General Psycology

QUEENS’’ COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Course Module
Introduction to psychology
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

December, 2020
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Page
Unit 1: The Essence of psychology ……………………………………………………….…….. ……………………………3
Unit 2: Sensation and Perception ……………….……………………………………………………………………………15
Unit 3: Learning …………………………………………......…………………………………………………………………….21
Unit 4: Memory ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….29
Unit 7: Personality…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………35
Unit- One
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The Essence of Psychology

1.1. Introduction
What is a science? Science is a way of looking at the world. Specifically, science is a method of
inquiry. It guides the way we ask questions. It guides the way we think about things. It guides the
way we do things.
It even guides the way we think about the answers. However, science cannot answer questions of
morality (i.e., right and wrong). Science essentially seeks to answer the question: What is real?
Hence, Science is really just the scientific method. The scientific method is a set of steps we can
take to explore the world.
Scientific method: - The orderly, systematic procedures that researchers follow as they identify a
research problem, design a study to investigate the problem, collect and analyze data, draw
conclusions, and communicate their findings.
1.2. Psychology as a Science

Psychology today is regarded as a scientific field of study because it uses methods, materials and
approaches and principles like other physical sciences (e.g. Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics etc.)
to conduct experiments and come out with scientifically valid, reliable and verifiable facts and/or
solutions to human problems.
Scientific study of behavior and its causes.”

Overt (directly observable) and covert behaviors
Psychologists study:
• How you act (behavior/overt)
• How you think (mental/covert)
• How you feel (covert & overt)
• How your brain and body respond (physiological/covert)
A Science is defined not by what it studies but by how it studies. Psychologists like any other
scientists systematically observe facts about human beings and organize these facts to arrive at
generalizations. Psychology shares with other sciences certain aims, assumptions, ways of carrying
out research and ways of building and modifying theories. It seeks to clarify, explain, describe,
interpret and evaluate facts concerning human behavior and mental processes in order to determine
what govern their occurrences, hence achieving the following aims of Psychology:
- Measurement and description of behavior.
- Understanding and explanation of behavior
- Improvement of behavior and conduct of society.
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Psychology is a science. It is the scientific study of behavior.

Thus, we limit our inquiry to questions of behavior, often wondering if we can apply our
understanding to "mind."Psychology is a broad and vibrant discipline that focuses on the study of
behaviors.
Thus, there are three types of behavior: (a) cognitions, (b) emotions, and (c) actions.
Whenever we want to investigate behavior, we have to specify the type(s) of behavior
1.3. Definition and Concepts of Psychology
The word psychology is derived from two Greek words “psyche” and “logos.”
Psyche means soul and logos mean the study. Thus, originally psychology was defined as the
study of “soul” or “spirit.” But later on philosophers defined psyche as mind. Because of this,
psychology began to be regarded as the study of an individual’s mind or mental process.
Through time, this later definition of psychology was given up because the mind as an object does
not exist: and cannot be observed and measured objectively. The most widely and accepted
definition of psychology is: the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes.
Psychology as a subject of study is mainly concerned with the following:
- Activities that generate knowledge, e.g. seeing, thinking, perception.
- Emotion related issues, e.g. Laughter, crying, wellness, and feeling.
- Interpersonal relationships among individuals.
- Individual differences and personality.
- Human resource management and utilization, motivation, and personnel selection/placement.
- Normal/Abnormal behavior (psychological treatment, testing, treatment and rehabilitation.
- Guidance and counseling services to communities
(e .g in schools, mental institutions, careers and educational, orientation, and adaptation).
- Measurement and Evaluation of behavior (e.g. testing and grading of learners, promotion and
validation of programs).
1.4. The Goals of Psychology
What goals do psychological researchers pursue when they plan and conduct their studies?
Briefly put, psychologists pursue four broad goals:
i. Description: Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes as accurately

as possible.
ii. Explanation: Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes.
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iii. Prediction: Offering predictions (or hypotheses) about how a given condition or set of
conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes.
iv. Control/Influence: Using the results of research to solve practical problems that
involve behavior and mental processes
Two types of research help psychologists accomplish the four goals just described: basic research
and applied research. The purpose of basic research is to seek new knowledge and to explore
and advance general scientific understanding. Basic research explores such topics as the nature
of memory, brain function, motivation, and emotional expression. Applied research is conducted
specifically for the purpose of solving practical problems and improving the quality of life. Applied
research focuses on finding methods to improve memory or increase motivation, therapies to
treat psychological disorders, ways to decrease stress, and so on. This type of research is primarily
concerned with the fourth goal of psychology—influence—because it specifies ways and means
of changing behavior.
1.5. Major Schools of Thought in Psychology
Modern psychology is deeply rooted in the older disciples of philosophy and physiology. However,
the official birth of psychology is often traced to 1879, at the University of Leipzig, in Germany.
There psychologist Wiliam Wundt established the first psychological laboratory dedicated to the
scientific study of mind. Compared to the philosophers who preceded him, Wundt’s approaches to
the study of mind was based on systematic and rigorous observation. His primary method of
research was introspection. This techniques involves training people to concentrate and report on
their conscious experiences as they reacted to visual displays or other stimuli.
After psychology became an independent field of study, different views or perspectives were
developed by psychologists. These perspectives differ among themselves in three important issues
in relation to human behavior and mind. They differ in:
- The object of study in psychology. That is each theory proposes different subject matter
for psychology. It answers the question what psychology should study about. The subject
matter can be conscious mind, unconscious mind or behavior.
- The goal can be analyzing the contents of the conscious mind, investigating the holistic
nature of the conscious mind, viewing the function of the mind, investigating the effect of
environment on behavior… etc
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- The method of study. Each school of thought uses various from of method of study. For
example, introspection, observation, free association, dream analysis, demonstration and
measure of performance
a. Structuralism
Wundt’s most famous student, Englishman Edward Bradford Titchener (1867– 1927), took the
new field to the United States, where he set up a psychological laboratory at Cornell University.
He gave the name structuralism to this first formal school of thought in psychology, which aimed
at analyzing the basic elements, or the structure, of conscious mental experience. Like Wundt
before him, Titchener thought that consciousness could be reduced to its basic elements, just as
water (H2O) can be broken down into its constituent elements—hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
For Wundt, pure sensations—such as sweetness, coldness, or redness—were the basic elements
of consciousness. And these pure sensations, he believed, combined to form perceptions.
Its method of study was introspection. In introspection people are taught, trained to observe and
report the 'content' or 'elements' of awareness in a particular situation. For example; people are
presented with stimulus such as a sentence on a card and asked to describe in their own words their
own experiences.
Introspection is detailed description and how people perceive things in the world.
b. Functionalism
Functionalism was founded by William James in reaction to structuralism. Functionalism asserts

that psychology should be concerned with the functions or purposes, of human behavior.
This school of thought expanded upon structuralism by encouraging psychologists not to limit
their study to introspection. Instead, functionalists believed that behavior can also be attributed to
child rearing, education, work environment and behavior. Functionalism believes in idea that the
human brain is much like a computer, designed to carry out specific functions.
c. Behaviorism.
Psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958) looked at the study of psychology as defined by the
structuralists and functionalists and disliked virtually everything he saw. In his article “Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views It” (1913), Watson proposed a radically new approach to psychology,
one that rejected the subjectivity of both structuralism and functionalism.
This new school redefined psychology as the “science of behavior.” Termed behaviorism by
Watson, this school of psychology confines itself to the study of behavior because behavior is
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observable and measurable and, therefore, objective and scientific. Behaviorism also emphasizes
that behavior is determined primarily by factors in the environment.
Behaviorism was the most influential school of thought in American psychology until the 1960s.
It remains a major force in modern psychology, in large part because of the profound influence
of B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Skinner agreed with Watson that concepts such as mind,
consciousness, and feelings are neither objective nor measurable and, therefore, not appropriate
subject matter for psychology. Furthermore, Skinner argued that these concepts are not needed
to explain behavior. One can explain behavior, he claimed, by analyzing the conditions that are
present before a behavior occurs and then analyzing the consequences that follow the behavior.
Skinner’s research on operant conditioning emphasized the importance of reinforcement in

learning and in shaping and maintaining behavior. He maintained that any behavior that is
reinforced (followed by pleasant or rewarding consequences) is more likely to be performed
again. Skinner’s work has had a powerful influence on modern psychology.
d. Psychoanalytic
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), developed a theory of human behavior based largely on case
studies of his patients. Freud’s theory, psychoanalysis, maintains that human mental life is like
an iceberg. The smallest, visible part of the iceberg represents the conscious mental experience
of the individual. But underwater, hidden from view, floats a vast store of unconscious impulses,
wishes, and desires. Freud insisted that individuals do not consciously control their thoughts,
feelings, and behavior; these are instead determined by unconscious forces.
The overriding importance that Freud placed on sexual and aggressive impulses caused much
controversy both inside and outside the field of psychology. The most notable of Freud’s famous
students—Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney—broke away from their mentor and
developed their own theories of personality. These three and their followers are often
collectively referred to as neo-Freudians. Thus, the psychoanalytic approach continues to be
influential, albeit in a form that has been modified considerably over the past several decades by
the neo-Freudians.
e. Cognitivism
Cognitive psychology grew and developed partly in response to strict behaviorism, especially in
the United States (Robins, Gosling, & Craik, 1999). Cognitive psychology sees humans not as
passive recipients who are pushed and pulled by environmental forces but as active participants
who seek out experiences, who alter and shape those experiences, and who use mental
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processes to transform information in the course of their own cognitive development. It studies
mental processes such as memory, problem solving, reasoning, decision making, perception,
language, and other forms of cognition.
f. Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology made its appearance in Germany in 1912. The Gestalt psychologists, notably
Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler, emphasized that individuals perceive
objects and patterns as whole units and that the perceived whole is more than the sum of its
parts.
The German word Gestalt roughly means “whole, form, or pattern.”To support the Gestalt
theory, Wertheimer, the leader of the Gestalt psychologists, performed his famous experiment
demonstrating the phi phenomenon. In this experiment, two lightbulbs are placed a short
distance apart in a dark room. The first light is flashed on and then turned off just as the second
light is flashed on. As this pattern of flashing the lights on and off continues, an observer sees
what appears to be a single light moving back and forth from one position to another. Here, said
the Gestaltists, is proof that people perceive wholes or patterns rather than collections of
separate sensations.
g. Humanistic
Humanistic psychologists reject with equal vigor
(1) the behaviorist view that behavior is determined by factors in the environment and
(2) the view of the psychoanalytic approach stating that human behavior is determined primarily
by unconscious forces.
Humanistic psychology focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for choice,
growth, and psychological health. Abraham Maslow and other early humanists, such as Carl
Rogers (1902–1987), pointed out that Freud based his theory primarily on data from his
disturbed patients.
By contrast, the humanists emphasize a much more positive view of human nature. They
maintain that people are innately good and that they possess free will. The humanists believe
that people are capable of making conscious, rational choices, which can lead to personal growth
and psychological health.
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Maslow proposed a theory of motivation that consists of a hierarchy of needs. He considered

the need for self-actualization (developing to one’s fullest potential) to be the highest need on
the hierarchy.
Rogers developed what he called client-centered therapy, an approach in which the client, or
patient, directs a discussion focused on his or her own view of a problem rather than on the
therapist’s analysis. Rogers and other humanists also popularized group therapy.
The humanistic perspective continues to be important in research examining human motivation

and in the practice of psychotherapy via a relatively new approach known as positive psychology.
Martin Seligman (2011), the best known proponent of this approach, defines positive psychology
as the scientific study of psychological characteristics, such as optimism, that enable individuals
and communities to thrive in the face of adversity. He argues that these characteristics help to
protect individuals from traumatic experiences that behaviorists and psychoanalysts suggest
almost always doom them to emotional maladjustment.
Contemporary Psychological Perspectives
The views of modern psychologists are frequently difficult to categorize into traditional schools
of thought. Thus, rather than discussing schools of thought, it is often more useful to refer to
psychological perspectives—general points of view used for explaining people’s behavior and
thinking, whether normal or abnormal. For example, a psychologist may adopt a behavioral
perspective without necessarily agreeing with all of Watson’s or Skinner’s ideas. What is
important is that the psychologist taking such a view will explain behavior in terms of
environmental forces.The major perspectives in psychology today and the kinds of variables each
emphasizes in explaining behavior are as follows:
i. Behavioral perspective: Environmental factors.
ii. Psychoanalytic perspective: Emotions, unconscious motivations, early childhood

experiences.
iii. Humanistic perspective: Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve self-

actualization.
iv. Cognitive perspective: Mental processes.
v. Evolutionary perspective: Inherited traits that enhance adaptability.
vi. Biological perspective: Biological structures, processes, heredity.

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vii. Sociocultural perspective: Social and cultural variables.
1.6. Research Methods in Psychology
Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems
and create new knowledge that is generally applicable. Besides, research is a careful investigation
leading to the discovery and interpretation of information. Researchers use many different methods
to discover or reinterpret information and suggest practical applications or theoretical implications
of that information.
The Setting of research can be in laboratory or filed setting. In laboratory and field settings,
psychologists conduct their research using a verity of methods. Among them the followings are
most common.
A. Naturalistic Observations
In naturalistic observation, the researcher observes people as they behave in the real world. The
researcher simple records what occurs and does not intervene in the situation. Psychologists use
naturalistic observation to study the interactions between parents and children, doctors and
patients, police and citizens, and managers and workers.
B. Case Study: Sometimes psychologists’, interview, test, observe, and investigate the
backgrounds of specific individuals in detail. Such case studies are conducted when researchers
believe that an in-depth look at one individual will reveal something important about people in
general.
Case studies often take a great deal of time to complete, and the results may be limited by the fact
that subject is atypical. Case studies have played a prominent role in the development of
psychology.
C. Survey study: In contrast with the in-depth study of one person, surveys describe a specific
population or group of people. Surveys involve asking people a series of questions about their
behaviors, thoughts, or opinions, surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through
the mail.
Most surveys study a specific group-for example, collage students, working mothers, men, or
homeowners. Rather than questioning every person in the group, survey researchers choose a
representative sample of people and generalize the findings to the large population.
Surveys may be relevant to almost any topic. Often survey asks people to report their feeling about
various social and political issues, the TV shows they watch, or the consumer products they
purchase.
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D. Correlation study
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations are used to describe behavior. Correlation
studies are further designed to find statistical connections or relations, between variables so that
some factors can be used to predict others.
A correlation is a statically measure the extent to which two variables are associated. Correlation
coefficient is a numerical index showing the extent of relationship between the two variables under
examinations. The values range from –1 to +1.
A positive correlation exists when two variables increase or decrease together. For example,
frustration and aggression are positively correlated, meaning that as frustration rises, so do acts of
aggression. More of one means more of the other. A negative correlation exists when increases
in one variable are accompanied by decreases in the other, and vice versa. For example, friendships
and stress-induced illness are negatively correlated, meaning that the closer friends a person has,
the fewer stress-related illnesses the person suffers. More of one means less of the other. No
relation involves when increases in one variable are accompanied by no difference in the other
variables.
E. Experimental study
Correlations enable researchers to predict one variable from another. But to determine if one
variable actually causes another, psychologists must conduct experiments research. In an
experiment, the psychologist manipulates one factor in a situation keeping other aspects of the
situation constant and then observes the effect of the manipulation on behavior. The purpose of
experimental research is to discover the cause effect or causal relations between variables. E.g.
The consumption of alcohol causes a change in sexual behavior.
Independent Variable (IV) is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (input variable)
to bring change on Dependent Variable. Or it is a condition or factor that the experimenter
manipulates in order to determine whether changes in behavior results. Independent variable is
also the factor that an experimenter varies (the purposed cause).
E.g. the amount of alcohol consumed.
Dependent variable (DV) is the outcome variable, the change expected to come or the behavior
that results from manipulation of an independent variable. Dependent variable the behavior being
measured (the proposed effect). In a test of the hypothesis that frustration triggers aggression,
frustration would be the independent variable, and aggression the dependent variable. E.g. sexual
behavior
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There are two subjects in experimental research they are Experimental and controlled group.
Experimental group is the subjects (subjects of the experiment) who experience the condition or
a group of subjects who are exposed to independent variable, so that the resulting behavior can be
compared. E.g. a group of people/ subjects receiving alcohol.
Control group subjects who do not experience the condition. E.g. A group of people taking no
alcohol
Hypothesis- is a tentative solution for the problem of the research. It is the researcher’s expectation
of his research that can be proved or disproved.
E.g. Students who are given feedback are more successful than those students who are not given
feedback
1.7. Sub fields of psychology
The diverse topics psychology includes a broad and diverse field, a number of different subfields
and specialty areas have emerged. The following are some of the major areas of research and
application within psychology:
1. Counseling psychology- concerned with people who have milder emotional and personal
problems of adjustment which most of us face such as choice of career or education and
marital problems. It is less serious problems of social and academic adjustments.
Counseling psychology is mostly applied in schools’ colleges and university.
2. Abnormal Psychology is the study of abnormal behavior. This specialty area is focused
on research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders and is linked to psychotherapy
and clinical psychology.
3. Clinical psychology-is concerned with psychological method of recognizing, assessment,
diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders and emotional disorders that range from mild
to very sever. What is behavioral disorder? Behavioral disorder is maladaptive, so
behavioral disorder: deviate from the normal societal behavior produces emotional
discomforts such as anxiety, guilty, stress, distress, depression, etc
Impaired adjustment- they fail to hold job, get along with people clinical psychologists are
likely to work in mental clinical, mental hospitals, adult courts, medical schools, prisons,
etc.
The three practitioners serving in clinical psychology are clinical psychologists,
psychiatrists and psychoanalysts.
Psychotherapists- anyone who does any kind of psychological treatment.
Psychoanalysts- a person who uses a particular psychotherapeutic technique (i.e.

Sigmund Frauds technique)
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Psychiatrists- is a medical doctor concerned with mental disorder, maladjustment and

abnormal behavior psychiatrists focus on the possible biological causes of mental
disorder and treat these problems with medications.
4. School psychology: -works within the educational system to help children with emotional,
social, and academic issues. It also concerned with diagnosing learning difficulties and
trying to remedy them.
5. Educational psychology- is mainly concerned with increasing the efficiency of learning
in school by applying different theories of learning, principles of learning and theories of
motivation in curriculum. Learning theories are behavioral learning theory, cognitive
learning theories and social learning theory.
6. Industrial psychology/organization psychology- is the area of psychology that uses
psychological research to enhance work performance, select employee, improve product
design, and enhance usability. It is also concerned with increasing the productivity of
certain organization. The primary concern of organizational psychology is to make work
as pleasant and as productive as possible. It applies psychology to the problems of
management and employee training, to improve communication with in the organization,
to counseling employees and alleviate industrial strife besides; it uses intelligence and
aptitude tests to select employees.
7. Experimental psychology – Studies the fundamental causes of behavior i.e. fundamental
process of learning and memory, thinking, sensation and perception, motivation and
memory.
8. Social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to study social influence,
social perception, and social interaction. Social psychology studies diverse subjects
including group behavior, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity,
aggression, and prejudice. It studies the interaction of individuals, how people influence
one another, including areas such as aggression, attitude, prejudice, attraction and group
behavior. It studies the ways in which we perceive people and how these reception affect
our behavior towards them.
e.g. How the decision of a committee member are influenced by what others do on what
the committee say or do.
Aggression- is an intentional infliction of some kind of harm on others. This can be physical
or verbal.
Prejudice- unfair, unreasonable attitude, feeling or opinion towards certain race, ethnicity
religion, social class without thinking deeply, adequate knowledge resulting from fear or
distrust of ideas different from one’s own.
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Stereotype- isa set of beliefs about the characteristics of people in a group. E.g. handicaps
Discrimination- refers to negative often aggressive behavior aimed at the target prejudice.
9. Developmental psychology= studies mental. Physical and social changes/development of
humans over the entire life span (i.e. form prenatal period to through childhood, adulthood
and old age).
10. Personality psychology- studies an individual difference in behavior and personality.
11. Community psychology- applies psychological principles and ideas to help individuals
with behavioral problems to adapt to their work and living groups. Some community
psychologists are essentially clinical psychologists.
12. Biological/physiological psychology- studies the relationship between physiological
process and behavior i.e. the relationship between behavior and drug, hormones, genes,
brain process. They also investigate the brain process involved in emotions, learning,
memory and disordered behaviors.
13. Health psychology- is concerned with assessing the psychological (our feeling, thinking
and behavior) and physical effects of stress and depression in Stress is unpleased any
emotional situation caused by disease, social factors.
14. Cognitive Psychology is the study of human thought processes and cognitions. Cognitive
psychologists study topics such as attention, memory, perception, decision-making,
problem solving, and language acquisition.
15. Forensic Psychology is an applied field focused on using psychological research and
principles in the legal and criminal justice system.
Emerging fields
. Psychology of women
. Environmental psychology
. Program evaluation psychology
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UNIT TWO
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
2.1 Sensation and The Sense System
Our knowledge of the world comes through our senses. A sense is a system that translates outside
information into activity in the nervous system. Messages from the senses are called sensations
Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send to the brain.
Each sensory system detects a specific form of environmental energy (e.g., sound, light, heat,
physical pressure), encodes this energy into neural activity, called Transduction, takes place at the
sensory receptors, and relays these signals to the brain.
Transduction is the process of converting incoming energy into neural activity.
A large amount of information is being sensed at any one time such as room temperature,
brightness of the lights, someone talking, a distant train, or the smell of perfume. With all this
information coming into our senses, the majority of our world never gets recognized. We don’t
notice radio waves, x-rays, or the microscopic parasites crawling on our skin. We don’t sense all
the odors around us or taste every individual spice in our gourmet dinner. We only sense those
things we are able too since we don’t have the sense of smell like a bloodhound or the sense of
sight like a hawk; our thresholds are different from these animals and often even from each other.
➢ Absolute Threshold; refers to the point where something becomes noticeable to our
senses. It is the point at which a stimulus goes from undetectable to detectable to our senses,
i.e the softest sound we can hear or the slightest touch we can feel.
➢ Difference Threshold; refers to the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a
change has occurred. This change is referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference.
Once a stimulus becomes detectable to us, how do we recognize if this stimulus changes.
When we notice the sound of the radio in the other room, how do we notice when it
becomes louder. It’s conceivable that someone could be turning it up so slightly that the
difference is undetectable.
➢ Weber’s law states that the smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy is a constant
fraction of the intensity of the stimulus.
➢ Signal-detection theory is a mathematical model of how personal sensitivity and response

bias combine to determine your decision about what we want to focus on and ignore or
minimize everything else.
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a. Sensitivity is a person’s physical ability to discriminate a stimulus from its background.

b. The response bias is the internal rule used in deciding whether to report a signal.
➢ Sensory adaptation is a decrease in sensory responses to an unchanging stimulus. It is the
process of becoming less sensitive to unchanging stimulus.
Sensory adaptation helps us from feeling overwhelmed with our environment. eg. cook
something with a strong smell (onions & garlic). After awhile, you may notice the smell
goes away (sensory adaptation). Enjoy the dish you prepared and then go for a walk around
the block. Come back… The smell is strong again.
Table 2.1. The Human Senses/Sensations Chart
2.2. PERCEPTION
How do sensations become perceptions?
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To illustrate the workings of complex processes necessary for turning sensory information
into meaningful experiences, psychologists draw attention to cases in which we perceive
stimuli incorrectly, called perceptual failures.
2.2.1. ORGANIZING THE PERCEPTUAL WORLD
What determines how I perceive my world?
A. Principles of Perceptual Organization
1. Figure and Ground
a) When faced with complex stimuli, perceptual systems automatically pick out
certain features, objects, or sounds to emphasize. This is called figure ground
discrimination.
b) Figure is the emphasized features, and ground is the less meaningful
background.
c) Reversible figures show that our perceptual systems are actively organizing
stimuli.
2. Grouping
Grouping occurs as certain properties of stimuli lead you to group them together,
more or less automatically. Gestalt psychologists argue that people perceive sights
and sounds as organized wholes that are more than just the sum of their parts. Their
principles that describe how grouping occurs are:
a) Proximity: Objects that are close to each other tend to be grouped together.
b) Similarity: Similar things are perceived to belong to a group.
c) Continuity: Sensations that appear to create a continuous form are perceived
as belonging together.
d) Closure: People tend to “fill in” missing information to complete an object.
e) Texture: Stimuli that have the same texture (e.g., oriented along the same
directions) tend to be grouped together.
f) Simplicity: People group stimuli to provide the simplest interpretation of the
world.
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g) Common fate: Objects that are moving in the same direction at the same speed
are perceived as a group.
Stephen Palmer (1999) identified three additional grouping principles:
h) Synchrony: Stimuli that occur at the same time are likely to be perceived as
coming from the same source.
i) Common region: Elements located within some boundary tend to be grouped
together.
j) Connectedness: Stimuli that are connected by other elements tend to be
grouped together.
B. Perception of Depth and Distance
Depth perception is the ability to perceive distance. Depth perception relies partly on
stimulus cues provided by the environment and partly on the properties of our visual
system.
1. Stimulus Cues
a) Interposition: Closer objects block the view of distant objects.
b) Relative size: If two objects are the same size, the object producing a larger
retinal image is perceived as closer than the one producing a smaller image.
c) Height in the visual field: More distant objects tend to be higher in the visual
field.
d) Linear perspective: As two lines come closer together, the perceived distance
increases.
e) Reduced clarity: Greater distances usually yield less clarity.
f) Light and shadow: Shading helps contribute to perception of three
dimensions.
g) Textural gradient: Texture appears finer, less detailed, with increased
distance.
2. Cues Based on Properties of the Visual System
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a) In accommodation, muscles alter the shape of the lens to focus objects from
different depths. Feedback, accommodation cues, about this muscle activity
gives the brain information about an object’s distance.
b) In eye convergence, each eyeball rotates inwardly, or converges, so that an
object’s image projects onto each retina. The greater the inward rotation, the
closer the object. Thus feedback from muscles that move the eyeballs gives
information about an object’s distance.
c) The two eyeballs are in slightly different locations, so they receive slightly
different images of the same object. The brain can use this difference between
the two retinal images, called retinal disparity (binocular disparity), to
calculate an object’s distance, as well as its depth, height, and width.
C. Perception of Motion
Optical flow is change in retinal images across the visual field that provides cues about
motion
1. Looming is a rapid expansion in the image size of an object so that it fills the retina.
The image is automatically perceived as an approaching stimulus, not an expanding
object (see Size Constancy).
2. When you are moving, the flow of visual information across the retina combines
with information from the vestibular and touch senses to give you the experience
of motion. If visual flow is perceived without appropriate sensations from other
parts of the body, motion sickness may result.
3. Stroboscopic illusion of motion occurs because we tend to perceive movement
when a series of still images appears, one at a time, in rapid succession.
D. Perceptual Constancy
Perceptual constancy is the perception that objects keep their size, shape, color, and
other properties despite changes in their retinal image.
1. Size Constancy
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The visual size of an object stays more or less constant regardless of changes in the
size of the retinal image. The perceived size of the object is equal to the size of the
retinal image multiplied by the perceived distance.
2. Shape Constancy
As objects change orientation, the shape of their actual retinal images changes, yet
shape constancy allows you to know that the object’s shape is still the same.
3. Brightness Constancy
As the amount of light striking an object changes, brightness constancy allows you
to perceive the object’s brightness as relatively constant. The brightness of an
object is perceived in relation to its background.
E. Size Illusions
1. Illusions are perceptual mistakes, inaccurate interpretations of sensations.
Note: Students often confuse the following terms: illusion, an incorrect perception
of a stimulus; delusion, a false belief; and hallucination, a perception in the absence
of a stimulus.
2. Size illusions are illusions of the visual system. They reflect our perceptual
system’s attempt to process information that violates one or more of the perceptual
principles.
Unit - Three
Learning
3.1 Concept of Learning
Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience
or practice. There are three important elements in this definition.
First, the learning is a change in behavior. The change can be gradual or fast, desirable or
undesirable in type. Second, the change in behavior should be relatively permanent. It is neither
transitory (temporary) nor fixed once and for all. Apart from learning other events may modify
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behavior such as fatigue, illness and drugs. Third, the relatively permanent change in behavior
must come from experience or practice than other factors such as growth and maturation.
3.3 Characteristics of Learning.
16. Learning is growth: through experience the learners grow mentally, so learning is growth
through experience.
17. Learning is purposeful: it is the person him/herself who makes learned behaviors to occur
not.
18. Learning is adjustment: - it helps the individual to adjust him/herself adequately to the
new situations.
19. Learning is specific rather than universal: - While all individuals are similar or nearly
identical in reflexive, instinctual, growth and maturational behavior, no two individuals are
the same in learned behaviors. Hence learning is a highly individualized behavior
20. Learning is continuous process: - learning never complete at one time. It involves an
ongoing construction and reconstruction of behavior that constantly brings complexity,
depth and strength.
21. Learning is active: - in the teaching and learning process, the activity of the learner
accounts more than the activity of the teacher. Learning is not passive observation of
knowledge.
22. Learning is the product of environment: - learning takes place through an individual’s
interaction with the environment.
23. True learning affects the conduct of the learner: there is a change in the mental structure
of the learner after every experience.
3.3 Theories of learning

Theories of learning are classified in to three broad categories.
c. Behaviorist theories of learning
d. Cognitive theories of learning
e. Social theories of learning
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1. Behaviorist theories/views/of learning

I. Classical conditioning
It is a kind of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response through
its association with a stimulus that naturally brings a response. It was developed by Ivan Pavlov.
He emphasizes on learning involuntary behaviors like heartbeat, emotions, salivation, fear,
sweating etc.
Pavlov’s major premise is that human being and animals can be trained to respond involuntary to
a stimulus that was previously natural by associating it to a natural stimulus, Classical conditioning
can also be called pavlovian conditioning, respondent condition and substitution learning or
signal (indicator) learning.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
A. The principles of acquisition
In this principle, first you have to identify a stimulus that already elicits a reflexive response. The stimulus
is called an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the response is called an unconditioned response (UCR).
Then you present several trails in which the UCS is preceded by the neutral stimulus (bell), which does not
normally elicit the UCR. After one or more pairings of the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus,
the neutral stimulus itself elicits the UCR. At that point the neutral stimulus has become a conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the response to it is called conditioned response (CR).
For example, Pavlov’s experiment on a dog
Before conditioning: - Food (UCS) Salivation (UCR)
(Neutral stimulus)
(Neutral stimulus) Bell No response
During conditioning: - Bell +food (ucs) salivation(UCR)
Bell+ food salivation
After conditioning: - bell (CS) salivation (CR)
There are four ways of presenting the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus.
➢ Delayed conditioning: - The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented first and remains at
least until the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). It results in strong conditioning.
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➢ Trace conditioning: - The conditioned stimulus is presented first and ends before the onset
of unconditioned stimulus. In this a memory trace of the CS is required to retain until the
onset the UCS. It produces moderately strong conditioned.
➢ Simultaneous conditioned: - In this the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned
stimulus are presented at the same time/together. It results in weak conditioning.
➢ Backward conditioning:- In backward conditioning, the onset(start) of unconditioned
stimulus precedes the onset(start) of the conditioned stimulus. It is the weakest method
conditioning.
B. The principle of extinction:- If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without

presenting the unconditioned stimulus(Food), the conditioned response (CR) will diminish and
eventually stop acquiring.
C. The principle of spontaneous recovery: - is the process by which a CR that has been subjected
to extinction will again be elicited by a CS.
D. The principle of stimulus generalization: - in this the conditioned response may occur in
response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
D. The principle of stimulus discrimination: - The conditioned response is responded to the
conditioned stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimuli.
II. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
Operant conditioning: - Is a kind of learning in which a voluntary response behavior is
strengthened or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences. The term operant
emphasizes the fact that behavior operates up on the environment to generate its own consequence.
It is a response which is emitted/produced/ by the respondent without any particular forcing
stimulus. Operant behavior is not known by physiological stimulus. B.F Skinner is the founder of
operant conditioning. He viewed that 4classical conditioning has its own limitation that learning
is associated only with reflexive behaviors such as salivating which does not explain how new
behaviors are acquired.
Operant conditioning involves
➢ Learning voluntary responses
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➢ Reinforcing immediately a desired behavior

➢ Pairing of response and stimulus
➢ The strengthening of conditioning by response rate.
Principles of operant conditioning
1. The principles of acquisition
The central principle of operant conditioning is that when an operant (behavior) is followed by
reinforcement (positive or negative) the probability of its latter occurrence is increased. This
principle supports that we have to provide something that is rewarding to the organism whose
behaviors we want to modify or change. In doing this, we have to wait until the desired behavior
occurs and then immediately reward it as it occurs.
2. The principle of extinction: - states that when the reinforcement withhold or withdrawn
the behavior will not occur again. It occurs when a student who raises his/her hand is no
longer called on to answer a question.
3. Spontaneous recovery: - It is a reappearance of the extinct behavior due to the appearance
of the reinforcement.
4. The principle of stimulus generalization: - States that a learned response is responded to
stimuli that are similar to the learned stimulus but different from it. The more similar two
stimuli the more likely generalization is to occur.
5. The principle of stimulus discrimination:- Behaviors that had been reinforced do not
occur continuously. The reason is that a behavior is controlled by discriminative stimulus.
6. The principle of shaping:- It is successive approximation to the final or terminal behavior
(response). It is the process of teaching to a complex behavior by reinforcing closer and
closer approximations towards the desired behavior. Initially behavior is not zero in operant
conditioning but zero in classical condition. Shaping is used in behavior modification like
crime.
Behavioral contingencies
They are phenomenon that follows a behavior. Behavioral contingencies can be reinforcement and
punishment.
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I. Reinforcement (Strengthen)
Reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the occurrence of the behavior. Reinforces are used
for specific behavior but reward is used for general behavior. E.g. 1. Parents may buy a child
an ice-cream for being good. The ice cream is a reward.
E.g 2 A student receives a teacher’s praise for the solution of a problem or the correct answer
to a question. The teacher’s praise is a reinforce or reinforcement.
Types of reinforcers
According to their power, reinforcer are classified in to two
➢ Primary reinforcer: - are reinforcers that affect behavior without the need of learning.
They are reinforcer that satisfy a biological need (hunger or thirst) eg. food, air, water etc.
➢ Secondary reinforcer (learned reinforces):- are reinforcers that acquired reinforcing value
by associating them with primary ones. Eg money, praise, grade
Based on the presentation of stimulus and the removal of stimulus there are two types of
reinforcement.
A. Positive reinforcement: - It involves the presentation of a pleasant stimulus following
behavior or response. It is a type of reinforcement in which the presentation of a pleasant
stimulus increases the probability of a behavior. Eg. Giving a salary raise for good
performance.
B. Negative reinforcement: - It involves the removal of unpleasant/aversive/ stimulus
following a behavior. It is a type of reinforcement in which the removal /withdrawal/ of an
aversive stimulus increases the occurrence of the behavior. Eg. Terminating a headache by
taking aspirin and having umbrella for rainfall.
Negative reinforcement can occur in two major forms
1. Escape conditioning /learning
The organism learns to make a response that brings about an end to an aversive situation. Eg. day
dreaming during a boring meeting.
2. Avoidance conditioning/learning: - an organism learns to prevent aversive situation. Eg.
a driver learns to fill up their gas tank in order to avoid running out of fuel.
Schedules of reinforcement
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It refers to the frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. Reinforcement
can be given continuously or intermittently. Thus there are two types of schedules of
reinforcement.
A. Continuous schedule of reinforcement
Every desired behavior is reinforced. A desirable behavior is reinforced every time it occurred.
A behavior which is reinforced continuously is subjected to rapid extinction when
reinforcement stops. It results in rapid learning.
B. Partial reinforcement schedule
This is a type of schedule of reinforcement where only some instances of desired behavior are
reinforced. It is more advantageous because it produces less predictable reinforcement and the
behavior has more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedule.
Type of practical schedules of reinforcement
Ratio schedule and interval schedule can also be further classified in to fixed and variable.
Thus we can have fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval and variable interval schedule of
reinforcement.
1. Fixed-ratio schedule
This reinforcement is given only after certain numbers of responses are made. Individuals receive
reinforcement each time they make a fixed number of responses. It’s effective for motivating a
great amount of work. Eg a factory worker may earn certain amount of money for every 100 items
assembled and a child must solves 5 problems to get one candy
2. Variable ratio schedule
Reinforcement is given after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number.
Behaviors reinforced in this schedule tend to occur at rapid, steady rate with few pauses. Variable
ratio schedules produce extremely high rate of responding. The responses are more resistant to
extinction than when a fixed ratio schedule is used. It is characterized by very high response rate
and little pause after reinforcement. If reinforcement stops response rate stays high and gradually
drops. Eg Gambling & fishing
3. Fixed interval schedule:-
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Reinforcement is given after time period has elapsed. On this schedules, animal usually respond
slowly at the beginning of the interval, but they respond faster and faster as the time for
reinforcemnt approaches eg 1hour ---- 2hour ----3 hour, a person being paid by hours and regular
meals taken in the day
4. Variable-interval schedule
It is a schedule where by reinforcement given at various time. Behavior on this schedule tend
be steady, but slower than on ratio- schedule. For example, a person trying to call someone
whose phone line is busy may redial every few minutes until the call gets through. eg 1 hour
---3 hour---7 hour.
II. Punishment:
Is a process that decreases the probability of an operant response (occurrence of behavior?)
Don’t call to a dog with a whip in your hand. Zulu proverb.
Types of punishment
There are two types of punishment
• Positive punishment: - is the application of an unpleasant stimulus. eg. Hitting,
humiliating (or laughing at someone, slapping.
• Negative punishment (penalty):- The removal of pleasant stimulus. E.g. being restricted
from enjoyable activities such as TV viewing and going for recreation.
Difference between punishment and Reinforcement
Reinforcement punishment
v. Encourages behavior * Blocks behavior
vi. Fairly predictable *Don’t predictable
vii. More effective way of controlling * Less effective in controlling behavior
Punishment must be applied with care because it may leads to unintended consequence.
viii. A person may pass over the punishment without changes.
ix. It can increase likelihood of aggressive behavior
E.g. Boss Father mother child Dogs Cats
x. Punished person may be injured or damaged
xi. May damage the punished person’s self esteem
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xii. Severe punishment may result in extreme fear of the punishing person.
Effective application of punishment

Punishment works under the best circumstance which is useful for parents.
1. Make alternative response strategy.
E.g. when you take a knife from a child, give him a piece of wood instead.
2. Make sure that individual being punished knows exactly what behavior is being punished
and why
3. Implement the punishment immediately after the undesirable behavior
4. Administer a punishment that is sufficiently intense to stop the undesirable behavior
2. Cognitive learning theory
It is a general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering
and using knowledge. People may awake from sleep with the solution to a problem that they had
not been able to solve during the day. This is insight learning. Human beings who solve a problem
insightfully usually experience a good feeling called ‘aha’ experience.
Cognitive theories general assumption
➢ They believe that learning is the result of our attempts to make sense out of the world. I.e.
the person has a tendency to make meaning. John lock explained that the mind is tabula
rasa at the beginning but it has the potential to organize the environmental stimuli.
➢ They also emphasize internal mental processes like expectations, feelings perception,
thinking, memory etc
➢ They consider people as active learners who initiate experiences, seek out information,
solve problem.
3. Social /Observational Learning
Some synonyms in this approach include modeling, imitational learning, and social learning.
Albert Bandura is the supporter or founder of social learning, and also social learning.
Accounting to him, even if the individual is not reinforcement directly one can learn through
imitation. The individual has the capacity to form image.
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Bandura’s theory is called social learning, largely because he is concerned with learning that
takes place in the context of social situation.
Steps/elements of observational or social learning theory

➢ Attention: - it is a process of noticing an event, a behavior of a popular person,
competent, attractive individual or admired individual.
➢ Retention: - refers to remembering, rethinking the observed action in this step, we
engaged in rehearsing.
➢ Reproduction: - in this step the behavior imitated will be reproduced or
underutilization by the individuals who imitated the behavior.
Motivation: - by this, Bandura meant that if the behavior reproduced is followed by
reinforcement, it will be strengthened. That is if we anticipate being reinforced for
imitating the action of a model, we may be more motivated to pay attention,
remember, and reproduced the behavior.
unit - Four
Memory
4.1. The Concept of Memory
Memory, defined as the ability to store and retrieve information over time. Our memories allow
us to do relatively simple things, such as remembering where we put objects or the name of the
current Prime Minister of Ethiopia, but also allow us to form complex memories, such as how to
ride a bicycle or to write a computer program.
Moreover, our memories define us as individuals, they are our experiences, our relationships, our
successes, and our failures. Without our memories, we would not have a life.
Human memory, like memory in a computer, allows us to store information for later use. In order
to do this, however, we need to master three processes involved in memory.
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The first is called encoding; the process we use to transform information so that it can be stores.
It means transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing
memory, an image, or a sound.
Next is the actual storage, which simply means holding onto the information. For this to take place,
a physiological change must occur for the memory to be stored.
The final process is called retrieval, which is bringing the memory out of storage and reversing
the process of encoding. In other words, return the information to a form similar to what we stored.
4.2. Stages of Memory:
Stages of memory describe the length of time that information remains available to us. According
to this approach (see Figure 4.1), information begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term
memory, and eventually moves to long-term memory. But not all information makes it through all
three stages; most of it is forgotten. Whether the information moves from shorter-duration memory
into longer-duration memory or whether it is lost from memory entirely depends on how the
information is attended to and processed.
fig. 4.1. Stage memory model
➢ Sensory Memory
Sensory memory refers to the brief storage of sensory information. It is a memory buffer that lasts
only very briefly and then, unless it is attended to and passed on for more processing, is forgotten.
The purpose of sensory memory is to give the brain some time to process the incoming sensations.
Visual and auditory sensory memories are known as iconic memory and echoic memory
respectively.
➢ Short Term Memory (STM)
Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten, but information that we turn
our attention to, with the goal of remembering it, may pass into short-term memory.
Short term memory can

definitely last longer than sensory
memory (up to 30 seconds or so),
but it still has a very limited
capacity. According to
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research, we can remember approximately 5 to 9 (7 +/- 2) bits of information in our short term
memory at any given time (Miller, 1956).
Information in short-term memory is not stored permanently but rather becomes available for us
to process, and the processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information
in STM are known as working memory.
Working Memory is referred to as a second phase of STM. Although it is called memory, working
memory is not a store of memory like STM but rather a set of memory procedures or operations.
One way to prevent the decay of information from short-term memory is to use working memory
to rehearse it. Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information mentally or out loud
with the goal of keeping it in memory. We engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep a something
that we want to remember (e.g., a person’s name, e-mail address, or phone number) in mind long
enough to write it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory.
➢ Long Term Memory (LTM)
Long term memory (LTM) is most similar to the permanent storage of a computer. Unlike the
other two types, LTM is relatively permanent and practically unlimited in terms of its storage
capacity. Most theorists believe that there is no limit to the amount of information that can be
stored in LTM. Obviously we don’t use even a fraction of this storage space.
Cohen and Squire (1980), drew a distinction between declarative knowledge and procedural
knowledge.
Procedural knowledge involves “knowing how” to do things. It included skills, such as knowing
how to playing the piano, ride a bike; tie your shoes and other motor skills. It does not involve
conscious thought (i.e. its’ unconscious - automatic). For example, we brush our teeth with little
or no awareness of the skills involved.
Whereas, declarative knowledge involves “knowing that”, for example Addis Ababa is the
capital of Ethiopia, zebras are animals, your mums birthday etc. Recalling information from
declarative memory involves some degree of conscious effort - information is consciously brought
to mind and declared.
One of the earliest and most influential distinctions of long term memory was proposed by Tulving
(1972). He proposed a distinction between episodic, semantic and procedural memory.
➢ Procedural memory; is a part of the long-term memory is responsible for knowing how
to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills. It does not involve conscious (i.e. its’
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unconscious - automatic) thought and is not declarative. For example, procedural memory
would involve knowledge of how to ride a bicycle.
➢ Semantic memory is a part of the long- term memory responsible for storing information
about the world. This includes knowledge about the meaning of words, as well as general
knowledge. For example, London is the capital of England. It involves conscious thought
and is declarative.
➢ Episodic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information
about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experienced in our lives. It involves conscious
thought and is declarative. An example would be a memory of our 1st day at school.
4.2. Forgetting
In simple terms, forgetting is the inability to remember. Psychologists generally use the term
forgetting to refer to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in long- term
memory. Munn (1967) defines forgetting as “the loss, permanent or temporary, of the ability to
recall or recognize something learned earlier”.
It is true that we cannot retain all that we have learnt, much is forgotten. But sometimes what we
think is forgotten may not be true, because the information due to lack of attention may not have
reached STM from the sense organs. It may also be due to inadequate encoding and rehearsal, or
else the information may not have been transferred from STM to LTM.
4.2.1. Causes of forgetting.
✓ Decay: This explanation of forgetting in short term memory assumes that memories leave
a trace in the brain. A trace is some form of physical and/or chemical change in the nervous
system.
Trace decay theory; states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or
fading of the memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited duration
of short term memory. This theory suggests short term memory can only hold information
for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. After this time the information / trace
decays and fades away.
✓ Interference: Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere
with and disrupt one another, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference
from other memories (Baddeley, 1999). There are two ways in which interference can
cause forgetting:
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➢ Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task
because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes
with what we are currently learning. Where old memories disrupt new memories.
➢ Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously

learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes
with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories.
✓ Motivated Forgetting: This is a kind of forgetting in which the individual intentionally

forgets. However, the information stored can be retrieved and brought back to memory,
but the individual does not want those memories. So he will repress them.
Repression is a defensive mechanism. As explained by S. Freud in his theory of

psychoanalysis, the painful experiences and forbidden wishes are pushed into unconscious
and the individual does not want to remember them. For example, a student does not want
to remember the name of a teacher who has severely “punished him in his school days. It
may be observed that generally people remember pleasant experiences than unpleasant
ones.
✓ Retrieval Problems: It is where the information is in long term memory, but cannot be
accessed. Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not accessible
(i.e. it cannot be retrieved). It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.
When we store a new memory we also store information about the situation and these are
known as retrieval cues. When we come into the same situation again, these retrieval cues
can trigger the memory of the situation.
Retrieval cues can be: External / Context - in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc./ or
Internal / State- inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc.
Without appropriate retrieval cues, the sought- for items stored in LTM may not be found.
This leads to forgetting.
✓ Amnesia: The term amnesia refers to loss of memory. It is a kind of memory disorder
which occurs from a loss of what has already been stored.
4.3. Improving Memories
Here are some tips to enhance one’s memory;

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• Deep Processing: If you want to learn something and wish to enter information into long-
term memory, you have to think about it. You need to consider its meaning and examine
its relationship to information you already have. Careful planning and considering the
meaning of information, and relating to your knowledge is helpful in learning it and
remembering it later. The retention of material is dependent directly upon the depth at
which it has been processed. Deeper level in terms of meaning is very important. Second,
the depth of processing also refers to the rehearsal of material to be remembered, greater
the rehearsal more the chances of recalling the material later.
• Attending Carefully: Whatever you want to learn and ensure its retention in long term
memory you have to put in conscious effort to attend to the material carefully. So, ensure
that you direct your full attention to information you want to remember.
• Minimize interference: You have learned that interference is a major cause of forgetting
and you should try to reduce it as much as possible. In general, the more similar the
materials to be learned, the more likely they will produce interference. Thus, you should
arrange your studies so that you don’t study similar subjects’ one right after the other. For
example, if you have to study two languages, study them on different days.
• Distributed practice: While learning some material it is beneficial to learn it using
distributed practice in which there is gap between trials. That is, if the chapter is lengthy,
divide the chapter into two or three parts and learn a part in one go. After mastering one
part then go to the second and so on. Do not try to cram all information you want to
memorize at once.
• Using memory aids: People use various cues, indicators and signs to connect events. This
often facilitates remembering. It is called memories. You can use visual imagery to
remember objects and places. For example, if you visit a new place, you can remember the
location by remembering several associated objects and places. You may remember the
place to be close to a cinema hall, in front of a signal post and so on.
• Shorthand codes: You can develop your own shorthand codes to memorize long list of
items. You can use the first letter of each word or item and construct a unique "word". For
example, to remember the seven constituents colors of light(VIBGYOR; where V stands
for Violet, I for Indigo, B for Blue, G for Green, Y for Yellow, O for Orange and R for
Red.) During the school days, I used to forget the order of Mughal emperors in history
subject. I developed my own shorthand code: BHAJSA" where B stands for Babar, H for
Humayun, A for Akbar, J for Jahangir, S for Shahjahan and A for Aurangzeb.It helped me
in remembering the names in their order.
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Unit - Seven
Personality
7.1. THE CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
The term personality is used in a number of ways including the apparent features of a person.
However, psychologists use it to refer to the characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting.
By characteristic pattern we mean the consistent and distinctive ways our ideas, feelings and
actions are organized.
When we talk about personality we usually refer to the totality or whole of the person. Thus, the
enduring pattern expressed by the person in various situations is the hall mark of personality.
7.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Understanding personality has proved to be a difficult and challenging task. It’s so complex that
no single theory is able to cover the total personality. The different theories approach the structure
and functioning of personality from different positions.
There are many theories of personality each provides different answers about the way they treat
the issues about personality functioning. In particular, they provide different explanations about
the role of conscious/unconscious factors, determinism/freedom in functioning, role of early
experience, role of genetic factors, uniqueness/universality etc.
I. THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
Founded by Sigmund Freud, this theory emphasizes the influence of the unconscious, the
importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and early childhood experience on a person.
i. levels of awareness
Freud discovered that mind is like an iceberg and we have limited conscious awareness. Freud
proposed that psychological forces operate at three levels of awareness:
24. Conscious level: The thoughts, feelings, and sensations that one is aware of at the present
moment.
25. Preconscious level: It contains information of which one is not currently aware, however,
they can easily enter conscious mind.
26. Unconscious level: It consists of thought, feelings, wishes, drives etc. of which we are not
aware. It, however, influences our conscious level of activity.
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Freud thought that unconscious material often seeks to push through to the conscious level in a
disguised manner. It may be in a distorted manner and or it may take a symbolic form.
Interpretation of dreams and free association were used for analysis of the three levels of
awareness.
ii. Personality Structure
Freud believed that human personality emerges due to a conflict between our aggressive and
pleasure seeking biological impulses and the internalized social restraints against them. Thus,
personality arises in the course of our effort to resolve the conflicts. To this end he proposed three
structures which interact with each other: Id, Ego and Super Ego.
viii. Id: It is the unconscious, irrational part of personality. It is the primitive part immune to
morality and demands of the external world. It operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks
immediate satisfaction.
ix. Ego: It is involved with the workings of the real world. It operates on the reality principle.
It is the conscious, and rational part of personality that regulates thoughts and behaviors. It
teaches the person to balance demands of external world and needs of the person.
x. Super Ego: It is the internal representation of parental and societal values. It works as the
voice of conscience, that compels the ego to consider not only the real but also the ideal It
operates on the ideal principle. . It judges one’s behaviors as right or wrong, good or bad.
Failing up to moral ideals bring about the shame, guilt, inferiority and anxiety in the person.
iii. Personality Development
On the basis of case-history of patients, Freud reached at a conclusion that personality development
occurs through a sequence of psychosexual stages. In these stages the Id’s pleasure seeking
tendency focuses on different areas of body.
B. Oral (0-18 months); Pleasure centers in the mouth and leads to activities of sucking and
biting etc.
C. Anal (18-36 months); Pleasure centers on bowel and bladder elimination.
D. Phallic (4 to 6 years); Pleasure center is genitals. Touching and fondling of genitals give
pleasure.
E. Latency (7 to 11 years); Children repress their sexual impulses and channelize them into
socially acceptable activities such as sports, arts.
F. Genital (From the onset of puberty); Pleasure zone is the genital. Maturation of sexual
interests
iv. Defense Mechanisms
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The Ego has to perform a difficult duty of mediating between the instinctual demands of Id and
moral position of Super Ego. The Ego tries to solve the problem and if a realistic solution or
compromise is not possible it indulges in distorting thoughts or perception of reality through
certain processes called defense mechanisms.
To defend or safeguard ourselves, we use technique called defense mechanism. These are also
called Adjustment Mechanisms. Some of the key mechanisms are given below:
C. Denial; Failure to recognize or acknowledge the existence of unpleasant event/information

as I do not know, I have not seen etc.
D. Displacement; Emotional impulses are redirected toward one other i.e. substitute
person/object.
E. Projection; Attributing own unacceptable urges to others
F. Rationalization; Justifying our actions or feelings through socially acceptable
explanations.
G. Reaction formation; Thinking or acting in a way that is the extreme opposite of
unacceptable urges.
H. Regression; Retreating to behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development.
I. Repression; Exclusion of anxiety producing thoughts, feelings or impulses from
consciousness.
J. Sublimation; Sexual urges are channelized into productive, nonsexual activities
II. THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE
Traits are characteristic behaviors and conscious motives. They represent a relatively stable and
enduring predisposition to behave in a given way. Traits are frequently used in describing people.
The focus of trait approach is very common and involves enumerating list of personal
characteristics.
Trait theories of personality identify, describe and measure individual differences. The apparent
traits are called surface traits (e.g. happy, cordial). Contrary to this there are certain source traits.
Recently Mc Crae and Costa have proposed a "BIG - FIVE FACTOR" model, comprising of;
a. Extraversion: - Outgoing, talkative, sociable & assertive.

b. Agreeableness: - trusting, good natured cooperative & soft hearted.
c. Conscientiousness: - reliable responsible, achievement oriented.
d. Neuroticism (Emotional stability): - persistent relaxed, server unworried.
e. Openness to experience: - intellectual, imaginative curious, broad minded.
Traits are used to describe behavior and make prediction. However, human behavior is an outcome
of interaction between traits and situations. Hence, the situations chosen and consistency in
37
responding to situations indicate the value of traits. It is said that the trait theories do not explain
the personality of a person. They tell us little about the causes of individual difference, and the
dynamic processes are neglected.
III. THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
This perspective was developed by Albert Bandura. It views behavior as influenced by the
interaction between persons
and the social context.
It is proposed that our thoughts

and actions originate in the
social world but it is essential to
note that human beings have
capacity for self-regulation and
engage in active cognitive
processes.
Bandura developed the concept of self - efficacy which incorporates a person’s cognitive skills,
abilities and attitudes as represented in one’s self-system. Self-efficacy indicates the degree to
which one is convinced of the abilities and effectiveness in meeting the demands of a particular
situation.
This theory brings into focus the role of thought and memory in personality. We often find that the
expectations and skills learned by people are very important in determining behaviors.
IV. THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
These theories propose that within each individual is an active creative force, often called “self”.
This force seeks expression. It develops and grows. This perspective, also known as the third force,
emphasizes on human potential and characteristics like self-awareness and free will. It views
human beings as innately good. The conscious and subjective perception of self is considered very
important.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the main proponents of the humanistic perspective.
Abraham Maslow proposed the idea of 'self-actualized' people. He proposed that human motives
are arranged in a hierarchy of needs.
fig. 7.2.1. Hierarchy of Needs
38
Maslow notes that the self-actualized people have realistic perception, are spontaneous, easily
accept self and others, are creative, and enjoy and appreciate positive aspects of life, like privacy
and independence.
Carl Rogers thinks that the basic human motive is actualizing tendency. It is the innate drive to
maintain and enhance the human organism. Rogers observed that people are motivated to act in
accordance with their self-concept. They deny or distort the experiences that are contrary to their
self-concept. The ideal condition for development is unconditional positive regard. His notion of
a fully functioning individual is that the self-concept is flexible and evolving. It holds an optimistic
view of human beings.
7.3. ASSESSING HUMAN PERSONALITY
In view of the fact that the knowledge about personality is useful in many settings researchers have
developed a variety of tools for its assessment. These tools can be categorized into three types
namely observational, self-report and projective.
The observational tools include interview, rating of a person in one or many situations. Projective
tests are a special kind of test in which ambiguous material is used and the person whose
personality is being tested has to give his or her own meaning or interpretation. Thus, it is expected
that the personality of the examinee will be projected in the response given by him or her.
Two of the famous projective tests are Rorschach Ink Blot Test and Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT).
In the Ink Blot test a person is shown a set of 10 symmetrical ink blots and asked to say what he
or she sees in each of them. The response given is interpreted by the psychologist.
In the TAT certain photographs are shown and the person has to develop a story describing the
situation with regard to its past, present and future. The story narrated by the person is coded and
analyzed by the psychologist. It must be noted that the use and interpretation of various personality
tests requires professional training.
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY GROUP ASSIGNMENT FOR DEGREE

STUDENTS
I. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
39
5. What motivates human behavior is complicated and multi-faceted. Compare and contrast the four
(4) perspectives on human motivation (instinct, drive-reduction, arousal and Maslow’s hierarchy).
Utilize examples from the real world events and/or personal experiences to clarify “how” and
“when” one or more perspectives becomes prevalent.
6. List and elaborate major classifications of motivation.
7. Discuss briefly the conflicts of motives and explain how it could be the source of frustration.
8. Being that our emotions are both subjective (i.e., based on the individual) and dynamic (i.e., always
changing), compare and contrast the three (3) theories of emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard,
and Schachter-Singer Two-Factor) by raising about a personal issue in a person’s emotional
behaviors.
9. Explain how perception of emotion and facial expressions affects a person's experience of
emotions.
10. Discuss different types of stressor.
11. Identify factors that influence stressfulness of events and different ways of managing stress.
II. ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL DISIRDERS
C. Define the crieterias of Normality and Abnormality in an Abnormal Psychology conceptual
frame and elaborate the psychological perspectives towards Abnormal Psychology.
D. Discuss the following Psychological Disorders and their classifications;
i. Anxiety Disorder
ii. Somatoform Disorder
E. Explain briefly Dissociative Disorders, Mood Disorder and Personality disorders.
F. Dr. Helen, the psychiatrist observes Tsion watching the news on TV. She begins to laugh
softly and says, "Yes, my love, I'll do it." When Dr. Helen asks about her comment she
states, "The news commentator is my lover and he speaks to me each evening. (even if its'
not for real). Among the major psychological disorders, identify and briefly discuss Tsion's
abnormality.
G. Explain the Treatment strategies of the following Psychological disorders:
A. Cognitive therapy
B. Psychoanalytic therapy
C. Behavioral therapy
D. Humanistic therapy
40
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QUEENS’’ COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Unit 1: The Essence of psychology ……………………………………………………….…….. ……………………………3

Unit 2: Sensation and Perception ……………….……………………………………………………………………………15

Unit 3: Learning …………………………………………......…………………………………………………………………….21

Unit 4: Memory ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….29

The Essence of Psychology

1.2. Psychology as a Science

Scientific study of behavior and its causes.”

Psychology is a science. It is the scientific study of behavior.

1.3. Definition and Concepts of Psychology

1.4. The Goals of Psychology

i. Description: Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes as accurately

ii. Explanation: Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes.

1.5. Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

Functionalism was founded by William James in reaction to structuralism. Functionalism asserts

Skinner’s research on operant conditioning emphasized the importance of reinforcement in

Humanistic psychologists reject with equal vigor

Maslow proposed a theory of motivation that consists of a hierarchy of needs. He considered

The humanistic perspective continues to be important in research examining human motivation

Contemporary Psychological Perspectives

i. Behavioral perspective: Environmental factors.

ii. Psychoanalytic perspective: Emotions, unconscious motivations, early childhood

iii. Humanistic perspective: Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve self-

iv. Cognitive perspective: Mental processes.

v. Evolutionary perspective: Inherited traits that enhance adaptability.

vi. Biological perspective: Biological structures, processes, heredity.

vii. Sociocultural perspective: Social and cultural variables.

1.6. Research Methods in Psychology

E.g. the amount of alcohol consumed.

1.7. Sub fields of psychology

Psychoanalysts- a person who uses a particular psychotherapeutic technique (i.e.

Psychiatrists- is a medical doctor concerned with mental disorder, maladjustment and

. Program evaluation psychology

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

2.1 Sensation and The Sense System

Transduction is the process of converting incoming energy into neural activity.

➢ Signal-detection theory is a mathematical model of how personal sensitivity and response

a. Sensitivity is a person’s physical ability to discriminate a stimulus from its background.

Table 2.1. The Human Senses/Sensations Chart

3.3 Theories of learning

1. Behaviorist theories/views/of learning

B. The principle of extinction:- If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without

➢ Reinforcing immediately a desired behavior

Effective application of punishment

Steps/elements of observational or social learning theory

4.2. Stages of Memory:

fig. 4.1. Stage memory model

➢ Short Term Memory (STM)

Short term memory can

➢ Long Term Memory (LTM)

4.2.1. Causes of forgetting.

➢ Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously

✓ Motivated Forgetting: This is a kind of forgetting in which the individual intentionally

Repression is a defensive mechanism. As explained by S. Freud in his theory of

4.3. Improving Memories

Here are some tips to enhance one’s memory;

7.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY