EXERCISE 1: TOOLS IN THE LABORATORY

Introduction
In the laboratory, there are a lot of apparatus that helps us to our experiment. Some are there
to prevent contamination from the given bacteria/species and some are there to assist us in
observing the micro species. The compound microscope helps us to see and observe these micro
species, thus, knowing its parts and function is very important.

Objective

The reader will be able to familiarize himself with the laboratory apparatus be able to
identify their function. The reader will be able to know the parts and function of the compound
microscope.

1. Autoclave It is a robust, electrically heated steam vessel

meant for sterilizing ‘thermostable’ culture
media, glassware, and other materials that are
not spoiled by moist heat. Autoclave runs on
the principle of pressure cooker

2. Incubator This an insulated, electrically heated cabinet

meant for providing microorganisms with
optimum temperature for growth. The cabinet
is insulated and thermostatically controlled.
For routine purposes, the temperature is
maintained at 28-30°C for bacteria, about 25°C
for molds, and 35-37°C for mesophilic
bacteria.

3. Hot air oven This is similar to incubator in make except that

it can operate at temperatures up to 300°C and
has a fan for circulating hot air. Hot air oven is
used for sterilization of glassware and
materials that are spoiled by moist heat.
4. Inoculating loop This is a tool for transferring and streaking
cultures. It consists of a thin nichrome wire
whose one end is twisted into a small loop
while the other end is fixed to a thermoset
plastic handle

5. Vortex mixer This equipment is used for mixing liquids kept

in a test tube. It has one or more cup-like
depressions at the top to
receive the bottom of the test tube.

6. Water bath / Boiling Water bath is used for heating and melting of
water bath media, solutions, samples etc. at temperatures
below 100°C. It can
also be used to maintain constant temperature
that is required in microbiology lab work

7. Heating mantle It is an electrically heated and thermostatically

controlled unit used to heat or melt samples
and reagents. The inner lining is made of
asbestos and therefore gives an indirect heat to
the materials to be heated. F

8. UV chamber / UV This equipment is used for analyzing

viewing cabinet fluorescent materials, spots in thin layer
chromatography, etc. The equipment has two
lamps for long- and short wavelength UV
radiation.
9. Hot plate with This is an electrically powered equipment
magnetic stirrer performs the dual function of heating and
agitation. The agitation occurs by magnetic
arrangement.

10. This is an enclosed box in which culture

Inoculation chamber / transfers, plating, etc. can be carried out
Sterile chamber aseptically. The chamber is
equipped with UV lamp for periodic
disinfection of the chamber

11. Colony It is used for counting microbial colony

counter (bacterial and yeast). The instrument is
equipped with a backlight source,
gridlines and a magnifying lens. It also has a
sensor for digitally registering the number of
colonies counted

12. Microscope It is an instrument for observing microscopic

items such as cells, crystals and cell
organelles. It has the dual function of
magnification and resolution.
13. Refrigerator This is a common household equipment for
keeping foods and beverages cool. This
equipment is used in microbiology laboratory
for storing / preserving cultures, media, and
many sensitive materials

14. Bunsen Bunsen burner is a common tool used in

burner science lab. In microbiology lab, it is used for
sterilizing inoculating loop, plating out
cultures, transferring cultures, heat-fixing of
smears and creating a sterile zone for aseptic
operation.

15. Spirit lamp The function of spirit lamp is the same as the
Bunsen burner but is portable. It uses rectified
spirit as the fuel (produces smoke-free flame).
The lamp must be covered with a lid when not
in use to prevent loss of spirit

16. These are graduated glass pieces used for the

Micrometers measurement of size of the cells. Stage
(stage and micrometer is a slide on which etching is
ocular) done with 0.001 mm spacing. The ocular
micrometer, which is place on the eyepiece,
has an arbitrary scale and must be calibrated
against the stage micrometer. During
measurements, the ocular micrometer is
retained while the stage micrometer is replace
with the specimen slide.
17. Balance Balance is needed in microbiology lab for
weighing chemicals, samples, media, etc.
Digital balances are fast to
work with but needs frequent calibration

18. Thermometers are required to ensure the

Thermometer heating equipment is running at the correct
temperature.

19. Coliform This glass equipment is used for the testing of

membrane filter coliforms in water. 100 ml of test water is
poured in the funnel and filtered through a
special Millipore filter through external
application of suction. The filter retains the
microorganisms. The filter is then aseptically
transferred to a selective-cum-differential
semisolid medium kept in
a petri dish. If there are coliforms, they will
appear as pink dots after incubation at 35°C
for 22 hrs.

20. Vacuum to draw out the air from any closed chamber
Pump before pumping back CO2, O2 or N2, usually
for anaerobiosis
21. Desiccator to dry things

22. beaker A liquid measuring container.

23. vacutainer A vacutainer blood collection tube is

a sterile glass or plastic tube with a closure
that is evacuated to create a vacuum inside the
tube facilitating the draw of a predetermined
volume of liquid.

24. graduated Measures approximate volume of liquids.

cylinder
25. syringe The plunger can be pulled and pushed along
inside a cylindrical tube (called a barrel),
allowing the syringe to take in and expel
a liquid or gas through an orifice at the open
end of the tube. 

26. dropper For addiotn of liquids, drop by drop.

27. matches To produce fire

28. spiral plater A spiral plater is an instrument used to

dispense a liquid sample onto a Petri dish in
a spiral pattern. Commonly used as part of
a CFU count procedure for the purpose of
determining the number of microbes in the
sample
29. burette Measures volume of solution

30. Clay A wire frame with porcelain used to support a

triangle crucible

31. wire gauze Used to spread heat or a burner flame.

32. Test tube Used as holder of small amount of solution.

33. Forceps Holds or pick up small objects.

34. Graduated Measures solution volume

pipette

35. Condenser Used in distillation

36. Crucible Used to heat a small amount of solid

substance at a very high temperature.
37. Funnel Used to transfer solids and liquids without
spilling

38 pH meter Measures acidity of solution

39.centrifuge Separates materials of varying density.

40. Glass For funneling liquids from one container to

funnels another, or for filtering when equipped with
filter paper.
41. Ring stand For holding pieces of glassware in
(with rings or place.
clamps)

42. Test tube For holding test tubes when tubes should not
holders be touched

43. Tongs Similar function to forceps byt are useful for

larger items.

44.volumetric To measure precise volumes of liquid or to

flasks make precise dilutions.
45. Wash For dispensing small quantities of distilled
bottles water

46. Watch glass For holding small samples or covering

beakers or evaporating dishes.

47. Autoclave is an adhesive tape used

Tape in autoclaving (heating under high pressure
with steam to sterilise) to indicate whether a
specific temperature has been reached

48. Petri dish Modern Petri dishes usually feature rings

and/or slots on their lids and bases so that
when stacked, they are less prone to sliding
off one another.
49. Cotton consist of a small wad of cotton wrapped
Swab around one or both ends of a short rod,
usually made of either wood, rolled paper, or
plastic.

50. Vial Lab is a transparent glass or plastic bottles

that biologists use
to analysis microbiological numbers or
nature. It can be
for qualitative or quantitative analysis. 

Widefield eyepiece The lens at the top that you look through.  They are usually
10X or 15X power.
Interpupillary Distance Distance between the two eyepieces. Typically it is
adjustable to accommodate different users.
Revolving Nosepiece Houses the primary lenses of the microscope - the objectives.
The lenses are mounted on a revolving turret, so that can
conveniently select a specific objective lens, as per the
requirements.

Objective lenses The most important lens in a microscope and the one closest
to the specimen. In a compound microscope there are usually
3, 4 or 5 objective lenses allowing a selection of
 magnification levels
Specimen holder (mechanical stage) for fine movements of the slide

Stage clips Used for fixing the slide at a particular position.

Abbe Condenser To collect and focus visible light to the object in the slide. It
increases the clarity of the image to a certain extent,
particularly while viewing the specimen with more than
400X magnification.

Iris (Diaphragm) To adjust the size as well as the intensity of light, which is
focused on the slide from below.

Illuminator condenser An artificial light source

Base The bottom of the microscope, used for support

To support the body tube. For safe handling and picking up
Arm of the microscope, one hand supports the arm and the other
supports the base.
Coarse Used for quick movement of the body tube and the stage

Fine For precise and fine focusing of the object.

Light intensity control knob Illumination technique used to improve contrast in specimen
which is typically transparent. The light is angled such that if
it is uninterrupted by the specimen, will continue past the
objective lens.

EXERCISE 2A: MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIAL SPECIES

Introduction
Bacteria is a prokaryotic, single celled, with three different shape: coccus, bacillus, and
spiral. It divide/reproduce through binary fission and it can undergo photosynthesis. Bacteria has
been part of our medical history and killed a mass of people by different kinds of diseases . As we
move forward to advance technology, we learn more about bacteria and its types. Knowing more
about them gives us a chance to find a cure through their corresponding disease which lessen the
number of people that can die. We can know more about bacteria by observing their characteristics
that gives can lead us to their classification. Here are just ten bacterial species that we’re going to
talk about.

Objectives
The reader will be able to differentiate bacterial species through their characteristics and
with the given photograph. The reader will learn each of their specific name and classification.
Scientific Name: Bacillus Characteristics: Shape: Rod-shaped bacterium
Anthracis
Gram Stain: Gram-positive Spore-Forming: Endospore- Motility: Non- motile
Rod forming
Cell Wall: Dehydrated cell Oxygen Use: Yes, as a terminal Disease Associated/Caused:
with thick walls electron acceptor to maintain its Anthrax, it enters our body
normal aerobic through broken skin, oral
metabolism. ingestion, and inhalation.
Common Treatment: Normal Flora Location: Classification: Bacilli
Injectable anthrax vaccines, Commonly found in soil of
Penicillin (antibiotic) grazing areas.

Scientific Name: Characteristics: Shape: Grape-like clusters

Staphylococcus aureus
Gram Stain: Gram-positive Spore-Forming: Non-spore- Motility: Nonmotile
Cocci forming
Cell Wall: Thick Oxygen Use: It can grow with Disease Associated/Caused:
peptidoglycan layer the absence of oxygen by Wound infection, boils, food
fermentation poisoning, and mastitis
Common Treatment: Normal Flora Location: Classification: Cocci
Appropriate drainage, if its Human flora (nose and skin)
serious use proper antibiotic
therapy
Scientific Name: Streptococcus Characteristics: Shape: Spherical
pyogenes
Gram Stain: Gram-positive Spore-Forming: Non-sporing Motility: Nonmotility
cocci
Cell Wall: It displays antigen A Oxygen Use: Aerotolerant or Disease Associated/Caused:
facultatively anaerobic Rheumatic fever; impetigo;
scarlet fever; puerperal fever;
strep throat; necrotizing
fasciitis
Common Treatment: Penicillin Normal Flora Location: Classification: Bacilli
is used for respiratory tract Human nose, throat and skin
infections and
macrolides/lincosamides are
used if there are allergies.

Scientific Name: Chlamydia Characteristics: Shape: Rod shape

trachomatis
Gram Stain: Gram negative Spore-Forming: It does not Motility: Nonmotile
bacteria form spore but it forms an
elementary body
Cell Wall: lacks peptidoglycan Oxygen Use: Aerobic Disease Associated/Caused:
cell wall Trachoma, pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID) and infertility in
women.
Common Treatment: Normal Flora Location: Classification: Chlamydiae
Antibiotics ( azithromycin and Human
doxycycline).
Scientific Name: Clostridium Characteristics: Shape: bacillus/rod shaped
tetani
Gram Stain: Gram positive Spore-Forming: Endospores Motility: Motile
Cell Wall: Thick cell wall Oxygen Use: Not able to tolerate Disease Associated/Caused:
the presence of oxygen Tetanus
Common Treatment: Proper Normal Flora Location: Classification: Clostridia
immunization Commonly in soil, dust, or
sediment

Scientific Name: Characteristics: Shape: Club(slightly) or Rod

Corynebacterium diphtheriae shape
Gram Stain: Gram positive Spore-Forming: Non-spore Motility: Nonmotile
forming bacilli
Cell Wall: None Oxygen Use: Aerobic Disease Associated/Caused:
Diphtheria
Common Treatment: Normal Flora Location: Classification:
Diphtheria antitoxin (DAT) Commonly found in soil Corynebacterium

Scientific Name: Escherichia Characteristics: Shape: Rod shaped

coli
Gram Stain: Gram-negative Spore-Forming: None Motility: Motile
Cell Wall: Consists of an outer Oxygen Use: Both aerobic and Disease Associated/Caused:
membrane containing anaerobic Gastroenteritis, urinary tract
lipopolysaccharides infection, and neonatal
meningitis
Common Treatment: Patients Normal Flora Location: Classification:
should avoid dairy products Bacteria that can be commonly Gammaproteobacteria
found in animal feces and
lower intestines of mammals

Scientific Name: Neisseria Characteristics: Shape: Kidney bean shape

gonorrhoeae
Gram Stain: Gram-negative, Spore-Forming: non-spore Motility: non-motile
forming
Cell Wall: Outer membrane Oxygen Use: Aerobic Disease Associated/Caused:
contain proteins Gonorrhea
Common Treatment: Normal Flora Location: Classification:
antibiotics (ceftriaxone and Human Betaproteobacteria
penicillin)

Scientific Name: Mycoplasma Characteristics: Shape: Spindle shaped

pneumoniae
Gram Stain: Gram-negative Spore-Forming: Non-spore Motility: Motile
forming
Cell Wall: None but it has Oxygen Use: Aerobic Disease Associated/Caused:
three layered membrane Mycoplasma pneumonia
Common Treatment: Normal Flora Location: Classification: Mollicutes
Macrolides Human

Scientific Name: Legionella Characteristics: Shape: Rod/Coccoid Shape

pneumophila
Gram Stain: Gram Negative Spore-Forming: Non-spore Motility: 1st phase, nonmotile;
forming 2nd phase motile
Cell Wall: It has a somatic Oxygen Use: Aerobic Disease Associated/Caused:
antigen located at the side Legionnaires' disease.
chains of its cell wall
Common Treatment: Normal Flora Location: Classification:
Antibiotic (levofloxacin and Waterborne or present in soil Gammaproteobacteria
azithromycin)

EXERCISE 2B: MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF FUNGAL SPECIES

Phylum: Basidiomycot Phylum: Ascomycota

Genus name: Coprinus sp. Genus name: Aspergillus sp. 
Spore type: basidiospores Spore type: ascosporeS
These are sexual spores These are sexual spores

Phylum: Ascomycota Phylum: Ascomycota 

Genus name: Aspergillus sp.  Genus name: Penicillium sp. 
Spore type: conidiospores Spore type: condiospores
These are asexual spores These are asexual spores
Phylum: Zygomycota Phylum: Zygomycota
Genus name: Rhizopus sp. Genus name: Rhizopus sp. 
Spore type: zygospores Spore type: sporangiospores
These are sexual spores These are asexual spores

Phylum: Mastigophora Phylum: Mastigophora 

Genus and species name: Trypanosoma Genus and species name: Trichomonas
gambiense vaginalis 
Stage of life cycle: tryptomastigote Stage of life cycle: trophozoite
Disease caused: trichomoniasis
Phylum: Sporozoa Phylum: Ciliata 
Genus name: Plasmodium sp Genus and species name: Paramecium
caudatum
Stage of lie cycle: Trophzoite Stage of life cycle: Trophozoite
Disease caused: Malaria

Phylum: Sporozoa Phylum: Mastigophora

Genus and species name: Toxoplasma gondii Genus name: Euglena sp. 
Stage of life cycle: trophozoite  Stage of life cycle: trophozoite
Disease caused: congenital toxoplasmosis Disease caused: none
Phylum: Sarcodina Phylum: Sarcodina
Genus and species name: Entamoeba Genus and species name: Amoeba proteus
histolytica  
Stage of life cycle: trophozoite Stage of life cycle: trophozoite 
Disease caused: amoebic dysentery Disease caused: none

EXERCISE 2C: MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF PROTOZOANS

Introduction
The Protozoa are considered to be a subkingdom of the kingdom Protista, although in the
classical system they were placed in the kingdom Animalia. More than 50,000 species have been
described, most of which are free-living organisms; protozoa are found in almost every possible
habitat.  Virtually all humans have protozoa living in or on their body at some time, and many
persons are infected with one or more species throughout their life. Some species are considered
commensals, i.e., normally not harmful, whereas others are pathogens and usually produce disease.
Protozoan diseases range from very mild to life-threatening. Individuals whose defenses are able to
control but not eliminate a parasitic infection become carriers and constitute a source of infection
for others.

Objective
 To identify and differentiate different classifications of protozoans
 To let us be familiarized with their characteristics

Discussion:

Protozoa

Protozoa are one-celled animals found worldwide in most habitats. Most species are free living, but

all higher animals are infected with one or more species of protozoa. Infections range from

asymptomatic to life threatening, depending on the species and strain of the parasite and the

resistance of the host.

Structure
Protozoa are microscopic unicellular eukaryotes that have a relatively complex internal structure

and carry out complex metabolic activities. Some protozoa have structures for propulsion or other

types of movement.

Classification

On the basis of light and electron microscopic morphology, the protozoa are currently classified

into six phyla. Most species causing human disease are members of the phyla Sacromastigophora

and Apicomplexa.

Life Cycle Stages

The stages of parasitic protozoa that actively feed and multiply are frequently called trophozoites; in

some protozoa, other terms are used for these stages. Cysts are stages with a protective membrane

or thickened wall. Protozoan cysts that must survive outside the host usually have more resistant

walls than cysts that form in tissues.

Reproduction

Binary fission, the most common form of reproduction, is asexual; multiple asexual division occurs

in some forms. Both sexual and asexual reproduction occur in the Apicomplexa.

Nutrition

All parasitic protozoa require preformed organic substances—that is, nutrition is holozoic as in

higher animals.
(a) Giardia lamblia (Trophozoite Diagram) (b) Giardia lamblia (Cyst Diagram)

(c) Giardia lamblia Trophozoite (d) Giardia lamblia Cyst

Scientific name Giardia Lamblia
Disease Giardiasis (popularly known as “Bever Fever”)

Mode of Transmission: person to person and animal to person via hand

to mouth transfer of cyst, fecal-oral
transmission, ingestion of contaminated water

Diagnosis Stool microscopy for cysts or trophozoite

Treatment (for humans) Antibiotics (metronidazole, paromomycin),

drinking enough water and electrolyte-rich
drinks

(a)Balantidium coli (Trophozoite Diagram) (b) Balantidium coli (Cyst Diagram)

 (c) Balantidium coli Trophozoite (d) Balantidium coli Cyst

Scientific name Balantidium Coli

Disease Balantidiasis

Mode of Transmission by fecal-oral route, by eating and drinking

contaminated food and water that has come into
contact with infective animal or human feces

Diagnosis microscopic examination of a patient’s feces

Treatment tetracycline, metronidazole, and iodoquinol

EXERCISE 2D: MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF HELMINTHS

Schistosoma japonicum adult and cercariae
Opisthorchis viverrini adult and egg
 Paragonimus westermami adult and egg

Fasciola hepatica adult and egg

Clonorchis sinensis adult and egg

Fasciolopsis buski adult and egg

Diphyllobothrium latum adult scolex and egg.

Metagonimus yokagawai adult and egg

 CESTODES (Flatworms
SCIENTIFI DISEASE MODE OF INEFECTI DEFINITI INTERME FREE TREATME
C NAME TRANS- VE STAGE VE HOST DIETE LIVING NT
MISSION HOST HABITAT
Taeniarhync Taeniasis Ingestion Larvae Man Cattle Another Praziquantel
us raw or (cysticerci) organism and
saginatus improperly Albendizole
cooked
(Beef
beef.
tapeworm)

Taenia Taeniasis Consumptio  larvae Man Pig Another Praziquantel

solium n of (cysticerci) organism, and
uncooked small Albendizole
(Pork
and intestine of
tapeworm)
undercooke man
d pork
 CESTODES (Flatworms
Echinococcu Hydatidosis Ingestion of eggs Dog Man, Sheep, Another Surgery and
s ganulosus eggs from hog, cattle organism, Albendazole
infected liver of man
(Dog
dogs
tapeworm)

Diphyllobot Dyphyllobot Consumptio plerocercoid Man, cat, Crustacean, Human, fish Praziquantel
hrium latum hriasis n of larvae bear, dog fish
undercooke
(Fish
d or raw fish
tapeworm)

Hymenoleps Hymenolepi Food Egg Man Not Humans Oral-fecal;

is nana asis contaminati necessary close
on contact
(Dwarf
tapeworm)
 Taenia solium

Echinococcus ganulosus

Diphyllobothrium latum

GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,

POOTEN
 Taenia saginatum

Hymenolepsis nana

GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,

POOTEN
 EXERCISE 2E: MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF ARTHROPODS

Anthropods

 Bilaterally symmetrical invertebrate animals

 Segmented bodies, jointed appendages and hard outer coverings or exoskeletons
 Jointed appendages
 Segmented bodies
 External skeleton

Metamorphic Development

 Refers to change in form or structure of an anthropod that occurs during the period of development
 Types of Metamorphoses
 Gradual Metamorphoses
 Complete Metamorphoses

Classification of Anthropods

 Class Insecta
 Class Arachnida
 Class Myriapoda
 Class Crustacean
 Class Pentastomida

INSECTS (HEXAPODA)

 External Anatomy
 Head, Thorax and Abdomen
 Mouth parts: sponging, pierce sucking, chewing-lapping

GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,

POOTEN
  Internal Anatomy

ARACHNIDS

 Includes scorpions, spiders, mites and ticks

 Body regions: cephalothorax and abdomen
 Six pairs of appendages
 1 pair chelicerae with venom, fangs and claws
 1 pair of pedipalps – sensory and food manipulation
 4 pairs of walking legs

MYRIAPODA

 Centipedes and Millipedes

 Head and truck (thorax and abdomen)
 Trunk with many segments – pair of legs per segment

GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,

POOTEN
CLASS CRUSTACEA

 Hard exoskeleton called carapace

 5 appendages
 Includes crabs, shrimps and copepods

ARTHROPODS AS DIRECT CAUSES OF INJURY

 Envenomization
 Ectoparasitism
 Ingestant and inhalant allergens
 Food, water and house pests
 Myiasis
 Entomophobia and delusory parasitoses

ENVENOMIZATION

 Venom is introduced to humans by injecting it to through the integument or coming in contact with cut
skin
 Allergic reactions may follow upon repeated exposure to various venomous anthropods

^ Order Hymenoptera ^

^ Order Hemiptera ^

 Described as “cone-nosed”
 Commonly known as assassin bugs

GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,

POOTEN
  Know as the “wheel bug”
 It attacks humans

^ Order Lepidoptera ^

 Larvae of moths and butterflies are called caterpillars

 The spines or hair may contain toxin

^ Class Chilopoda ^

 Common name: Centipedes

 The amount of venom depends on the size of centipedes
 Local pain at site of puncture, rash, swelling and purple patches

^ Order Scorpionida ^

 Nocturnal Creatures
 Produce hemolytic and neurotoxic venom which causes painful swelling
 Numbness, profuse sweating, salivation, nausea, etc.

^ Order Araneae ^

 Most spiders are harmless but there are species that are strong enough for the chelicerae to penetrate
skin
 Medically important spiders:
 Black Widow
 Brown Widow
 The venom is a complex protein
 The venom can have or be:
 Neurotoxic
 Necrotic effect
 Localized swelling, abdominal pain or cramps are some symptoms

~ Family Culicidae ~

 Important genera
 Anopheles
 Aedes
 Culex
 Mansonia
 Mechanism of Bite Reaction:
 The reaction to bites may either be immediate, delayed or both
 It is associated with the trauma produces by the mechanical insertion of the proboscis
GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,
POOTEN
  It is dues to the sensitization effect of the saliva
 Types of bite reactions:
 Hermorrhagic Macule
 -

~Family Sumilidae ~

 Also called “black flies”

 Only females bite but does not penetrate the host’s tissue
 Lesions are produces by localized sweeling and inflammation
 Vector: -

~ Family Tabanidae ~

 Importand genera:
 Tabanus and Chrysops
 Tabanus (Horse Fly) is black with whitish markings
 Chrysops (Deer fly) is small and its wing is patterned with brownish coloration
 Mouthparts belong to the spongy-cutting type

> Order Anoplura <

 Referred as “sucking lice”

 Pediculus humanus capitis
 Head louse
 Head lice infestation is very common in the Philippines
 Itching is attributed to the injection of the saliva or lice feces

^ Order Siphonaptera ^

 Fleas remain on their hosts less constantly than lice do

 They inject saliva to prevent the host’s blood from clotting
 Bites appear as small punctures

^ Order Hemiptera ^

 Climex hemipterus (bedbugs) is common in tropical climates

 Bite areas have erythematous wheals of uniform size

^ Order Acarina ^

 Includes the majority of mites and ticks

 Mites

GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,

POOTEN
  Leptotrombidium sp
 Scabies
 Galis-aso is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei
 Contagious skin infection
 Other acarine mites:
 …
 Two types of ticks bit human:
 Soft or argasid-

INGESTANT AND INHALANT ALLERGENS

 Inhalant Allergens are consideres as decomposed and pulverized anthropods, etc.

 Ingestants are considered as feces of cochroaches and the vomitus of non-biting flies.
 Highly contaminated
 Contamination are incurred in sex stages:
 Storage transport
 Preparation
 Processing
 Packaging
 Serving

MYIASIS

 It is the infestation or invasion of tissues or organs of humans and animals by dipterous larvae

ARTHROPOD AS VECTORS

Mosquitoes
GROUP 4: MENDOZA, MILLARE, MURIEL, OPILAS, OSIAS, PHILIPP, PETERS,
POOTEN
  Malaira
 Anopheles sp.
 Bancroftian filarisis
 Aedes
 Malayan filarisis
 Mansonia bonneae
 Mansonia uniformis
 Dengue
 Japanese encephalitis

Flies

 Musca domestica – common housefly

 Sacophaga (flesh fly)
 Calliphora (blue bottle fly)
 Lucilia (green-bottle fly)
 Muscina (non-biting stable fly)
 Fannia (latrine fly)
 Pathogenic agents acquired and carried by these flies include ascaris, trichuris and hookworm ova
 Associated with GI diseases
 Structures that disseminate pathogenic agents
 Sponging mouthparts
 Manner of ingesting food
 Hair body and appendage
 Food pads

Cockroach

 Also carriers of pathogenic organisms

 Recovered parasites and microorganisms

EXERCISE 2F: MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF VIRUS

Introduction

A virus is a biological agent that reproduces inside the cells of living hosts. When infected by a virus, a

host cell is forced to produce many thousands of identical copies of the original virus, at an extraordinary rate.

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Unlike most living things, viruses do not have cells that divide; new viruses are assembled in the infected host
cell. But unlike still simpler infectious agents, viruses contain genes, which gives them the ability to mutate and
evolve. Over 5,000 species of viruses have been discovered.
The origins of viruses are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can
move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. A virus consists of two or three
parts: genes, made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; a protein coat that
protects the genes; and in some viruses, an envelope of fat that surrounds and protects them when they are not
contained within a host cell. Viruses vary in shape from the simplehelical and icosahedral to
more complex structures. Viruses range in size from 20 to 300 nanometres; it would take 30,000 to 750,000 of
them, side by side, to stretch to 1 centimetre (0.39 in).
Objectives

 Be able to know the significance or medical importance of different viruses.

 To see the difference of some viruses.
 To know the classification of certain viruses.

Cactus virus X (CVX)

Scientific Name Barrel cactus virus

Classification
Group: Group IV ((+)ssRNA)

Order: Tymovirales

Family: Alphaflexiviridae

Genus: Potexvirus

Species: Cactus virus X

DNA or RNA RNA virus
Single or Double Stranded Single Stranded
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Enveloped or Not Not enveloped
Shape Elongated particles/Particles are flexuous filaments, normal
length c. 520 nm, diameter c. 13 nm
Significance /Medical Importance The virus is strongly immunogenic. The slide precipitin test
or the tube test give good results; the precipitates are
flocculent (flagellar). The agar gel-diffusion test with virus
fragments is less sensitive (Koenig, 1969)

Canine parvovirus

Scientific Name
Classification
Group: Group II (ssDNA)

Family: Parvoviridae

Subfamily: Parvovirinae

Genus: Parvovirus

Species: Canine parvovirus 2

DNA or RNA DNA

Single or Double Stranded Single Stranded
Enveloped or Not Non-Enveloped
Shape Icosahedral Symmetry
Significance /Medical Importance Prevention is the only way to ensure that a puppy or dog remain
healthy because the disease is
extremely virulent and contagious. Appropriate vaccination
should be performed starting at 5–6 weeks of age, with a
booster given every 3–4 weeks until at least 14 weeks of age
(some note 22 weeks of age in suspectible breeds). Likewise,
pregnant mothers should be vaccinated early to pass on
maternal antibody to puppies. The virus is extremely hardy and
has been found to survive in feces and other organic material
such as soil for over a year. It survives extremely cold and hot
temperatures. The only household disinfectant that kills the virus
isbleach.[19] Only a very dilute bleach solution (1:30 ratio) is
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 necessary to disinfect and kill parvovirus.

Baculovirus

Scientific Name
Classification
Group: Group I (dsDNA)

Family: Baculoviridae

DNA or RNA DNA

Single or Double Stranded Double Stranded
Enveloped or Not Enveloped
Shape Rod-Shaped
Significance /Medical Importance Baculovirus expression in insect cells represents a robust
method for producing recombinant glycoproteins. Baculovirus-
produced proteins are currently under study as therapeutic
cancer vaccines with several immunologic advantages over
proteins derived from mammalian sources

Cardiovirus

Scientific Name

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Classification
Group: Group IV ((+)ssRNA)

Order: Picornavirales

Family: Picornaviridae

Genus: Cardiovirus

DNA or RNA RNA

Single or Double Stranded Single Stranded
Enveloped or Not Non-Enveloped
Shape icosahedral
Significance /Medical Importance Human cardioviruses were first isolated in 1981. Seven
additional isolates have since been described. They have been
associated with gastroenteritis, influenza-like symptoms and
non polio associated acute flaccid paralysis in North America,
Europe and South Asia.

Chikungunya

Scientific Name
Classification
Group: Group IV ((+)ssRNA)

Order: Unassigned

Family: Togaviridae

Genus: Alphavirus

Species: Chikungunya virus

DNA or RNA RNA

Single or Double Stranded Single Stranded
Enveloped or Not Enveloped
Shape n/a
Significance /Medical Importance Efforts to improve the symptoms include the use
of NSAIDs such as naproxen, paracetamol (acetaminophen)

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 and fluids.Aspirin is not recommended.

Discussion:

Cactus Virus X: Main Diseases

Infected cacti probably show no macroscopic symptoms; those symptoms which are
occasionally observed in cacti may be caused by other viruses.
: Geographical Distribution
Reported from Europe and USA in cultivated cacti; in USA also in wild cacti (M.
Chessin, personal communication).

Canine Parvovirus:  a contagious virus mainly affecting dogs. The disease is highly contagious and is

spread from dog to dog by direct or indirect contact with their feces. It can be especially severe in
puppies that are not protected by maternal antibodies or vaccination. Treatment often involves veterinary
hospitalization. Vaccines can prevent this infection, but mortality can reach 91% in untreated cases.
Canine parvovirus will not infect humans

Virology: Previously it has been thought that the virus does not undergo cross species infection.
However studies in Vietnam have shown that CPV2 can undergo minor antigenic shift and natural
mutation to infect felids. Analyses of feline parvovirus (FPV) isolates in Vietnam and Taiwan revealed
that more than 80% of the isolates were of the canine parvovirus type, rather than feline panleukopenia
virus (FPLV). CPV2 may spread to cats easier than dogs and undergo faster rates of mutation within that
species.

BaculoVirus: a family of large rod-shaped viruses that can be divided to two

genera: nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPV) and granuloviruses (GV). While GVs contain only one
nucleocapsid per envelope, NPVs contain either single (SNPV) or multiple (MNPV) nucleocapsids per
envelope. The enveloped virions are further occluded in granulin matrix in GVs and polyhedrin for
NPVs. Moreover, GV have only single virion per granulin occlusion body while polyhedra can contain
multiple embedded virions.

Biosafety:Baculoviruses are incapable of infecting mammals and plants. They have a restricted range of
hosts that they can infect that is typically restricted to a limited number of closely related insect species.
Because baculoviruses are not harmful to humans, they are considered a safe option for use in research
applications.

Cardio Virus: a genus within the family Picornaviridae. The genus comprises two
species: Encephalomyocarditis virus andTheilovirus. Encephalomyocarditis virus has only one serotype
(of the same name), while Theilovirus consists of four viruses which are probably serologically distinct;
these are Theiler's encephalomyelitis_virus (TMEV), Vilyuisk human encephalomyelitis virus (VHEV),
a Theiler-like virus (TLV) of rats (which has yet to be named) and Saffold virus (SAF-V).

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 Clinical: Human cardioviruses were first isolated in 1981. Seven additional isolates have since been
described. They have been associated with gastroenteritis, influenza-like symptoms and non-
polio associated acute flaccid paralysis in North America, Europe and South Asia.

Chikungunya: an arthropod-borne virus, of the genus Alphavirus, that is transmitted to humans by

virus-carrying Aedes mosquitoes.There have been recent breakouts of CHIKV associated with severe
illness.

Treatment: Currently there is no specific treatment. Efforts to improve the symptoms include the use
of NSAIDs such as naproxen, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and fluids.Aspirin is not recommended.

Vaccine: There are currently no approved vaccines available. A Phase II vaccine trial, used a
live, attenuated virus, developing viral resistance in 98% of those tested after 28 days and 85% still
showed resistance after one year.  However, 8% of people reported transient joint pain and attenuation
was found to be due to only two mutations in the E2 glycoprotein. Alternative vaccine strategies have
been developed and shown efficacy in mouse models but have so far not reached clinical trials

Conclusions & Recommendations:

I. A virus usually has only a single type of nucleic acid serving as its genetic material. This can be a
single or double stranded DNA or RNA;
II. Viruses contain no enzymes of energy metabolism, thus cannot make ATP;
III. Viruses do not encode sufficient enzymatic machinery to synthesize their component
macromolecules, specifically, no protein synthesis machinery.

Fundamentally then, a virus is:

A package of genetic information protected by a protein shell for delivery into a host cell to be
expressed and replicated

References and Appendix:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_viruses
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus_virus_X
http://www.dpvweb.net/dpv/showdpv.php?dpvno=058
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_parvovirus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baculovirus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovirus
http://viralzone.expasy.org/all_by_species/99.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chikungunya
www.boundless.com
www.k-state.edu
http://www.cdc.gov/legionella/about/
http://www.ppdictionary.com/bacteria/gpbac/anthracis.htm
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http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/anthrax/overview.php
http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/staphylococcus-aureus-eng.php
http://www.sunysccc.edu/academic/mst/microbes/04strep.htm
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Chlamydia_trachomatis
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2893430/
http://www.ppdictionary.com/bacteria/gnbac/gonorrhoeae.htm
http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/escherichia_coli/basic_facts/pages/basic_facts.aspx
http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/corynebacterium-diphtheriae-eng.php
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Clostridium_tetani
http://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html
http://faculty.fmcc.suny.edu/mcdarby/Animals&PlantsBook/Animals/01-Protozoa.htm
http://faculty.fmcc.suny.edu/mcdarby/Animals&PlantsBook/Animals/01-Protozoa.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2683840/

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