ob-
tainedfrom mesastructuresthan from the planarprocessand ad-
ditionally,siliconutilization(amps/sq cm) is muchSreater. Thus,
mesastructuresare more desirablefor high voltage,high current
deviceslike largethyristors.

It shouldbe apparentat this pointthatthe designof a thyristor,

especiallyone destined for high frequencyapplications,is
necessarilya compromisebetweenvariousconflictingperformance
however,in manyfastswitchingcircuits,the
criteria.Fortunately,
21
thyristoris bypassedin its reverseblockingdirectionwith an an-
tiparalleldiode that servesto conduct reactiveload currents.In
such applications,reversevoltageapplied to the SCRis limited
to a few volts (seeFig. l-15).
The principle of the asymmetricthyristoris to capitalizeon
this circuit characteristicby designing a pnpn structurethat
dispenseswith high reverseblocking voltageand consequently
offen significantlyimprovedperformanceasfar asotherparameters
areconcerned.The asymmetricstructurediffersfrom that of a con-
ventionalSCR,as shownin Fig. 1-16,by the interposition of the
highly doped N+ layer betweenthe P+ anode and the normal
N base.The purposeof this layer is to preventspreadingof the
electricfield thatexistsin the N baseduringforwardblockinginto
the anodeP+ regionwhere it would precipitatevoltageinduced
fonvard breakover.In conventionalSCRs,this phenomenonis
avoidedby makingthe N-basevery thick (morespreadingroom)
with consequentdeleteriouseffectson forward voltagedrop. In
the ASCR,the N-regionis thin, and forwarddrop is considerably
lower. Should the prospectiveuser feel that minimum on-state
lossesare not essential,the forwarddrop can be broughtbackto
normalSCRlevelsby additionalgold dopingor electronirradia-
tion,which hasthe meritof causinga dramaticdecrease in turn-
off time. An intermediatecourse is to adjust cioping levels for
(lesser)gains in both parameters.Sincereverseblocking of the
asymmetricstructureis dependenton the P+ N + junction,which
is boundedby zonesof low resistivity,the overall reverseblock-
ing capabilityis limited to l0-50 volts.
There is a whole family of light-activatedthyristors.These
operatein much the samemanneras the componentsdiscussed

I
v \*i I
I I

Fig.1-15.Wavelorms tor sinusoidalcurrentsllowingthroughan asymmstrical

silicon{ontrolledrectifi€r(courtesyGeneralElectric).

22
 Depletionwidth

Cross-sectionalview of
conventionalcenter gate
SCR and electricalfield
during off-state

K K
I I
N .+ .l Pz+ I N.*

IF
!

Ni- D€pletionwidth
I
Nt*
P.+
A
AsymmetricSCR
cross sectionalview

of rsverseblockingtriodeor tetrodethyristors
Fig. 1-16.characteristics
GeneralElsctric).
(courtesy

previously. However,a lightsourceis usedasa meansof causing

thesecomponentsto conductcurrent.The LASis a light-activated
switch, or light-activatedreverseblocking diode thyristor' The
LASCRis a light-activated silicon-controlledrectifierwhose Sate
circuitis set Jp in the conventionalmanner,but in a controlled
way which letsvariousintensities of lightcausethe deviceto break
into forward biasedconduction'Similarly,there is the light-
activatedsiIicon<ontrolled switch,wh ich containsfour electrodes,
23
and even light-activatedtriacs.
All of thesecomponentsand many othersare derivativesof
rectifier.All fall in the generalcate-
the originalsilicon-controlled
gory of thyristors.

The silicon<ontrolledrectifieris a threjunction semiconduc-

tor device.lt is nonnally an open circuit until a signalis applied
to the gateelement.At this time, the device rapidly switchesto
a conductingstate.
Forwardblockingvoltageis a valuethat putsthe SCRin a for-
ward biasedstate,but which doesnot switch it to the conducting
state.Breakdownvoltage is that value that causesthe SCRto ac-
tually switchto the conductingor on state.The forwardblocking
regionof the SCRis largestwhen gatecurrent is zero. lt takesa
greatervalueof forwardanode/cathode volage to causebreakover.
As gate current is increased,the forward blocking region is
decreased, and the breakovervoltagepoint occurssooner.When
the breakdownvoltagevalue is reached,the gate regionof the
SCRis effectivelyeliminatedand the SCRgoes into heavycon-
duction and staysthere until anode current drops below the
minimumvalueof holdingcurrent,at which timethe SCRreverts
to the fonryardblocking state.
Cate currentis an importantcharacteristic of the SCR.With
gatecurrent atzero,a high valueof anode/cathode voltagein the
forwarddirectionwould be necessary to causethe SCRto reach
the breakovervoltageand go into high conduction.As gatecur-
rent is increasedto increaseforward bias,the forward blocking
regionis reducedand breakovervoltageoccurssooner.lt is possi-
ble to seta valueof gatecurrentthat would eliminatethe forward
blocking regionentirely,at which time the SCRwould perform
as a conventionalPN rectifier.
Once the SCRreachesthe high conductionregion,the gate
has no control and the gate has been effectivelyeliminated.To
regaincontrol, externalmethodsrnustbe applied to the SCRto
reducethe flow of anodecurrent.One methodis to apply a volt-
ageto the anodethat will makethe anodenegativewith respect
to the cathode.Thisturnsthe SCRoff, puttingit backto a forward
blockingcondition.Anothermethodis to divertenoughanodecur-
rent to someexternalcircuit for a periodof time long enoughto
causeholdingcurrentto drop below its rninimumvalue,thereby

24
turningthe scR off. A switchacrossthe anode/cathode terminals,
electronically activated or otherwise, will divert the anode cur-
rent flow. still another method of turning the scR off is to cause
a heavy reversecurrent flow from Sateto cathode by injecting a
reversevoltagewhich will causethe gate regionto increaseits
oppositionto anodecurrentflow and allow the Eateto regaincon-
trol of the device.
The blockingvoltagecapabilityof all semicondudorjunctions
is temperaturesensitive.Theavalanchevoltage(theultimatevolt-
age limi0 decreases with temperature. This necessitates a voltage
dlrating for measurements taken at room or elevated temperature.
A secondfactorthatdeterminesa temperaturelimit is to limit ther-
mally induced mechanicalstressesin the silicon crystalto safe
values.
The maximumjunctiontemperaturelimit is imposedbecause
of the positivetemperaturecoefficientdependenceof intrinsic
leakagecurrentsand increasedturn-offtime.Intrinsicleakagecur-
rentsincreaseexponentiallywith temperature'For a simple, re'
versebiasedpn junction, increasedleakagecurrentsresultin higher
power dissipation,which could lead to thermalinstability'ln
ihyristorstructures,high leakagecurrentdecreaseoff-statevolt-
age- capabilityand increaseturn-offtimes.
The ratedmaximumoperatingjunctiontemperature limit is
usedto determinesteady-state and recurrentoverload capability
for a given heatsinksystemand maximumambienttemperature.
ConvErsely, the requiredheatsinksystemmay be determinedfor
a given loading of the semiconductordevice by meansof the
classicthermalimpedanceapproach'
Transiently,the device may actually operate beyond its
specified,n"*i*ur operatingjunctiontemperature and still be
appliedwithin its ratings.An exampleof this Wpeof operation
occurswithin the specifiedforward non-recurrentsurgecurrent
rating.Anotherexampleis the local temperatureriseof the junc-
tion due to the switchingdissipationduring the turn-onof a
thyristorunder some conditions.lt is presentlyimpracticalto
establishtemperaturelimits for thesetypesof operatingstresses
from both a rating as well as an applicationspoint of view'
Therefore,suchhigher-than-rated temperatureoperationmust re'
main implicit in other ratings established for the device'
The power generated in the iunction region in typicaldevic€
operationconsists of the following five components of dissipation:

25
 I Turn-onswitching.
I Conduction.
I Turn-off or reverserecovery.
I Blocking.
I Triggering(for thyristors).

The silicon-controlledrectifieris a mostremarkablesolid-state

device,and while modifications havebeen made,mostdesigns
are basicallyidenticalto the firstcomponentmademorethan25
yearsago. Probablythe most pleasingaspectof the SCRis its
simplicity,especiallyin regardto its use in electroniccircuits.
Many, many components(electronicand mechanical)can be
eliminatedfrom all typesof equipmentthroughthe use of the
silicon-controlled rectifier.

26
 Chapter2

;)i-ir -i tjo. 2 -:* l7

i,r.r{, ,ir | ..4D

1," *

ElectronicComponents
HILETHIS IS A BOOK ON SCRPROJECTS,
YOU MUST REMEMEER
thatotherelectronicandelectricalcomponentsareneeded
to completemostSCRcircuits.All of the projectsinvolvesilicon-
controlledrectifiers,but may also use transistors, pn junction
diodes,transformers, resistors,
capacitors,inductors,andothel such
commondevices.
ln orderto build the projectsin this book, you musthavea
basicunderstanding of not only silicon-controlledrectifiers,but
alsothe othercomponentsrequiredfor circuit completion.You
will also have to know how to test thesedevicesin order to
troubleshootany projectwhich does not seemto be operating
properly.
Thischapterprovidesyou with a basicunderstanding of elec-
tronic componentsand circuit values.This is not an indepth,
theoretic,technicalstudyof how electroniccomponentswork, but
ratheran overviewof what eachcommoncomponentdoes.Each
componentwill be discussed in simpleterms,with specialem-
phasison how it operateswithin a basiccircuit.lf you are new
to electronicsand projectbuilding,thischapterwill giveyou the
groundworkof components andcircuitassembly thatyou'll need.
lf you are an experienced builder,you will probablyfind the in-
formation presentd here to be a helpful refreshercourse.

27
 Voltagecan be describedas potentialdifference.Voltagedoes
not flow; rather,it is a force that causesa flow of currentin a cir-
cuit. lt can be comparedto a bat that strikesa baseball.The move
ment of the ball is similarto the flow of current,and the bat is
the potentialforce that causesthe movementof the ball.
Voltageis either alternatingor direct. Direct current is most
often providedby batteries,while alternatingcurrentis obtained
from standardreceptaclessuch as those found in homes.
While the volt is a basicunit of potentialdifference, thereare
a number of derivativesof the volt which are usedto keep the
numbersmore practical.The term millivolt is used to describe
'l11000th
potentialdifferenceswhich are equivalentto of a volt.
An even smallerquantityis the microvolt,which is 1/1000thof
a miffivolt,or a millionthof a volt. One kilovoltis equalto 1,000
volts.Mostof the projectsin thisbook involvepotentialdifferences
which can be measuredin volts.
When speakingof voltage,it is necessaryto know the type
of voltageunderdiscussion. In basicelectricalcircuits,voltageis
measuredbetweenthe positiveand the negativepole. Contacts
from both of these poles must be applied to the circuit to be
poweredor to the measuringdevice in order to establisha flow
of current.When properlyconnectedto an electroniccircuit, or
load,a power sourcewill causecurrentto flow from the negative
to the positivepole.
All direct current (dc) voltagecircuits have filed poles.This
meansthatthe polarityremainsconstant.In otherwords,one con-
tact is alwayspositiveand the other is alwaysnegative.ln con-
trast, the polarity of alternatingcurrent is continuallybeing
reversed.Duringone halfof the ac cycle,one pole is positivewhile
the other is negative.During the next half, the pole that was
positive switchesto negative,and the negativepole becomes
positive.The rateof polaritychangein ac circuits,oralternation
is measuredin hertz,which is equivalentto the numberof cycles
per second.Householdpower is alternatingcurrentand reverses
at a rate of 60 hertz. This meansthat the polarity reversesitself
60 timeseachsecond.This rateof changeis called the frequency.

Currentflow is measuredin amperes.Theterm "flow" is quite

accuratewhen discussingcurrent,aselectronsare causedto flow

28
througha circuit when a voltagesourceis connected.Anotherterm
which is quite accurateis "circuit," becauseto establisha flow
of current,it is necessaryto have a completeelectricalpath be
tween the positiveand negativepolesof the voltagesource.When
this path, or circuit, is interrupted,the current flow ceases.
An ampere is actuallyan indicationof the nurnberof elec-
tronswhich movepasta specificpoint in a circuit in a givenperiod
of time.Theampereis equivalentto approximately sixtrillion elec-
tronsper second.In practicalmeasurements, the number of elec-
tronsis not stipulated,but their movementis expressed in amperes
or in fractionalunitsthereof.The flow of electronsis alwaysfrom
the negativeto the positivePole.
As with the volt, thereare manyderivativesof the amperein
order to expressit in practicalterms. Milliampereis often used
to describethe currentvaluesfound in solid-stateelectroniccir-
cuits and is equal to 1/1000thof an ampere.The rnicroampere
is equal to 1/1,000,000thof an ampere, or 1/'l000th of a
milliamfere. This term is usedto describethe currentvaluesof
extremelylow-poweredelectroniccircuits and signals.
The measurementof current is accomplishedby placingan
ammeteror milliammeter directlywithin the currentpathof a cir-
cuit. This is unlikemeasuringvoltage,which is done by placing
a multimeterprobeat the positiveand negativepolesof the volt-
a8e source.

Aconductoris any materialwhich providesa pathfor the flot /

of current.Commonelectricalwire is probablythe bestexample
of a conductor,as it allowselectronsto passfreelythroughitscop
per material.Frequencyhasa greatdeal to do with the conduc-
tivity of a material.A materialthateasilyconductsthe flow of direct
currentor low-frequencyalternatingcurrentwill often begin to
resistthe flow of currentas the frequencyincreases. Copperwir-
ing, then, can be thought of as a true conductor.
Thereis no suchthing, however,asa perfectconductor.Any
materialthatconductselectricalcurrentalsoresiststhis sameflow
to somesmalldegree.When speakingof copperwiring, the resis-
tanceto currentflow increases asthe electricalpathis len$hened.
Forexample,a smallbatteryeasilypasses enoughcurrentthrough
a miniature light bulb to cause it to glow. lf the batteryis con-
nectedto the bulb througha copperwire that is severalthousand
feet long, the resistanceis probablySreatenoughto preventan
29
adequateamountof currentto passthroughthe bulb's filament,
and the bulb would not get enoughcurrentto light up.

The term resistance describesthe oppositionof a materialto

the flow of currentand is measuredin ohms. Electroniccircuits
usedcalibrated,lumped resistances to controlthe flow of current.
Theseare called resistorsand come in manydifferentconfigura-
tions.Figure2-1 showssomeof the morecommontypesof resistors
foundin electroniccircuits.Theseare usuallyquitesmalldevices
which providea specificresistance to the flow of currentin a cir-
cuit. Most of the fixed resistorsusedfor the projecs in this book
will be carbondevices.Carbonresistors areavailablein half-watt,
one-wattand two-watt power ratings.The physicalsize of the
resistordeterminesits capabilityto handlepower but not its resis-
tance.A physicallylargeresistormay havea very high power rating

-T* i#S'L"*
<l *w'25- , vaFtABtE
4l llw= 3e"
l* dY\o s, .![l*r*n

-m--
lF
<l rw=57" lF
<t 2w:69- l-

@ cARBOf.r
coMPosrTroft Of,META
FIXEO FILM
F|re0
_"1dDtr

ffiffi
ll*,,1",*
N{.
I3'|S,?L"""
n'iffih'*"
4__4n
,J----i<
Jr,"**b

F-=a!!Eq _---|-

,*,**$$ htcT^lrcuun PowEn

Fig. 2-1.Schematicsymboband pictorialdrawingsof severaltypesof com-

mon resistors.

30
 GOLD- 57o
SILVER.lO%
NONE-20%

COLORFIBST SECOND THIRDBAND

BAND BAND (MULTIPLIERi

BLACK O 01
BROWN .I 110
RED 2 2 100
ORANGE 3 3 1000
YELLOW 4 4 10,000
GREEN 5 5 100,000
BLUE 6 6 1,000,000
VIOLET 7 7 10,000,0.00
GRAY 8 8 100,000,000
WHITE 9 I

Fig.2-2.Theresistor
colorcodecharl.
and a very low resistance, whereasa small resistormay have a
resistanceof seVeralmillion ohms and a very low power rating.
The resistancevalueof a carbonresistoris mostoften indicated
by coloredbands.(Sometimes, the valueis indicatedby a number
stampedon the sideof the device,but this is quiterare.)lt is im-
portantfor the experimenter to know how to readthe color coding
designations on resistorsin orderto determinetheirvalues.Fig-
ure 2-2 showsa standardcolor code chartthat will allow you to
read the valuesof dny conventionallycoded carbon resistors.

Poweris mostoftendefinedasthe rateof doingwork. In elec-

tronicapplications, power is measuredin watts.In electricalcir-
cuits, power is equal to the potential (voltage)across the
componentor circuitmultipliedby the currentthatflowsthrough
it. Theformulawhich explainsthis is P - El,whereP equalspower
in wafts,Eequalspotentialin volts,and I equalscurrentin amperes.
For example,if an electricalpotentialof 9 volts is appliedto a
componentor completecircuitwhich causes0.5 ampereof cur-
rent to flow, the total power would be 9 x 0.5, or 4.5 watts.
31
 In any pure resistance,includingthat of a wire conductoror
an actual resistor,the work or power is in the form of heat which
first raisesthe temperatureof the resistance device and then, in
some part, is conducted or radiatedto the air and other nearby
objeai. Becauseexcessivetemperatures are damaginS, the rating
of a resistorincludes,in addition to its resistance, ability to
its
radiatepower without becomingtoo hot. This is statedin watts.
You will find resistorsratedfor 1/4 watt, 112watt, 1 watt, 2 watts,
5 watts, 10 watts, 25 watts,and higher.
Power in watts may be expressedby the squareof the current
flowing through a componenttimes its resistance,or P - l2R,
where R equali resistance in ohms.Thus,a lgohm resistorwhich
is called upon to passa currentof 2 amperesmust havea power
ratingof at least22 x 10,or 4 x 10, which is equal to 40 wafts'
Alsolnotice that for the resistorto passthat current,the applied
vottagemust be 20 volts (sinceE - | x R). Power may also be

calculatedby the formulas P - Yor P - VA (voltagetimes

R
current).

To understandthe conceptof capacitance,cbnsidera pair of

metalpJateswhich are placedneareachother, but not touching'
lf a battery is connectedto these plates(the positive pole to one
and the negativepole to the other),electronsfrom the batterywill
flow to the plateconnectedto the negativeterminal.At the same
time, excesielectronswill be attractedfrom the plateconnected
to the positiveterminalof the battery.lf the bafteryis disconnected,
on" pi"t" will be left with an excessof electronsand the other
with a shortageof electrons.Thus,a potentialor voltagedifference
will exist betweenthe two. Theseplatesact as a capacitor'Ca-
pacitanceis the storageof electricalenergyby objectsinsulated
irom each other. The amount of energy,or the total number of
electronsthat can be storedin a capacitor,is proportionalto the
originalvoltage,the areaof the plates,the distancebetweenthem,
and the insulatingmaterial(dielectric)betweenthe plates.
Capacitanceis measuredin farads.A faradis a very largequan-
tity which is seldomfound in electroniccircuits,so fractionalunits
are again necessary. A microfarad(pF)is a millionth of a farad,
and a picofarad(pF)is a millionthof a microfarad.Figure2-3 -shows
someof the morecommontypesof capacitorsfound in ele-*'onic

32
 ffinffi-*",-
".$ ':="p:u,:"E:
CERAMIC POLYESTER

i3il:l"il."'
ffiL--
^",AL'LEA'
$il''--ftfuuLTrPuE'
€*ffi- u u,o),oo"
cotoR'Bl'AcK
RADTAL-LEAD
ELECTROLYNC
ALUMTNUM

l,-xlzql f7=-h
rp)%t
\Lrr
laE-D
-
AIR.OIELECTRIC MICA-OIELECTRIC
VARIASLE TBIMMEB

S${EMATIC SYMBOLS:
-1
cENERAL. o" cAPAcrrANcEANovoLrAGEcoLoRcoDE
F ie ,
Crp.in
G0tm +85G Picd.r||b hilpll,
Pol-ARlZEo:i
-e l9lEtr
I il ail artfiS.

Blact 4 0 0
vARTABLE: o" Bro$r 6 t t
l€ Rod 10 2 2
Qangg
'15 3 3
Ygllow 20 1 a rl0.
Green 25 5 5 r1F
Blug 35 0 6 rlO
7 7 rtq
Viol€l
Gray I I 8
Wh!lo' 9 I

SOLIDTANTALUM
ELECTROIYTIC(SOMEMAYBE
M AS K F DW I l H P R I N l E ON ( J M B E R S
RAlHElt THANcoloR coDE)

Fig.2.3'$chematicsymbo|sforandpictoria|drawingsofsevera|typeso|
capacito's.
gg
 projects,as well as their correspondingschematicsymbols'
Capacitorsare ratedin termsof operatingvolt'age,capacitance,
and sometimestemperaturecoefficient.The combinationof volt-
ageratingandcapacitance will determinethe physicalsizeof each
cipacitoi, aswill the particulardielectricmaterialusedin its con-
struction.Capacitorsare used quite often in electroniccircuits,
becausethey havethe capabilityof passingalternatingcurrent(as
the platesaiternatelygain and lose free electrons)and blocking
direct current(sincethe platesare insulatedfrom each other)'
It is important to be aware of the fact that different types of
capacitorsmay not be electricallyinterchangeable due to dif-
ferencesin burientleakage,high frequencyperformance,and other
such criteria.'Therefore,until you gain an understandingof
capacitors, don't try to substituteone typefor another.Sometypes
of capacitors (specifically,electrolytics and tantalums) are
polarized, andtheircaseswill eitherbe markedwith a dot or plus
(+ ) sign(positive terminal)or a negativeor minus(- ) sign(negative
terminal).lt is very importantthat you connect thesetypes of
I devicesin the properdirection,sinceinstallingthem backwards
I can easilydestroyeither the capacitoror anothercomponent'
d
q

[, ffiition to changein the rateof flow of

i
an electriccurrent.Theflow of currentthrougha conductorcreates
I a magneticfield,andenergyis storedin the magneticfieldwhich
surrounds the conductor.Once a currentof a givenvaluehasbeen
established in an inductor(thedevicethat displaysinductance),
that inductapce will opposeany increase or decreasein the cur-
rent.Justas) capacitorblocksa directcurrent and permits alter-
natingcurrentto pass,an inductorallows directcurrent to pass
while opposingthe flow of alternating current,because the alter-
natingcurrentchanges fasterthanthe magneticfield canchange'
The henryis the unit of inductance. For manyapplications,
thetermmillihenryis used,which is abbreviated mH and is equal
to 1/1000thof a henry.Also common is the microhenry (pH),
which is a millionthof a henry.
lnductorscan be made in many differentways,rlepending
upon the amountof inductancerequiredin a circuitand the fre
quencyat which the inductoris to operate.Forradiofrequencies,
can be a'simplecoil of a few turnsof wire or wire
an indr.rctor
which hasbeenwound arounda ferrite(powderediron)core'At
audioand power line frequencies, inductorsgenerallyresemble

34
 Ii

m ffi g ffi
-'#i oro,ot*onfo*ur*., r:ffi"ANSFoRMERs
cHoKEs,
FTLTER
(MANYVARIATIONSINSIZE ANDSHAPE)

MINIATUREAUDIO
TRANSFORMERSAND
INDUCTORS

-JRH
4{fi ......crffi- -ffi$-
VABIABLE RFCHOKE

o,""*ffi
RFINDUCTORS

SCHEMATICSYMEOLS:
TFANSFOBMER
!1I*I
GENERAL: ,'YYY\ /YYrfr

WTHCOBE: :
/Y\ff'l

VARTABLE*?+

Fig.24. Transformers
andinduclors.

audio and power transformers;that is, many turnsof wire which

havebeenwound arounda laminatedsteelcore. Figure24 shows
sometypesof inductorsand the schematicsymbolfor an inductor.

ln conductorslike copper,electricalcurrentis carriedby elec-

trons that are almostperfectlyfree to move unimpededthrough
the atomicstructureof the nraterial.In insulatorssuchas glass,
ceramic,or the materialsuserlfor substratesfor circuitboards,the
electronsare tightly bound ir: the atomicstructure, and no cur-
rentcanflow unlessthisstructureisdisruptedby very highvoltages.
But thereis an intermediateclassof materialscalledsemiconduc-
tors.In thesedevices,electronsare normallynot availableto carry
current,but they are held in the atomicstructurelooselyand can
be moved if a moderatevoltage is applied.
Siliconis the mostcommonmaterialusedto makesemicon-
ductordevicestoday.Puresilicon,the majorconstituent of beach
sand,is a good insulator.An atom of siliconhasfour electrons
in its outermostorbit, or shell,and pairsof theseelectronsare
sharedwith theoutermost orbitsof neighboring siiiconatoms.This
meansthateachsiliconatonris actuallysurrounded by eightelec-
tronswhicharetightlyboundin theatomicstructure of the silicon
crystal.
ln orderto usesiliconto makesemiconductors, carefullycon-
trolledamountsof impurityatomsare addedto its crystalstruc-
ture.This is calleddoping.lf the impurityis, for example,atoms
of phosphorus, an elementwith five electronsin its outer shell,
the extraelectronhasno real placein the crystalstructure.This
additionalelectroncan easilyhe forcedout of placeand moved
throughthe structureby the applicationof a few tenthsof a volt.
Suchsiliconis calledN-fype(for negative)semiconducting ma-
terial.
On the otherhand,if the siliconis dopedwith atomsthat have
fewerelectrons(boron,for example,which hasonly threevalence
electrons), a semiconducting, materialwith an electrondeficiency
(P-type)is formed.Suchmaterialquickly acceptsan extraelec-
tron if a few tenthsof a volt are applied.

Thesimplestsemiconductor deviceis madeup of a sandwich

of P-typeand N-typesemiconductingmaterial,with contactsprG
videdto connecttheselayersto an externalcircuit.Thisis known
as a junction diode. lf the positiveterminalof a batteryis con-
nectedto the P-typematerial(cathode),and the negativeterminal
is connectedto the N-type nraterial(anode),the looseelectrons
in the N materialareeasilyforc.edinto the spacesin the P mate.
rial, arrda fargecurrentfitlrvs,This is calledthe forwardcurrent
and is almostasgreatasthe currentthatwould flow in a conduc-
tor suth ascopper.lf nol r-irntrolledthiscurrentcanbecomehigh
encuglrto destroythe diorje. Whr*nconnectedwith the positive
ternriiralof the batteryfo lhe cathorJe and the negativeterminal
to tlre anocle,the diode is said lr,sist {arwarclblased.
36
 lf the connections are reversed, with the positiveterminalof
the batteryconnectedto the anode and the negativeterminalto
the cathode,very little currentflows becausethe P-typematerial
acceptsthe electronsfrom the negativeterminalof the battery,and
the N-lypematerialgivesup its freeelectronsto the battery.This
resultsin a stateof electricalequilibrium,sincethe N-typemate
rial hasno more*iectronsto give and the P-typematerialhasno
moreroomfor electrons.Actually,becausethe P-typematerialhas
a few free electronsand the N-typematerialhasa few spacesor
holes,thereis a smallcurrentwhen the diode is reversebiased.
This is known as the leakageor reversecurren:t.
Thebasiccharacteristic of a semiconductor diode is that it acts
iike a verv low resistance when it is forwardbiasedand a very
high r"esistance when reversebiased.lf an alternatingcurrentis
appliedto thisdevice,currentflowsfreelyduringone half cycle
(whenthe diodeis forwardbiased)and not at all duringthe other
half cycle (when the diode is reversebiased).This makesthe
semiconductor diode an effectiverectifierwhich can convertalter-
natingcurrentinto pulsatingdirect current.
Althoughthis discussion has dealt only with the junction
diode,a diodeactioncan alsobe achievedby placinga veryfine
rvire(catwhisker) in contactwith a slabof semiconducting mate
rralof eitherN- or P-type.Thiscreatesa pointtontactdiode,which
is commonlyusedin radio frequencyapplications.
Therearealsomanyotherrypesof diodes.Someare ugedfor
rectification in powersupplies, while othersareusedto rectifyand
cjetectsmallsignals.Cenerally,diodesare specifiedin termsof
forwardvoltage(themaximumvoltagewhich can be appliedin
the forwardcondition),reversevoltage(themaximumamountof
voltagethatcan be appiiedto the diode in the reversecondition,
or how muchvoltagethe diodecan safelyblock),and safecurrent-
handlingcapability.
Figure2-5 showstlre basicconstruction of the lunctionand
point-contact diode, schematic symbols, and some typesof diode
packages.Note that the cathodeend of rnostdiode packagesis
markedwith a colorband,a dot, or by a seriesof colorbandsthat
identifythe type number.

materialis addedto a iunc-

lf a third layerof semiconductor
tion diode,thusmakingit two N-typelayersseparatedby a P-type
layer,the resultingdeviceis known as a transistor;in this case,

37
 I
t
I
i

a bipolar transistot,becauseits operationdependsupon the flow

of electronsin one directionand holesor empty spacesin the other
direction.A bipolartransistoris reallytwo junctiondiodesformed
back to back.
Eachof the three layersof a bipolar transistorhasits own con-
tact for connectionto an externalcircuit. The emitter contactis
connectedto one of the N-typelayersand emits electronswhen
the transistoris operating.The contact to the other N-type layer
is called the collector,since it will be collectingelectrons,and

SEHCOirUCniF
IIATERIA

POIMTCOilTACT
P-TYPESEUICOf{DUCTOR
'$TYPESEMTCOilOUCTOfi

so{EMAnc
SYMBOL ___-}F-
GENERAL: ANOOE'CAIIIOOE
ZENER -
orooe.----fi

coLoREANOSOn I
srrGLEBANoot{ |
cATHooEEND
-L|E -EI@T-E
--*q-'t -
-su;r
lt\

lyptCtDtOOE
tr HtGHpOwEH
r II
+l- (ORREGnF|ER) (RECTIFIER)

Fig.2-5. Commondiodopackagss',constructionand schematicsymbols.

38
the contactto the intermediateP-typelayeris known asthe base'
In operationof the NPN transistor(which hastwo N-typelayers
separatedby a P-type)describedhere,a positivevoltageis applied
to the collector,a lower positivevoltageto the base(aboutone
halfthe collectorvoltagein manyinstances), and the negativeter-
minalsof both voltagesourcesareconnectedto the emifter.Here,
the emitterand baseareconnectedasa forwardbiaseddiode,so
you can expecta largecurrentto flow in the emitter-base circuit.
ihe collectorand baseare connectedas a reverssbiased diode,
so you can expectlittle or no currentto flow in that circuit' How-
ever,someof ihe electronsthat havemovedinto the intermediate
p-typematerialof the baseactuallymove toward the collectorand
flow to the higherpositivevoltagesource,ratherthanto the lower
voltage connectd to the base'
Becausethe collectoris reversebiased,the collector-to-base
resistanceis high, but in operation,the currentflowing into the
emitterand out of the collectorare virtuallythe same,sothe power
in thecircuitis actuallyhigherthanthatin theemittercircuit.This
is evidencedby the relationship shown in the formulaP - l2R'
Thus, we actually have a gain in power, and this is known as
amplification.
lf the positivevoltageappliedto the baseis reduced,fewer
electronswill flow from the emitterto the collector,becausethere
arefewer empty spacesto aftractthe electrons.lf the basevoltage
is reducedto zero or made negativewith respectto the emitter,
no currentwill flow (exceptfor a very slight leakagecurrent),as
in the reverse-biased diode. Thus,a srnallcurrentchangein the
emitter-tobase circuit is actuallycontrollinga far highercurrent
in the emitter-to{ollector current.
lf the sandwich is reversed, we have produceda PNP tran-
sistor. This device operates in exactlythe sameway, exceptthat
the collector and base are biased with negativevoltageswith re
spect to the emifter.
Figure2-6 showssomeof the more common typesof tran-
sistorpackages. Note that althoughthe emitter,base,and collec'
tor leads ire indicated in these drawings, different lead
combinationsare possible.Always check the connectionson a
transistorby referringto a replacementcatalogor daA sheetbefore
substituting one typefor another.Alsoshownin thisfigurearethe
basicstructureof PNPand NPNtransistors, aswell astheirresPec-
tive schematicsymbols. Transistorperformance is specifiedin gain,
frequencyresponse, power maximum
dissipation, voltages,and
39
 a E

w I
ISSJ

ffi m -
s\ID rf:\
-l

ffi ilil
illr!il
lnr
ill TG$ tT
BCE

ry" (coLLEcroR
T0,5 (cAsEls I

o.
B coLLEcroF)|
ALSOCON.
I,IECTEOTO /A I

'A'
OB
METALTAB)
K/ECB

COLLECTOR NPNTFANSISTON

**"-+=HffESF$l,SXFl3iS
I
EMITTER
G\co-IEcron
*=Tl-EMrrrER
COLL€CTOR p1p1p,111g;gTOH

I
P'TYPESEMICONDUCToR
q--:l
BASE .--
=l.m:S:UiBBilBUBTSF
I
J .rn HIGH
CURRENT
r

anse .N* k LAHGE

SIGNAL
ft;LEMTTTER.*\ (OJTPW
SIGNAL
(rNPUr)
BATTERY
NORM'AL ON'
CONNECfl
(BATTERIES
NPNTBANSISTOR
REVERSEDFORPNP)

thsirschematic
typesof transistors,
Fig.2€. Various andhowthey
aymbols
areconglructed.

maximumcurrents.In general,the largerthe transistorpackage'

the more power it can safelycontrol'

(scR)uponwhichthisbookis
Th",ili."".""trolled rectifier
basedis quite similarto the junctiontransistorin someways.lt
is madeup of a sandwichof four semiconductor layersin the form
of PNPNor NPNP,and hasthreeconnections: a cathodeand an
anode(aswith the diode),and a gate.lf an SCRis connectedin
a circuitin thesamemannerasa conventional diode(positiveter-
minal of a bafteryconnectedto the cathodeand negativeterminal
to the anode),it will not normallyccnductcurrentuntil a small
positivevoltageis appliedto the gate.Once the SCRbeginsto
conductin the forwarddirection,the gatehasno moreeffect,and
theSCRwill continueto conductuntilthecurrentis removed;that
is, until the batterybetweenthe anodeand cathodeis disconnected
or until the polarity of the batteryis reversed(negativeto cath-
ode; positiveto anode).This meansthat if an SCRis connected
in an ac circuit,it will conductonly everyhalf-cyclelike a con-
ventionaldiode.

I
r"14
tt tl
-1 #
ffir ililil
llcrocaa
llll, ||U
(ANODEALSOCONNECTED AND
NOTEIFOFTRIACS.C(CATHODE)
TOMOUNTINGTAB) BECOMEMT.lANDMT.2
A(ANODE)
BESPECTIVELY.

P-TYPESEMICONDUCTOR
OTHERLAYEBSAREN.WPE

IHODg

TRIAC
(ESSENIALLYTWOSCRSCONNECTEO
AS SHOWN)

IIAINTERMINALO/ff)
MAINTERMINAL(tvff)
2

Fig.2-7. Silicon{ontrolledrectifiersand an equivalsnttriac circuit.

41
 SCRs are rated in terms of voltage, current and power
capabilities.They are used in a wide varietyof circuitsas a dc
or ac switch,controlledby a small voltagein the gatecircuit. A
variationcalledthe triac is basicallyequivalentto two scRs con-
nectd back to back. When usedto control alternating.urr*t,
a triac conductsduring both halvesof the alternatingcycle. Fig-
ure 2-7 showsthe basic constructionof the SCR,*,n" typi.It
packages,and the schematicsymborsfor the scR and
the'iriac.

42
 Chapter3

ElectronicMeasurement
F ACH ELECTRONICPRO,ECTlN THIS BOOK lS EDUCATIONAL,PRACTI-
E cal,fun to build, and quite inexpensive. Many simpleprojects
foundelsewheremay requireexpensivetestinstruments for align-
ment anct/ortroubleshooting,but this is not true with these proj-
ects.Eachcan be testedand adjustedwith a few simple electronic
test instruments.In almostevery instance,all that is requiredis
amultimeter,alsocalted avoltohmmeter, which measuresac and
dc voltage,current,and resistancein ohms'
Any multimeter offers a wide range of measurement
capabilitiesfor all typesof electroniccircuits.This instrumentis
usedby technicians,engineers,and hobbyistsalike. lt is essential
thatthe beginningexperimenterhavea goodworking knowledge
of this instrument,as well as an understanding of all that it is
capableof doing.
Althoughthereare many makesand modelsof multimeters,
the mostbasictype is known asthe analog voltohrwmilliammeter
(VOM), which is equippedwith a needlethat sweepsacrossa
calibratedscale.One of the more popularVOMs is shown in Fig'
3-1.Here,the top scaledisplayselectricalresistance in ohms'The
basic scale is calibratedfrom 0 on the right, through 2K (2000
ohms),and to infinity (00)on the left. The resisancescalereads
backwardfrom the other scales;that is, its maximumvalue is at
thejeft.The otherscalesincreaseto a maximumvalueat the right.
When the multimeter'sfunction/rangeswitch (theremay be a sep
49
Flg.$1. A popular
voltohmmeter
or multimeter.

aratefunctionand rangeswitch,or they may be combined)is set

to R x 1 (R standsfor resistance),
the valueof a resistanceis read
on this scale.However,if the function/rangeswitch is setto R x
10, the readingsneedto be multlpliedby ten. The indicationon
the left sideof the scalethenbecomes20Kor 20,000ohms.VOMs
44
are equippd with severalresistance scales,which usuallyare R
x 1 , R x 1 0 ,R x 1 0 0 ,R x 1 0 0 0 ( o r Rx 1 K ) , a n dR x 1 0 K
(10,000).(Othervaluesmay alsoappear.)Figure3-2 showsthe
meter face of a VOM.
ln the instrumentsshown in the last two figures,separate
calibratedscalesare providedfor tJ to 10, 0 to 50, and 0 to 150
direct current,with the samescalesprovidedfor alternatingcur-
rent.Theseare usedfor voltageand currentmeasurements. The
range/function switchof a VOM may usethesescalesdirectly,or
theremay be somearithmeticnecessary for thesemeasurements.
Forexample,if the rangeswitchis setfor 250 Vdc, usethe 250
dc scaleto readthe voltage.lf the instrumenthasa 25 V position
on the rangeswitch,usethe0 to 250 dc scaleand mentall)'move
thedecimalpoint:250 actuallyindicates 25.0 volts.Thismethod
can be appliedto current measurements aswell. Forexample,if
'10 (ampere)position
the meterhasa A on the rangeswitclt, use
the 0 to 10 dc scaleand read the values directly. lf it hasa 50
mA (milliampere) range, usethe 0 to 50 dc scale. lf you select
a 5 mA range,usethe samescale and move the decimal point.
Figure3-2showstwo additionalscales, one of which is marked
2.5 Vaconly.Thisscaleis readonly when the rangeswitchis set
for 2.5 Vac. The other scaleis markeddB, which standsfor
decibels.The decibelis a relativeunit of electricalpowerthat is
frequentlyusedin audiowork. Forthis instrument, as indicated

ol a typrtel multimeler,showingthi) variousmea$ure-

Fig.92. TFrefar.,eplate
m€nl sca!e$.

45
 on the bottom of the face,zero dB is equivalentto a power level
of 0.01 rvatt (W) measuredacrossa 60Gohm load. This unit of
measurementis usedbecausethe humanear hasa responsethat
is logarithmicto varyingaudio power levels.A changeof one
decibelin power levelis barelydetectableasa changein loudness
by the humanear.
SomeVOMs will havetwo jacksinto which testleadscan be
plugged.Here,all selections of rangeand rale aremadeby means
of the selectorswitchof the instrument.Othersmay haveseveral
jacks.On theseunits, it is very importantthat leadsare plugged
into the proper jacks when taking measurements.
The accuracyof multimeterscan vary, dependingupon the
qualityor toleranceof the metermovementand the multiplying
resistorsthat are usedtq selectthe variousmeasurementscales.
Most pricedifferencesarebasedon the differencein costbetween

!f standardand precisioncomponents. An inexpensive multimeter

can providereadingswhich areas littleas2 percentoff, or asgreat
as 10 percentoff. A multimeterwhich is usedby a servicetechni-
cian (and probablyhasa much higherprice tag)may havean ac-
curacyof 1.5 percentor 2 percentin dc rangesand 3 percentto
5 percenton ac ranges.This is necessaryin this type of work, but
for the projectsin this book, none of the measurements are ex-
tremelycriticaland an inexpensive multimeterwill work justfine.
I
i
Anothertype of multimeterwhich is now availableis the
I digital multimeter(DMM).The majordifferencebetweenthis and
the multimeterwe havebeendiscussingis thatthe DMM indicates
the valueson a multidigit LED(light-emitting diodewhich glows
red) or an LCD (liquid-crystal display which producesblack
!r numberson an unlighted,shinybackground). Thesetypesof meters
I
i can costas much as $150,while a standardanalogVOM can be
h had for about $30. Althoughthe DMM providesboth easierand
ig
more accuratereadings,it is usuallynot worth the extra cost to
;1
;l the beginningexperimenter on a tight budget.
:.' Yetanotherversionof the standardmultimeteris the vacuum
li,
tube voltmeter(VTVM).The VTVM often has a greaternumber
fi
t!
& of ac and dc voltagerangesthanthe VOM, and a numberof resis-
fl1
lt
{l
tanceranges, but hasno provisionfor measuring current.lts prin-
I.
Fi ciple advantage overthe analogVOM is thatit hasa much higher
input impedanceand doesnot loaddown certainsensitivecircuits
i,
il
when voltagesare being measured.The VTVM, however,does
li
havethe disadvantage of containingtubes,which mustbe allowed
to warm up beforeusingthe instrumentto takea measurement.

46
 When you use t*ltit"tur, it's very importantto selectthe
"
range,particularly when you'r9usingthe analogVOM'
appropriate
Let'sassume,for example,that a particularcircuit operatesfrom
a g-volt transistorbattery.In this case,you can be fairly certain
thatthe 10-voltrangeof the metercan be usedsafely.lf you don't
know the maximumvoltageor currentof a circuit,the multimeter
shouldbe set to the highestrangefor that function.once an in-
dicationis seenon the *"t"t, you candeducewhat rangethe volt-
age or current is in and selectthe appropriatescale'
lf you set the voltmeterrangeto l0 volts and hook the test
probesinto a circuit with 100 volts in it, the metergoesoff scale
and the needlemay be damaged'This kind of damageis not
coveredby a warranty,and theseinstrumentsarequite expensive
probes
to be repaired.To avoid this, be sureyou neverapply the
of a muitimeter that is setto any ohms range to a circuitthat has
voltagein it. This can ruin the ohms scaleand the meter move'
ment as well.
Also,be carefulhow you connectthe probesto a circuitwhen
the nieter is set to a current range (amperes,milliamperes'or
microamperes). The meteractslike an almostperfectshortcircuit
in the currentrange.lf it is connectedacrossa high<urrentbat-
tery or power supply,the meterwill burn out' lf it's connected
acrosssensitivecomponents,both the meterand the components
would be destroyed.(Crtt"nt measurements will be coveredin
greaterdetail laterin this chapter.)
To ensurethat measurements are accurate,it is sometimes
necessaryto make some simple adjustmentsto the meter' The
metermovementin an analogVOMhasa smallscrewhead,which
is locatedon the front panel,usuallywherethe needleseemsto
end at th€ bottomof the metermovement'This!s the mechanical
zeroscrew.Whenyou firstpurchasea VOM and periodicallyafter-
ward,look carefuliyat the pointwherethe needlerestswhen the
instrumentis disconnect"dfronran externalcircuit.The needle
tnorfa line up directtyoverthe zeroon anyof theac or dc scales
(probablyover the 00 on the ohms scale).lf this is not the case
with your meter, use a small screwdriverto gently turn the
mechanicalzeroscrew'Turnrngit counterclockwise usuallymoves
the needleto the left,and clockwisdusuallymoves it to the riSht'
Turn the screwvery carefully,as too much turning can damage
the metermovement.
When usingthe ohmsscaleof the VOM, you'll needto ad-
47
 just the control marked Ohms Adiuston the front panelof the me
ter. First,selectthe appropriateohms rangeand short the test
probes together. The meter needle probably comes to rest
somewherenearthe rightof the meterface.Now, with the probes
still shorted,turn the ohms adjustcontrol until the meter reads
exactlyzero on the ohms scale.This calibratesthe meter.
lf you own a VTVM, you'll needto adjustthe electricalzero
control bn the front panel. First,turn on the VTVM and allow it
'!

j to warm up. Now, selectthe appropriatemeasurement rangeand

I shortthe probestogether.Adjustthe zero control until the meter
I
i indicateszero.To makeresistance measurements with the VTVM,
I
the high (infinity)end of the scalemustalsobe set.Seleathe range,
shortthe probestogether,and adjustthe zero control for a zero
reading.Once this hasbeendone,separatethe probesand move
the ohmsadjustcontroluntil the needlerestsdirectlyover the 00
point on the scale.Thesetwo controls(zeroand ohmsadjust)in-
teractsomewhat,so it is necessaryto repeatthesetwo adjustments
a few times until the meterreads0 with the probesshortedand
00 with the probesseparated.

Resistance, which is measuredin ohms,indicatesthe amount

of currentthat will flow througha given mateiialwhen a given
voltageis applied.The lower the resistance, the greaterthe cur-
rent for a given voltage.A circuit or componenthasa resistance
of 1 ohm when an appliedvoltageof 1 volt causesa currentof
1 ampereto flow throughit. This is expressedby the threeforms
of Ohm's Law:

E-lxR R-+ '1-+

In eachcase,Eequalsvoltagein volts,I equalscurrentin amperes,
and R equalsresistance in ohms.Evenwhen smallvaluesareused
(likemilliamperes oi microamperes),theexpressions still holdtrue.
Figure3-3 showstwo resistors, eachratedat 100 ohms.lf the
prohesof the multimeterset in the ohms rangeafe connected
acrosseitherof thesetwo resistors(afterthe ohmsadjustis used),
it wilt indicatea value of 100 ohms. Hr:r.vever, when the two
resistorsare connectedas shovrnin paralie[,tfre total resistance
cf either of the tuo resistors;in
r,rrillbe lesstha,nthe resistance
this case,it wilf he 50 crhms.The re:alorrii that eachof the two

48
 FORI,V,QRESISTORSIN
PARALTELONLY:
RrxFb
Fkorrr=
RrfRa

of tworesistors.
connection
Fig,&3. Parallel
otfersthe sameamountof resistance
resistors to currentflow, and
the currentis dividedbetweenthem. The basicformula for deter-
mining the total resistanceof any wo resistorsin parallelis:

Rror^.'

where R' and R, are the valuesof the two resistorsin ohms'
Rememberthat when you're measuringresist'ance valuesin
a circuit and the ohmmeter probesare connected across a resistor
that is supposedto be valuedat 100 ohms, there may be another
componentin parallelthat resultsin a reading less than this value.
In somecases,it may be necessaryto disconnect one end of a
resistoror anothercomponentin order to measure resistance. In
other instances,you may wish to measure the total resistance value
at a point in the circuit'
Figure34 showsthree resistorscombined in a parallelcir-
cuit.To calculatethetotalvaluehere,thefollowingformulais used:
1
Rror^, -
ffi
Rr R2 R3

49
where R' R2,and R3are the valuesof the three resistors.This for-
mulacan alio be appliedin a circuitwith two resistors (by drop
ping Rr),or for a circuit with any number of resistorswired in
parallel(by addingR4,Rs,Ru,etc.).
Figure3-5 shows how the multimeterprobesare placedto
measurea circuitcomposedof parallelresistances. Theprobescan
be placedacrossany resistorin the circuit,with one probeon one
leadand one probeon the other.The indicated value will remain
the same.
When resistors valuesshould
arewired in series,the resistance
be added.Figure3-6showsa circuitwhich containsfour'10 resistors
combinedin series.Here, eachresistorhasa value of ohms
is 40 ohms.The formulafor determining
and the total resistance
total resistancein a seriescircuit is:

R-Rl+Rr+Ryetc.

Figure3-7 showswherethe probesare placedin a seriescir-

Also shown is the proper
cuit in orderto measuretotal resistance.

FORANY NUMBEROF RES]STORS IN PAMLLEL:

.| lN THISCASE 1
Fl---..
Rrotlt = -a- Er =1ffi
Rrorru-
1+1 + 1 +...+1
Rr Ra Ro Rn Rr Rz Rs
Fig 94 Threeresislorsconnect€din parallel.

50
 probeplacement
Fig.$5. Multimeter ofparallel
tormeasurement resistances.

placementfor measurinB a singleresistorin a seriesstring.Here,

you can placethe probesin sucha manneras to measureany
numberof resistors in a seriesstringwithoutremovingthemfrom
the circuit,as was requiredin a parallelconfiguration.
Figure 3-8 shows another Wpe of arrangement.Here, the
resistorsare combinedin a series-parallel circuit.This is a more
complexconfigurationand is made up of two separatecircuits,
one consistingof two resistorsin paralleland the other of two
resistorsin series.The two arethen connectedin a series-parallel
combination.Here,total resistance is figuredby treatingeachcir-
Thetotalresistance
cuit separately. of eachis firstdetermined,after
which you mustnotethe mannerin which the two circuitshave
beencornbirred{seriEs or parallel).Figure3"9showsthetwo possi-

Rrcrru-=Rr*Re*Ra*Rn
Ti{IS MAYEEEONTINUED
INDEFINITELY

of fourr€sistofs
Fig.&6. A circuilconsisling in series.
connected

51
?.

1:

PROEE PROEE
(B' (B)

PNOEE PROgE
(Al usEposr;oNAroMEAsuRErorAtR€stsrAttcE,
(Al
POSTTTO0{g TOMEASURE JrrSTI}tE VALUEff
Rr.
Fig.&7. Probeplacement
in a s€ries resistor to moasure
circuit !o!alrosi+
tancoof all comPonents.

ble combinations_.hPa+t-A;thetwo are combinedin parallel;in

---f,fhey-are in series.Both are called series-parallel circuits.
The total resistanceof a serierparallelcircuit can be measured
quickly and accuratelywith a multimeter,which eliminatesthe
needfor mathematicalcomputationsto come up with total resis-
tancebasedupon individualresistorvalues.Figure3-9 showsthe
properplacementof the ohmmeterprobesto determinethe total
resishnceof the circuit.The measurement usuallymatchesthe total
resistance found usingthe aforementioned formulasquiteclosely.
Other componentsin a circuit may affectthe measurement
of resistance.For example, a transformerconnectedacrossa
resistorgivesa resistancereadingnearzero, regardless of the rated
valueof the transformer. A solid-statediodeor rectifiermakesthe
resistance appearvery low when the ohmmeterprobesareplaced
acrossthe componentleadsin one direction.The readingis closer
to the actualvalueof the resistorwhen the ohmmeterprobesare
reversed.lf you want to know the value of a singlecomponent

RrorAL=
Eiffi+R3+R4
resistorcircuil.
Fig. $8. A sori€s.parallel

52
 ''TOTAL=
E'l

I
R l + R 2+ R 3 + R 4
A PROBE
R1s61=Rr*^;;#+#

resistancs
combination
Fig.$9. Series-parallel (A)Twocir'
measurement'
cuitsatecombinedin parallel.
(B)Two are
circuits in
combined ss1e9

or singlecircuit insidea complexcircuit, it may be necessary to

isolatethe circuit.
An ohmmetercan be a very usefuldevicefor checkingto see
whethersolid-staterectifiersor diodesare good or bad. Placethe
ohmmeterprobesacicssthe componentleadsof the diode' The
readingwill be eithervery high or very low (usualiyiessihan .10
ohms, but sometimesa bit higherfor the low region).By revers-
ing the blackand red probesfrom one leadto the other,you will
oblain an oppositereadingif the diode is good (very low if the
first readingwas very high, or very high if the first readingwas
very low).

When you usea multimeterto obtainvoltagemeasurements,

changethe function/rangeswitch to the appropriatepositionfor
dc measurements. The black lead or probe is the negativeor
groundconnection,and the red leador probe is the positivecon-
nection.Many typesof electronicequipmentare constructedon
a metalchassis,which servesasthe groundconnection.Placethe
negativeprobeacrossthe chassisand connectthe positiveprobe
to variousvoltagepointsto obtain readings.ffou shouldbe aware,
however,that someelectroniccircuitshavea positiveground;in
this case,all other voltagespointswill be negativewith respect
to the chassis.)
53
 Figure3-10 showsa circuit that derivesits power from a 9-volt
batt-ery. To takea voltagemeasurement, the negativeprobeof the
ohmmeteris placedacrossthe negativeterminal of the battery,
which is connectedto circuit ground.The voltmeterscaleis set
in the appropriaterange(the 10 or 1S-voltdc scaleis best).lt may
be necessary to decreasethe scalerangedown to 5 volts or so
as variouspointsof the circuit are probed,becausesomeof the
voltageswill be dropped in value by variousresistorsin the cir-
cuit. lt is reasonableto assumethat no potentialwhich is higher
than the batteryvoltagewill be encounteredif this is the only
sourceof power. Now that the negativeprobe is connectedand
the meterrangehasbeenset,it is a simplemafterto probevarious
partsof the circuit for indicationsof voltage.A dc voltmeterex-
hibitsa very high resistance betweenits probes.Thus,it hasvery
little effecton the circuit to which it is connected.A voltmeter
hasa very high internalresistance and is the equivalentof a very
largevalueresistorbeingconnectedacrossthe sametwo terminal.

NEGATIVEVOLTMETER

circuitwhichderivesits powerfroma g-voltbattery

Fig.$10. An electronic

54
Only a tiny amount of current will flow. In a voltmetercircuit,
this currentis sampledand convertedto a voltagereadingon the
meterscale.In mostcircuits,it isn'tpossibleto causedamagewhen
takingvoltagemeasurements, unlessyou shortcircuitcomponents
by allowing the metaltip of the probe to accidentallytouch two
points at the sametime.
Caution:When measuring hrghvoltagecircuits(100voltsor
more),alwaysconnectthe negativeprobe so that it doesn'thave
to be held in your hend"Then connectthe positiveprobe to an
appropriate point in the circuitwith one hand,and put the other
hand in your pocket.lf one hand were on the metal chassis(cir-
cuit ground)and the other came in ccntactwith a high-voltage
source,the full potentialwould passthroughyour heartby travel-
ing throughyour arm and chestto completethe circuit.Thistype
of severeelectricalshockcan causeyour heartto stop beatin&
and if someoneis not on handto pedormexternalheartmassage,
you could easilydie. By keepingone hand in your pocketat all
timeswhen takingvoltagemeasurements, any electricalshockre
ceivedwill be limitedto one sideof the body and won't travel
throughthe ireart.Usingthismethodcangreatlyreducethechance
of a dangerousaccidentalshock.
When you probe differentvoltagesourceswithin a piece of
electronicequipment,the valueswill vary.The internalresistances
of variouscomponentsin a circuit aredesignedto reducevoltage
to a level that is usableby othercomponents.Many circuitscon-
tain both ac and dc voltagesin the sameconductorsor devices.
Thesevoltagescan sometimesinterferewith the readingsobtained
on a rnultimeter,esprecially if the ac voltageis of a very high fre
quency.Most metersreadthe averagevoltage,as opposedto the
peakac value,which is considerably higher.Standard housecur-
rentis saidto be 110,115,or't20 volts, depending on the area
in whichyou live.Thisis the average value, sometimes called the
RMS (root-mean square)value.Theaverage vaiue is normally used
for pe#ormingpowercalculations, and thisis the valuewhich is
usuallyreadby ac voltmeters.The ac voltagerangesmay follow
the samepatternas the rangeof dc voltage,or it may be com-
pletelydifferent,dependingupon the meter.This modeof opera-
tion is designedto readac voltageonly anddoesnot giveaccurate
dc voltagereadings.
It is not possibleto take accurateac voltagemeasurements
with a VOM in a circuitthatalsohasdc voltagepresentbecause
theac voltmetercircuitin theVOM aisoresponds to dc, although

55
 /
./ ,/
///
nf
f /r
orfmcr
I cor{€crEoio
ac I oaarrroeqno
mur
I
2th

F
!l
$

|{
li

in ordertotakgvoltage
ofa multimeter
Fig.$1 1.Connection m€asurements.
n
il it is not calibrated.Thus,the voltageyou read in this circuit is a
It combinationof ac and dc.
ll
tr One meansof solvingthis problemis to connecta capacitor
It
tt
(0.1 microfaradshouldbe aboutright-make sureit hasa voltage
lr ratinghigherthanthe combinationof ac and dc in the circuit)in
lllt serieswith the voltmeterlead and the point in the circuit to be
lr measured.Thisblockingcapacitorblocksthe dc voltagefrom the
if meter circuit and permitsthe ac to pass.
In the VOM picturedearlierin this chapter,a built-in block-
ing capacitor(600V maximumrating)is availablewhich is brought
out to the front panelat the output jack. Here,all that'srequired
is to connectthe red testleadto otltput ratherthan +, setthe meter
to the appropriateac voltagerange,and readthe scalein the nor-
mal manner.SomeVOMs havethis feature;if your doesn't,you
canalwaysuseyourown blockingcapacitorin situations suchas
these.Figure3-11 showssomeof the ways a multimetercanbe
connectedin a circuit to take voltagemeasurements.

The multimeterpicturedearlierin this chapterhasa bottom

I scaleon the meterfacewhich is markeddB (tor decibels).At the
ll bottomof the meter,thereis a legendwhich explains"ZEROdB
i, POWERLEVEL .001WATT600 OHMS" anda tablethatsays"10
V RANCEADD 12 dB," etc.
Thedecibelis a unit for specifyingrelativepower levelswith

56
respectto some referencepower level. The commonly acceptd
referencelevel is 1 milliwatt (.001W),and levelsstatedwith re
spectto this level are often called dBm for dB with respectto one
milliwatt.Thus, -30 dBm meansa level of +40 dB referredto
1 mW, which is 1 microwaft;or +40 dBm meansa levelof +40
dB refenedto 1 mw, which is 10 watts.Decibelsreferto power
ratiosexpressedin logarithmicterms-and 10 dB represents a ratio
of 10:1,20 dB is 100:1,30 dB is 1,000:1, andso on' Thisis only
meaningfulwhen both power levelsusedto producethis ratioare
measuredacrossthe sameimpedance.ln the caseof the meter,
the impedanceis 600 ohms, which was selectedbecausethe
telephonecompanyhastraditionallyusedstandard600 ohms im-
pedanceon their audio lines.
lf you usethe dB scaleon a multimeter,set the meterto ac
volts and the 2.5 V scale.lf you are measuringacrossa 600ohm
impedance,this allowsyou to readdecibelsdirectlyon the front
panelscale.lf the level is too high, switchto the 10 V scaleand
add 12 dB to the reading.

The multimetercan be usedto measuredirect current and

sometimesalternatingcurrent.ln orderto do this, it is sometimes
necessaryto move one or both of the test probesto a current iack
on the front panel, although some multimetersperform this
changeoverby meansof the mode switch. lt is also necessary to
choosethe scalebest suitedfor the anticipatedrangeof current
to be measured.lf the currentlimit indicatedby the rangeswitch
is exceeded,you can burn out a shuntelementor even destroy
the meter.
Most multimetersoffer a 0 to 100 microampere(pA) scale,
a 0 to 1 millampere(mA)scale,and a 0 to 1000milliamperescale.
This is the normal range;yoursmay vary. Many multimetersalso
have a high current scalethat can read from 0 to 5 or 0 to 10
amperes.
Beforeactuallytakingany measurements, you'll needto know
a bit more about the circuit to be tested.A schematic diagramis
very usefulas you measure the differentcurrentdemands at various
portionsof the circuit.
The circuit must be brokenat the point where the readingis
to be takenin order to insertthe ammeterin series.The i,mmeter
then becomesa partof the circuit. lts readingincreases ascurrent
demandincreases, and vice versa.Figure 3-l2 shows the proper

57
 placementfor an ammeterwhen a readingof the totalcurrentdlain
of a circuit is desired.Here,the breakin the circuit is madeat
the power supplyinput.The positiveprobeof the multimeteris
connectedto the positiveterminalof the battery.The negative
probe is connectedto the circuit where the positivebatterycon-
tact would normallyconnect.When the power switch on the
equipment is switchedon, current flows from the batteryand
throughthe meter,and an indicationis givenof the amountof
currentthe circuit is drawingin normaloperation.
The negEtiveterminal of the batterymay also be separated
from its connection to the circuit; the positive probe of the
multimeteris connectedat this point.Then,the negativeprobe
of the meteris connectedto the remainderof the circuit.Either
locationis perfectlyacceptable,and the placementof a meterin
a seriescircuitis not critical.lt will give the samemeasurernent
of currentat any point in the seriescircuit.
lf you nreterhasan ac currentscale,it may be connectedin
exactlythe samemanneras the dc ammeterwas,exceptthatthe
powersourcecannotbe a battery;instead,it mustbe somesource
of alternating current.Sincean ac ammeteris a nonpolarized de.
vice, the polarity of the meter probesdoesn,t have to be con-
sidered.
The primaryconsideration when connectingan ammeterto
a circuitis to be surethe properconnections are maderegarding
polarityand that the meteris alwaysinstalledin serieswith the
circuit whosecurrentis to be measured.Keepin mind that a par-
allel connectionin a circuitcan causemeterdamageand possibly
blow fusesas well as causecircuitdamage.
An ammetercan be an importantdevicein determininghow
a circuitis operating.Somecircuitsmay appearto be operating
properly,but may actuallybe drawing too much currentdue to
a malfunctioning componentwhich may eventuallycausecom-

M =AMMETER

Fig.S12. Properplacemontof an ammeterwhenroadingthetotalcurrentcon-

sumptionof a circuit.

58
 X_AMMETERINSERTION
POINTFORRTLEG

TAMMETERINSEHTION
POINTFORR2
LEG

currentin onelegof a parallel

Fig.$13. Measuring resistor
circuit'

pletecircuitfailure.Wherethe normalcurrentdrain is known,a

multimeterusedasan ammetercan be instrumental in detecting
excessive currentdrain.
In parallelcircuitswhich areall fedfromthesamepowersuP
ply, an ammetermay be placedin one of the parallellegsto read
the amountof currentwhich is beingdrawnin that portionof the
circuit.Figure3-13showsa circuitwhich consists of two resistors
in paralleland indicatesthe connectionpointsfor the probesfrom
the multimeterto measurecurrentin thatparticularleg.To measure
the overallcurrentof this circuit,the meterwould be placedat
the powersupplyinput point.By knowingthe circuitand know-
ing which leg is to be measured,you can measureall typesof cur-
rent pathsthroughoutthe mostcomplexelectroniccircuit.
Circuitswhich containbothalternatingand directcurrentcan-
not be measured usinga dc ammeterunlessa particularlegof the
59
circuit is measuredat a point which is not subiectedto the alter-
natingcurrent.For instance,in a radiofrequencyamplifiercircuit,
dc is fed throughan rf choke,which is a devicethat preventsthe
flow of high frequenciesin a circuit. At the plate connectionof
the amplifiertube, the directcurrentprovidedby the power suP
ply and the alternatingcurrentSeneratd by the amplifieris prer
ent. You cannot insertthe ammeterat this point, becauseboth ac
and dc are flowing within the circuit. Instead,measurethe direct
current at a point in the circuit betweenthe power supply and
the rf choke, becauseat any point pastthe rf choke,altemating
currentat radiofrequencyis presentalongwith the directcurrent.
The multimeteris an invaluableinstrumentfor manyelectronic
uses.lt is essentialfor the electronicsbench and takesthe place
of many discreteinstruments.The multimeterallows the home
builder to test and align many types of electroniccircuits.As a
troubleshootingaid, it really can't be beat.
The multimeteris lsually the firstelectronicinstrumentob
taind by home experimenters and electronicstechniciansalike.
It is the mostfrequentlyusedpieceof equipmentin the shop,so
its many usesshouldbe fully understood.The purchaseof a good
qualitymultimeteris an excellentinvestment. A poor qualitymeter
may actually do more harm than good by giving misleading
readingsduringthe checkingof electroniccircuits.As long asyou
are involvedin the buildingof electroniccircuits,you will con-
tinue to use the multimeterover and over again.

60
 Chapter4

ElectronicProiectBu.ilding
SHYAWAY FROMELECTRONIC
ANY PEOPLE BUILDINCBE'
PROJECT
M .rur" theyfeel that it is far too complicated,requiresa great
deal of expertise,and costsmore moneythan they can afford' In
fact,buildingyourown circuitsis relatively simple,as longascer-
tain proceduresare learnedand put into practicefrom the onset.
Safetyis anotherconcernof the beginning experirnenter' Again'
if vou follow a few simpleruleswhen working with electroniccir-
cuits, your pursuitwill be far lessdangerous than driving an
automobile.
The costfactorinvolvedin buildingelectronicprojectsis not
asgreatasmanypeoplethink. Evenif you areon a limitedbudget,
it'r! relativelyeasyto obtain atl tools and materialsneeded,al-
thoughyou may have to shop around for the best bargains'But
many bargainsare available,if you are willing to take the time
to find them.
This chapterintroducesyou to the art of_buildingelectronic
projects,ani providesan explanationand descriptionof all the
ioois you,ll needto startout. The more experiencedbuilder can
use this chapteras a refreshercourse.
Rememberto takeeach phaseof circuit building slowly and
carefully,makingsurethateverythingis asit shouldbe beforepro-
ceedingto the next step.start with the more simple projectsin
this book beforegoingon to thosewhich are morecomplex' None
of the projectsincluded here is extremelycomplicated,and the
61
 $ry,H

Fig. 4-1. A popularsoldoringstetion.

i:
I
averagepersonwith a bit of workingknoriledgeof electronics
t. shouldhavefew problems.
l,
I

Youreleatronics workbench shouldbeequipped with all the

toolsyou'll need.Oneof the mostimportantis a soldering iron'
Theseareavailable frommanydifferentmanufacturers in a wide
varietyof configurations. Themostcommontypeiscalleda solder'
ing pencil,which usuallyhasa powerratingof 25 to 30 watts.
Because of thesmallsizeof solid-state components, thesoldering
pencilis recommended for mostof the profectsin this book;it
provides adequate heat,but notsomuchthatcomponents arein
danger of being destroyed. You can buy one at most hobby stores
and in mail ordercatalogs and theysellfor about$10 or $20.
Anothertypeof deviceiscalledthesolderingstation, shown
in Fig.&1, whichconsists of pencilsoldering iron,an insulated
holder,and a controlbox.The controlbox maintains a steady
temperature at the tip of the pencil at all times. When the
temperature dips below a certainlevel,the device turns on.
Likewise,it shutsdown when the temperature risesabovea
specifiedlevel.Although this providesa Sreatdealof convenience,
a soldering stationcosts a bit more money. lt is not an absolute
lr
I necessity for the beginner on a tiShlbudget.
Youwill alsoneeda supplya solderfor usewiththesolder-
ingiron.Theq'peusedin electronic projectbuildingiscalledrosin

62
core solder.ltis alwaysidentifiedas suchand is availablefrom
mostelectronichobbystores.Rosincoresoldershouldneverbe
confusedwith acid core solder,which is sold in hardwarestores.
Acid coresolderis usedprimarilyin plumbingandcontainsa cor-
rosiveacid which quicklydestroyselectroniccircuitsand their
components.
Othertoolswhich will be usedin buildingelectronicprojects
include:

I a pair of needlenose Pliers

I diagonalwire cufters
I a smallpocketknife
I a wire stripper
I an assortment (brothPhillipsand flathead)
of screwdrivers
I nutdrivers
I an assortment of nutsand bolts
I electricaltape
I alligatorclips
I clipon heatsinks

Formostof theseitems,you do not needto buy the mostexpen-

siveor highestqualityavailable;neithershouldyou purchase the
bargain-basement variety.Sinceyou'll usethe diagonalwire cut-
tersand the needlenosepliersmostoften,you may wish to pur-
chasetopqualityones,but medium-priced toolswill sufficefor
the others. Diagonal wire cutters are used to cut awayexcesslead
lengths, remove components from circuit boards, and cut away
sections of the perforated circuit board after the circuitis complete.
Needlenose pliers are used to bend wire leads and wrap them in
order to form a strong mechanical connection before soldering'
(Thisis explainedin detail laterin this chapter.)
Thesetoolsshouldbe adequate for all thecircuitsin thisbook'
More specialized projectsrequire the useof additionaltools,and
if you're more experienced in the art of electronitprojectbuilding
you'll probablyhavemanymoretoolswhich havebeenpurchased
over a long periodof time as the needarose{or them. lf you're
a beginner,startoff with the basics,and build up your tool com-
plemenlas needed.

Soldering isoneof themostimporlantskillsusedin eieclronic

of the natureof the p'61sqtand tlre
projectbuilding,regardless

63
componentsused.lt also createsthe greatestnumberof problems,
for beginner and experiencedexperimenteralike' This is not
becausesolderingis extremelycomplexand requiresyearsto leam
properly;rather,it requiresonly greatcare and strict adherence
to a few simple rules.A poor solderconnectionat a singlepoint
in a circuitcan makethe entirecircuit inoperationalorerratic,and
troubleshootingcan becomea lengthyprocessof resolderingeach
and everyconnectionin order to correctthe problem.This type
of situationcan be easilyavoidedby takingthe time to makeeach
solder connectioncarefullyaccordingto the following rules:

I Carefullyinspectall conductorswhich are to be soldered

to make certainthey are free from oil, dirt, or insulation.
I Carefullyscrapeawayany of thesematerialsuntil the sur-
facesare clean and shinY.
I Wrap the conductorsto besoldered tightly. This creates
a good mechanicaljoint, or bond. Checkto ensurethe firmness
of this wrapping procedureby gently tuggingat the component
leads.lf no movementis observed,a firm mechanicaljoint has
been made.
I Turn on the solderingiron and allow it to heatto the proper
temperature.Never attemptto use a solderingiron beforeit has
warmed up sufficiently.
I Once the solderingiron is at the right temperature,apply
the tip to the joint, not to the solder' This is probablythe most
crucialstepin soldering,and if it's not done properly,a cold sol-
der joint results.A cold solderjoint is mostoften causedby drop
ping a glob of solderonto the joint beforethe componentleads
or wires have been heatedby the tip of the solderingiron. After
the joint has been heatedby the iron, place a small amount of
solderagainstit and allow the solderto move freely around the
conductors. When the joint has been heated to the same
temperatureasthe solderingiron, the soldermeltsand flows into
everypartof the wrappedconductors.Be sureto useonly a small
amountof solder.Too much soldercan also createa cold solder
joint, becausean unusuallylargeamountof solderis probablynot
completelymeltecion the inside.
I Once the solderis flowing in the joint, removethe tip of
the solderingiron and allow about 20 secondsfor the solderto
cool. Duringthis periodof time, makecertainthatthe conductors
are not allowed to move, as this may causethe solderto crack

64
or hcome loose.Once the 20 secondperiod haselapsed,gently
tug on the conductorsto makecertainno physicalmovementoc-
curs where the bond has been made. Now closely examinethe
joint, lookingfor any signsof a cold solderjoint, suchas a dufl
surfaceor largeglobsof solder.A good solderjoint has a shiny
smoothappearance.

Theserulesarequitesimple,and if followedcarefullyon each

and everysolderconnection,you shouldhaveveryfew problems
in this areawith your electronicprojects.lt is a good ideato prac-
tice this procedureon a scrapsectionof perforatedcircuit board
with somejunk box componentsuntil the whole processbecomes
secondnature.Sometypesof components,especiallysolid-state
devices,can be damagedby the heatof evena low-wattagesolder-
ing pencil if they get too hot. Thus,speedcan be quite important
when solderingto ensurethatno components areheatedpasttheir
point of endurance.A few hoursof practiceshouldprovideyou
with the skill neededto makepropersolderiointsin a minimum
amountof time.
Theheatsinkis quiteusefulduringsoldering. lt sinks(absorbs)
heatanddissipates it intothe surrounding air,awayfromdelicate
components. An alligatorclip can be usedas a heatsink;it's less
expensiveand will do the job just as well. Alternately, a pair of
needlenose plierscan be used.Theseare placedat a point near
the shellof the component,asshownin Fig.4-2. Someof the heat
travelsup the leadfrom the point where it is beinBsoldered,but
the greaterportionis absorbedby the needlenosepliers.Theonly
disadvantage of thistool isthatit requiresthatyou hold it in place
with one hand.lf you usealligatorclipsor heatsinks, you clip them
in place,leavingboth your handsfreefor otherprocedures. What-
ever you use,place it closeto the caseof the component.lf the
heatsinkis placedtoo closeto the joint, it drawssomeof the heat
away from the joint, creatinga cold solderjoint.

Mostof the projectsin this book aredesignedto be constructed

on perforatedcircuit board.Thiscan be purchasedfrom any elec-
tronicshobby storeand providesa greatdeal of versatilityin
buildingmanydifferenttypesof projects.lt is quite inexpensive
and can be purchasedin singlesheetsor in packages containing

65
 pliersasa heatsink
Fig.$2. Usingneedlenose a solid-state
whensoldering
componenl.

a varieryof differentsizesof sheets.lt is madeup of a rigid dielec-

tric or insulatingstrip,throughwhich rowsof holeshavebeenpun-
ched to allow for the insertionof componentleadsand hookup
wires.A pieceof perforatedcircuit boardis shownin Fig.43. Some
typesof perfur.r*ardwill haveclosely-spaced holesin greaterquan-

o
o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o
o
o o
o o
o
o

Fig. *3. A smallsectionol pertoratedcircuitboard.

66
tity, while otherswill containholeswhich aremorewidely spaced
and lessnumerous.l-lere,you must decide beforebeginningto
assemble a projectwhich type is best,dependingupon the number
of components,their size,and the mountingmethodchosen.Per-
foratedcircuit boardis alsoavailablein a numberof thicknesses,
althoughmosttypesweighlessthanan ounceor so.Thickerboards
are usedwhen heavycomponentsare incorporatedinto a proj-
ect, ensuringthe properamountof support.
Therearetw'oestablishedmethodsof mountingcomponents
on perforatedcircuitboard.Bothinvolvepushingthe component
leadsthroughthe holesin the boardand makingall soldercon-
nectionsat the rear. The more common method of the two is
known as horizontalmountingand is shownin Fig.4-4. All com-
ponentsareinstalledlengthwise on thecircuitboard,with the leads
pushedthroughthe holeswhich are spacedthe equivalentof the
component'sphysicallength.This method is recommendedfor
beginners, becauseit is easierto distinguish individualcircuitsec-
tions.lt requiresmore spacethan the other method of mounting.
Figure4-5 showsan exampleof verticalmounting, in which
each componentis rnountedverticallyin relation to the surface
of the perforated circuit board.Eventhoughall leads are still
pushedthroughthe holesin the board,the holescan be Spaced
only a fractionof the distanceapart.Here,the verticalspaceabove
the board is utilized,and the circuit board can thus be much
smaller.lf verticalmountingis used,it is necessary to insulatethe
leadswhich exit the top of the compartment and descendalong
itssideto the circuitboard.Thiscan be donewith hollow rubber
tubing,availablein most hobby stores.Slip the tubingover the
componentleadbeforeit is solderedinto placeso it completely
coversthe exposedleadfrom its point of exit from the caseto the

on perfboard
mountingof components
Fig.+4. Horizontal

67
 components.
mounted
Fig.4-5.Vertically

l:, entranceof the circuitboard.This procedureis illustratedin Fig.

il 4-6.
lf you chooseverticalmounting,you must realizethat only
the circuit board size hasbeen decreased-thespaceneededto
I, housethe components to the verticalplane'
is simplytransferred
R
Sometimes, it is desirableor even necessary to combine both
$ mountingmethodsin a singlecircuit' This may be quite handy
i when a lialf-cornpleted proiecton a pieceof perfboardis discov-
ered not to haveadequatespace.Here, it is quite easyto switch
to verticalmountingfor someof the largercomponentsin order
to make everythingfit. Regardless of which method is chosen,
rememberto follow good buildingpracticesthroughconstruction,
and choosethe mountingtechniquewhich suitsthe projectbest
in both appearanceand oPeration.
When mountingcomponentson a sectionof perforatedcir-

PPTJSilCTUBNG
I
I

lead with rubbertubing'

Fig. +6. lnsulationof a c,omponent

68
cuit board, place componentswhich will connectto each other
to closeproximity to the top of the board.Thisensuresgood wir-
ing technique,which mandatesthat wiring be kept as shortas
possiblewith a minimum amount of insulatedhookup wire.
Sometimesit is necessaryto useshort lengthsof hookupwire in
a circuit,but good planningbeforeassemblycan saveboth solder-
ing time and spaceon the circuitboard.Many of the proiectsin
this book include a suggestedparts layout. Of course,you can
makemodifications in the layoutif you want to, as long asall of
the wiring is kept as shortas possible.lt is importantto realize
thatthe simplera circuitis,the morereliableit will be oncecom-
pleted and in operation.

Everyonewho is involvedin electronicprojectbuildinghas

a differentsituationto deal with regardinga work area.No two
homesare alike, and you may have to make some sacrificesto
set a spacewhere you can pursuethis hobby. There are some
criteriathat shouldbe consideredwhen makinga decisionas to
where you will be buildingyour electronicprojec6.
An electronicsworkbenchallowsyou to comfortablyandcon-
venientlybuild circuitswith a minimumof interruptions. In some
cases,this may be a kitchentablethat is convertedto a work area
in the eveninghours.Here,all that is requiredis thatyou provide
adequateprotectionfor the surfaceto ensurethat it is not dam-
agedby sharpedgesof tools or components,and that no solder
is allowedto drip onto the table.Also,be surethat the chairyou
will be usingprovidesadequate supportfor yourbody,asyou will
sometimesbe sittingin the samepositionfor long periodsof time.
Lightingis quite importantwhen buildingelectronicprojects,as
you will be lookingat sometiny componentsand tryingto twist
themtogether.A good lightsourcemakesthe whole processmuch
easier,and makesit possibleto work for longer periodswithout
eye strain.lf an adequatelight sourceis not alreadyavailablein
the areayou haveselectedfor building,you maywant to purchase
a second-hand lampthatwill resthigh enoughon the tableto pro
vide adequatelightingoverthe entirework area.I alsorecommend
thatyou lay your toolsout in an orderlymanner,ratherthan leave
them on the floor in a toolbox.This makesit much easierto locate
the tool you needquickly, insteadof havingto shiftyour position
and rifle through a whole box of iools. This type of preparation
savestime during assembly,and your concentrationis not inter-
69
ruptd from the project at hand.
When building circuitson perforatedcircuit board,you will
find that you are constantlyturningthe boardone way and then
the other as componentleadsare pushedthroughthe holesand
wrappedat the rear.I havedeviseda simplesofution to this con-
stantmotion.When selectinga sectionof perfboard,I usea piece
which is somewhatoversizedfor the circuit being built. This is
then placedon somewooden blocksfor support,asshown in Fig.
$7.The leadsarethen insertedthroughthe top and wrappedwith-
out ever havingto move the board. lf more stabilityis desired,
the perfboard may be securedto the blocks by meansof a few
tacks. Once all componentsare mounted and you are ready to
begin soldering,the tacksare removed,the board is turnrJ over,
and solderingcantakeplace.Aftersolderingis complete,diagonal
cuftersare usedto trim awayany excesscircuit board.This method
is both convenientand time'saving.
A viseworksequallywell. Insertthe perboardin thevise,and
turn it around for solderingas describedabove.
One advantageof havinga work areadesignatedspecifically
for projectconstructionis that you don't haveto cleareverything
awaywhen you stopfor the day.Of course,thisdoesnot preclude
providingsomesortof protectionfor the circuitbeingconstructed
to ensurethat nothingis exposedin any way. Placethe circuitaway
from the edgeof the bench,and makesurethat no toolsor heavy
objeas are nearbythat could bang againstit or fall on it from
overhead.When a circuit is in an incompietestateand has not
yet been installedin an enclosure,it can easily be damaged.

CIRCUITBOARD

Fig. +7. Usingwoodenblocksto supportcircuitboardduringconstruction.

70
 Wh"" *otking with electronics and electroniccircuits,it is
absolutelyessentialthat you establishgood working habitsright
from the start.some of thesesuggestions may seemlike simple
commonsenseto you, but they do bear repeating' lgnoringthem
canresultin improperlyconstructed circuitsand possibly acciderrts.
one importantpracticeis to neverstartassembly a projectof
untilall components, connectors, andenclosure-everytht-g "'iu
needfor the project-ison hand.lf you begina prolectwith some
components missing,therewill be an interruptiunin the orderin
whichtheyaremounted,andthislackof ordercanmakei'ou pione
to missingan impoftantstepat some point duringassembly'
Anotliergood'brilding habitis to takefrequentbreaksduring
construction io r"rt both your mind and your body. Sittirrgin the
samepositionfor hourson end, staringat tiny leadsand com-
ponuntr,can take its toll on you both mentallyand physically'
Don't even attemptto work on a projectwhen you are already
fatigued.lt's mucfteasierto makemistakeswhen you'retired;and
rem"ember, you are dealingwith electricityhere,which can be
potentially
' lethal,especialiywhen your mind is not clear'
When you feel the leastbit tired, stopwhat you'redoing.and
takea tenor fifteenminutebreakuntil you'rerefreshed. Also,don't
seta specifictime for the completion of a project. lf you find you
arerunningbehindschedule, you may begin to rush or'work past
your point of concentration. This often results in wiring errors,
reversed polarities,and cold solderjoints'
Buildingelectroniccircuitsis not an extremelycomplexpro
cess,nor isit difficultfor the beginnerto learn.lf you follow the
directionsprovidedin the projectschapter,andthe commonsense
procedures outlinedin thischapter,youtcircuitsshouldwork the
iirst time around.A greatmany circuit problemscan be easily
avoided.

71
 Chapter5

Obtainingand
GomPonents
Referencing
ARE RELUCTANTTO
ENTHUSIASTS
ANY WOULD.BE ELECTRONIC
delve into projectbuilding for the simple reasonthat they
have sourcesfor obtainingmanyof the electroniccomponents
no
needed.Anyonewho is interestedin buildingelectronicprojects
shouldbe awarethat therearea multitudeof sourcesfor electronic
components.Mostof the circuitsprovidedin this book are made
from relativelycommon componentswhich can be locally ob
tained.Thosewhich containcomponentswhich may be difficult
to obtain are indicatedas such,and a supplieris provided.Also,
many partscan be directlyreplacedby equivalentsfrom another
manufacturerif you are unableto locatethe part specified.
The placeto startin locatingelectroniccomponentsand ac-
cessoriesis your local hobby store.Here,you shouldbe able to
find closeto 90 percentof the itemsusedto build mostof the cir-
cuitsin thisbmk. Thesesamestoresalsohaveavailablemailorder
caalogs from such companiesas Allied Electronics,Fair Radio
Sales,and othercompaniesthat havebeensuppliersof electronic
componentsfor many years.The lattercompanydealsprimarily
in govemmentsurplusat very reasonableprices.Allied Electronics,
on the other hand, is a major supplierof new componentsand
devices,rangingfrom transistors, diodes,and photocellsto elec-
tronic computersand industrialelectronicequipment.The two
companiesmentiond hereareamongmanywho can provideyou
with electroniccomponents,and tools.
72
 A trip to a localelectronicsrepairfacilitycan quickly provide
you with the namesof otherpartsuppliers which may be nearby.
You may be ableto order almost any electronic part imaginable
throughthesesources. Once you have the name of the partssup
plier,a phone call should get you a complete selection of catalogs
from the manufacturers whose products they handle. Typically,
you will find catalogs from such manufacturers as RCA, Motorola,
Sprague, Sylvania, Miller, Amphenol, and Ceneral Electric,which
will probablybe sufficient to supply fully 99"/" of your needs. lf
thissupplleris located in your town or city, thiswill probably mean
samedayserviceif the partsneededare in stock' lf you live in
a ruralarea,thereis a goodchancethatthesesuppliershaveroute
menwho passthroughon a regularbasis.A phonecallto thesup
plier will usuallymeanthat your ordercan be deliveredwithin
a few days. lf you elect to go the mail order route,a phonecall
to their order desk(oftena toll-free800 number)will allow your
order to be shippedout the sameor following day.
The cost factormay drive a lot of experimenters away from
electronicproJectbuilding,and there is a great fluctuation in prices
of equivalentcomponentsfrom different suppliers and dealers' For
this ieason,it is absolutelyessential to shop around for the best
deal. I haveeconomicallyreplacedsolid-state componentscalled
for in a circuit with a componentfrom another manufacturer. The
two partswere electronicallyequivalent, but one was less than
half the price of the other.This is where a lot of unnecessary ex-
pensemay enterthe electronicbuilding hobby' This especially
appliesto solid-statedevicessuch as diodes,integratedcircuits,
and transistors'

One of the ;ost valuabieaids which can be obtainedfrom

the varioussupptiersof electroniccomponentsis cross-reference
materialfor the manufacturerswho makesolid-statedevices.Each
manufacturer prins theirown catalogor replacement guide.These
listalmosteverytransistor,diode, and integratedcircuit manufac-
tured today, and tell you which devices from this particular
,"nut".tri"r are replacements. lt is a good ideato havereplace-
ment guidesfrom as many manufacturers as possible.For this
discusiion,threesolid-statecomponent manufacturers havebeen
chosento demonstratedevice cross-referencing: Sylvania, General
Electric,and RCA.
As an example,let,sassumethatan electroniccircuitcallsfor
73
a 2N5060 silicon<ontrolledrectifier.The2N designationis rarely
seenanymore:it's the old genericname for solid-statedevices.
Today, most manufacturershave an individual and specialized
numberingsystemfor namingtheirdevices.ln searchof a 2N5060
SCR,we firstlook throughthe Sylvaniareplacement guide.lt reads
just like a progressionlist. First,we locatethe prefix2N and work
from there. Readingup the list, we have 2N5054, 2N5058,
2N5059,andfinally,2N5060.To the rightof the 2N5060reference
is the Sylvaniareplacement. We find that an ECG5400 is a direct
replacement for the 2N5060. Thesamecan be done usingan RCA
catalog,which tells us thatthe SK3950is a direct replacementfor
the 2N5060. lt is alsoa directreplacementfor the ECC5400.The
CeneralElectricreplacementguidespecifiesa CEMR-5asthe exacl
replacement. lf the SCRpartnumbersuppliedin thecircuitdiagram
were that of another manufacturer,this device could also be
referencedto the currentdeviceequivalentfrom anothermanufac-
turer.All of thesedevicesareelectronicallyequivalent.The great
majorityof them containthe samecaseand lead configurations,
but it is wise to makecertainthe leadsare arrangedin the same
manner.Sometimes,differentcasesare usedto houseequivalent
chips,but this type of occurenceis usuallyspecifiedin the cross-
referencemanuals.
The vastnumberof solid-statepart identificationsoften con-
fuseand frustratebeginningand experiencedexperimenters alike.
However,if you keep the cross-reference manualscloseat hand
at all timesand usethemproperly,you will find thatyou sometimes
have an equivalentdevice alreadyon hand, either new or in a
junk box circuit.

Virtually every home experimentertends to accumulatea

"junk box" of componentsin a very short period of time. This
term is not actuallydescriptive,since many of the components
are simply being storedfor use in future proiects,and thus, are
not really junk. Actually, a junk box can be any assortmentof
crates,boxes,and cabinetswhich arefilled with surplustransmit-
ters,receivers,old datacircuit boards,electricclocks,etc.Throu8h
many surplusoutlets, it's possibleto obtain brand new circuit
boardsfrom discontinuedlines.Manufacturers dump manyelec-
tronic componentsand circuitsinto suchindustrialchannels,and
somevery good buyscan be had. tt is not uncommonto purchased
a transistoror lC from one of thesemail orderdealersguaranteed
74
to be new and operationalfor onetenth of the price of an
equivalentcomponenton the retailmarket.For instance,rectifier
diodesmay be purchasedfor 11 centsapiecewhich might cost
$2.50 if purchasedfrom a retailrepairfacility.
Many enterprisingexperimenterskeep track of products
through ads placed by distributorsand dealersin electronics
rugaiin"t. They also send leftersto distributors,asking to be
placedon a mailinglistto receiveconstantupdateson available
products.In this manner,when a good deal which offerscom-
ponentsof immediateor futureuse comesalong,a purchaseis
rnade.Thesepartsare then storedin the junk box until they are
needed.Sometimes,a purchaseis madewhich seemedto be at-
tractive(due to price)without any idea of what the components
may be usedfor. Intuitioncomesin quite handyhere,and occa-
sionally,thesetypesof purchasesyield a wealth of usagein the
future.Often, however,the componentssit aroundfor a few years
and are tradedoff to other experimenters, resold,or tossedin the
real junk box (oftencalled the trash can)' In the early stagesof
buildingup a supplyof components,it is quite easyto become
enamoredwith quantityratherthanquality.Thiscanoftenbecome
a wastefuland costly mistake.Don't becomeso parts{onscious
thatyou buy everythingavailableat a low price.Somecomponens
are price-dcheaply becausetheir practicalusesare ridiculously
few and far between.
Another source of junk box componentsis amateurradio
operators,CB enthusiasts,and other more experiencedex-
perimenters who haveallowedtheir junk boxesto becomewhole
rooms of junk. Theiramountof junk hasreachedthe pointwhere
it is overflowingthe owner'sability to keep it in an orderly fash-
ion. Here,it may be possibleto simplyhaul away wheelbarrow
loadsof components for littleor nothinS,astheownermay prefer
this ratherthan having to payto haveit hauledto a junkyard.Local
radio and television stations may be anotherpossiblesource,as
well astelevisionand stereo repairfacilities.Thesetypesof busi-
nesssometimeshaveold televisionreceiversaroundthat contain
a wealth of salvageableelectronic componentsthat can be
salvaged. Thisis a tediousanddirtyjob, but it is sometimes worth
the effort.
I have been quite successfulin salvagingelectronic com-
ponentsfrom printed circuit boardsin a speedymannerby cut-
ting the circuit board out from under its components.The only
tools requiredare diagonalcuttersand needlenosepliers.Most
75
of the older typesof circuit boardmaterialchip away in largepieces
when cut. The green,glass.epoxy boardscan presentmajorprob
lems with small cutters, and a largertool shouldbe broughtinto
piay. Usually,the entire circuit board can be cut away without
havingto usea solderingiron. Any solderremainingon compo
nent leadsturnsto dustwhen tightlysqueezedin the iawsof long-
nosedpliers.A medium-sizedsectionof circuit boardcontaining
't00
componentscan be clearedin lessthan an hour. Usingthis
method,you may find that someof the componentsaredamaged,
but if you havea specialinterestin any componentson the circuit
board, it is an easy matter to remove these ahead of time by
desolderingtheir leadsin the conventionalmanneror by using
clipon heatsinksto Protectthem.
Local electronicshobby storescan also be a sourceof junk
box parts.Theseoutletr often display defectiveor damagedmer-
chandisein a specialarea,which can be had quite cheaply' In
my home town, there is a RadioShackstorewhich regularlyof-
feis discontinueditems for pennieson the dollar. Evenif items
are defective or damaged in some way' many of them can be
repairedor salvagedfor individual components'
It is not that difficult to obtain some of the more common
mechanicalparts neededfor electronicprofect building either.
Theseinclud'esuchdevicesas switches,relays,and mechanical
timers,which may often be put to usein electroniccircuits'These
can be found throughsomeelectronicoutletsand in the junk boxes
of other experimenters.Partssuch as theseare often quite expen-
sive,and surplusor usedcomponentssometimes work justaswell
as the new counterpart.Covernmentand industrialsurpluscom-
ponents which may have originally cost hundreds or even
thousandsof dollars and can now be had for lessthan $10.00'
This pricedifferentialis not very unusualin the field of surplus
components,asyou'll undoubtediydiscoveras you pursuethese
markets.

Once you have built up an inventory of electronic com-

ponents,you will needan efficientmeansof storingand keeping
track of exactly what you have on hand for future needs. Ob
viously,the prime purposeof obtainingthesecomponentsis to
allow you moreflexibilitywhen bullding proiectswithout having
to order every part new. lf you don't have a good storagesystem
76
and eveMhing is strewnall overyour work area,you havedefeated
the whole purPose.
Fortunately,it is quite simpleand inexpensiveto categorlze
process
the maiorityof your surpluscomponents,and the entire
to
n""O tjl" no more than a weekend.lt is absolutelyessential
an orderly method of storing your junk box
takethe time to devise
comPonents
it is bestto startwith the heavycomponents,such as large
transformersand chokes.Thesecan all be placed in a wooden
or cardboardbox which can be stord in a closedcabinetor on
a shelfthat is strongenoughto hold the rrreight'Be sureto iden-
tify the contentsoithe box with a colored marker.lf you have
. l"rg" assortment of componentsin thiscategory,it may be a good
idea-todivide them further into subcategories.All of the low-
voltagedevicescould be one cate3ory,the mediumonesanother'
and so on, with eachcartonlabeledas such'
Smallerboxesare requiredfor smallercomponents, suchas
audiotransformers, switches, and relays. Cigar boxes are ideal here'
Theyare largeenoughto house these parts and usually fit easily
on a shelfoverthe workbench.Usually,only one typeof compG'
judgeof this
nent is storedin eachbox, but you shouldbe the
method.lf your present supply is small, this may not be necessary'
is labeled clearly and can thus provide
but makesureeachbox
you with the information needed to locate a specific part. Forex-
ample,one box mightbe labeled AM radio parts and might in-
clude capacitors, ferriterod antennas, speakers, and so on, that
have been removedfrom AM radios'
lndividualcomponentssuchas resistors, capacitors, and solid-
statedevicescanbe stored on workbench shelves with plastic trays.
Thesecan be purchased almost anywhere, and one such unit is
shownin Fig.5-1.Thistype of cabinet may contain twelve to forty
plastictrays,which slidefonvardto provideaccessto theircon-
ients.Often,thesedrawerscanbe suMivided.intodifferentcom-
partments with plasticspacersincludedwith the cabinet.Different
iypesof transistors, diodes,andcapacitors canbe stord in a single
ii.*u, while being keptapart from the others in the samedrawer.
Figure5-2showsa small parts cabinet which is especially designed
for stacking purposes. Here, the bottom is recessed and can easily
slip over the raised, mating surface found at the top of a similar
unit,shownin Fig.5-3.Figure54 showshow several of theseunits
can be stackedto conserve space in the work area'
Resistorsareusuallysortedand storedaccordingto value.Fig-
77
 rr,.+...ffi;:iit ':i;ffi r ::r

iit--Hffi,ffis,Y.fflffiri
Fig.$1. A typicaluprightpartscabinetwhichconlsinsmanyplastictrays.

tl tl tl
LJ t

n tl tl

lr il It

Fic.$2 A smallpartscabinstwhichmaybi stacketinpiggyback

stylowith
olhgrcabinets.
/6
Fig.5-3.Viewof thetopandbottomof thesamspartscabinetshowing
the
recassslots.

ure 5-5 showsa resistorstoragecabinetwhich can be purchased

that containsseveraldifferentcompartments in eachdrawer.Each
compartment is markedwith a value,which is a greataid to the
home experimenter. Ohmic valuesof carbonresistors are stan-
dardfor the mostpart.Sincethisis the case,resistorcabinetsfollow
the same pattern.lf you do not wish to purchasea cabinet
you cansimplymadeyourown and label
for resistors,
specifically
79
,eachdrawerasa spacefor a particulartype of componentbecomes
necessary.
Another addition to the electronicsworkbenchthat is very
usefulfor storingcomponentsis a plastictray or two. Thesecan
be usedto housevarious"pull-out" componentswhich can be
properly categorizedand storedat a laterdate.This is where com-
ponentsare placedwhen originallypurchased.When you have
the time, go throughthesetraysand storethe componentsin their
permanentlocation.Neverlet thesetraysbecomeovercrowded,
especiallyin the caseof damagedor uselessdevicesthatyou know

Fig. 5-4. Piggybackarrangementol two partscabinets.

80
 &
DCORNo.
R R0AO
AKINA -

Fig.$5. A commercial
resistorstorag€trayassembly.

you will neveruse.Alwaysdiscardthosecomponents thataredam_

aged.Thesehavea tendencyto build up andgetmixedwith useful
components. Thejob of keepingan orderlypartssystemis primarily
comprisedof throwingaway what you don,t need,ratherthan
keepingwhat you'vealreadyfiled in a constantstateof order.lf
you do the former,the laftertakescare of itself.
lf you planto hold onto any dry cell bafteries
for any length
of time,theyshouldbe keptin metaldrawersor boxes*i,l.h Ir"
knownto be leakproof.Batterystoragetraysshouldbe periodically
checkedin orderto identifyanddiscardanycellswhich areleak-
ing. Thesecan quickly damageany good cells remaining and
leikagecan ruin other componentsand finishedcircuitsas well'
The storagesystemdescribed in these pagesshould encom-
passthe great majority of parts and componentsmost home ex-
perimentirsare likely to collect.Of course,therearealwayssome
devicesand circuitcomponentswhich don't fit into any category
or sub<ategoryand reallydon't need their own categoryeither.
Thesecan be relegatedto a miscellaneous box or cabinet.When-
ever possible,the materialsfiled under this categoryshould be
placed in a more appropriatearea as the situationallows.
With this Vpe of storagesystem,it shouldbe relativelyeasy
to gatherup the partsneededfor a specificelectronicsproject in
r rhort petloOof time. Once you know what you have on hand
that can be used,it is a simple matterto order thosecomponents
you need,and you are then well on your way.

82
 Chapter6

24 ThyristorProiects
DMWINGS AND
HISCHAPTERINCLUDESTHE DETAILEDSCHEMATIC
circuisusing
you'llneedto buildelectronic
I circuitdiscussions
rectifiers,
silicon-controlled and
triacs, othertypesof thyristors.
Eachprojectis chosenfor its usefulness, easeof building,and low
constructioncost.All of the projects may be built usingstandard
components,many of which are available at your local hobby
store.Unusualcomponents are often presented with a suggested
manufacturer and a part number. However, these samepartsmay
be readily availablethrough other channels. ln most instances,
componentvaluesmay bemodified slightlyand the device will
still yield equallypleasingresults.
t"l"ny oi thesecircuitsinvolve usingpotentialsderivedfrom
the 115-voltac line.lf you havebeenbuildinga greatmanysolid-
stateprojectsusingtransistors and lCs,thereis a good chancethat
yo, to working with low-voltagecircuits and
power supplies.When one is facedwith a switchto medium-
"ru'"..ustomed
voltageciriuits afterworkingwith thosewhich presentpotentials
of zivdc or less,there is a potentialsafetyhazard'Peoplewho
work with low-voltagecircuitsdon't needto be terriblyconcerned
aboutwheretheyplacetheir handswithin the circuit.However,
many of the circuitspresentedhere can deliver severeelectrical
shocks, so extreme caution should be exercisedduring the
checkoutand troubleshooting procedures. Don't consider115 Vac
or dc to be relativelyharmless' More people arekilledeachyear
83
by this voltagepotentialthan by any other.Many of the circuits
in this book havelow-voltagesectionsor legs,followed by those
which usethe line potential.Be extremelycarefulfor your own
personalsafetyand for that of your testequipmentaswell. An ex-
pensivemultimetercan be quickly damagedby applyingthe
probesto a 11S-voltpotentialwhen the meterscaleis seton the
12-voltrange.
During troubleshootingprocdures, it is bestto removethe
lineplugfromthe wall completelyanddischarge anyelectrolytic
capacitorsbeforeactuallyenteringthe circuit. In some instances,
this won't be possible,sincecheckoutmay be necessarywhile
the circuitis active.The discussion of voltagemeasurements in
Chapter3 discusses electronicsafety;the practices in
setout that
chaptershould be strictlyadheredto.

A tigntorganor light modulatoris a circuit which usesthe

audio output from a stereoreceiveror other suchdeviceto con-
trol the intensityof an incandescent lamp.This is accomplished
by usinga silicon-controlled rectifierwhosegatecircuit is con-
nectedto the audiooutputfrom the audiodevice.As the audio
level rises,the SCRconductsmore and more,and the intensity
of the light increases.When the volumefallsoff, the light dims
accordingly. A periodof silenceat the receivercausesthe light
to blackout completely.A suddenburstof audiowill causean
equivalentflash of light. Thesecircuitsare often called /ight
modulators becauselight intensities are changedin accordance
with the amplitudeof the audio outputchannel.
FigureG'l showsthe circuit,which is actuallytwo circuits
combined.The left channelis represented by the top portion of
the schematicdrawing,while the rightportionis at the bottom'
'l '15-Vac
Poweris derivedfrom the line,which is wired in paral-
lelwith eachsilicon-controlled rectifierandwith Xl and X2, two
115-Vacreceptacles. The outputvoltageto thesereceptacles will
be dc, so only incandescentlampsand other addc devicesmay
be operated.lf you connectan ac-onlydeviceto eitherof these
receptacles,it will quickly be destroyed.
The inputnetworkfor eachchannelconsists of a smallaudio
transformerwhich hasan 8-ohm primaryand 1OOGohmsecond-
ary. Theseare miniatureoutput transformerswhich should be
availableat your localhobbystoreand can be mountedon a piece
of perforatedcircuitboard.Thevaluesof the transformer's primary

84
 T1
To left
stereo
channel

F1-5 amperefuse
SCFl-SCR2-2 ampere200 PIV
R1-R2-10 KO variable
31-SPST 6 ampere
T1-T2-80 primary10000 secondar;'
X1-Y2-1 15 volt receDtical

storeolightorgancircuit.
Fig.S1. Two+hannel

primaryand secondaryare notcritical at all. As a matterof fact,

the transformeris not even necessary,but servesto isolatethe
11S-voltcircuitfrom the audiochannel.I haveusedtransformers
which have 60Gohm primariesand 60Gohm secondarieswith
equallygood results, althoughthe valuesshownwill bringabout
the mostefficientoperation.Nearlyanystercoamplifierhasmore
than adequatedrive to control the gate circuits of the silicon-
controlled rectifiers.
Thetotal currentdrain shouldnot exceedabout 1.75ampere
at eitherreceptacle. rectifiersareused,
Sincetwo silicon<ontrolled
each ratedto passa forwardcurrentof 2 amperesmaximum,the
currentdrainsat each receptacledo not add as far as the SCRs
are concerned.ln simpleterms,this meansyou may safelydraw
1.75 ampere from each of the receptaclessimultaneously.A
175-waftlampat eachreceptaclecancertainlybe accommodated
easily.Somereadersmight be wonderingwhy the current limit
is held to 1.75 ampereinsteadof 2 amperes,the rating of the
85
silicon-controlledrectifiers.This is done for componentprotec-
tion. The 2-ampereSCRratingis an absolutemaximumthat must
not be exceeded.lt's usuallya good ideato staya shortdistance
below maximumratingsto assurelong componentlife. ln most
instances,you could safelydraw a full 2 amperesfrom eachsocket,
but if this value was exceededeven slightly,the SCRsmight be
destroyed.lf you needmore power,replaceSCR1and SCR2with
3-, 5-,or evenl Gampereunits.With thesehighervalues,you will
probablyfind that a lot of heatsinkingis required.
Usingthe componentsspecifiedin the schematicdiagram,the
circuit may be built on a 5-inch squaresectionof perforatedcir-
cuit board.Beginby mountingTl and T2 nearone edge.The
secondary windingof eachtransformer is thenconnectedbetween
the anodeand gateelectrodeof each SCR.Now, clip awayany
unusedportionsof circuit board.
Thenextstepis to preparea mountingenclosure, which may
be made of plastic
or aluminum. lt will be necessaryto drill a hole
at the back to accept the line cord. The fuse may be wired directly
to the circuit board or installedin a chassis-mounted holder. Cut
two holesin the backof the case to mount X1 and X2. You'll need
to install a twoterminal strip for each channel of the stereo
amplifier.Thesestripsareinternallyconnectedto the transformer
primariesand will be usedfor connectionof the light organto
the 8-ohmspeakeroutputterminals.Drill a holeaboveeachstrip
to acceptthe shaftsof R1 and R2. When thesecomponentsare
mounted,shortlengthsof insulatedhookupwire areusedto con-
nectthem to the transformersecondaries. Thesewill serveassen-
sitivitycontrolsduringcircuitoperation.Also,installSl in series
with the 1'1S-volt input.
Whenyou havecompletedyourcircuit,giveall wiringa very
thoroughexamination, checkingfor shortcircuitsand otherwir-
ing errors.True,the 11S-voltline is fusedat 5 amperes, but a wir-
ing errorat eitherSCRmaycausethesecomponents to be damaged
long beforethe fuse has time to open.
To testthecircuit,firstconnecteachinputto the leftand right
channelstereoamplifieroutputs.Theconnections aremadein par-
allelwith the leadswhich normallyrun to the leftand rightstereo
speakers. With Sl in the open position(of0,insertthe line plug
in the wall outlet.Tuneyour stereoto a stationwhich is broad-
castinBmusicor usea tapeplayeror turntable.AdjustRl and R2
to their mid-rangepositionsand thenactivateSl. Adiustthe ste-
reo volumecontrolto a comfortablelisteningpositionand then

86
adjust Rl and R2 to activatethe lights.The lights may be im-
mediatelyactivatedwhen you pushSl on, and it will be necessary
to backoffon the controlsto a point wherethe musicis modulating
the lamps.lf the lampsremaindark,turn Rl and R2the otherway
to increasethe resistance.lt should take only a few secondsto
obtainthe propersetting.VariableresistorsRl and R2 are placed
acrossthe transformersecondariesand effectively short out the
transformerswhen in the zero resistanceposition,causingthe
lampsto glow continuously.As you back off on thesecontrols,
however,the audio input beginsto control SCRconduction.
lf you're facedwith the situationof one channelworking prop
erly while the other doesn't,removethe plug from the wall and
recheckyour circuitryin the malfunctioningchannel.Also,make
certainthe balancecontrol on your stereoamplifieris set to the
mid-rangeposition so that you have equal output from both the
left and the rightchannel.This is a simplecircuitand it should
work properlythe first time if you've paid closeattentionto the
wiring and have no defectivecomponents.
Makesureyou build thiscircuitinto an enclosurewhich does
not allow accessby unknowledgeablepersons.A severeelectrical
shockwill occur if som@netouchesthe SCRleadsor the con-
nectionsto the 1l Svolt receptacles. Eitherplasticor aluminu,m
may be used,althoughI preferthe formerdue to *re easeof mount-
ing the circuit board on this insulating material. lf you use
aluminum,the circuit boardmustbe mountedusingstandoff in-
sulators.

A LASCRis a light-activated silicon-controlledrectifier.This

meansthat no externalgatecircuit is absolutelynecessary for trig-
gering,as this can be done with a light source.You can connect
a variableresistorbetweenthe anodeand the gateleadto control
the sensitivitythe devicedisplaysin regardto the incominglight,
but in manyapplications, this is not necessaryor desirable.When
a smallamountof lightstrikesthe sensitized surfaceof the LASCR,
the devicebeginsto conduct.As the light intensityincreases more
and more, the LASCR'sconductivity increases.lf the light is
decreased,the LASCR'sconductivitydecreases. Therefore,the out-
put is directly controlledby light intensity.
FigureG2 showsa minimum partscircuit for a light meter
which usesa commonvoltmeter,a 9ivolt bafteryand an inexpen-
87
 81-9 volt banery
LASCR,-Radio Shack27S1095A(MRD920)
M1-0-15 V dc voltmeter(RadioShack27G1754)
S1_SPST

Fig.F.2.LASCR
lightmetercircuit.

sive light activatedSCR,which is a relativelynew productfrom

RadioShack.Thiscomponentis the MRD920,which is designated
27t--1095A.lt's availablefor lessthan $2.00and is a miniature
componentwhich is ideallysuitedfor hobbycircuits,including
photographicslavestrobeunits.The devicecontainsthree leads
for the cathode,anode,and gateand will conducia peakfonvard
voltageof 200 Vdc. Sincethis is a small device,its currenthan-
dling capabilityis minimal.Currentdrainmtrstbe heldto below
300 milliamperes maximum.Due to is 20Gvoltratin&it cansafely
be usedfor controllingcircuib dratreceivepowerfrom the 11lVac
line.
.ln this project,the gatelead(3) is not usedat all. You may
evenclip it away,but the leadcan be easilywrappedwith tape,
asyou wantto add a variablecomponentto adjustsensitivitylater.
Circuit power is derivedfrom a 9-volttransistorradio baftery,al-
though 22-voltphotographicbatteriesmayalsobe used.The meter
hasa capabilityof measuring a maximumof 15 Vdc, so if battery
potentialswhich are higherthan this are used,it is necessary to
increasethe meter range.
In this circuit,the meterseryesas the electronicload.When
Sl is activated, thecircuitis stilleffectively
off,assuming
the LASCR
is in darkness.However,when a light sourcestrikesthe surface
88
of the LASCR,it begins to conduct current. The current flow
throughthe metercausesits indicatorto be defleAed,which will
serveasan indicationof light intensity.Thistype of circuit is best
for checkingroom lighting,and a very bright sourcewill be re-
quired to causethe maximum value of 9 volts to show on the
meter.The meterscalewill be calibratedin voltsdc, and you will
have to make up a separatechart to extrapolatethe intensity
readingsin light units.This is a basicform of light meterand is
bestusedto indicaterelativebrilliance.Forexample,if one light
sourceplacedone foot away from the LASCRproducesa reading
of 6 Vdc on the meterand anotherlight sourceplacedthe same
distanceaway producesa 3 Vdc, you would know that the sec-
ond light sourcewas lessbrilliant than the first. Sometimes,in-
candescentlight bulbs are used as dummy loads for radio
frequencytransmitters. With this projectopticallycoupledto the
incandescent lamp, a meterindicationof output power (relative)
is available.Therearehundredsof otherusesfor thiscircuit,which
shouldcostlessthan $10. Dramaticsavingscan be had by using
a surplusvoltmeter,which may cost only a few dollars.
No circuit board is requiredfor constructionof this project.
All that'sneededis a plasticenclosurewith enoughpanelspace
to mount the meterand switch and to housethe battery.Three
tiny holes may be drilled in the top, throughwhich the LASCR
leadsare inserted.Using insulatedhookupwire, makea connec-
tion betweenthe negativebatteryterminaland the anodeof the
LASCR.Anotherlengthof hookup wire connectsthe cathodeto
one contactof 51. The negativeterminalof the 9-volt bafteryis
connectedto the remainingswitch contacland the positivebat-
tery terminalis connectedto the positivemeterterminal.To use
the device,focusthe light on the surfaceof the LASCR.You can
usea smallcardboardtube which is fined aroundthe LASCRand
glued to the case.A pieceof electricaltape may be placedover
the top of this to shieldit from all light when the circuit is not
in use.With the tape removed,a beam of light may be directed
down the tube to strike the LASCRsurface.To conservebattery
life, alwaysflip S1 to the off positionwhen the circuit is not in
use. Due to the value of 81, the meter indicatorwill never be
driven to full scale.Evenbettersensitivitycan be obtained,how-
ever,by locatinganothermetertype which offersa Gl0 volt scale.
A fair amountof light is neededto get the LASCRto conduct
fully. Bettersensitivitycan be achievedby connectinga 100 K
variableresistorbetweenthe negativeterminalof M'l and the gate
89
lead. This can be adjustedto bring about the desiredtriggering
range with a referencelight sourcedireaed on the LASCR.

A timer circuit can be made usingmany differentelectronic

componentsby dependingupon the dischargeof an electrolytic
capacitorthrougha resistor.A capacitorhasthe capabilityof stor-
ing electricalenergyfor long periodsof time, and if passedthrough
a resistorin parallelwith its positiveand negativeleads,the stored
energywill be bled off graduallyat a ratethat can be fixed and
measured.The actualrateof dischargewill dependupon the value
of the capacitorand that of the resistor.
Thecircuitshownin Fig.G3 usesa silicon{ontrolld rectifier

Rs Rs I s2 s1 ,3,1,.
VY rlrl
-t
lR2
R1 ,o,
E I scRl
EZfi. l.
lct i R4 l e r
I L-
A1-Piezoelectric buzzer (Radio Shack 27&065)
81-9 volt batlsry
C1-480 pF electrolytic25 Vdc
B1-1 megohmvariable
R2-2oO O 1/2 wan
R3-620 o 1/2 watt
R4-12o 0 1/2 watt
R5-100KO 1/2watt
S1*SPST
S?-Nwmally closed momentary switch
SCR'-SO PIV 1 ampereSCB
o1-ECG 6400

Fig. S3. SCRtimer circuil and componentlist.

90
 whoseconductionis controlledby a unijunctiontransistor. This
transistorfires when C'l has been dischargedto a certainvalue.
The dischargepath is throughR1, a variableresistor,which can
be adjustedto deliverdifferentdischargeratesand thus,differing
triggeringtimes.When S1is initiallyactivated,currentflows from
the 9-volt baftery.In an extremelyshort period of time, Cl will
be fully chargedand will then begin to bleedoff throughthe re'
sistance.When the capacitoris sufficientlydischarged,Q1 con-
ducts and activatesthe silicon<ontrolledrectifier.This causes
currentto flow througha sonictransducer(A1),which will sound.
Thetimercanbe resetby depressing 52,which is a normallyclosed
momentary switch. R1 is adjustedto deliver the desiredtiming
rate.Usingthe circuit components shown, you shouldbe able to
obtaina maximum time lag of about eight to ten minutes.
I useda RadioShack piezoelectricbuzzer asan indicationthat
the timing period hadelapsed. RadioShack offers severaldifferent
typesof buzzers.The one I chose was designed to be mounted
on perfboardand draws only about 10 milliamperes at 9 volts.
Many other buzzersand audio transducers may be used here,as
long as they can be powered from a 9-volt source.
The circuit is constructedon perfboard,and I suggeststarting
with a Ginch squaresection.Mount all circuit componentsas
shownand makesureyou correctlyidentifythe leadsof the uni-
.iunctiontransistor,Q1. Thesilicon-controlled rectifiercan be any
type.The unit specifiedhasa forwardcurrentof 1 ampere,which
is common,but muchsmallervaluesmayalsobe used,sincethe
circuit draws little currentwhen the buzzeris activated.Make cer-
tain the buzzer is connectedwith its positive lead at the cathode
of SCR1and its negativeleadat the negativebatteryterminalor
circuit ground. Wiring is relatively non-critical. Be polarity-
consciousthroughoutthe process,however,asB'l, Q1, SCR1,and
Al must be connected with the polarities as shown in the
schematicdiagram.The sameappliesto Cl, which is a polarized
electrolyticcapacitor.
To testthe circuit,adjustR1to the mid-rangepositionand ac-
tivateS1.Slowlydecreasethe resistance of R1.Aftera shorttime,
the buzzer should sound. Then increasethe resistanceof Rl
slightly.The buzzer should go off aftera longerperiod of time.
lf you get no response,make sure your banery is good and re-
examineall wiringfor an error,especiallyin regardto the polarities
of components.To resetthe alarm,simply press52, and the tim-
ing sequencebeginsall over again.Usingthe circuitas shown,
91

t"
it is necessaryto fit R1 with a pointerknob and a scalewhich can
be calibratedin minutes,seconds,or whatever.lt is quite impossi-
ble, even with the knob, to resetR1 exactlyto a previouspoint
which yieldeda certaintime interval.Therefore,this timer circuit
cannotbe usedto accuratelytime eventsor sequencesto within
a secondor so. Rather,it is intendedas an indicationof approx-
imatetime intervals.Now, if you had a moreexactingusefor this
circuitin mind,don't be alarmed.With a few modifications, the
circuit can yield highly accuratefixed time intervals.Of course,
if you want to set the presentdevice up to time out exactlyfive
minutesor one minute,thisis no problem.JustadjustRl untilthis
time intervalis obtained.However,when you want severaldif-
ferenttime intervals,the fallacl of this circuit shows itself.
To obain an accuratemulti-interval timer,simplyincludemore
variableresistors,which can be switchedinto the circuit with a
rotary switch. Alternately,you can initially determinethe resis-
tance neededby measuringthe value of Rl with an ohmmeter
and recordingthe resistances on a sheetof paper.You may then
replaceR1 with a nurnberof fixed resistorsof the neededvalues.
Evenhere, it may be necessary to installtrimmer resistorsin se'
rieswith the fixed onesto allow for preciseadjustment.Foreven
moreaccuratetiming,replaceCl with a parallelcombinationof
highquality nonpolarizedcapacitors.Thesecan be purchasedin-
expensivelyfrom RadioShack,but manyof them will be required
to obtainthe samesizeasC1. Alternately,you can simplyincrease
the sizeof Rl to severalmegohmsand usea smaller-value capac-
itor to bring aboutthe sametiming intervals.

A transmitindicatoris a circuit,independent of the radiofre

quency transmitter,which is usedto determinethe presenceof
rf output.Theseare often usedin setupswhere the transmifteris
remotelylocatedfrom the actualoperatingposition.The circuit
is not directlyconnectd to the transmitterin any way, but is ac-
tually a miniatureradio receiverof sortswhich detectsthe rf out-
put and causesthe triggeringfunction to result.
Thecircuitis shownin Fig.6-4. lf you'refamiliarwith crystal
radios,you'll immediatelyrecognizethedetectorinputcircuit.The
antennasamplesa portion of the rf energy,and the germanium
diode (Dl) rectifiesthis,chargingC2. Thedc output from the detec-
tor is used to trigger a small silicon-controlledrectifier,which
allowscurrentto flow througha Gvolt flashlightbulb. This serves
92
 C1-0.005 ,rF disk
C2-5 pF 5O Vdc
Dl-rN34
LamP-6 volt flashlighlbulb
R1-10O K O variable
s1-sPsT
SCR,-50 PIV 1 ampere To ttansmitlet ground
T1-115 volt primary
6 voll 1 amperesecondary

circuit.
Fig.S4. SCRtransmitindicator

asan indicationthatthe transmitter is indeedputtingout power.

In low-powerapplications, such as those associated with citizens
band radio,it will be necessary to couple the antenna veryclosely
to the CB antenna.Poweris supplied to the lamp by a 6.3-volt
transformer,which is driven by the ac line' Abuzzer can also be
used to place of the lamp, and by removing C2, an audible
transducer maybe includedto serveasa sidetonegenerator. This
can be usedwith transmitters to monitorcodetransmissions. Each
time the transmitter is keyed,so is the transducer or buzzer,and
its durationcorrespondsto the dot or dash produced at the code
key.You mustremoveC2 tromthe circuitcompletely,however,
becausein its presentform,thisdeviceis setup to act only asan
indicationthat power is beingradiatedfrom the transmitter. Due
to the chargingeffectof C2,the lightwill stayon for a short while
after all transmissions have stopped.
You can build this circuiton perfboardand even mountthe
transformerhere, althoughyou'll probablywant to installthe
transformer and its primarycircuitryto the bottomof the enclosure
which is usedto housethe remainderof the circuit.Adjustable
resistorRl servesasa sensitiviry control.Foramateurradiouses,
C2 can probablybe discardedaltogether; it is thereto providegate
currentin low-powerapplications.
93
 Wiring is not especiallycritical, but try to keep the detector
circuit portionseparatefrom the portionwhich controlsthe lamp.
Theantennacan be a lengthof insulatedhookupwire. (Thelonger
the better.)You mayalsousea telescopingwhip antennasalvaged
from a defectiveCB walkietalkie.Theoperationof thiscircuitmay
dependto a largeextentupon the ground connection,although
differentsetupswill bringaboutdifferenttriggering.Thisis the type
of circuit you build and then adjustin conjunctionwith-your
transmitter.Throughpreciseuseof R'l, this circuit can evenserve
asa remotefield-strength meter.Adjustyour antennaand transmit-
ter,and while transmifting, adjustR1 to a pointjustbelowwhere
triggeringof the lampoccurs.Thecircuitis then left in placeand
furtheradjustmentscan be madeto the transmitterand antenna.
lf thesecausethe light to trigger,you haveobtaineda power in-
crease.KeepadjustingR1 until no furtherincreasecan be obtained
from the transmitter.Then, you know you are puttingout max-
imum power.

Burglaror intrusionalarmsare being usedmore and more

today,not only in businesses, but in privatehomesaswell. These
devicesaredesignedto soundan alarmwhen a door or window
is entered.Someare extremelyexpensive,while othersare quite
cheap.The laftertend to be ineffectivein many instances, but can
serveas excellentbackup alarmsto a largersystem.
Figure65 showsa simpleburglaralarmcircuitthatusesthe
latchingeffectof a triggeredSCRwhen usedwith a dc supplyto
delivera quiteeffectiveintrusionalarm.Thecircuitusesa Sonaleft
transducerto producea loud tone when triggered.
and can be assembledin a short
Thecircuit is straightforward
periodof timewith a minimumof components. lt is self<ontained
and normallydrawsno current when in the armed state.S1 is the
controlswitchwhich armsthecircuit, while 52 is an alarmswitch
that is normallyopen when the door or window is secure.This
is often a magneticreedswitch which is held open by a separate
magnetattachedto the door or window. When entry is attemP
ted, the magnetis movedby raisingthe window or openingthe
door,and the switchsnapsshut.Thissuppliescurrentto the Sate
circuitof SCR1,and currentis allowedto flow throughAl. The
SCRlatchesto the on positionand will remainon even if 52 is
openedagain.The only way to disarmthe circuit is to remove
all powerby switchingS1to theoff position.A 6-voltlanternbat-
94
tery is usd to power the circuit and shouldprovide many hun-
dredsof hoursof operation,sincethe circuitwill be triggeredonly
when an intrusionoccurs.
Youcanbui|dthecircuitinasing|eenclosureandthenuse
hookupwiring to conned the remotely-located alarmswitch.Alter-
nately,the eniiredevicecan be installeddirectlyat a door or win-
dow or other such locationwhere intrusioncould occur'
To testthe finishedcircuit,makesures2 is in the armedstate
or open,setR1to a midnnge position,and activate51. lf tre alarm
52 is closedor that
ioeioff imrediately, this piobablymeans.that
ihereis a wiring error.Now, close52 andthe alarmshouldsound.
goes
lf not, readiutint fo, a lower resistance'When the alarm
off, continueadjustingR'l to a slightlylower resistance position
and then switch s1 to the off position.The alarmwill be turned
off and you can now rearmthe circuit by opening52 againand
i.tiu"ting 51.When 51 is flippedon, the alarmshouldnot sound.

B1

fltlr
{"

L
A't-Sunalert (AlliedElect#854-6545)
81-O volt lanternbattery
C1-100 pF 16Vdc
R1-10 K O variable
R2-1 K O 1/2 watt carbon
51_SPST
S2-Alarm switch(oPenwhen armed)
scR,-s K 3950(RcA)

Fig. S5. SCRburglaralarmcircuit-

95
When you close 52 by openingthe door or window, the alarm
will sound.
While this circuitcan be usedto protectonly one possible
entranceto your home,severalother entrancescan also be pro-
tectedby wiringothernormallyopenswitchesin parallelwith 52.
lf anv one of them closes,the circuit will be activated.

The previousalarmcircuitusednormallyopen switchesfor

activation.While theseareusefulin simplecircuits,theydo pre.
sentsomewhatof a logisticalproblem,in that a continuousloop
of alarmswitchescannotbe used.The loop switcharrangement
usesseveralnormallyclosedswitchesin series, andwhenanyone
of them is openedby an intruder,the circuit is brokenand the
alarmis tripped.Usingthe previouscircuit,it was necessary to
run a pair of wiresdirectlyfrom the alarmportionto the areato
be protected.
Thecircuitshownin Fig.G6 avoidsthisnecessity, asonly two
connections are madeto the circuitproperfor as manyswitches
as you desire.This can allow a whole house, upstairsand
downstairs,to be protectedby a continuousloop, the ends of
which are connectedto the SCRand power supply.
Youcanseethatthecircuitis similarto the previousone,with
the exceptionbeingthe additionof a pnp transistor. When the
alarmswitchesare in the normallyclosedposition,the transistor
doesnot conduct.But when one of the switchesis opened,con-
ductionoccursandcurrentflowsin thecircuitbranchat theemit-
ter leadof Q1, throughR2 and the SCRgatecircuit.Thiscauses
currentto flow in the mainSCRcircuit,which includesa Sonalert
alarm.
Sensitivityis controlledby adjustingR.l.Unlikethe previous
circuit,this variableresistorcontrolsthe switchingsensitivityof
Ql. R2 is a fixed valueresistorthat will causeSCRl to conduct
when currentflows throughthis device.
Thecircuitis built muchlike the previousone,usingperfboard
and mountingeverythingbut the alarm switchesin a single
enclosure. A leadis thenbroughtfrom the baseof Q l to the first
alarmswitch.The remainingalarmswitchterminalis connected
to the nextalarmswitch,andthatto the next,and soon. Thefinal
alarmswitchcontactis connectedto the anodeof SCRl.When
all possibleentrances to the home are secure,the alarmswitch
contactsare closedand the transistordoes not conduct.Current
96
is beingconductedthroughthe closedloop switches'When any
of the switchesareopeneddue to an intrusion,this portionof the
circuit is brokenand currentflows throughQ1 and thus, to the
gatecircuitof SCR1,activatingthe alarm.
Once the circuit is complete,make sure all alarm switches
are closed,set R1 to the mid-rangeposition,and activateSl. lf
the alarm soundsimmediately,increasethe value of Rl slightly
afterdeactivatingS'1.You want to arriveat a resistancevaluewhich
will not turn the alarm on when Sl is activatedand all alarm
switchesareclosed.When you havereachedthis point,open one
of the alarm switchesand the alarm should sound immediately.
lf not, back off a bit on Rl, but not to a point where the alarm
is prematurelytriggered.

S2 S3 34
A1-Sonalerr (Allied Elecr # 83tsg5)
B't-6 volt lanternbattery
C1-120 pF 16 V electrolytic
R1-1 megohmvariable
R2-1000 O 'll2 wan carbon
S1_SPST
S2-S5-normally closed alarm switches
Q1-SK 3466 (RCA)
scRl-sK 39s0 (RcA)

Flg.&6. SCRburglarelarmcircuitusinga closoddetectionloopand compc'

n€ntlist.
97
 to prc
This circuit is far more practicalwhen it is necessary
tecta numhr of entrancesto a homeor business,but currentwill
flow while the deviceis in the armedstate.Therefore,it's a good
idea to usea &volt rechargeablebatteryfor 81 and connect it to
a chargerwhich is continuouslyactivated.You could usea 6 Vdc
poweisupply driven by the ac line, but in the eventof a power
iailure,your'homewould not be protectd. Usinga baneryand
a charger,you are assuredof a full chargeat all times,and in the
event;f a powerfailure,thereis enoughstord energyin the bat-
tery for many days of oPeration.

Many integrated circuitscanbe usedto periodicallyflashlight-

emittingdiodesand smallflashlightbulbs.Althoughthesemay
servea usefulpurpose,you may want to flashmuch largerbulbs
which can be operatedfrom the 1l FVac line. Unfortunately, most
integrated circuitsusedfor flashingpurposesare low-voltage,low-
currentdeviceswhich simplydo not havethe powercapability
of flashingstandardhouseholdincandescent lamps.However,by
combiningtheselow-poweredcircuitswith SCRcircuitsthat can
be triggeredby light, it is possibleto use a low-poweredcircuit
to control the high-poweredone.
FigureG7 showssucha circuit.This is actuallytwo circuits
which areopticallycoupled.To the left of the schematicdiagram
is the lC circuit,which operates from a single1.S-voltbatteryand
will flashan LEDat a rateof aboutone time per second,although
thiscan be adjustedwith variablecontrolR3.Two powerswitches
areincluded,one for the lC circuitandtheotherfor the SCRcircuit.
I used the popular 1M3909 time#lasher from National
Semiconductor. This is a reliableintegratedcircuitwhich hasbeen
usedin a largenumberof flasherprojects.An LEDis coupledto
the outputof the lC, which completesthis portionof the circuit.
To obtain high-powereci flashingcapability,the glow of the
LEDis closelycoupledto a smallphotocell,availablefrom Radio
Shackfor a few dollars,installedin the gatecircuitof SCR1.The
photocellis more appropriately calleda cadmium-sulfide cell,
which is a light-variable resistor.When the sensitized surfaceof
the photocellis in total darkness, the deviceis equivalentto a
500,00Gohmresistor.However,asthe light levelis increased, the
internalresistance decflfses,allowing moreand morecurrentto
flow in the SCRgatecfcuit. A variableresistoris also included
in serieswith the photocellandthe SCRgateto serveasa manually
98
 B1-l 5vonOcell
C1J20 rF elfflfotylc 10 Vdc
Fl -5 ampere lus€
L E O , - y e l l o wL E D
PC.-Phot@sll (Radroshack 276-l 16)
Rl + R4 68 O l/2 wan carbon
A2-270o fi 1/2 wa|| ca.bon
R3-25O0 0 l/2 wEll vaflabb
Rt-10 K 0 vsnabL
sr-sPsr
S2-5 smpere SPST
SCR,-s K 3570 {200 PIV - 4 an9€resi
x1,-115 voll r&€ptrcal
lCr-LM 39Og (NatDnal S€mrcondcld)

lighttlesh€r circuit
Fig.&7. Incandsscent list.
andctmponent

adjustablesensitivity control.When the valueof PC1is brought

low by theflashof the light+mittingdiode,the SCRfiresand con-
ductsdirect currentto the 115-voltreceptacle.
A 4-amperesiliconcontrolledrectifierhasbeenusedto allow
you to plug in lightswhich totala maximumol 375 watts.You
can usea lower-poweredSCRif you wish to control low-wattage
lamps.The 4-ampereSCRspecifiedmust be mountedto a heat-
sink,andtheappropriate insulatingmaterialsareusuallyincluded
with the device.Coatthe SCRand the thin dielectricsheetwith
siliconegreasebeforebolting the device to the heatsink.Radio
Shack makes several sinks that can be attached directly to
perfboard.
Beginconstruction by mountingthe lC on a S-inchsquaresec-
tion of perfboard and connecting the various components
associated with this portionof the circuit.When the lC circuitis
complete,activate51 and adjustR3while observingthe LED.You
shouldbe ableto bring abouta flashratewhich is very slow or
one which is so fast that the LED seemsto glow almostcon-
tinuously.lf you cannotget the LEDto fla$t, then you've proba-
bly madea wiringerroror havea defectivecomponent.Thiscircuit

99
 movingon to theSCRcircuit'
'-"stRl mustbe operationalbefore
oortion
i;;lso installedon thecircuit board,mountedto anap-
of
propri"," heatsink.Connectthe photocellbetweenthe anode
resistor.place iB sensitized surface right
Gltc"no theadiustable
iro. This portion of the circuit,is completed bv wir-
;;;;;i,h"
iri;iliil;epbcle, the fuseblock,52, andthe terminatedline
cord.Eeforeinserting thelineplug,temporarily shortcircuitPC1
clip'leadand adjust R5 to is maximum resistance
*iitt
"" "ilig"ar
poiition.Pi-ugin an appropriate light at Xl, insertthe line plug
of R5until
in ihew"tt, aid aaivaiesz' slowlydecreaTthevalue
on. Thisassures you that the scR portion of the
il;'Li;,;ei
circuit
-"- is oPerational.
plug and
N;;, i"tou" thejumperat PCl, reinsertthe line
LED is flashing properly and
activateSl and52.Ma'kecertainthe
to bring activation of the in-
idlust RS,if necessary, "!ro't-.t]'t".
at Xl' lf you hav-e problems
ol'ta"r."nt lamp,whic'his attached
;td;,h; incandescent lamp to flash.,even with R5 set to a
minimumresistance position,try installinga lGkohm half-watt
gatecir-
,"ril o, i" parallelwiitr pCt. Thiswill lowertheoverall
triggering sensitivity'
-- - r"riri"nce andmaybringaboutbetter
.uli;i
effects,
rt iorpleted circuit,"y b" ur.d for speciallighting
" in the entertainment field' The circuit may even be
op".i"ffy
alarm proiects to.ser.ve
..irpiJ io on" of the previousintrusion
scarethe in-
asa vlsualindicationof an intnrsionor to possibly
truderoff.

a
st.rt"** listenersoftenspendhourson end monitoring
tp".in. ft"quencyfor a particularradiostationT!=:PP11.T3
il^itit itrigulaily, * iilt necessary to be constantlyon gu?d'
Lr""v ,f,"*:"* lisieners canrecallsittingin frontof theirreceiver
hours
*ltii'tt""Jpnones clampedtightlyon, passingawaymany
hearingtre muctr+oughtafter station' Thentoo' many
",iJior,*Lt mayransmit at regularhours' but band conditions
foreignstations
;;;";;r.h that the signalis t"ldabl" only when atmospheric
conditionsare favorable.
frequency
lf thereweresomewayyoucouldmonitora ceftain
to be right thereon the scene'shortwave
withoutactuallyhaving
iir*i"S might'becoml a littlemorepracrical. Thecircuitshown
of the strainoff the shortwave listener'
ffiig. ;C;ty takesome
doeshave certain limiations. This is an 5CR-triggered
iltti.f, soundswhenaudiois present.
"l',irrirehlt Thecircuitisdesigned
"i"*
100
to be pluggedinto the receiverheadphonejack, and a sensitivity
control is provided to preventtriggeringfrom atmosphericstatic.
Thunderstorms, with their high staticelectricitycontent,maytriS-
ger the alarm anyway, but you need to run to the receiveronly
when the alarmcomeson and stayson, indicatinga continuous
audio presence.
Lookingat the circuit,you can seethe audio outputfrom the
receiveris connectedto the primaryof T1. The primaryshould
match the output impedanceof the headphonejack and can be
variedto suit an individual receiver.The energyis fed from the
transformersecondaryto the SCRgatecircuit, which, when trig-
gered,suppliespowerto X1, a 11S-voltreceptacle.Here,an elec-
tric lamp (or some other type of dc device) can be attached.
To use it, aftachthe circuit and tune the receiverto the ap
propriatefrequency.Rl is setjust below the point wherethe in-
dicatingdevice is triggered.Then, when your receiverpicks up
the audiofrom the transmittingstation,the alarmis triggered,and
you can listento your heart'scontent.You can installa DPDT
switchat the transformersecondary,which allowsyou to switch
from the monitorcircuit to the headphones. Alternately,you can
simply removethe monitor jack and insertthe headphoneiack
in the receptacle.
You can also usethis monitor in a differentway by connect-
ing a dc latchingrelayto the output receptacle.The relayshould
be of the normallyclosedvariety.A communications receiverwill
be requiredwhich containsa bfo. This will allow you to tune in

F1-1 amperetuse
Rl-10 K 0 variabl€
31-SPST
SCR,-200 PIV 1 amPere
X1-115 volt receptical
T1-500 primary-SooO secondary,

Fig. &8. ReceiverSgnalale-t.circuit.

101
 the carrierof an AM broadcaststationwhich will producea solid
tone at the receiveroutput. This circuit then becomesan off-the
air monitorwhich can be usedanywherewithin the coveragearea
of the AM station.The tone causesthe SCRto triSgerand feeds
power to the normallycloseddc relay.When a normallyclosed
relayis activated,its contacbopen up. A light or otheralarmshould
be connected across these contacts.Therefore, as long as the
transml$ingstationis on the air, the relay is activated,opening
the contactsto the alarm. However, if the stationgoesoff the air
for ev-ena few seconds,the SCRstopsconducting and the nor-
malp closedrelayspringsshut.Thisclosesthe alarmcircuit con-
tacts, making it go off. The relay can control a buzzer or some
otheraudibledevicewhich could be heardfrom any room in the
homh. Chief engineersat commercialbroadcaststationsoften use
deviceslike this when they are on call.
Thiscircuitcannotbe usedin this mannerwith FM broadcast
stationsor with singlesidebandtransmissions which suppressthe
carrier.The monitor can be alteredto serveas a "loss of audio"
alarmby installinga 50 P.l.V.diode and a SGmicrofaradfilter ca-
pacitorat the transformersecondary.As long as audio is present,
the SCRcircuit remainsin the conductingstate.When audio is
lost for a periodof time which is greaterthan the dischargerate
of the filter capacitor,the alarmsounds.A 5Gmicrofaradcapaci-
tor may not be large enough to preventfalsetriggeringdue to
pausesof a few secondswhich are standardin the commercial
broadcasting field.A largervaluecapacitorallowsfor audiopauses
of longerdurationswithout falselytriSgeringthe relay attached
to X1.

A triac is a type of silicon-controlledrectifier,or more ac-

curately,two silicon<ontrolledrectifierswhich sharea common
gatecircuit and are connectd in reverseparallel.When the gab
circuittriggersthe triac,the deviceconductscurrentin two direc-
tions insteadof just one, as is the casewith the silicon-controlled
rectifier.Due to this operation,the triac can be usedto control
the conductionof alternatingcurrent.All of the previousprojects
in this chapteroutputdc voltageonly; this one is drivenby the
115-voltline and will outputa maximumvalueof 1l5 Vac, but
isadjustable by meansof thevariableresistor to delivermuchlower
values.This makesthe circuit ideal for motor speedcontrol ap
102
 C1-0.1 pF 400 Vdc
D1-Diac EC6 il08
(Sylvania)
F1-5 ampere
'll2 watt carbon
R1-3 K 0
R2-500 K O variable
S1-SPST 6 ampere
Triac-EC6 5603
X1-115 Vac receptical
heat sink

Fig.&9. Triaclightdimmercircuit.

plications,dimminglights,and controllingotheralternating cur-

rent devices.
The circuitis shownin Fig.G9 and is quite similarto many
of the SCRcircuitspresentd earlier'Indeed,in someapplications,
the triac may be usedas a replacementfor an SCRwhen an ac
output is desirable.Thiscircuit usesa devicecalleda diacto pro
vide triggeringof the SCRgatecircuit. This bringsabout positive
triggeringcontrol.Theactualvaluedeliveredto the 11S-voltreceP
tacle (X1) is determinedby the settingof R2. R1 is a protective
resistorwhich assuresthat the full 115-voltpotentialis not deliv-
eredto the diac and gatecircuit.C'l is the triggercapacitorwhich
makesthe SCRfire when its value risesto the breakovervoltage
of the diac. When the triac fires, C'l is discharged,but then
recharges againthroughRl and R2 until the nextfiring sequence'
the triic usedis a 4-amperetype that requiresexternalheatsink-
ing. The entirecircuit can be built on perfboardand mountedin
an aluminumenclosurewhich canserveasa heatsink(with proper
electricalinsulation)and for mountingR2, 51, and X1'
To test the circuit, connect an electric lamp to the built-in
103
 :.it ^,;' ..

receptacleand activateSl. Adjust R? for,minimumto maximum

and the lamp shouldalter its brightnessaccordingly.You can use
this circuit for voltage contiol to transformeroperatd devices.
When a transformerwith a 11S-voltprimaryis connectedto the
receptacle,ib drive voltagemay be variedfrom low to high,with
conespondingvariationsin the outputat the secondary.Thisallows
precisevolage controlof powersuppliesand otherdeviceswhich
use a transformer.
This circuit has high power applications,and all that's
necessaryis to beef up the primarywiring and selecta triac that
will passthe higheramountof current.The firing circuit can stay
the same.

An optoelectronicdevice,and especiallyan optoelectronic

coupler,combinesseveralcomponents in a singlepackage,each
of which is not directly connected. This proiectusesthe popular
H1 1J1photon<oupled isolatorfrom Ceneral Electric.Thedevice
is shownschematically in Fig.Gl0 and consisb of a light-activated
triac,alongwith a light+mitting diode, all contained in one tiny
six-pinDIP package. The device is designed to be used as an ac
switch which is dc-controlled and offers tremendous electrical
isolationbetweenthe two circuitportions.This particularisolator
providesabout 4000 volts isolationbetweenthe light-emitting
diode and the triac.
The circuitusingthisdeviceis shownin Fig.G1'l and is ex-

d€vic€(courtesyGeneralElec{ric)'
Fig. S10. Opto€l€ctronic

104
 [DAT &
DOORNo. 2-1-17

54

oP'
123

81-1 .5 volt AA cell

C1-0.015 rF 200 Vdc
OP.,-GeneralElectricH'l1J1
R1-120 O 1/2 watl carbon
51-SPST miniature

SCRcontrolcircuit.
Fig.&11.Optoelectronic

tremelytiny owing to the small size of the CeneralElectricde-

vice. lt can easily be installedon a 2-inch squaresection of
perforatedcircuit board. The switchingportion of the circuit is
found at terminals1 and 2. Here, a 1.S-voltpenlite cell is con-
nectedin serieswith the two terminalsand S'l controlsthe power
to the internallightcmitting diode. The 115-Vacportion of the
circuit is found at pins 4 and 6. Two other components,Rl and
Cl, are includedfor transientprotection,but are not absolutely
mandatory.Usingthiscircuit,you can switchon an ac devicewith
the 1.S-voltcircuit. Remember,there is no direct connectionbe
tweenthe switchingcircuitand the 11S-voltcircuit.
Unfortunately,the tiny optoelectronicisolatoris a low-power
deviceand you will haveto limit the 11S-voltloadto lessthan
75 milliamperes. However,you can usea 115-Vacrelaywhich
draws lessthan this amountto control largeamountsof power.
Thistype of circuit is safefor relayswitchinghigh-voltage circuits
up to a maximumof about4,000 Vac or dc. The protectionhere
is withinttre isolator,which protectsthe low-volage switchingcir-
105
cuit from thesehigh potentialvalues.You may also usethis cir-
cuit to controla separateSCRor triacwhich is ableto passa much
higheramountof current.Optoelectronicisolatorsare in common
usagetday and serveas an easy meansof switchingon high-
voltagecircuits without havingto resortto largeand expensive
mechanicalor electromechanical switchesthat offerthe samede
gree of electricalisolation.

Many personshaveinstalledmotorizedgaragedoor openers,

and the more expensiveversionsof theseoften offer remote ac-
tivation control through small radio transmitters.Others are
automaticallytriggeredwhen the lightsfrom the automobileare
detectedby a sensor.The remotecontrol types of garagedoor
openersarecertainlyquite usefuland avoid havingto exit the pro
tectionof the automobileduring inclementweatherto trip a man-
ual switch.Unfortunately, their high priceis oftenprohibitive,and
manypersonsresortto installingthe typewhich requiresthe man-
ual tripping of a switchfor activation.Thentoo, many motorized
garagedoor openerswhich were installedmany yearsago before
remotecontrol becamepopular are still in use.
The circuit shown in Fig. 6-12 can convert any presentga-
ragedoor opener to remotecontrolled switchingby combining
it with an existingsystem.Usingthis circuit,the headlights from
your automobilewill triggerthe motor,and once your car is in-
side,the door can be loweredby flippingthe switchmanually.
The circuitusesthe inexpensive RadioShackLASCR,which
was used in a previousproject.The finishedcircuit will be ex-
tremely small and is self<ontained,so it can be mountedas a
discreteunit on the front of the garagenearthe door opening.An
internal9-volt batterysuppliespower, and a momentaryswitch
is providedto manuallylower the door or raiseit, shoulda light
sourcenot be available.
The LASCRis connectedto the circuit using only its anode
and cathodeleads.The gate lead is not usedat all, as a source
of light will be usedto causethe deviceto breakinto conduction.
When this occurs,currentflows througha circuit board-mounted
relay,which closesits contacts.Theseare locatedin serieswith
a 115-Vaclatchingrelay,which is availablefrom Allied Electronics.
This particularrelay latchesclosedwith the first burstof ac cur-
rent and opensagainupon receivinganotherburst.The contacts
of the secondrelayare connectedin serieswith the power line
106
to the motor. The secondrelay is necessarybecauseof the cur=
rentmostmotorsdraw duringoperationand becauseit is a latch-
ingtype,which is necessary for positivetriggering'Whenthecircuit
boaid relayclosesdue to the glow of the headlights,the second
relay latchesfirmly into place,triggeringthe motor. lf a latching
relay is not used,the movementof the automobile,and thus, its
lighis,might causethe LASCRto revertto the off stateand leave
the door in a partiallyopenedposition.The circuit board relay
is not a latchingtype and will be dependentupon the headlights
to keepit closed.In this circuit, however,a closureof only a sec-
ond oi so is requiredto initiallytriggerthe latchingrelay,which
will remain in the on state. Most garage door openers are
equipd with automaticcutoffswitcheswhich areactivatedwhen
the door is fully oPened.
After your vehicle is safelyin the garage,pressthe manual
closeswitch and 52 at the LASCRcircuit to resetthe light detec-
tor. ln somecases,it will be necessaryto depress52 first, since

81-9 volts
Laser-MRDg2o(RadioShack27S1095)
-tTo motor
circuit
Ry1-9 volt relay(RadioShack275404)
Ry2-115 Vac latching(AlliedElectronics802'02771
S1_SPST
S2-Momentaryswitch(normallyopen)

Fig. S12. SCRgaragedoor op€nercircuit'

107
the latching relay is still locked in the on position. Individual
systemsmay requiredifferentconnectionsfrom the latchingrelay,
but this is usuallyquite simple,sincemost openersallow provi-
sionsfor alternatecontrol circuits.
The detectorcircuit may be built on a 4-inch squaresection
of perfuoard.Thiswill be usedmainlyfor mountingthe relay(RY1)
and the baftery.The circuit boardcan then be enclosedin an ap
propriatecontainer,which shouldbe shieldedfrom the elements.
You'll need to drill a hole in the caseto accessthe openingof
the LASCR.A pieceof clear plasticmaterialcan be gluedto the
insideof this openingto makethe assemblywatertiShtand still
allow the entranceof light.Sinceit is necessary to exposethe case
of the LASCRin order for it to be struck by a beam of light, this
deviceshouldbe mountedcloseto the surface of the enclosure.
By usingthe LASCRin its leastsensitiveoperationalmode,
falsetriggeringof the circuit is usuallycompletelyavoidedduring
daylighthours.lt takesa fairlyintensebeamfrom the automobile's
headlightsto effectivelytriggerthe circuit, and it is necessary to
adjustthe window openingof the enclosurefor properalignment
with your automobile(s). lf your circuit is triggeredtoo easilyby
other nearby lights,a hollow tube may be placedover the open-
ing to deflectall lightsthat are not aimeddirectlyat the opening.
To test the circuit, activate51 and turn on your headlights.
The garagedoor should open immediately.To closethe Sarage
door, press52.Thiswill sendanotherburstof currentto the relay,
which will, in turn, sendanothercurrentburstto the remoterelay.
lf your garagedoor openeris set up to automaticallyclosewhen
power has been removedfrom the motor, the door will slowly
be lowered. lf not, depressthe manual return button insidethe
garagedoor (theone that was suppliedwith the original unit). lt
may takeyou a few minutesto properlyadjustthe openingto the
LASCRfor the correcttraggering, but once this is done, this sim-
ple circuit shouldserveyou for manyyean. To completelydeac-
tivatethe detectorcircuit,simplyflip S1to the off position.In this
type of service,the 9-volt bafteryshould last for severalmonths
becausecurrent is drawn only when the circuit is tripped.

Many of the previousSCRand triac projectshaveuseda fixed

or variable resistorbetween the anode and the gate of each de
vice in order to bring about triggeringor to set triggersensitivity.
The purposeof this device is to causea smallamountof current
108
 B1-9 volt
PG'-PCr-Small solar cells
R1-1 K o variable
S1_SPST
scR,-sK3950 (RCA)

Fig. e13. Solar-tdggsrswitch clrcuit'

to flow within the gatecircuit to causethe deviceto fire. The

resistorsimplysetsup a separate circuitlegwhichoperates from
the samepowersource.However,a batterycould be usedhere
(in the gatecircuitalone)to bling aboutthe sametri8Seringac-
tion.Youcanalsouseanyotherdevicewhichwill Senera€ a small
electriccurrent.
Thecircuitin Fig.613 canbe thoughtof asa light'activated
SCRswitch.Here,a pairof series.wired photovoltaiccells,often
knownassofarcells,is usedto providea sepaEtepowersource
for the SCRgatecircuit.A $volt baneryis usedelsewherein this
circuitto supplycurrentto the load.
Forthis project,I usedthe RCASK3950SCR,which is rated
to delivera maximumof 800milliamperes to theload.lt requires
the gatecircuitto be triggeredby a valueof approximately 0.8
voltr,deliveringa curentof approximately 800microamperes (0.8
milliamperes).
A singlephotovolaiccell will deliverat least.4 volt and
109
usually.42 voltor more.A singlecell will not be adequateto de-
liverthe required.8 volt, so two arewired in series.ln this circuit,
the voltagevaluesadd,so the total potentialat the gatecircuitwill
be equalto two timesthe voltagein a singlecell, or approximately
.8 volt. Wheneverlight strikesthe surfacesof the solarcells,the
SCRwill fire.A variableresistor seryesasa sensitivity adjustment.
You can usethe tiniestsolar cells you can find, as eventhe
smallestwill deliver8 milliamperes or so, which is far morethan
adequatefor thiscircuit.When the SCR fires, it is no longer depen-
dent upon the gatecircuit, so 51 is usedto remove power from
the load.
Thiscircuitmay be constructed withoutthe useof perforated
circuitboard,anda plasticenclosure isdesirable' Thephotovoltaic
cellscan be gluedto the top surface,and smallholesaredrilled
for connectionto the SCRand Rl, which is mountedthroughthe
frontpanel.The9-voltbatteryis alsoinstalled withintheenclosure
in an appropriate springclip.S1canbe mountedthroughthefront
panelas well. The 9-voltoutputis accessed by meansof a two-
contact terminal strip mountedthrough the rear wall of the
enclosure.
To test the circuit, connect a transistorradio or other ap
propriateload to the terminals,and be sureyou observeproper
polarity.A reversalcan quickly damagedelicatesolid-state com-
ponentswithin the load.Now, activateS1and shinea brightlight
on the exposedsolarcells.You may haveto adjustRl a bit, but
the circuitshouldfire and deliverthe full 9-voltpotential(lessa
half volt or so for the internalresistance of the SCR)to the load.
Once power has been delivered, the light may be removedfrom
the solar cells and operation will continue.
Again,usethe smallestsolarcells possible,as high current
capabilitywithin thegatecircuitis neitherwarrantednor desired.
You can use this same circuit to drive much largersilicon-
controlledrectifiers,althoughit maybe necessary to wire asmany
asfour photovoltaic cells in series, depending upon the SatetriS-
gervoltageratingof the device (VCT)' The maximum voltageyou
;ill encounter will be about I .5 volts, even when using extremely
highcurrentdevices.Using an SCR with a higher voltage rating,
you may deriveload power directly from the ac line. lf ac is used,
however,the circuit will be active only when a constant light
sourceis appliedto the photovoltaic cells. This circuit may be used
only with dc loads,regardless of the voltagepotential'

110
 A voiceactuatedswitch is a devicewhich causesa switching
action any time your voice (or any other sound for that matter)
is picked up by a microphone.Thesedeviceshave been around
for sometime and havebeen usedto control the actionsof elec-
tronictoysand evenintruderalarms.The ideais simple.The out-
put from an audioamplifieris usedto drive the gatecircuitof a
thyristor.This is the samemethodthat is usedto producemost
lightorgans,like the one presented earlierin thischapter.ln light
organcircuits,however,the audioamplifieris drivenby a turnta-
ble, tape player, radio receiveror other such audio device.
The circuit shown in Fig. &14 includesa simple audio
preamplifierwhich is transformer-coupled to the gatecircuit of a
triac.The load for this circuit is a 1 15-Vacrelay,which can be
of the latching type if desired. Instead of using a standard
microphoneelement,thiscircuitusesa commonSohm miniature
speaker,which shouldbe quiteeasyto obtainlocally.When used
in this mode,the speakeris reallya dynamicmicrophone.Many
individualsthinkthata speakercan be usedonly to outputacoustic
signalswhen drivenby a varyingcurrent,but the reverseis also
true. When soundwavesstrikethe surfaceof the speaker,it pro
ducesa small,varyingelectriccurrentwhich correspondsto the
soundwaves.The outputfrom thisamplifieris quite low, so you
will probablyhaveto stickwith a low<urrenttriac,which requires
minimumdrive to its Batecircuit.
The entirecircuitcan be built on a 6-inchsquaresectionof
perforated circuit board,but be sureto isolatethe'115-voltline
from the low-voltageportionof the circuitto preventcatastrophic
destruction shoulda shortcircuitoccur.Thissizecircuitboardis
adequateto containall components,includingthe transformer,
triac,and relay.The transistorusedis a common type,and many
otherpnp transistors can be substituted with aboutthe sameresults.
Someunits, however,may not give you adequateoutput.
To testthe circuit, connectthe probesof an ohmmeterto the
outputterminalsof RY1.Insertthe plug in a wall outletand ac-
tivateS1.With R3at the mid-range position,clapyour handsnear
the speaker, and the relayshouldclick on. lf it doesnot,try hum-
ming into the speakerwhile adjustingR3.When this lattercom-
ponentis at the correctsetting,the audioinputto the speakerwill
holdthe relayshut.When you stophumming,the relaywill open
again.lf you needhigh-current switchingcapability,connectthe

111
 F
o

s cs - -B-
s Es E *ri
oiea
9 s s_ €e BEc
F aEE€Ea3Ft
; SSSHsi eEB >F!2 iO.E
6 =oc^^S .g^o
€**'1H::;EEbE;j
iJ , !?+4$ f i ?i- >E
J ci $ +
-L?
: E ?
: cc
o < r c"ito: G c t r ( ! t r u ) ( , J - t -

& oo
';c
60
€(,
6O
F-o
o
s

t
e
o
E
(,
t
8
G
3
E
o
6
.9
o
{
d
d
ll.

112
power circuit of a largerrelay to that of the one specifiedin the
schematic.Relayswhich are capableof switching40 amperesor
morecontaincoilswhich still draw minimalamountsof current
and arewell within the switchingcapabilitiesof eventhe smallest
11S-voltrelay.A 1-amperetriac is specifiedfor thiscircuit,so any
11S-Vacrelay which draws lessthan this arnountmay be safely
used,althoughthe largertypescannotbe mountedto the circuit
board.
Foran intruderalarmcircuit,usea latchingrelaywhich is con-
nectedto the pcwer circuit of an appropriatebuzzeror otheralarm
indicator.The devicecan the- bcset to maximumsensitivity to
respondto any loud sound.

In sometestapplications, it is difficultto usean ohmmeter

due to its size.Forthis reason,manypeoplewho repairelectronic
equipmentandelectromechanical devicesusea continuitychecker
to testfor shortcircuitsand open circuitconditions.In its most
basicform, a continuitycheckeris oftena flashlightbare-ry-wffi-----_
is conneciedio a iow-voitageincandescent bulb. The testprobes
serveasa switch.When thereis an extremelylow resistance across
the probes,the circuit is completedand the bulb lights.
When continuitycheckersare usedfor testingintegrated cir-
cuits and other small solid-statedevices,sometimesthe battery
voltageis high enoughto damagethesecomponents.The circuit
shown in Fig.G15 avoidsthis by usingthe low-voltagepotential
which is presentwithin the gatecircuit of a silicon-controlledrec-
tifier.Theactualvaluevaries,but thisis oftenlessthan 1 volt.The
foad is a 9-volt buzzerwhich receivescurrentfrom the $volt tran-
sistorradio banery.A I K potentiometerservesas the sensitivity
control,which can be adjustedto providetriggeringactionwhen
the probesare placed acrossvarying valuesof low resistance.
Whena low resistance conditionexistsat the probes,the SCRfires,
conductingcurrentthroughthe 9-voltbuzzer.A momentary(nor-
mally closed)switch is includedin this circuit to resetthe device
for the next test,as the buzzerwill continueto soundeven after
the probeshave been removed.In many testfunctions,this is a
desirablefeature.lt allowsthe technicianto simplyclip the probes
in placeand makeadjustmenselsewherewithin the circuit. In
somedevices,theseadjustmentsmay be at a point that is quite
a distanceawayfrom the portionbeingtestedfor continuity.When
an adjustmentcausesa circuit to complete itself, the buzzer
113
 81-9 voll
Bu2-9 voll buzzer(50 mA or less)
R1-1 K 0 variable
S1-SPST
S2-normally c/osed momentaryswitch
SCR,-low currentSCR(100mA or less)

circuit.
checker
Fig.S15.SCBcontinuity

sounds,and this conditionmay be remotelysensed'

You may useperfboardfor constructingthis circuit or forego
this altogetherand usepoint-to-point wiring alongwith terminal
strips.A small plasticor aluminumcasewill serveas a fine
enclosure,and this can be fittedwith receptacles to acceptthe
plugsfrom an inexpensive pair of multimeterprobesthatcan be
purchasedfrom a local hobby store.
To testthe circuit,activateS1and setR1to a mid-rangeposi-
tion. Shortthe probetips together,and adjustR1 until you hear
the buzzer.Now, separate the probetips and press52 momen-
tarily.Thisturnsthe buzzeroff. Shortthe probestogetheragain,
and the buzzershouldsound.lf not, decreasethe resistance of
R1 slightly,or until positivetriggeractionoccurseachtinrethe
probesare shortedtogether.
Thiscircuitcertainlywon't replaceyourohmmeter, but it does
comein handyfor a quickcheckof rnanydifferent appliances and
someelectroniccircuits.The low-voltage gatecircuithasa poten-

114
tial which is probablylower than that of mostohmmeters,so you
don't have to worry about damagingdelicateelectroniccom-
ponents.

A proximityalarmis a circuitor devicewhich triggersan in-

dicatorwhenevera personor objectcomescloseto or actually
touchesan electrodesensor.Suchdevicesare usedfor many dif-
ferent purpose,including intruder alarms,counters,and for
automationpurPoses.
The circuitshown in Fig.6-16 usesa silicon-controlled rec-
tifierwhich is firedby ll, a miniatureneon lamp,baseduponcir-
cuit capacitance. A miniature2Gpicofaradtrimmercapacitoris
usedasthe sensitivity control,which is tied in parallelwith a sen-
sor plate.The circuitlooksincompleteas shown,but a person's
bodycapacitance in relationto theelectricwiringin thewall forms
the otherconnectingleg from the sensor.A variableresistance is

A1-sonalert (AlliedElectronics 854-6500)

F1-112 amperefuse
C1-20 pF trimnter
l 1 - m i n r a t u r en e o nl a m P
R1-50 K A 112watt carbon
R2-100 K 0 variable
S1_SPST
SCR,-200 1 ampere

Fig. 6-16. SCR proximityalarm circuit.

115
includedin the sensorlead. In someapplications,this will have
a reasonably goodeffect,while in others,it will do littleor nothing.
This circuit is dependentupon the 115-Vachousewiring, both
for supplyingpowerand servingas a meansof firingthe circuit.
Perforated circuit boardis usedasa platformfor mountingall
components.The completedcircuit can be housedin a plasticor
aluminumenclosure, which providesaccess for the linecordand
the single lead to the metal sensor plate. The silicon-controlled
rectifiermay be any 2OGvolt unit, asthe circuit draws a verysmall
amount of currentwhen activated.
The sensorplate may be a doorknob (for intrusionalarms),
but this smallmetalsurfacewill mostlikely requirea directcon-
tactto triggerthe circuit.Fora true proximityalarm,it is necessary
to installa much largermetaldetectingsurface.The easiestway
to accomplish thisis to usea largesectionof aluminumfoil which
can be tackeddirectlyto the wall or even mountedbehind it for
a hiddeninstallation. The largerthe surfaceareaof the sensorplate,
the moresensitive your circuitwill be to individualspassingby.
It will be verydifficultto solderaluminumfoil, so you can simply
crumpleone edgeand wrap it tightlywith the bareconductorfrom
the circuit board.
As an alarm,this circuit usesa Sonalert,which is available
from Allied Electronics. This device operatesover a rangeof 30
to 115 Vac or dc. The half-wavecircuitusedheredeliversabout
60 Vdc, which is more than adequateto drive this alarmdevice.
A smallswitchis usedto activatethe circuitand to resetthe alarm
once it has been triggered.As soon as the circuit is tripped,the
alarmsoundscontinuouslyuntil 51 is opened.
To testthe circuit,adjustCl to a midway positionand set R2
to a minimum resistance position.Activate51 while the detection
areais clear.Now, havean assistant enterthe detectionarea,stand-
ing close to the metal contact plate. Adjust C1 until the alarm
sounds.Then,open S1,and the alarmshouldstopimhrediately.
Haveyour assistant exit the detectionareaand close51 again.The
alarmshouldremainsilent.When the personentersthe detection
area again,the alarm should sound.
lf you have problemsgettingyour circuit to fire, have your
assistant actuallytouch the metalplatewhile adjustingCl. lf this
is the only way the circuit will fire, your plate area is not large
enough.Once your circuit hasbeen initially set up, you can ad-
just R2 in an attemptto desensitize the circuit somewhat.In most
instances,however,Cl will be adequatefor this functionand R2

116
may be eliminatedaltogether.

A power monitoror power failurealarm,as it is sometimes

called,is a circuitwhich indicatesthata powerfailurehasoccurred,
evenfor a brief instant.Thistypeof alarmis quite usefulin critical
applicationswhere it is necessaryto supply operatingpower to
a devicesuchas a clock or othertiming circuiton a continuous
basis.lf the power shouldfail for only a secondor so and then
comebackon again,the timingpulsesfromthe clockcircuitmay
be erraticor out of sync.Somepower failuresassociated with the
ac line or dc powersupplymayoccurbrieflyat a time when you
arenot present. Withouta powerfailurealarm,you probablywill
not be awareof this conditionimmediatelyupon return,and it
maytakemanyhoursto figureout why a particulartimingcircuit
doesnot seemto be operatingproperly.In fact,it is operatingprop
erly, but the timing sequencehas been interruptedby the brief
power failure.
The circuitshownin Fig.Gl7 is quite simple,inexpensive,
and will definitelyindicatewhen a power failurehasoccurred.
It acts upon the latchingeffect of a silicon-controlledrectifier,
which is fed dc current.Shouldthe currentfail for even a split-
second,the SCRswitchesto the off stateand will not be firedagain
until the triggercircuit is manuallyactivated.This circuit is de
signedto operatefrom a dc power supplywhich is connectedto
the ac line. The circuit is quite standard,in that when the SCR
fires,a smallincandescent lamp ratedto operateat the powersup
ply voltageglows.Positivetriggeringis accomplishedby adjusting
R1. The SCR is fired by pressing51, which is a normally-off
momentaryswitch that returnsto the off positionwith the aid of
an internalspringafter it has been initially depressed.After the
SCRis fired,it is no longerdependentupon the gatecircuitto con-
trol conduction,sothe gatecircuitis electronically removed.This
makesthe lamp glow as long as there is dc power. But remove
it for an instant,andthe SCRswitchesoff,extinguishing the lamp.
Shouldpower be applied again,the SCRis still cut off because
of the breakin the gatecircuit. The only way the lamp can glow
againis by manuallydepressing 51. As longasthe lamp remains
lit, you can be certainno power failure hasoccurred.However,
if it is off, you know thattherehasbeena powerinterruption,even
if power is currentlypresent.
Thiscircuitmay be installedwithin a dc power supply,and
117
 Tc dc
powersupply

+
Oc outpul

Lamp-small incandescenl
bulb rated lo
operate from
power suPPlYvoltage
R1-2.5 K O variable
S1-normally open momentary
SCR1-10O volt low current
rype

Fig.G17.SCRpowermoniior
circuit'

perfboardis not mandatoryfor construction.R1,S1,and the lamp

are mountd througha panelwall, and SCR1is wired in place
to the switch,lamp,and variableresistorcontacts.Thiscircuitis
wired in parallelwith a currentdc supplyandthe electronicload'
When the lamp is extinguished, this in no way removespower
from the electronicload permanently. When powerreturns,it is
channeleddirectlyto the load,but the lamp circuitwill not fire
againuntil 51 is depressed.
To testthe circuit,adjustR1 to a mid-rangepositionand ac-
tivatethedc supply.Depress S1,and if the lampdoesn'tglow im-
mediately,adjustRl while holding51 closeduntil it does.Then,
removedc power;the lamp should80 out. Apply poweragain,
and the lamp shouldremainoff until you depress51 again.lt
shouldtakeyou onlya few minutesto adjustthecircuitfor positive
firing and test it by removingdc power.You may installa nor-
mally closedmomentaryswitchbetweenthecathodeof thesilicon-
controlled rectifierand the lamp to be usedfor testingpurposes.
Thiswill allowyou to extinguish the lampwithoutactuallyremov-
ing power at the dc supply.
Thiscircuitmaybe usedwith anydc powersupplywhichout-
putsfrom 5 to about50 Vdc.Thecurrentcapabilityof the supply

118
is not a considerationhere,as long as it is adequateto powerthe
electronicload and supplythe neededcurrentto light the lamp.
Therefore,this circuit can be usedwith dc suppliesthat deliver
500 milliamperes or so,on up to massive supplieswhich mayde-
liver 40 amperesor more. lt can not be usedwith ac supplies,
sincethe constantcyclingwill cairsethe lampto be extinguished
eachtime the sinewave passesthroughzero.Thiscircuit is quite
dependableand can be usedfor any numberof criticalelectronic
applicationswhere it is necessary to supplya constantsourceof
current.

Smokealarmshavebecomevery popularin recentyearsand

are often requiredby law in newly constructedresidences. They
remainin the armedstateat all timesand aretriggeredonly when
a smallamountof smokeentersa specialchamber,which is open
to the room it guards.Wfrenthisoccurs,an alarmis triggeredand
soundscontinuouslyuntil the circuit is manuallyreset.These
deviceshavebeeninstrumental in savingmanylivesandarehighly
recommendedfor every home, old and new.
The circuitshown in Fig.G'|8 can serveas a smokealarm,
but this is a hobbycircuitand cannotbe usedin placeof a com-
mercialmodel.lts triggeringactionis not nearlyas dependable,
becauseit doesn'tuse the specialdetectionchambersfound in
commercialdevices.Most of theseare basedupon a radioactive
elementwhich is not conductiveto hobbyconstruction. Thiscir-
cuit may be usedasa backupalarmandfor experimental purposes,
but again,it is not dependable enoughto be usedasthe primary
warningof a fire.
Thecircuitusesa silicon<ontrolledrectifierwhosegateis con-
trolled by a cadmium-sulfide cell. This device was used in a
previousprojectand is a lightdependentresistorwhoseinternal
resistance changeswith light intensity.In thiscircuit,the silicon-
controlledrectifieris conductingduringthe armedstate.Thissup
plies power to a normallycloseddc relay.When the relay is ac-
tivated,its normallyclosedcontactsare held open and currentis
not deliveredto A1, a 12-voltbuzzeror Sonalert,which seryes
as the alarm.However,when the alarm is triggeredby the pres-
enceof smoke,the SCRswitchesoff and the relayis deactivated.
Thisallowsits normallyclosedcontactsto meetand currentis de-
livered to the buzzer.

119
 Thiscircuitcontainsitsown internallightsource,which is pro
videdby a 12-voltincandescent lamp.The lampshouldbe assmall
as possible,and certainmodificationsmay be necessary to bring
about positivetriggeringaction. The lamp is ccnnected directly
acrossihe transformer and is lighted continuously. one of the fail-
ings of this alarm lies in the fact that once triggered, it may
automaticallybe resetagainshouldthe smoke disappear' This cir-
cuit actsupon the light-blockingabilityof smoke which enters the
spacebetweenthe lamp and the cadmiurnsulfide cell' When there
ii no smokepresent,the photocellhasa low-resistance valueand
causesthe SCRto conductcurrenton each half cycle of alternating
currentfrom the transformersecondary.However,when enough
smokeis present,the resistance of the photocellrisesdue to the
decreasedlight level,and the SCRswitchesoff, which completes
the circuit through the buzzer. A diode rectifier is used in the
buzzercircuit, along with a filter capacitor,to supply pure dc.
The circuit can be installedon perfboard,but you must ex-
tend the lamp and PC1somewhat,as this is the smokereceptor'
These componentsmay be installed in a separateplastic or
aluminumenclosure,the boftomof which is openedto allow for

A1-12 votl buzzer

C1€2-10 pF 25 Y6c
Lamp-low current 12 volt tYP€
Pcr--cadmium sultide cell (Radio Shack 27$116)
R1-5000 o variable
S1-nomdly closed momantary tYPe
SCR1-5O voh 800 mA SCR.
T1-l l5 \,olt primary-I2 volt s€condary

Fig. e18. SCRsmokealarmcircuit.

120
the entryof smoke.VariableresistorR1 allowsyou to adjustthe
sensitivityof the circuit to variousquantitiesof smoke.
To testthe circuit,strikea matchto theend of a pieceof rope
andallow the smoketo flow intotheenclosurecontainingthe lamp
and PC l. Then, increasethe resistance of Rl until the alarm
sounds. lf the alarm sounds immediately upon circuitactivation,
then adjust R1 until the alarm switches off. lt may be necessary
to applya small quantity of masking tape to the surface of the lamp
to cut down on the amount of light it emits. You may alsotape
up a portion of the sensitive surface of the photocell. Alternately,
you can installa 1OO-ohm variableresistorin the leadto the lamp
to controlitsoutput. By carefully adjusting the intensity of the lamp
and Rl, you shouldbe able to arrive at a sefting which will allow
the circuitto be triggered in the presence of a small amount of
smoke.lf you can find a relay which will latch closed when in
the off position,thiswill make the circuit far more reliable, in that
the alarmwould remainin thetriggered stateuntil manuallyreset'
Remember, however,thatthis is an experimental circuitto show
how smokedetectorswork, and it is not to be used to replaceany
of the reliablecommercialmodels which are available almost
everywherefor a small price as compared to the life'saving ser-
vice they provide.

Silicon-controlledrectifiersand triacsare often triggeredby

samplinga portionof the main supplyvoltageand applyingthis
betweenthe anodeand the gate.This is oftendone with a resistor
or variableresistor,the latterbeingusedto controlthe angleof
conduction.However,it is alsopossibleto separate the gatecir-
cuit from that of the anode and cathode,using a separate power
supply to triggerthe gate.
Figure6-19showsa methodof triggeringa triacusingdirect
currentwhiie the main partof the circuitoperatesat a 115-Vac
potential.The triac is able to conductcurrentin two directions
and thereforemay be usedasa controlsourcefor alternatingcur-
rent. Here however,two power suppliesare used.The first is de
rivedfrom the ac line,while the secondis self<ontainedin a 9-volt
batteryand, of course,is directcurrent.While ac will flow be-
tweenthe two powerterminalsof the triac,directcurrentwill also
flow betweenone power terminaland the Sate'A 9-volt battery
is more than adequateto triSgereven high currenttriacs,and in
mostinstances, a 1.S-voltbatterycould be usedjustaseasily.As
121
 I
5Va
Triac.,

I B1-9 volt
R1-200 O variable
s1-sPsT
Triac-SK 3665
X1-115 Vac receptical

ac s$/ilchcircuit.
Fig.&19. Battery-triggered

shown,the triaccircuit is an alternating currentswitchwhich is

controlledby a mechanicalswitch (S1).This completesthe gate
circuit.Thereis no currentdrain from the battery until 51 is ac-
tivated.At this time, a milliampereor so will flow to triggerthe
triac.The 115-Vacsupplyis deliveredto X1, an electricalreceP
tacle,when the triac is triggered.A variableresistor is used to ob
tain positivetriggeringaction.Typically,itsvalue will have to be
adjustedto a resistance of approximately60 ohms, btrt this may
vary from device to device.
Actually,it would probablybe lessexpensiveto simplyomit
Bl and increasethe resistance value of R1 to severalthousand
ohms and then connectone lead of Rl directlyto the top of the
circuit where the negativeleadof B1 is presentlyattached.How-
ever,thiscircuitmakesa lot moresensewhen you replace51 with
a miniaturerelayor eventhe outputfrom a low voltagedc power
source(afterremovingD1 from this circuit).Here,extraneouscir-
cuits which delivera dc output may be usedto switcha high-
poweredac circuit. Somecomputersoutput a 12-volt potential
when certainconditionsare sensed,and thrs power can be used
to switchon a high-currentac device.By removing51 and replac-
ing B1 with a variabledc supply,the valueof the ac outputat the
receptaclecould be madeto vary with the amountof dc voltage

122
applied.Thiswould allow you to controlan ac valuewith high
current potentialby meansof a low-currentdc voltage.
Admittedly,this is a circuitvrhichis designedto be connected
to othercircuitsto form a highlyusefulfunction.By itself,it can
be usedto switchhigh currentac with a miniaturelow-current
switch.When incorporatedin otherequipment,however,this cir-
cuit hasmanydifferentfunctions.
Circuitboardconstruction is not required,and in mostcases,
it is necessary to use an aluminum enclosureto serveas a heat-
sink for the triac. Once the triac has been bolted into place, its
leadsmay be usedascontactpointsfor the othercircuitelements,
mostof which are mountedthroughthe enclosurewall. The bat-
tery is clipped in place,and a terminalstrip is usedto makethe
appropriate connectionsto the ac line and one contactof R1.
To testthe circuit, connectan ac voltmeteracrossthe recep
tacleterminalsand adjustR1 to a maximumresistance position.
Now, activateS1 and AdjustR1 for a full ac output 1.15Vac
of
nominally.You may also increasethe valueof R1 to providea
meansof adjustingtheac outputvalue.Whencomplete,you will
havean excellentac sourcewhich containsno switchesor con-
trols within the main alternatingcurrentcircuit.

Some solid-statedevicesoperateover a wide range of dc

voltages.Othersmay operateoveran equallywide range,but will
outputerraticpulsesor otherproductsthatare voltagecontrolled.
Stillotherscan be permanently damagedby even a mild devia-
tion in supplyvoltage.Theselaftertwo classes are addressed by
this project.In situations where it is necessary to delivera fairly
criticalvoltagevalue,it is also necessary to providea meansof
overvoltageprotection. Such circuits often take the form of
automaticcontroldeviceswhich will correctan overvoltage situa-
tion. Otherswill remove power to the electronic load when volt-
agevaluesriseabovea certain preset point. The circuit shown in
Fig.6-20usesthe gate circuitof an SCR to sample the input volt-
agevalue.The SCRis installedin parallelwith the 12-voltline
and includesa normallyclosed12-voltrelay.The relaycontacts
arewiredin serieswith the linesupplyingcurrentto theelectronic
load.As long as the voltagevalueat the input remainsbelow a
certainpoint(in thiscase,12 volts),the SCRis in its nonconductive
state.and RY'l is not activated.Therefore,its normallyclosedcon-
123
tactscompletethe load circuit and power is delivered.However,
shouldvolage rise,the settingof Rl causesenoughcurrentto flow
within the SCRgatecircuit to fire the SCRand thus, deliver cur,
rent to RYl. When the relay is activated,its contactssnapopen
and power is removedfrom the electronicload.
The circuit usesa low currentSCRand a relay,which can be
mountedon perboard.Many relaysoffer multiplecontacts,some
of which are normallyopen and othersare normallyclosed.You
must us€ the normally closed contactshere, or the circuit will
operateirl reverse,deliveringpower only when an overvoltage
condition exists.
Thesimplestway to constructthiscircuitis to mountall com-
ponentson the perfboardand interconnectthem asshown.Then,
connectthe electronicload leadsoncethe circuit is complete.The
SCRcircuit,includingthe relaycoil, is actuallyin parallelwith

12 Vdc
power
source

R1-2.5 K O variable
Ryl-12 volt relay
normally olosed
contacts
SCR'-SO volt 1 ampere
S1-normally closed
momentaryswitch

Fig. G20. SCR overvoltageprotectioncircuit.

124
the dc line. The positivelead to the electronicload is connected
directlyto the positivepowersupplylead,while the negativeload
leadis connectedto one of the relaycontacts.The negativepower
supply lead is connectedto the other.
Thecircuitcanbe installedin a plasticor aluminumenclosure
or within the enclosureof the existingpower supply.A two-
terminal contactstrip is used for the electronicload outputs.
To testthe circuit,connectthe inputto a dc supplywhich has
a variablevoltageoption.Connecta highlyaccuratedc voltmeter
to the outputterminals. AdjustR1to its highresistance settingand
activatethe 12-volt power supply. Now, adjust the supply to a
valueof just over 12 volts.This can be read directly on the meter.
Then,backoff on R'l very slowly until you hearthe relayclick
on. Simultaneously, the voltmeterreadingshouldgo to zero.Reset
the powersupplyto output12.0volts.PressS1momentarily, and
when it returnsto its normallyclosed position, the meter should
againread12 volts.lf it readszero,backoffa bit on Rl and de'
'12-volt
press51 again.When you geta readingat the meter,slowly
increasethe powersupplyoutputvoltage.When it reachesa value
of 12.5Vdc,thecircuitshouldagainswitchoff. Usea goodvariable
resistorfor this purpose,one which offerssmoothadjustmentand
easily holds its resistancesetting.
Once the circuit hasbeentriggeredand hasremovedpower
from the load,decreasingthe powersupplyvoltagewill not cause
the load power to be reapplieduntil you depressSl' The power
will then be reapplied,assumingthe power supply value has
dropped below the triggerpoint. The momentaryswitch simply
removespower from the triggeredSCR.This is the only way you
can rearm the circuit.
This is an excellentovervoltageprotectioncircuit becauseit
doesn'trequireany currentfrom the sourceto be operatedin the
armedstate.The circuit is constantlyon guardand drawscurrent
only when voltageexceedsthe presetvalue.In thiscondition,only
the protectioncircuit is activated.The electronicload is completely
removedby the opening of the relay contacts.
While thiscircuitis designedfor 12-voltoperation,you may
use it for many other power supply values,althoughit may be
necessary to adjustthe value of R1 accordingly.Shouldyour dc
power supply becomedefectiveand deliver an output far in ex-
cessof 12 volts,the protectioncircuitwill removethe powerfrom
the load and possiblypreventseriousand quite expensiveelec-
tronic damage.
125
 C1-250 pF 250 Vdc
R1-5 K 0 variable
SCR,-I ampere200 Vdc

1 1 5V a c

long

Fig.G21. SCRvariabledc powersupplycircuit.

When a silicon-controlled rectifieroperatesfrom a pure dc

current,it servesonly as a switchratherthana controlof output
voltage.When the SCRfiresdue to the currentflow in its gatecir-
cuit, the full dc output is deliveredto the load and will not be
furtheraffectedby currentflow in the gatecircuit. When an SCR
operatesfrom an alternating currentinput,the deviceis depen-
dent upon its gatecircuit to retrigger.The ac sine wave is con-
stantlyfluctuatingbetweenpositiveand negativevalues,passing
throughzeroat thecompletionof eachhalfcycle.TheSCRis still
actinglike a switch.When it is firsttriggeredto the conducting
state,however,it switchesoff againwhen the currentvalueap
proacheszero.Sincethis occurs'120timesper second,the SCR
mustbe retriggeredevery 1/120thof a secondfor a constantout-
put. By controllingthe conductionrateof the sCR,we can con-
trol the valueof outputvoltagedeliveredto the load.Therefore,
the SCRcan be effectivelyusedas a light dimrner,motor speed
control,and in manyothercontrolapplications when fed by an
alternating currentsource.Thecircuitshownin Fig.621 usesthe
silicon-controlled rectifierwith an ac inputto providea variable
dc outputvoltage.Thealternating currentis rectifiedby the SCR,
and this pulsatingdc outputis filteredby an electrolyticcapaci-
tor. The settingof R1 determines the outputdeliveredto C1, and
thus,the pure dc voltagepresentat the load.
You canusecircuitboardconstruction here,althoughit is not
126
 requird due to the small numberof components. Connectthe
positivecapacitorterminalto the cathodeof the silicon-controlled
rectifier.The negativeterminalis connectedacrossone sideof the
ac lineand to the negativesideof thedc load.Themaximumout-
put voltagevaluefromthiscircuitwill be approximately 160Vdc,
so your electrolyticcapacitormustbe ratedfor 200 Vdc or more.
To testthe circuit,advanceR1 to its maxirrumresistance posi-
tion and apply ac power. Connecta dc voltmeteracrossthe out-
put and beginto adjustRl. As Rl decreases in value,the voltage
will slowlyrise.The valuereadat the meterwill remainconstant
for a secondor so when you aftemptto lower voltageby increas-
ing the resistance of Rl. ln otherwords,the outputreadingwill
lag the adjustmentof Rl by a shortperiodof time. This is due
to the chargingeffectof Cl. When chargedto a maximumvalue
of 160 Vdc, the meter will read this amount,even when the
pulsatingdc outputfrom the SCRis decreased. Thecapacitorholds
this high chargeuntil the loadbleedsit off. Again,thisoccursfor
only a secondor so (depending on the load resistance),and the
circuitshownshoulddeliverdc outputsof from 0 to 160 volts.
The variableresistorshouldbe a high qualitylineartapervariety
which can be purchasedat mostelectronichobbystores.Inciden-
tally,you canalsousethiscircuitwith a 23GVacinputby increas-
ingthe ratingof the silicon-controlledrectifierto 400 voltsdc and
the ratingof Cl to 500Vdc.Youwill thenhavea maximumpower
outputof approximately 320 volts.
This is not an electronicallyregulatedpower supply,so the
voltageoutput will vary if the load draws varyingamountsof
power. You probablywon't be able to get away with operating
integrated circuitsand othersolid-state deviceswith this supply
operatingin the low voltageoutputmodedue to the highfiltering
requirements normallyspecifiedfor suchcircuits.As a variable
dc source,the simplicityof the supplyis quite unparalleled.

Mostelectronicpowersupplycircuitsoperatingfrom the ac
to stepup or stepdown the i l5-Vac
line useiron coretransformers
input potential.However,it is possibleto increasethe dc output
voltagein stepsof two or moreby usingrectifierand filtercom-
binations actingupontheoriglnalac input.Suchcircuitsarecalled
voltagemultipliersandoperatewhenconnected to anyac source,

127

,ltiG.
which may be the secondaryof a transformeror the ac line itself.
FigureG22 showsa triac{ontrolledvoltagedoublercircuit
whoseinput is ac, while its outputis dc. A silicon-controlled rec-
tifierwould not work here, because it is necessary to deliveran
ac potentialto the separate rectifiercircuits composed of Dl and
D2 andCl andC2.The lattercircuitis a standard voltagedoubler
which usestwo half-wave rectifier filter combinations in series
aiding.Thisdeliversa dc output potential which is equivalent to
twicethe peakac value.Most household deliver
outlets 1 15 Vac,
but thisis the rmsor averagepotential.Actually,the ac valuewill
soarto a peakof 160 volts,and this is the value to which the
capacitors will charge.Therefore,a voltagedoublercircuitwill
delivera dc outputwhich is equaito nearlythreetimesthe ac
linermsvalue.Thisis themaximumoutputfor thiscircuit,which
can be measured asapproximately 320 Vdc. The triac is usedto
controlconductionand therefore,the valueof the ac output.The
ac is deliveredto the rectifiersand filters,where it is converted
to pure dc and deliveredto a directcurrentload.
Lookingat the rectifierandfiltercircuitpoltions,it canbe seen

1 1 5V a c

C1-C2-250 pF 250 Vdc

D1-D2-1000 PIV 1 ampere
R1-5 K O variable
Triacr-1 ampere200 volt

voltagedoublercircuil.
fr$. e!22.Triac-controlled

128
that the positivegoing ac wave is rectifiedby D1, while it is
blockedby D2. The pulsatingoutputfrom Dl chargesC.l to the
maximumac value.Duringthe nexthalfcycle,the polarityswings
negative,and the wave is blockedby Dl and passedby D2. This
chargesC2 to the maximumac potential.The dc load liesacross
both C1 and C2 and the lattertwo componentsare connectedin
series,thus addingtheir chargedvalues.The deliveredoutput is
then twice the peak value of the ac input.
In thiscircuit,the triac is usedonly to controlconductionand
canthusdelivervariableac potentialsto the rectifiers. Thisallows
you to vary voltagefrom a low value to a maximumof approx-
imately320 Vdc.
The previousprojectalsodeliversthis maximumvalue, but
only when connectedto a 23&Vac line. This one increasesthe
dc outputfroma valuewhich is halfof theac inputfor the previous
circuit. Like the previousproject,this one mayaiso be operated
from the 23Gvoltline,but it will be necessryto increasethe triac
and capacitorratings.Usingthis latterpowersource,over 600 volts
will be deliveredas the maximumoutputto the dc load,
This circuit can be constructedin the samemanneras the
previousproject.A 1-amperetriac will not requireexternalheat-
sinking,but if you want morepower,a higherratedtriacwill be
needed,alongwith the requiredheatsinking.ln a voltagedoubler
circuit,the voltagevalueincreases, but the currentratingmustbe
decreased. A 1-ampere triaccandelivera maximumof only 500
milliamperes at thedc output,sowhile yourvoltagevaluehasbeen
doubledat the dc output,total power consumptionmust remain
the same,sincethe currentdrain is halved.
Bothof thesecircuitsoutputpotentiallylethalvalues,so proper
safetyprocedures arerequiredduringalignmentand testing.While
no fusesareshownin thesecircuits,an ac line fuseshouldbe in-
stalledat the inputto the solid-state devices.To makeyour circuit
more usable,a permanentlyinstalleddc voltmeterat the output
will allow you to constantlymeasurethe potentialsto the dc load.

The previousprojectuseda triac to control the value of the

ac voltagepresentat the rectifierinput. We can go one stepfur-
therby actuallytakinga stepbackwardand removingthe rectifiers
and filters.This resultsin a controlcircuit havinga variableac
output.

129
 Rl-S K O variable
S1_SPST
T1-Existing power supply transformer
Triacl 200 volt (current iating 200/0higher than transformerprimary)

Fig. e23. Triac ac voltagecontrolcircuit.

Figure6-23 shows this circuit, which is identicalto the

previousone (withoutthe extracomponents). This circuit,how-
ever,is usedto controlthe output of transformer-operated power
supplieswhich normallyderivetheir inputsfrom the ac line.lt
mayalsobe usedasa speedcontrolfor fansand otherac-operatd
devices.
This circuit allows you to plug in many differenttypesof
deviceswhich containtransformers and to varytheiroutputpoten-
tials. For example,when supplyingpower to an acderiveddc
powersupply,you can varythe outputvoltagein exactlythe same
manneras in the previousproject.Thiscircuit,however,allows
you to useexistingpowersuppliesand othercircuitswithoutin-
ternalmodifications. You can vary the platepotentialto a radio
transmifterwithout accessing the high-voltage secondary.
Earlypowercontrolcircuitsof thistypeuseda variableresistor
in the ac line. lf a high amountof currentwas drawn by the
transformer primary,the variableresistorhadto be extremelylarge,
and suchunitsareoftenquiteexpensive. Theyarealsoquiteinef-
ficient,asthe largevoltagedropstheycreateareconvertedto heat
which mustbe castoff from the device.Thisoften requiredexter-

130
nal coolingfans.A l Gamperetriac is far lessexpensiveand only
a fractionof the sizeof a variableresistorratedto passthis amount
of current.
Of course,high currenttriac applicationswill requirea large
heagink, but thesecan be purchasedinexpensively.Evenwith the
addedsize,the controlcircuit is still smallerand far moreefficient
than a series.connected variableresistor.
No definitespecificationsare providedfor the triac,other than
that it must be ratedto handlea 2OGVacpotentialwhen operated
from the 115-Vacline. The current ratingof the triac should be
at least20olohigherthan (preferably, twice)the maximumcurrent
drain at the transformerprimary.
To test the circuit, connect an ac voltmeter across the
transformersecondaryand vary R1.The voltageshouldmove up
and down as R1 is adjusted.The transformeris shown hereonly
for discussionpurposesand will be a part of an extraneouscir-
cuit. In mostinstances, you will want to installa 115-VacreceP
tacle for easyaccess.
Don't use this circuitto controlelectronically regulateddc
powersupplies.Thesedevicesusesolid-state circuitry,which acts
upon the dc outputfrom the rectifiersand filtersto electronically
control the final dc output. lf the unregulateddc outputfrom the
filter dropsbelow a certainpoint,the electronicregulatorceases
to functionproperly.Regulated power suppliesare usuallyde
signedto outputa singledc voltageand cannotbe controlledat
thetransformer primary.Variablevoltageregulated suppliesalter
the valuesof internalelectroniccomponentsto varythe delivered
voltage,and again,are not applicablefor operationfromthiscir-
cuit. However,manyradiofrequencytransmifters do not useplate
powersupplieswhich are electronically regulated, and this cir-
cuit servesasa convenienimeansof raisingand loweringoutput
powerby changingthe platepotentialdeliveredfromthe dc sup
ply. Here,controlof the primaryinputvoltageworksquitenicely.

Fordemandingphotographic work, it is often impossibleto

getawaywith usinga single flashunit. lt ts sometimes necessary
to positionseveralflashunitsat various locations around the sub
ject. Usingconventionalmeans,eachflashunit mustbe connected
to the cameraand triggeredby the shutterrelease. This involves
hardwiring which mustbe run along the floor and hiddenfrom
the areawhich will be capturd on film. Invariably,this wiring

131
becomesa source of accidents,as personsmoving around the
photographicarea often trip over them.
An alternativeis the use of remoteflash unitswhich do not
requirea direct, hard-wiredconnectionto the camera.Theseunits
are light-activated.When the flash unit at the cameragoesoff, the
brilliant light triggersthe remoteunits,which flash in sequence
with the master.
Figure624 showsa remoteslaveflashunit which is controlled
by the masterflashunit in the camera.This is a self<ontainedcir-
cuit which can be set up and then forgotten. lt is designedto
operatewith commonlyavailableflashbulbs,which must be re
placedaftereachfiring. Poweris deliveredby two 9-volt batteries
connectedin seriesto providean 1&volt sourceat the flashbulb
socket.You can probablygetawaywith a single9-voltbatteryhere,
but the higherpotentialprovidesa much moredependableflash
action.
Thekeyto thiscircuitis a lightactivatedsilicon<ontrolledrec-
tifier (LASCR). When the lightfrom the masterunit strikesthe sen-
sitizedsurfaceof the LASCR,it fires,conductingcurrentthrough

..:

l+
:-

B'l-82-9 voll
C1-360 pF 50 Vdc
R1-10 K g 112wattcarbon
R2-50K0lwattcarbon
S1_SPST
LASCR-S0 volt 1 ampere

Fig. &24, SGRslaveflash circuit.

132
 the flashbulb, which is installedwithin the socket.Afterthe bulb
is flashed,its internalelementis completelyburnedout and the
circuit is opened,causingthe LASCRto ceaseconduction'When
a new bulb is inserted,the circuit is armedagainand will be ac-
tivatedupon the next incomingflash from the masterunit.
You can installthe entirecircuit on a pieceof perfboardand
then mount it in a plasticor aluminumenclosure'The LASCR
shouldbe mountednearthe edgeof the boardand a cutoutmade
within the enclosureto allow its sensitizedsurfaceto be directed
or focusedon the masterflashunit. A hish valueelectrolyticca-
pacitor(Cl) is chargedto full potentialthroughRl . Thecapacitor
remainsin the chargedstate,constantlybeing refed by the bat-
teriesuntil the LASCRconducts.When this occurs,the positive
and negativeterminalsof C1 areplacedacrossthe flashbulb, and
a high energysurgeis createdwhich fires the bulb. As soon as
the bulb elementopensup, C1 is againrecharged throughRl and
is readyfor the next firing of the LASCR' The circuit is deactivated
by opening S1, although a full charge will still remain on Cl. In
other words, there is still a flash charge left in the circuit afterthe
batterieshave been completely disconnected.
To testthe circuit without usingup a lot of flashbulbs,con-
nect a dc voltmeteracrossthe socketterminals.Activate51 and
directthe openingin the enclosure which exposes the LASCRto
ward the flashunit of your camera. When this flash unit is trig-
gered, you should read a high energy burst at the voltmeter' This
indicatesthat Cl is firing through the LASCR. lf you have firing
problems,try decreasingthe value of R2. Betteryet, realignthe
enclosureopeningto interceptmorelightfrom the flashunit. After
a shortadjustmenttime, you shouldbe ableto get positivefiring
actionfrom thiscircuiteachtime the masterflashunit is triggered.

A relaxationoscillatoris an audio type circuit whoseopera-

tion resultsfrom the buildup of a chargein a capacitor,followed
by a suddendischargeof a capacitor.The circuit shown in Fig.
625 uses a silicon<ontrolledrectifier in conjunction with a
parallel-connected electrolytic capacitor to form a relaxation
oscillatorwhich fires througha common 8ohm speaker.When
Sl is closed,the capacitorchargesto the full potentialof the n'vo
g-volt batteriesconnectedin seriesfor 18 Vdc. Variableresistor
R3 is adjustedto causethe SCRto fire. When this occurs,the ca-
pacitoris shortedthroughthe speaker,and the suddendischarge
133

i,L
 81-82-9 volt
C1-1.5 rF 50 Vdc
R1-86 k0 1/2 watt carbon
R2-1000 0 1/2 watt carbon
R3-1 megohmvariable
Sl -SPST-S2-Normally open momentary
SCR'-SO volt 800 mA
SPKI-B 0 speaker

Fig.S25.SCRrelaxation
oscillator
circuit.
createsa raspynote in the speaker.C'l then recharges to a value
which is adequateto refirethe SCR,and the oscillationcontinues.
Thiscircuitoperatesupon the continuouschargeand discharge
of the capacitor.When the capacitoris fully discharged, locking
current is removedfrom the silicon<ontrolledrectifier,and it
switchesoff for a brief time until the chargevalue is built back
up to an acceptable level.Thiscircuitis fittedwith a momentary
switch which may be depressedto allow for the SCRto fire in-
itially.As longas the switchis pressed, the circuitwill oscillate.
When it is released, oscillationstops.
Most peopledo not think of an SCRin connectionwith
oscillatorcircuits.However,relaxationoscillatorsare generally
thoughtof as cheapand dirty circuits,at leastwhen usedto pro-
ducean audiooutput.When usedas switchingoscillators, how-
ever,they havemany advantages, becausethey are both simple

134
*r-

and highly inexpensivewhen compared with the use of active

solid-statedevices.
Assemblethe circuit on perfboard,mounting the non-ad-
justablecomponentshere. A plastic enclosurecan be used to
mount the batteries,S'1,52, R3, and the speaker'Thereis a cur-
rentflow any:imeSl is closed,evenwhen thereis no outputfrom
the speat<er.rhe batteriesare usedto chargeCl, and sincethis
aotpon"n, slowly leakscurrent,it requiresa continuousrecharge'
When the circuit is not in operation,51 can be switchedto the
offposition.Youcantrydifferentva|uesofCltoproducedifferent
frequenciesof operation,but the value chosen for this circuit
be
,f,oufAbe about iight for mostapplications.The circuit could
a magnetic reed
usedas an intruderalarm by repiacing52 with
for
relay,or you can useit as an easilyavailablesourceof output
iudio devices'The output will be of low frequency' and
an
thii cirluit will soundmore like a singlepistonmotorcycleor
"iii"i"e
oiJ treUo"tthanit will a pureaudiotone'Theoutput volume will
you
not b; great,but it will be detectable'For privatelistening'
place of the
can even use a set of headphonesconnectedin
speaker.lf the circuitdoesnotoperate,readiustR3with the switch
heldclosed.R3 setsthe triggeringsensitivity of the SCRand must
be adjustedto causethe firing uition eachtime s2 is depressed.

Thecircuitsincludedin thischaptershouldbe quite interesting

to most readersand are eminentlypracticaldue to the low cost
of components needed.Youcan probablypurchase justa few SCRs-
and/ortriacsand a few capacitors and resistorsand build all of
the circuitsdiscussed here. By swapping around components in
differentcircuitsthroughthe use of plug-insockets, you mightbe
surprised at whatyou can buildwith $10 or $15 worthof com-
pQnents.
Again,many of thesecircuitsoperatefrom the ac line, and
thispJteniialmustbe respectdto avoidsevereelectricalshocks.
lf a circuitis defectivefor any reason,be especiallycautious,as
the full ac potentialmay be presentat a point which would not
be activein normaloperation.Proceedwith cautionand always
removethe line plugfrom thewall. lf you follow thesesimplesafety
rules,your experiencein buildingthyristorcircuitswill be both
rewardingand educational'

135
 AppendixA

LetterSymbolsfor
Signaland RectifierDiodes
PRV Peakreversevoltage
lo Averagerectifier fonvard current
!, Averagereversecurrent
l** Peaksurgecurrent
V,- Averageforward voltagedrop
VR dc blockingvoltage

136
 AppendixB

LetterSymbolsfor ZenerDiodes
lF Forwardcurrent
lz Zener current
lr* Zener current near breakdownknee
lzM Maximum dc zener current(limited by power
dissipation)
ln Zener test current
vf Forwardvoltage
vz Nominal zener voltage
zz Zener impedance
zr* Zener impedancenear breakdownknee
zn Zener impedanceat zener test curent
lR Reversecurrent
VR Reversetest voltage

137

I
'-"
 AppendixC

LetterSymbolsfor
Thyristorsand SCRs
lf Forwardcurrent,r.m.s.valueof forwardanode
c u r r e n td u r i n g t h e " o n " s t a t e .
lpylpur*t Repetitivepulsecurrent.Repetitivepeakforward
anodecurrentafterapplicationof gatesignalfor
s p e c i f i e dp u l s ec o n d i t i o n s .
l*,ru,r", Peakforward surgecurrent.The maximum for-
ward currenthavinga singleforwardcycle in a
60 Hz. single'phase resistive load system.
l,o^,, Peakforward blocking current,gate open. The
maximumcurrentthroughthethyristorwhenthe
device is in the "off" statefor a statedanode-to-
cathodevoltage (anode positive)and junction
ternperaturewith the gate open.
lr*" Peakforwardblockingcurrent.Sameas lro" ex-
ceptthatthe gateterminalis returnedto the cath-
ode through a stated impedanceand/or bias
v o It a g e .
lo'n Peakforwardgatecurrent.The maximuminstan-
taneousvalue of current which may flow be-
tweengateand cathode.
1", Cate trigger current (continuous dc). The
minimum dc gate current requiredto cause
switching from the "off" state at a stated con-
dition.

138
lHo Holding current.Thatvalueof forwardanodecur-
rent below which the controlledrectifierswitches
from the conductingstatd to the fonvardblock-
ing conditionwith the gateopen, at statedcon-
dition.
1", Holding current (gateconnected).The value of
fonryardanode current below which the con-
trolled rectifierswitchesfrom the conductingstate
to the fonryardblockingcondition with the gate
terminalreturnedto the cathodeterminalthrough
specifiedimpedanceand/or bias voltage.
Pr,^u, Averageforward power. Averagevalue of power
dissipation betweenanodeand cathode.
Por^,, Peakgate power. The maximum instantaneous
value of gate power dissipation permifted.
l*on, Peakreverseblockingcurrent.Themaximumcur-
rentthroughthe thyristorwhen the deviceis in
the reverseblockingstate(anodenegative)for a
stated anode-tmathode voltage and junction
temperaturewith the gate open.
l*r" Peakreverseblockingcurrent.Sameas l*o" ex-
ceptthat the gateterminalis returnedto the cath-
ode through a statd impedanceand/or bias
voltage.
Por, u, Averageforwardgatepower.The valueof max-
imum allowablegatepowerdissipationaveraged
over a full cycle.
vr Forward"on" voltage.The voltagemeasurerJ be
tweenanodeand cathodeduringthe "on" con-
dition for specifiedconditionsof anode and
temperature.
vr,*, Dynamic forward "on" voltage. The voltage
measuredbetween anode and cathode at a
specifiedtime afterturn-onfunctionhasbeen in-
i t i a t e da t s t a t e dc o n d i t i o n s .
V*t Peakforward blocking voltage,gate open. The
peakrepetitiveforwardvoltagewhich maybe ap
plied to the thyristorbetweenanode and cath-
ode (anodepositive)with the gateopen at stated
conditions.
Vrr" Peak fonvard blocking voltage. Sameas Vro,
except that the gate terminal is returnedto the
.39
-r
{r
t'
$
'1
:l j cathode through a stated impedance and/or
il
voltage.
t. : ' Vor^ Peakfonruardgatevoltage.The maximum instan-
t tan@us voltage betrreen the gate terminal and
t the cathodeterminalresultingfrom the flow of
{i Vo*"
forwardgatecurrent.
Peakreversegatevoltage.The maximuminstan-
li
6l taneousvoltagewhich may be appliedbetween
i; the gateterminaland the cathodererminalwhen
,l.
$r the junction betweenthe gateregionand the ad-
jl jacent cathoderegion is reversebiased.
V", Catetriggervoltage(continuousdc).Thedc volt-
*i age between the gate and the cathode required

*i V*or,-,
to producethe dc gatetriggercurrent.
Peakreverseblocking voltage,gate open. The
$i
tti
maximum allowablevalue of reversevoltage
(repetitiveor continuousdc) which can be ap
tt I

tl
.l'
plied betweenanode and cathode(anodeneg-
i :i ative)with the gateopen for statedconditions.
fii V.r^,. Peakreverseblocking voltage.Sameas V*o" ex-
ili cept that the gateterminal is returnedto the cath-
fii ode through a stated impedanceand/or bias
trr
I'
voltage.

E,
,!i

fii
gt
Fi
H
! !

ili

:TJ
{l
i{l
t{l
Hi
ar
f,r
FI
fii
t9i
l8i
1/t0

HI
 AppendixD

SCRPackages
Low-Powered

2?
I
I
:
j

1 Fig. D1 . CourtesyGeneralElectric.
t,
; 141
Y
 AppendixE

Moderateto High
PowerSCRPackages

g;ffi::
ro4a
M

tr
TG2OOAC

C/134/C436:TG200AB
CA398: TS200AC
Tc200AB

{@rG83' TG2OOAC

TG2@AB

TGzOOAB

TG2OOAC

TG2OOAB

Fig.E-l. CourtesyGeneralElectric.
142
 AppendixF

Triac Packaging

PXG. JEDEC#

4 r*e2 Tc220A8
#
N rs22oAs TG22OAB

&ge 4

# TG22OA8

I
TG220AB

eg&
4
4
rG2aoAB

TG22OAB
\..:
c'
fl :a
TS239A8

TG22OAB

# ro*,^a g g
sHe I

Fig.F-l. CourtesyGeneralElectric.

143
 AppendixG

ThyristorFilterCircuit
During the solid-sateswitchingprocess,thyristorsmay createelec-
trical interferencewhich extendsinto the high frequencyportion
of the spectrum.When this interferenceis detectedin a receiver
or otherdevicewith an audio output,it often soundslike a frying
noise and can completelyobliteratethe normal audio output.
The circuitin Fig.C-l is designedto be usedat the ac input
of a triac device in order to eliminateor at leastsubstantiallyre.
ducethisinterference. Thecircuitconsistsof only two components,
a shuntcapacitorand a seriesinductor.The portionof the circuit
shown within the dotted lines is all that concernsus for this
discussion.
The capacitoris usedto shortout transientsfrom the ac line,
while the inductoractsasa high impedance to thosefrequencies
which lie abovethe normalac rateof 6O Hz. The inductoris a
oroblem,however,in that it mustpassthe full currentdemanded
by the load. For low currentdrains,the inductorwillbe readily
obtainable.However,when current approachesand exceeds1
ampere,it may be necessary to wind the inductoryourself.Most
inductorsusedfor filteringwork arewound with smalldiameter
conductorand mostaredesignedto passlessthan 1 ampere,and
often,only a coupleof hundredmilliamperes. However,for the
highercurrentdrains,it will be necessar)' to wind the inductor
usingNo. 18,16, 14, 12,or even1Ogaugeconductor. Obtaining
thiswire is no problem,but mechanical difficultiescandevelop.

144
 lAc
I
I

L-- ------J

C, - 0.1 pF 1000Vdc
L1- 100 pH choke

Fig. G-1.

A 1O0-microhenry chokewound from No. 26 wire will be a

small fractionof the sizeof one woundwith No. 12. lt is sometimes
possibleto usesmallerdiameterwire, but the chokewill quickly
heat up and wasteenergy.lt also becomesa fire hazard'Appen-
dix H includesa wire chartlistingthe approvedsizefor varying
amountsof current.
In high currentapplications, you must makecertainthat all
electricalcontactsare mechanically stable.Thisoften meansthat
solderis not used, and all connectionsare madeusingelectrical
wiring clamps.
For low cunent applications,however,a lOGmicrohenry
choke may be found at your local hobby store.Allied Electronics
listsa 1O0-microhenry choke which is ratedto conduct up to 2
amp€resat a price of lessthan $3. A 125-microhenry choke rated
at 3.5 amperessellsfor slightlymore. For low currentapplications,
anotherchoke is listedfor lessthan $2. Theseare often referred
to as hash chokes and are designed specificallyfor filtering
purposes.
When progressinginto the high current range, it may be
necessaryto convert to an iron core choke, which closely re
semblesa powertransformer, but hasonly two leads.Thesemay
be ratedto 10 amperesor more,but they can be expensiven'hen
purchasedcommercially.They are also quite largeand heavy,
However,manywar surpluscatalogslist high currentiron cr:re

145
iij chokesfor lessthan$10.Thesizeand weightproblemsstillexist.
Whetheror not you decideto installa filter circuit in your
thyristordevicedependsupon the degreeof interferenceand the
intensityof operation.lf a thyristorcircuit is to be usedonly occa-
sionally,thenevena largeamountof interference canbe toierated.
lf, however,it is to be usedmoreor lesscontinuouslv, somefilter-
ing arrangement rs mandatory.

i1

it
il
iii t 146
l !

t:
 AppendixH

Wire Size Ghafi

Wire Size Diameter Ohms Per Current Carrying
A.W.C. in Mils 1000 Ft. Capacityin Amps

1 289.3 0.1264 119.6

t 257.6 0.r593 94.8
3 229.4 0.2009 75.2
4 244.3 0.2533 59.6
t 181.9 0.3r95 47.3
6 162.O 0.4028 37.s
7 144"3 0.s080 29.7
8 128.5 0.6405 23.6
9 114.4 o.8077 18.7
l0 101.9 1.0r8 14.8
1t 90.7 1.284 11.8
t2 80.8 1.619 9.33
13 72.0 2.042 7.40
14 64.1 2.575 5.87
t5 57.1 3.247 4.65
t6 50.8 4.094 3.69
l7 '$5.3 5.163 2.93
t8 40.3 6.s10 2.32
l9 35.9 8.210 't.84
2A 32.0 10.35 1.46
21 28.5 13.05 1.16
22 25.3 16.46 0.918
147
Wire Size Diameter OhmsPer CurrentCarrying
A.W.G. in Mils 1000Ft. Capacityin Amps
23 22.6 20.76 0.728
24 20.1 26.17 0.577
25 17.9 33.00 0.4s8
26 15.9 41.62 0.363
27 14.2 52.48 0.288
28 12.6 66.17 o.228
29 11.3 83.44 0.181
30 10.0 105.2 0.144
31 8.9 132.7 0.114
32 8.0 167.3 0.090
33 7.1 211.0 0.072
34 6.3 266.0 0.057
35 5.6 335 0.045
36 5.0 423 0.036
37 4.5 533 0.028
38 4.0 673 0.022
39 3.s 848 0.018
40 3.1 1,070 0.014

i4s
I
ri

I
1

Glossary
anod+to-cathodevoltage<urrent characteristic(anode char'
acterist!c):Ihe function, usually representedgraphically,
relatingthe principalvoitageto the principalcurrent,with gate
current(whereapplicable)as a parameter.
amodeto-cathodevoltage (anode voltage):The voltage between
theanodeterminaland the cathocleterminal,lt is calledpositive
whenthe anodepotentialis higherthanthe cathodepotential,
and callednegativewhen the anodepotentialis lower thanthe
cathodepotentials. This term does not appiy to bidirectional
thyristors.
r
breakovercurrent {l,uo/:The principal currentat tfte breakover
point.
breakover poini: Any point on the principa! voltagecurrent
f<rrwhich the differentialresistance
characteristic is zero and
wherethe principalvoltagereachesa maximumvalue.
breakovervoltage(V,ur)tfhe principalvoltageat the breakover
point.

circuit-cosnnnutatedturn-off time (t): The time interval between

the instantwhen the principal cdrrent has decreasedto zero
externalswitchingof the principalvoit:ge circuit,and the
afr-er
instantwhen the thyristoris capableof supportinga specified
principalvoltagewithout turningon.

r49

I
critical rate of rise of commutation voltage (for bidirectional
thyristor):The minimumvalueof the rateof riseof principal
voltagethat may causeswitchingfrom the off-stateto the on-
stateimmdiately followingon-statecurrentconductionin the
oppositequadrant.
critical rate of rise of off*tate voltage:The rninimum value of
the rateof riseof principalvoltagethat may causeswitching
from the off-stateto the "on" state.
critical rate of rise of opstate current The maximumvalue of
the rateof on-statecurrentthat a thyristorcan withstandwith-
out any deleteriouseffects.

forward current (of a reverseblockingthyristor):The principal

current for a positiveanodetocathode voltage.
forward current of a diode (l): The principalcurrentthroughthe
diode for a positiveanodetucathode voltage.
forward surgecurrent of a diode (lr*): A forward currentfor a
specifiedrvaveformand duration.
forward voltage(of a reverseblockingthyristor):A positiveanode
tmathode voltage.

gate controlled delay time (tJ: The time interval between a

specifiedpoint at the beginningof the gatepulseand the in-
stantwhen the principalvoltage(current)hasdropped(risen)
to a specifiedvalue near its initial valueduring switchingof
a thyristorfrom the off-stateto the on-stateby a gate pulse.
gatecontrolled rise time (t,): The time intervalbehveenthe in-
stantsat which the principalvolage (current)hasdropped(risen)
from a specifiedvaluenearits initialvalueto a specifiedlow
(high)value during switchingof a thyristorfrom the off-state
to the on-stateby a gatepulse.Thistime intervalwill be equal
to the rise time of the on-statecurrentonly for pure resistive
loads.
gate controlled turn-on tlme (tj: The tinre intervalbetweena
specifiedpoint at the beginnfngof the gatepulseand the in-
stantwhen the principalvoltage(current)hasdropped(risen)
to a specifiedlow (high)valueduringswitchingof a thyristor
from off-stateto the on-stateby a gate pulse.
gate current (1"):The currentthat resultsfrom the gatevoltage.
Positivegatecurrentrefersto conventionalcurrententeringthe
gateterminal.Negativegatecurrentrefersto conventional cur-
rent leavingthe gateterminal.

150
 tate noFtrigger current (t"J: The maximumgatecurrentwhich
will not causethe thyristorto switch from the off-stateto the
on-state.
gate nontrigger voltage (Vo/: 'Ihe rnaximumgatevoltagewhich
will not causethe thyristorto switch from the off-stateto the
on-state.
gate trigger current (lor):The minimum gatecurrentrequrretjto
switch a thyristorfrom the off-stateto the on-state.
gate trigger voltage (V"r): The gate voltage required to produce
the gate triggercurrent.
gate voltage (Vj: The voltage beween a gate terminal and a
specifiedmain terminal.Cate voltagepolarityis referencedto
the specifiedmain terminal.

holding current (l*): The minimum principalcurrentrequiredto

maintainthe thyristorin the on-state.

I squaredt (lzt): Measureof maximum forward non-recurring

overcurrentcapabilityior very shortpulsedurations.Thevalue
is valid only for the pulse durationspecified.I is in RMS
amperes,and t is pulsedurationin seconds.(l2tis necessary
for fuse coordination.)

Iatchingcurrent(1.):The minimumprincipalcurrentrequiredto
maintainthe thyristorin the on-stateimmediatelv afterswitch-
ing from the off-stateto the on-statehasoccurredand the trig_
gering signal has been removed.

minimumonctatevoltage:Theminimumposltiveprincipalvolt-
age for which the differentiali.esistance
is zero with the gate
open<ircuited.
mountingforce: Rangeof mountingforcesrecommendedfor press
Pakpackagesto ensurean adequatethermaland electricpath
while avoidingmechanicaldamage.

negativedifferential resistanceregion: Any portion of the prin-

cipal voltage<urrentcharacteristic
in the switchingquadrant(s)
within which the differentialresistance is negative.
non-repetitive peak otf*tate voltage (Voo): The maximum in-
stantaneous valueof any non-repetitivetransientoff-statevolt-
a8e that occursacrossthe thyristor.
noprepetitive peak reversevoltage U*,.)t The maximum instan-

151
 taneousvalue of any non-repetitivetransientreversevoltage
which occursacrossa thYristor.

off-impedanceThe differentialimpedancebetwenthe terminals

throughwhich the principalcurrentflows,lvhen the thyristor

I
$
$;
is in the off-stateat a statedoperatingpoint'
off*tate Theconditionof the thyristorcorresponding
resistance, low<urrent
characteristic
the switchingquadrant(s).
portion of the principal
to the high-
voltagecurrent
betweenthe origin and the breakoverpoint(s)in

off*tate current (lJ: The principalcurrentwhen the thyristoris

Ix

tt
{:
in the off-state.
off*tate recoverycurrent (l*"): The maxim.umvalueof the cur-
rentthatresultsfrom the applicationof off-state
the transition from an opposite polarity a
off-state,
voltageduring
reverseblock-
tF.,i ing state, or a reverseconducting state.
off<lte voltage(VJ: The principalvoltagewhen the thyristorii
I
ir
t in the off-state.
ft ;, The differentialimpedancebetweenthe terminals
on-impedance:
t,i
throughwhich the principalcurrentflows,when the thyristor
Fr is in the on-stateat a statd opening point'
lr on-state:The conditionof the thyristorcorrespondingto the low-
E{
a
resistance, low-voltageportionof the principalvoltage'current
characteristic in the switchingquadrant(s)'
o*state current (lr): The principal currentwhen the thyristoris
in the on-state.
ii on-statevoltage(vr): The principalvoltagewhen the thyristoris
ii in the on-state.
ti
peak repetitiveon*tate current (lr): The peak value of the on-
statecurrent,includingall repetitivetransientcurrents'
the col-
-principalcurrent: A genericterm for the currentthrough
leciorjunction. lt is the currentthrough both main terminals.
principal
- voltage:The voltagebetweenthe main terminals'In the
caseof reverseblockingthyristors, the principaivoltageis called
positivewhen the anode potentialis higherthan the cathode
potential,and calledne8ativewhen the anodepotentialis lower
ihanthe cathodepotential.Forbidirectionalthyristors, the prin-
cipalvoltageis called positive
when the potentialof main ter-
minal 2 is higherthan the potentialof main terminal l'

reappliedrate of rise of voltage,reapplieddv/dt (of reverseblock'

'152
ft
t;
'.'i
I
ing thyristor): Rateof riseof forward voltagefollowing turn'off
d or commutation.(This is a test condition for turn-off time
measurement.)
repetitive peak off*tate voltage (Vo*): The maximum instan-
taneousvalue of the off-statevoltage that occurs across a
thyristor,includingall repetitivetransientvoltages,butexcluding
all non-repetitivetransientvoltages.
repetitive peak reverse voltage (V**r): The maximum instan-
taReousvalue of the reversevoltagethat occursacrossthe de
vice,excludingall repetitiveand non-repetitive transientvolt-
ages.
revers€ blockingimpedance(of a reverseblocking ihyristor): The
differential impedancebetween the two terminals through
which the principalcurrentflows,when the thyristoris in the
reverseblocking stateat a statedoperatingpoint.
revers€ blockingstate {of a reverseblocking thyristor): The con-
dition of a reverseblockingthyristorcorrespondingto the por-
tion of the anodetocathodevoltage'currentcharacteristicfor
reversecurrentsof lower magnitudethanthe reversebreakdown
current.
reversebreakdowncurrent (lr.): The principalcurrentat the re-
versebreakdownvoltage.
reyersebreakdownvoltage (Vr.): The value of negativeanode
to-cathodevoltageat which the differentialresistance between
the anodeand cathodeterminalschangesfrom a high value
to a substantially lower value.
reversecurrent (!.): The current for negativeanodeto-cathode
voltage.
reverse recovery charge (of a reverseblocking triode thyristor
or diode){Q*..rJ: The integralof the reverserecoverycurrent.
reversere'coverycurrent (of a reverseblocking triode thyristor
or diode) (1.r.*): Negativeprincipalcurrentthat flowsthrough
the thyristor or diode before it regainsits reverseblocking
capability.
reverserecoverytime {of a reverseblockingthyristor):The time
requiredfor the principalcurrentor voltageto recoverto a
specifiedvalueafterinstantaneous switchingfrom an on-state
to a reversevoltageor current.
revers€ voltage (V.): A negativeanods'to-cathodevoltage.

stud torque: Recommendedrnountingtorquefor stud packages.

surge (non-repetitive)o.r-statecurrent (lr*): An on-statecurrent
153
-

of short time duration and specifiedwaveshape.

thermal resistance(of a semiconductordevice):The temperature

differencebetweentwo specifiedpointsor regionsdivided by
the powerdissipation underconditionsof thermalequilibrium.
transientthermal impedance(of a semiconductordevice):The
changeof temperature differencebetweentwo specifiedpoints
or regionsat the end of a time interva!dividedby the stepfunc-
tion changein powerdissipation at the beginningof the same
time intervalcausingthe changeof temperaturedifference.

working peak off*tate voltage (Vo*J, The maximum instan-

taneousvalue of the off-statevoltage that occurs acrossa
thyristor,excludingall repetitiveand non-repetitive transient
voltages.
working peak reverse voltage (V.**): The maximum instan-
taneousvalueof the reversevoltagethat occursacrossthe de-
vice, includingall repetitivetransientvoltages,but excluding
all non-repetitivetransientvoltages.

f ,i

a
I

I 154
'il
1
I
$
I'l

\
\
.;
I

1
:.1

i
lndex
r
ammeter,5B farad,32
ampere,28 forwardbias,36
forwardcurrent,36
I
base,39
c
ac switch, l2l
battery-triggered gatecurrent,11
bipolartransistor,38
I
7. c inductance,34
capacitance, 32 35
inductors,
J
circuit board mountingmethods,65
K
collector, 38
components kilivolt,28
crosr'referencing,73
t
obtainingand referencing,72
storing,76 LASCR,88
conductors,29 laserlight meter,87
current,6, 28 LCD,46
currentmeasurements, 57 leakagecurrent,37
light flasher
* D 98
incandescent,
decibels,56
M
dielecnic,32
diode symbols,136, 137 microfarad,32
diodes,36 microvolt,28
DMM,46 m i l l i v o l t2, 8
mounting
E horizontal,6T
electroniccomponents,27 vertical,68
electronicproiectbuilding,6l multimeter, 60
multimeterPrecautions, 47
emitter,38
157
 --l
."=f(.

N SCRproximityalarm,115
npnp,41 SCRrelaxationoscillator,133
SCRslaveflashunit, l3l
o SCRsmokealarm, 119
optoelectronicSCRcontrol, 104 SCRsymbols,138
SCRtimer circuit, 9O
P SCRtransmitindicator,92
paralielresistorcircuit, 59 semiconductordevices.35
peilet encapsuiation,15 shortedemrnerstructure,l1
pellet fabrication,I5 sificorrconiroliedrectifier,'l 24, 40
picofarad, 32 soiartriggeredswitch, I 08
pn rectifier, 2 st'ideringpencil, o6
pnpn, 41 solderingtechnique,63
power, 3 ! 5tereoiight organ
power module, l8 i twochannel, 84
projectbuilding,6l
T
R thretrterminai device. 4
RCT, 5 thyristor,l, 4
receiversignalalarm, 100 thyristorconstruction,t4
rectifiers thyristorfilter ci:'cuit,144
high current,17 thyristor projects,83
resistance,30 thynstorsymbols,I38
resistancemeasurements,48 transformers, 35
lesistances trangistors,3T
measurement of narallel,5l triac,12. 40
resistorcolor code, 3l triac ac voltagecontrol, 129
reverseavalanche,3 triac lightdimmer,102
reverseblocking triode. 23 triac packa8es,143
reversebreakdown, 3 triac<ontrolled voltag doublr, I 27
neverserurrent, 37
v :
5 variabledc power supply, 126 i
scR,2,4,5 voiceactuatedswitch, l'l I
SCRalarm,96 voltohm-mill iammeter,43 t

SCRburglaralarm,94 voltage,5, 28
SCRcontinuitychecker,1l3 voltage measurernents,53
SCRgaragedoor opener, 106 voM,43,46
SCR overvoltage protection circuit, vryM,46,48
123
SCRpackages,141, 142 w
SCRpower monitor, 117 wire size chad. 147

158

i,.rgg+'*.-.$!;1R3*r-'4-:*
 Proiects - \:
Rectifier
24Silicon-Controlled
J.Traister
Robert
proiects
troveof exciting
A treasure using
SCRs and
devices
thyristor
otherlow+ost for power+ontrol
applications!
Protectyour home and propertywith a sophisticated burglar
alarm system,built for a fractionof the cost of a comparable
clllnerciallY-made model . . .
-
Buildyour own SCR-basedsmokealarmsystem. ' . a remote-
controlgaiagedooropener. . . evena hightech lightdimmerthat
usesthe audiooutputfrom your stereoto r'rodulatethe lntensityof
your lights.
And thesearejust fourcf the practicaland usefulprojectsyou'll
find in this one-of-a-kind guideto buildingall kindsof controland
alarm sysiems using versatile, low cost thyristors'Leadingotf with
a quickbverviewof elactroniccompcncntsand measurements that
wili comb in ha;idywhen you start buiiu'lngactualprojects,Traister
providasycii with some invaluablepointerson electronicproject
bu:lding,how to obtainelectroniccomponents,and l}owto sort and
siore componentsfor easiestuse.
The rest of this excellentsourcebookis entirelydevotedto
projects-including control devices you won't find in other
luiiebooks-mosiusing SCRs,the most commonlyusedtype.of
ihyristor device, others using triacs or other readily available
thyristors.Each one includesstep-by-stepdirections,detailed
sc'hematicdrawings,and partslists.Just someof theseprojectsyou,'ll
be ableto buildwitn this hands-onguideinclude:an SCRtimercir-
cuit . . . an SCR transmitindicator-.. . two ditferenttypesof SCR
burglaralarms.. .eri incandescent lightflasher. . . a receiversignal
alaiin . . . a triac light dimmer. . . an optoelectronic SCR control
. . . a solar-triggered switch . . . an SCR continuity checker .' . a
proximityalarm-.. . a powermonitor.. . abattery-triggered ac switch
. . . an SCR overvoltageprotectioncircuit. . . and more!
RobertJ. Traisteris the authorof numerousbestsellingelec-
tronics.andcomputerbooksfor TAB,including39 One-Evenig^Elec-
tronics Projectsand Music and SpeechProiectsfor the IBM@PC'

BPB PUBLICATIONS
3 7 6 , O L D L A J P A TR A I M A R K E T ,D E L H I - 11 O0 0 6