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28. Direct Sensing

(a) Candidates should be able to show an understanding that an electronic sensor consists of a
sensing device and a circuit that provides an output voltage.

Electronic sensors have many different applications in modern-day life. Frequently we take these
sensors for granted. For example, the small red indicator lamp fitted to an electrical appliance that
glows when the mains supply has been switched on. Other sensor circuits are more sophisticated and
could, for example indicate a temperature or a light intensity level.
An electronic sensor consists of a sensing device and, usually, some form of electrical circuit connected
to it. The sensing device could be for example, a light-dependent resistor (LDR) so that light intensity
may be monitored (see 28(b)) or a strain gauge so that the strain experienced by a sample of material
may be measured (see 28(e)). The sensing device changes one of its physical properties (e.g.
resistance) with a change in whatever is to be monitored.
In order that the information gathered by the sensing device may be communicated, the change in its
physical property must be processed so that an output device will indicate this change. This output
device could be, for example, a simple indicator lamp or a digital meter. The output device will respond
to a change in voltage. Consequently, the sensing device is connected to the output device via an
electrical circuit (a processing unit) that will provide a voltage as its output. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

sensing processing output

Fig. 1.1
(b) Candidates should be able to show an understanding of the change in resistance with light intensity
of a light-dependent resistor.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) may be made by sandwiching a film of cadmium sulphide between two
metal electrodes. Typically, in moonlight, its resistance is about 1 MΩ and in sunlight, 100 Ω. The
symbol for an LDR is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2
The resistance of an LDR is constant at constant light intensity.
An LDR is sensitive to changes in light intensity. Note that the change in resistance with change in light
intensity is not linear.
(c) Candidates should be able to sketch the temperature characteristic of a negative temperature
coefficient thermistor.
The resistance of most substances does change slightly with a change in temperature. However, a
thermistor is a device that is manufactured in various shapes and sizes using the oxides of different
metals so that there is a significant change in resistance with temperature. The symbol for a thermistor
is shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3

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Negative temperature coefficient thermistors have a resistance that becomes less as the temperature of
the thermistor rises. The change in resistance R with temperature θ for a typical thermistor is illustrated
in Fig. 1.4.
4000

R /Ω

3000

2000

1000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

θ /°C
Fig. 1.4
It can be seen that there is a comparatively large change in resistance with temperature but this change
is non-linear.
(d) Candidates should be able to show an understanding of the action of a piezo-electric transducer
and its application in a simple microphone.
A transducer is any device that converts energy from one form to another.
Piezo-electric crystals such as quartz have a complex ionic structure. When the crystal is unstressed,
the centres of charge of the positive and the negative ions bound in the lattice of the piezo-electric
crystal coincide. If, however, pressure is applied to the crystal, the crystal will distort and the centres of
charge for the positive and negative ions will no longer coincide. A voltage will be generated across the
crystal. The effect is known as the piezo-electric effect (see also the section on 29(i)).
Electrical connections can be made to the crystal if opposite sides of the crystal are coated with a metal.
The magnitude of the voltage generated depends on the magnitude of the pressure applied to the
crystal. The polarity of the voltage is depends on whether the crystal is compressed or expanded
(increase or decrease in the applied pressure).
A sound wave consists of a series of compressions and rarefactions. If the wave is incident on a piezo-
electric crystal, a varying voltage across the crystal will be produced. This voltage can be amplified.
The crystal and its amplifier act as a simple microphone.
(e) Candidates should be able to describe the structure of a metal wire strain gauge.
(f) Candidates should be able to relate extension of a strain gauge to change in resistance of the
gauge.

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A strain gauge is made by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small rectangle of thin plastic, as shown
in Fig. 1.5.
wire

plastic

Fig. 1.5
When the plastic is stretched (the plastic experiences a strain), the wire will also be stretched. This
causes the wire’s length to increase and its cross-sectional area to decrease slightly. Both these
changes cause the resistance of the wire to increase. Strain gauges are usually glued very securely to
the material that is under test.
The resistance R of a wire of length L and of uniform cross-sectional area A is given by the expression
R = ρL /A,
where ρ is the resistivity of the material of the wire.
Assuming that, when the wire extends by a small amount ∆L, the change in the cross-sectional area is
negligible, the new resistance will be given by
(R + ∆R) = ρ(L +∆L) /A,
where ∆R is the change in the resistance.
Subtracting these two expressions,
∆R = ρ∆L /A
or,
∆R ∝ ∆L.
Thus the strain which is proportional to the extension ∆L is also proportional to the change in resistance
∆R. Note that the cross-sectional area A is assumed to be constant.
(g) Candidates should be able to show an understanding that the output from sensing devices can be
registered as a voltage.
In 1(a), it was stated that a sensing device is usually connected to an electrical circuit. This circuit is
designed to provide a voltage that will control an output device (see 1(n)(o) and (p)).
Where a sensing device gives rise to a change in resistance, this change in resistance can be
converted into a voltage change using a potential divider, as shown in Fig. 1.6.

sensing
device, output V
resistance R

Fig. 1.6
The cell of e.m.f. E and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with a fixed resistor of
resistance F and the sensing device of resistance R. The output voltage V is given by
R
V= ×E.
F +R
The magnitude of the output voltage V at any particular value of resistance R of the sensing device is
dependent on the relative values of R and F. A change in R will give rise to a change in V. If the
resistance R decreases, then the output V will also decrease. However, connecting the output across
the fixed resistor would mean that V increases when R decreases.