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BASIC COMMUNICATIONS Audio Power

Wavelength 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 0.5𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐

𝑐𝑐 Amplifier Efficiency
𝜆𝜆 =
𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂 =
Frequency 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠

1 Load Impedance
𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 =
Bandwidth 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐

𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 Load Resistance

𝐵𝐵 =
𝑄𝑄
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 =
Resonant Frequency 2𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐
1 Collector Voltage
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 =
2𝜋𝜋√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) = 4𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Varactor’s Capacitance
Quality Factor
𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜
𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
√1 + 2𝑉𝑉 𝑄𝑄 =
𝑅𝑅
Crystal Thickness
Shape Factor
65.5
ℎ= 𝐵𝐵−60𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝐵𝐵−6𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Oscillator Operating Frequency @
Image Frequency
Certain Temperature
𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑓𝑓𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑓𝑓𝑇𝑇 = 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 + 𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 )

Audio Power Image Frequency Rejection Ratio

𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 0.5𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Audio Power

𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = � � 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠
2

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Image Frequency Rejection Ratio Upper and Lower Sideband

Frequency
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = �1 + 𝑄𝑄2 𝜌𝜌2
𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 − 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝜌𝜌 = − 𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖

VCO Sensitivity Bandwidth (AM)

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 2𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚

𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑 =
𝛿𝛿
Total Transmitting Power
Coupling Coefficient
𝑚𝑚2
1 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 �1 + �
2
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 =
�𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠
Total Sideband Power
Optimum Coupling Coefficient
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 1.5𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 2

Bandwidth Power Saving of Double Sideband

Suppressed Carrier
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜
𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
%𝑃𝑃. 𝑆𝑆. = × 100
𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

MODULATION Peak Envelope Power

Modulation Index 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 2

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
2𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚 =
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 Emitter Modulator Voltage Gain

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = 𝐴𝐴𝑞𝑞 (1 ± 𝑚𝑚)

𝑚𝑚 =
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Modulation Index for Single Sideband
Total Modulation Index (AM)
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇 = �𝑚𝑚1 2 + 𝑚𝑚2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 2 𝑚𝑚 = 2�
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐
Upper and Lower Sideband Voltage
Quality Factor
𝑚𝑚𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 �(𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/20 )
2 𝑄𝑄 =
4∆𝑓𝑓

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FM Modulator Sensitivity NOISE

𝛿𝛿
𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 = Effective Noise Bandwidth
𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜋
𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐵𝐵
Deviation Ratio 2 𝑠𝑠
𝛿𝛿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Total Harmonic Distortion
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 =
𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )
𝑉𝑉ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
%𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = × 100
Percent Modulation (FM) 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Noise Power

%𝑀𝑀 = × 100
𝛿𝛿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Carrier Swing
Noise Voltage
𝐶𝐶. 𝑆𝑆. = 2𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

FM Bandwidth Carson’s Rule 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = �𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁1 2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁2 2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁3 2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 2

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 2�𝛿𝛿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 (max ) � Shot Noise

FM Exact Bandwidth 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛 = �2𝑞𝑞𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 2𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

FM Narrow Bandwidth 𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 10log(𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 /𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 )

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 2𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

FM Wideband Bandwidth 𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 20log(𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 /𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 )

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 2𝛿𝛿 Noise Factor

Noise Phase Shift (𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)𝑖𝑖

𝐹𝐹 =
(𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)𝑜𝑜
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛
𝜙𝜙 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 � � ; 𝜙𝜙 ≈ � �
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 Noise Figure

PM Modulator Sensitivity 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = (𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜙𝜙 Total Noise Factor
𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 =
𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝐹2 − 1 𝐹𝐹3 − 1 𝐹𝐹4 − 1
𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 = 𝐹𝐹1 + + +
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴3

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Equivalent Noise Temperature Power Density

𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 290(𝐹𝐹 − 1) 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇

𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 =
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
Electric Field Intensity

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION �30𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇

𝐸𝐸 =
𝑟𝑟
Velocity of Propagation
Effective Antenna Area
𝑐𝑐
𝑣𝑣 =
√𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷
Characteristic Impedance
Received Power
𝐸𝐸
𝑍𝑍 =
𝐻𝐻 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 =
Relative Permittivity 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2

𝜀𝜀 Effective Antenna Area

𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 =
𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝜆𝜆2 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
Characteristic Impedance of a 4𝜋𝜋
Medium Snell’s Law
377 𝑛𝑛1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑛𝑛2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2
𝑍𝑍 =
√𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟
Refractive Index
Power Density
𝑛𝑛 = �𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟
𝐸𝐸 2
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 =
𝑍𝑍 Snell’s Law
Power Density
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟1
=�
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟2

Power Density Critical Angle

𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛2
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 𝜃𝜃𝑐𝑐 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 � �
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑛𝑛1
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇

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Maximum Usable Frequency Antenna Efficiency

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝜂𝜂 = ; 𝜂𝜂 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐1 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 + 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑

Optimum Working Frequency Dipole Gain

𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 0.85𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐺𝐺 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) = 𝐺𝐺 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) − 2.14𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Distance between Transmitting and Antenna Power Gain

Receiving Antennas
𝐺𝐺 = 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂
𝑑𝑑 = �17ℎ 𝑇𝑇 + �17ℎ𝑅𝑅
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
Distance between Transmitting and
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇
Receiving Antennas
Folded-Dipole Impedance
𝑑𝑑 = �2ℎ 𝑇𝑇 + �2ℎ𝑅𝑅
𝑍𝑍 = 73𝑛𝑛2
Free Space Loss
Helical Antenna Gain
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 32.4 + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
15𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 )2
Time between Fades 𝐺𝐺 =
𝜆𝜆3
𝑐𝑐 Helical Antenna Beamwidth
𝑇𝑇 =
2𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Number of Cells 52𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆

𝜃𝜃 = �
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁 =
3.464𝑟𝑟2 Parabolic Antenna Beamwidth

𝜂𝜂𝜋𝜋 2 𝐷𝐷2
𝜃𝜃 =
𝜆𝜆2
ANTENNAS
Passive Reflector Gain
Radial Length
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
142.5 𝐺𝐺𝐴𝐴 = 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝜆𝜆2
𝐿𝐿 =
𝑓𝑓
Parabola Coupling Factor
Radiation Resistance
𝜋𝜋
𝑓𝑓 = 𝐷𝐷′�
𝑃𝑃 4𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅 =
𝐼𝐼 2

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TRANSMISSION LINES Characteristic Impedance of

Balanced wire near Ground
Wavelength
𝑐𝑐 276 2𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 2
𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 � �1+� � �
𝜆𝜆 = √𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 2ℎ
𝑓𝑓

Velocity Factor Characteristic Impedance of Wires in

1 Parallel near Ground
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 =
√𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟
69 4ℎ 2ℎ 2
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 � �1 + � � �
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = √𝜀𝜀 𝑑𝑑 𝐷𝐷
𝑐𝑐
Velocity of Propagation Characteristic Impedance of
Balanced 2-wire near Ground
𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 =
√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 276 2𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷2
𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 � �1 + � ��
Propagation Time √𝜀𝜀 𝑑𝑑 4ℎ1 ℎ2

𝐿𝐿 Characteristic Impedance of Coaxial

𝑇𝑇 =
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 Cable
Characteristic Impedance 138 𝐷𝐷
𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
√𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 = � Reflection Coefficient
𝐶𝐶
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 − 𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂
Characteristic Impedance of Parallel- Γ=
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂
Wire Cable
Reflection Coefficient
276 𝑆𝑆
𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 = log � �
√𝜀𝜀 𝑟𝑟 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 1
Γ=
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 1
Phase Shift
Characteristic Impedance of
Balanced 4-wire 𝐿𝐿
𝜙𝜙 = (360°)
𝜆𝜆
138 2𝐷𝐷2 𝐷𝐷2 2 Standing Wave Ratio
𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 � �1+� � �
√𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 𝐷𝐷1
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Compiled by: MIT - TEAM4A [Santos, Moreno, Mallari, Malana, Lineses, Jimenez, Garcia, Gamboa, Dahilog, Baduria]
7|E S T F o rmul as

Standing Wave Ratio Stripline Characteristic Impedence

1 + |Γ|
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 60 4𝑑𝑑
1 − |Γ| 𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂 = ln � 𝑡𝑡 �
√𝜀𝜀 0.67𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 �0.8 + ℎ�
Standing Wave Ratio
Open-Wire (Microstrip) Transmission
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = Line
𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂
120 𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂 𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂 = ln � �
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = √𝜀𝜀 𝑤𝑤 + 𝑡𝑡
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿

Standing Wave Ratio

1 + �𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 /𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 FIBER OPTICS

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
1 − �𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 /𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 Index of Refraction

Load Power 𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛 =
𝑣𝑣
4𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝑃𝑃
(1 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)2 𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 = �𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟

Reflected Power Snell’s Law

𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = Γ 2 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑛𝑛2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2

Load Power Critical Angle

𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 (1 − Γ 2 ) 𝑛𝑛2

𝜃𝜃𝑐𝑐 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 � �
𝑛𝑛1
Impedance Matching
Numerical Aperture
2
𝑍𝑍1 𝑁𝑁1
=� �
𝑍𝑍2 𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = �𝑛𝑛1 2 − 𝑛𝑛2 2

Quarter-wavelength Transformer 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Characteristic Impedance
Maximum Acceptance Angle
𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂 = �𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿
𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 (�𝑛𝑛1 2 − 𝑛𝑛2 2 )
Microstrip Characteristic Impedance
Acceptance Cone
87 5.98ℎ
𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂 = ln � � 𝜃𝜃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 2𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
√𝜀𝜀 + 1.41 0.8𝑤𝑤 + 𝑡𝑡

Compiled by: MIT - TEAM4A [Santos, Moreno, Mallari, Malana, Lineses, Jimenez, Garcia, Gamboa, Dahilog, Baduria]
8|E S T F o rmul as

Single Mode Cutoff Wavelength Bit Rate for NRZ Code

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛1 √2Δ 1
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 =
2.405 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

Maximum Radius Bit Rate for RZ Code

0.383𝜆𝜆 1
𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 2𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

Number of Modes Bandwidth-Distance Product

2
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 500
� 𝜆𝜆 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁� 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
𝑀𝑀 = 𝐷𝐷
2
Responsivity
Bandwidth
𝐼𝐼
1 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃
2Δ𝑡𝑡
Responsivity
Electrical Bandwidth
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂
0.35 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐵𝐵 = 1234
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟
Irradiance
Fiber Attenuation
𝑃𝑃
−𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴/10 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 × 10 𝐴𝐴

Photon Energy

𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑓𝑓

Total Rise Time

𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = �𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 2 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 2

Bit Rate for UPRZ Code

1
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 =
∆𝑡𝑡 × 𝐿𝐿
Bit Rate for UPNRZ code

1
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 =
2∆𝑡𝑡 × 𝐿𝐿

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9|E S T F o rmul as

TELEPHONY Total Channel Capacity in a Cellular

Area
Pulse Dialing Duration
𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑡 = ∑𝑑𝑑(0.1) + (𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖
Frequency Reuse Factor
Tone Dialing Duration
𝑁𝑁
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶

DC Loop Resistance Co-Channel Reuse Ratio

0.1095 𝐷𝐷
𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑄 =
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑅𝑅

Grade of Service Co-Channel Reuse Ratio

𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑄𝑄 = √3𝑛𝑛
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 =
𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂
AMPS Transmit Carrier Frequency
Traffic Intensity
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 = 0.03𝑁𝑁 + 825
𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 = 0.03(𝑁𝑁 − 1023) + 825
Carried Traffic
AMPS Receive Carrier Frequency
𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂 (1 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 )
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 + 45𝑀𝑀ℎ𝑧𝑧
Trunk Utilization
GSM Frequency Shift between Mark
𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 and Space
𝜂𝜂 =
𝑁𝑁
𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 − 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏
Via Net Loss
GSM Maximum Transmitted
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 0.2𝑡𝑡 + 0.4(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) Frequency

Crosstalk Decibel Unit 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 + 0.25𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 90 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 GSM Minimum Transmitted

Frequency
Number of Full-Duplex Cellular
Channels 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 − 0.25𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏

𝐹𝐹 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 CDMA Radiated Power

𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −76𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟

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10 | E S T F o r m u l a s

MICROWAVE DEVICES Phase Velocity

𝑐𝑐
Waveguide Longer Dimension 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 =
2
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 �1 − �𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 �
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓
2
Rectangular Waveguide Cutoff Group and Phase Velocity
Frequency
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐 2
𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = Waveguide Characteristic Impedance
2𝑎𝑎
Rectangular Waveguide Cutoff 377
𝑍𝑍𝑂𝑂 =
Wavelength 2
�1 − �𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 �
2𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 =
𝑚𝑚
Guide Wavelength
Circular Waveguide Cutoff
Wavelength 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝜆𝜆𝑔𝑔 =
𝑓𝑓
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 = Guide Wavelength
𝑘𝑘
Group Velocity 𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆𝑔𝑔 =
2
𝜆𝜆 2 �1 − �𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 �
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 𝑐𝑐 �1 − � � 𝑓𝑓
2𝑎𝑎
Magnetron Average Power
Group Velocity
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 𝐷𝐷
2
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 𝑐𝑐�1 − � � Magnetron Duty Cycle
𝑓𝑓
𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
Phase Velocity 𝐷𝐷 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = Horn Antenna Gain
2
�1 − � 𝜆𝜆 �
2𝑎𝑎 7.5𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻
𝐺𝐺 =
𝜆𝜆2

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11 | E S T F o r m u l a s

H-Plane Beamwidth TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE

70𝜆𝜆
𝜃𝜃𝐻𝐻 = Distance between Transmitter and
𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻
Receiver
E-Plane Beamwidth
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) = �2ℎ𝑇𝑇(𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ) + �2ℎ𝑅𝑅(𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 )
56𝜆𝜆
𝜃𝜃𝐸𝐸 =
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸
𝑑𝑑(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) = �17ℎ 𝑇𝑇(𝑚𝑚 ) + �17ℎ𝑅𝑅(𝑚𝑚 )
Radar Equation

𝜆𝜆2 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺 2 𝜎𝜎 K-Factor

𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 =
(4𝜋𝜋)3 𝑟𝑟 4 1
𝐾𝐾 =
Radar Distance 1 − 0.04665𝑒𝑒 0.005577 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅 =
2 Effective Earth Radius
Maximum Unambiguous Range 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = Earth Curvature
2
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐 =
2𝑓𝑓 1.5𝐾𝐾
𝑑𝑑1(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )
Minimum Usable Frequency 𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐 =
12.75𝐾𝐾
𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = Fresnel Zone
2
Doppler Shift Frequency 𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑1(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 = 17.3�
𝑓𝑓(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ) �𝑑𝑑1(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) �
2𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖
𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 =
𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 = 72.1�
𝑓𝑓(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ) �𝑑𝑑1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) �

Fresnel Zone Clearance

𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 0.6𝐹𝐹1

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12 | E S T F o r m u l a s

Fresnel Zone Clearance Unavailability

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑈𝑈 =
𝑅𝑅 = 43.3� 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑓𝑓(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ) �𝑑𝑑1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) �
Reliability
𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑1(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) 𝑅𝑅 = (1 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂) × 100
𝑅𝑅 = 10.4�
𝑓𝑓(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ) �𝑑𝑑1(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) 𝑑𝑑2(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) �
Antenna and Feedline Equivalent
Nth Fresnel Zone Radius Noise Temperature

𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹1 √𝑛𝑛 (𝐿𝐿 − 1)290 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 =
𝐿𝐿
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
(EIRP) Equivalent Noise Temperature

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) + 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 290(𝐹𝐹 − 1)

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 Energy per Bit per Noise Density

Ratio
Free Space Loss
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 =
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 32.4 + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ) 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 92.4 + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ) Noise Power Density

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 36.6 + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ) 𝑁𝑁𝑂𝑂 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 96.6 + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) + 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ) Carrier-to-Noise Ratio

𝐶𝐶
Isotropic Radiated Power (IRL) (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) − 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑁𝑁
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Receive Signal Level (RSL)
Ratio of the Received to Transmitted 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) = 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) + 𝐺𝐺 𝑇𝑇(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) + 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )
Power
− 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅
(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) + 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) − 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ) Fade Margin
𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 30𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 10 log(6𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 )
Availability
− 10 log(1 − 𝑅𝑅) − 70
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐴𝐴 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅

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13 | E S T F o r m u l a s

DIGITAL AND DATA BPSK Minimum Double-Sided

Nyquist Bandwidth
COMMUNICATIONS
𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏
Coding Efficiency
QPSK Nyquist Bandwidth
𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷
𝜂𝜂 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏
𝑁𝑁𝑇𝑇 𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁 =
2
Hamming Code
8-PSK / 8-QAM Nyquist Bandwidth
𝑛𝑛
2 ≥ 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏
𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁 =
Baud-to-Bit rate Conversion 3

𝐶𝐶 = 𝑆𝑆𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 𝑀𝑀 16-PSK / 16-QAM Nyquist Bandwidth

Processing Gain 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏

𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁 =
4
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = (𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Bandwidth Efficiency
Shannon-Hartley Theorem on
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏
Information Capacity 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁
𝐶𝐶 = 𝐵𝐵𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 (1 + 𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)
Dynamic Range
Aliasing Frequency
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 1.76 + 6.02𝑚𝑚(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 − 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚
Dynamic Range
M-ary Encoding
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
𝑚𝑚 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 𝑁𝑁 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

FSK Frequency Deviation Dynamic Range

|𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 − 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 | 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 2𝑛𝑛 − 1

∆𝑓𝑓 =
2
Maximum Quantization Error
FSK Minimum Bandwidth
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑄𝑒𝑒 =
𝐵𝐵 = 2(∆𝑓𝑓 + 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 ) 2

FSK Baud Rate Data Rate

𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚

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14 | E S T F o r m u l a s

𝜇𝜇-Law Companding Sound Intensity Level (SIL)

𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼
ln �1 + 𝜇𝜇 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 10𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 ( )
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜
ln(1 + 𝜇𝜇)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 10 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 𝐼𝐼 + 120
Intersymbol Interference
Nth Decade
ℎ
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 20 log � �
𝐻𝐻 𝑓𝑓2 = 𝑓𝑓1 × 10𝑛𝑛

Reverberation Time Stephen and

Bate Equation
ACOUSTICS & BROADCASTING 3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅60 = 𝑟𝑟�0.012√𝑉𝑉 + 0.1070�
Sound Loudness
Sabine Equation
𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 40 + 10 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)
𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅60 = 0.161
Sound Power Level (PWL) 𝐴𝐴
𝑊𝑊 𝑉𝑉
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 10𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 ( ) 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅60 = 0.161
𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 10 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 𝑊𝑊 + 120 𝑉𝑉

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅60 = 0.049
𝐴𝐴
Sound Power Level from an Isotropic
𝑉𝑉
Source 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅60 = 0.049
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 20 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 𝑑𝑑 + 11
Norris-Eyring Equation
Sound Power Level from a Source at 𝑉𝑉
Ground Level 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅60 = 0.161
−𝑆𝑆(1 − 𝛼𝛼 )
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 20 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 𝑑𝑑 + 8 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅60 = 0.049
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) −𝑆𝑆(1 − 𝛼𝛼 )

𝑃𝑃 Helmholtz Resonator Frequency

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 20𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 ( )
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎
𝑓𝑓 = �
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 20 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 𝑊𝑊 + 94 2𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼

Sound Intensity f-rating

𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 𝑓𝑓 =
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑑𝑑
4𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2
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15 | E S T F o r m u l a s

Alumination Channel Frequency (Ch.2-4)

𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = 54 + 6(𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 − 2)

𝐿𝐿 =
𝑑𝑑 2
Channel Frequency (Ch.7-13)
Y-signal
𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = 174 + 6(𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 − 7)
𝑌𝑌 = 0.30𝑅𝑅 + 0.59𝐺𝐺 + 0.11𝐵𝐵
Channel Frequency (Ch.14-83)
I-signal
𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = 470 + 6(𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 − 14)
𝐼𝐼 = 0.60𝑅𝑅 − 0.28𝐺𝐺 − 0.32𝐵𝐵
Picture Carrier Frequency
Q-signal
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 + 1.25
𝑄𝑄 = 0.21𝑅𝑅 − 0.52𝐺𝐺 − 0.31𝐵𝐵
Sound Carrier Frequency
C-signal magnitude
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 + 1.25 + 4.5
𝐶𝐶 = �𝐼𝐼 2 + 𝑄𝑄2
Color Sub-Carrier Frequency
C-signal phase
𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 + 1.25 + 3.58
𝑄𝑄
𝜙𝜙 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 −1 � � Velocity of Sound in Terms of
𝐼𝐼
Young’s Modulus and Density
Video Frequency Response

𝑁𝑁 𝐸𝐸
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = �
80 𝑑𝑑

Differential Gain Horizontal Scanning Time in terms of

𝑥𝑥 number of pixels
𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔 = �1 − � 100
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡ℎ = 𝑛𝑛 × 0.125𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
Tape Recorded Wavelength
𝑠𝑠
𝜆𝜆 =
𝑓𝑓

From:

ECE Solutions in Electronics Systems &

Technologies (Arceo & De Vera)

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