EECE 210

Electric Circuits

Chapter 4
Techniques of Circuit Analysis
Further Circuit Terminology
 Node: A point where two or more elements are joined.
 a, b, c, d, e, f and g.

 Essential node: A node where three or more elements are joined.

 b, c, e, and g.

 Path: A trace joining basic elements with no element included

more than once.
 Examples: R1-R5-R6, v2-R2

 Branch: A path that connects

two nodes.
 a-b, d-c, b-e,…
 Circuit Terminology- ctd
 Essential branch: A path which connects two essential nodes
without passing through another essential node.
 Essential node “c” to essential node “b”, g-c, b-e, b-g,…

 Loop: A path whose last node is the same as the starting node
(closed path).
 V1-R1-R5-R6-R4-V2-V1.

 Mesh: A loop that does not enclose any other loops.

 V1-R1-R5-R3-R2-V1, (or c-a-b-e-d-c), V2-R2-R3-R6-R4,V2, R5-R7-R6,R5, and
R7-I-R7,…
Planar and Non-planar Circuits

 Non-planar circuits:
Circuit where Branches
overlap (or intersect).

 Planar circuits:
No crossing or
intersecting branches.
(more favored).
 Example- circuit components

This circuit contains:

 7 nodes: a,b,c,d,e,f, and g.
 4 essential nodes: b,c,e and g
 9 branches: ab, be, ed,dc,ca,
cf, fg, ge, and bg.(and I)
 6 essential branches: be, ec,
eg, cb,cg,bg (and I)
 Loops:?
 meshes: ?…
 Circuit Analysis
 A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across and
the current in every element have been determined
 How many unknowns need to be determined?

 How many equations need to be solved?

 Can one reduce the number of needed equations?

Simple circuit

Complex circuit
 Circuit Analysis: Techniques/tools
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method (Chap.4)

 Mesh current method (Chap.4)

 Source transformations(Chap.4)

 Thevenin equivalent circuits(Chap.4)

 Norton equivalent circuits(Chap.4)

 Superposition(Chap.4)
 Systematic Approach
Regular Approach so far:
 Apply KVL in the meshes

 Apply KCL at the essential nodes: b, c, and e

 Get 6 equations and 6 unknowns

 Hence, direct method becomes cumbersome (awkward).

Instead, we have other approaches:

 Two new circuit analysis techniques:

 Node-Voltage Method
 Mesh-Current Method
 Node-Voltage Method (using essential nodes)
 Step 1: Draw a planar circuit, i.e. no branches crossing over,

 Step 2: Identify the essential nodes (ne=3), (connecting 3 or more

branches).

 Step 3: From these, choose the reference node (connects to most

branches).
 Step 4: (ne-1) node voltage equations are needed to solve the circuit.

 Step 5: Define the node voltages at all other essential nodes.

Voltage node: defined as the “Voltage rise from the reference node to
non-reference essential nodes” (v1 and v2).
 Step 6: Apply KCL at node 1.

(sum of all currents leaving the node

is zero)
 Step 7: Use KVL and Ohm’s law

 Repeat for other nodes… (node 2,…)

Example-1 Node Voltage
i1 i5 i2 i10
Find v1 and v2.
1- Draw the planar circuit.
2- Assign essential nodes.(1 and 2)
3- Assign reference node.
4- ne-1 = 3-1 = 2…..2 node- voltage equations are needed.
5- Label node voltages (v1 and v2) at nodes 1 and 2.
6- Apply KCL at node 1 with all currents leaving the node:
i1 = (v1-10)/1 and i2 = (v1-v2)/2, and i5 = v1/5.
Then: (v1-10)/1 + (v1-v2)/2 + v1/5 = 0……(1)
7- Apply KCL at node 2:
i2’ = -i2 = (v2-v1)/2, and i10 = v2/10, and a supply current of 2A.
Then: (v2-v1)/2 + v2/10 -2 = 0………..(2)
8- Solving (1) and (2) gives: v1 = 9.09V, and v2 = 10.91V.
Other parameters;
i1 = (v1-10)/1 = -0.91A.
i2 = (v1-v2)/2 = -0.91A, and i5 = v1/5 = 1.82A.
Example 2: Node-Voltage Method: Special Cases
 A wire (no elements) is between two essential
nodes (1 and 3 for example)
 Nodes 1 and 3 are same node.
 v1 is the same across 60Ω and 15Ω resistors.
3 1 2
Example 2-solution
Example 2- ctd
Node-Voltage Method: Dependent Sources

 Dependent voltage source is included in the circuit.

1 2

 2 equations at the nodes 1 and 2. (same as before)

 1 additional constraint due to the dependent source.

 Therefore, one additional equation will be needed.

Example 3: Dependent Source
1 2
Find the power dissipated in
+ +
the 5Ω resistor. v1
v2
- -
At node 1: (v1-20)/2 + v1/20 + (v1-v2)/5 = 0

At node 2: (v2-v1)/5 + v2/10 + (v2-8iϕ)/2 = 0 …..2 equations with 3 unknowns.

We set a 3rd equation that expresses iϕ in terms of the 2 voltages, i.e.

iϕ = (v1-v2)/5…..3rd equation.

Substituting eq.3 into node 2 equation, and solving we get:

v1 = 16V, v2 = 10V, and iϕ = 1.2A.

Power dissipated: P = iϕ2 R= 1.22*5 = 7.2W

 Node-Voltage Method: Special Cases
 Voltage source is the only element between two essential nodes (one
of them is the reference node):

 Solution
 This will reduce number of required equations since v1 between
the reference node and node 1 is known (=100V).
 We have only one unknown to find (v2), so using node voltage
equation at node (2):

 Hence: (v2-v1)/10 + v2/50 – 5 = 0

 But v1 = 100V is known, therefore from the equation: v2 = 125V.
 Node-Voltage Method: Supernode
 Voltage source is only element between two essential
nodes (non- reference nodes):
 To reduce number of required equations, remove the
voltage source and form a Supernode.

 Supernode :combination (merging) of nodes 2 and 3.

Supernode- ctd.
 To form a supernode (combine node 2 and 3), temporarily
remove the voltage source.
 Write 2 equations (at node 1 and the supernode)
• Voltage known at node 1  only 1 equation
 Return back the removed source (relate voltages)
 Example 4-Supernode

Select nodes 1,2, and 3.

 At node 1: v1 = 50V. (supply voltage)
 At node 2: (v2-v1)/5 + v2/50 + i = 0………..(1)
 At node 3: v3/100 - i -4 = 0 …………(2)
Adding (1) and (2) gives:
 (v2-v1)/5 + v2/50 + v3/100 - 4 = 0 …..(3) (current i is eliminated)
Eq. (3) can also be obtained by removing the dependent voltage source
i.e. nodes 2 and 3 are merged.
 At supernode: (v2-v1)/5 + v2/50 + v3/100 - 4 = 0
 v1 = 50, and v3 = v2+ 10iϕ ………….(4)
 where: iϕ = (v2-v1)/5 = (v2-50)/5 …….(5)
 Solving (4) and (5) gives: v2 = 60V.
 Then: iϕ = (v2-v1)/5 = 2A.
 And v3 = v2+ 10iϕ = 80V.
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method

 Mesh current method

 Source transformations

 Thevenin equivalent circuits

 Norton equivalent circuits

 Superposition
 Mesh-Current Method
1. Applies only to planar circuits (no overlapping branches)
2. Write a set of mesh-current equations using KVL
 How many equations are needed?

3. Mesh current is the current that exists only in the

perimeter of a mesh, (a loop with no other loops inside it).
 Mesh currents can be different from corresponding
branch currents.
 We need be-(ne-1) equations,
Where:
be : # of essential branches
that connect essential nodes.
ne..# of essential nodes.

Here: be = 7, ne =4, hence, 4 equations are needed.

 Mesh-Current Method- ctd.
 Using General Approach
1

be = 3 essential branches
ne = 2 essential nodes (ne – 1)=1 current equation

 be – (ne – 1) = 2 …..voltage equations

Apply KCL at the node 1:

i1 = i2 + i3, then i3 = i1 – i2…..(1)
Apply KVL for mesh 1: v1 = i1R1+i3R3…(2)
Apply KVL for mesh 2: -v2 = i2R2 –i3R3….(3)..3 equations with 3 unknowns

• v1 and v2 are normally given.

• Substitute for i3 in the other equations and solve to find

i1 and i2.
 Mesh-Current Method- ctd.

 Using Mesh Current Method

 Apply KVL along the 2 meshes

a and b.
Mesh a: v1 = iaR1 + (ia - ib)R3 = ia(R1+R3) – ibR3
Mesh b: -v2 = (ib – ia)R3 + ibR2 = ib(R2 + R3) – iaR3

Solve for ia and ib,

then:
i1 = ia, i2 = ib, and i3 = ia - ib
 Example 5- Mesh-Current Method
Find the current delivered/absorbed by each source, and v8Ω.

be = 5 essential branches
ne = 3 essential nodes

To find the power, we need the current at each source.

be = 5, and ne = 3, therefore we need 5-3+1 = 3 equations.
Therefore, 3 mesh current equations are needed.
mesh current ia:

mesh current ib:

mesh current ic:

Solving these 3 equations gives: ia = 5.6A, ib = 2A, and ic = -0.8A.

P at the 40-V source = -40*ia = -40*5.6 = -224W (delivered)
P at the 20-V source = 40*ic = 20*(-0.8) = -16W (also delivered)
v8Ω = (ia-ib).8 = (5.6 – 2).8 = 3.6*8 = 28.8V.
 Example 6: Mesh-Current Method: Dependent Source
Find the power at the 4Ω- resistor.
 Additional constraint equation

 The 3 equations are:

Loop1..

Loop2..
3 equations and 4 unknowns
Loop3..
 Branch current controlling the dependent voltage source::

 Substituting for iϕ gives:

 From which: i1=29.6A, i2=28A, and i3=26A.

 Power absorbed by the 4Ω resistor: P = (i3-i2)2*4 = 16W.
 Example 7- Mesh-Current Method: Super Mesh
 When a current source is only element in an essential branch.

Normal approach:
 The circuit contains 5 essential branches and 4 essential nodes.

 Hence we need to write:5-(4-1)= 2 mesh-current equations to solve the circuit.

 The presence of the current source reduces the 3 unknown mesh currents to 2,
because it constrains the difference: ia - ic = 5A. However, to add the voltages
around either mesh “a” or mesh “c”, we must introduce into the equations the
unknown voltage (v) across the 5A current source:
- For mesh a: 100 = 3(ia - ib) + v + 6ia,.......(1)
- For mesh c: -50 = 4ic - v + 2(ic - ib)……..(2)
- To eliminate v, add these 2 equations:

- we get: 50 = 9ia - 5ib + 6ic.

- For mesh b: 0 = 3(ib - ia) + 10ib + 2(ib - ic)....(3)
- Solving: ia = 1.75 A, ib = 1.25 A, and ic = 6.75 A.
Example 8- Mesh-Current Method: Super Mesh- ctd.
Supermesh Method
Used to avoid introducing voltage (v), by forming a supermesh
by merging the 2 meshes (a and c) into 1 big mesh.
Temporarily remove the current source when
writing the equations.
 Voltages around the supermesh:
-100 + 3(ia - ib) + 2(ic - ib) + 50 + 4ic + 6ia = 0,
Simplifying: 50 = 9ia - 5ib + 6ic…..(1)
Same equation like the one obtained using the normal approach.
For mesh b: 0 = 3(ib - ia) + 10ib + 2(ib - ic)...(2)
and: ia - ic = 5A…..(3)
Solving the 3 equations:
ia = 1.75A, ib = 1.25A, and ic = 6.75A.
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The
Winner is?
 Both reduce number of required equations

 Both are systematic

 Which method is better?

 Which requires less equations? (usually mesh current method)

 Does circuit contain supernodes?
 Does circuit contain supermeshes?
 Does it help to solve some portion of the circuit?
 Etc.
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The Winner is?
 Find power dissipated in the 300Ω resistor
 Need to find the voltage or the current

 Mesh_Current Method: 5 mesh equations & 1 constraint equation

 Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations reduce to 2 equations since a

voltage source is between 2 nodes, & 1 constraint equation
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The Winner is?

 Find v0

 Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations and 2 constraint equations

 Mesh_Current Method: 3 mesh equations reduce to 1 equation

(super mesh) & 2 constraint equation
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method

 Mesh current method

 Source transformations

 Thevenin equivalent circuits

 Norton equivalent circuits

 Superposition
 Source Transformation
 Transforms a voltage source in series
with a resistor into a current source
in parallel with same resistor (or vice
versa).
 Connect RL across terminals ab If
same current (iL) flows from a to b 
same voltage drop.
 Equivalent circuits:
vs R
iL  iL  is …CDR
R  RL R  RL
𝑣𝑠 𝑅
Comparing: = is.
𝑅+𝑅𝐿 𝑅+𝑅𝐿
From which:
vs
is  …current source in parallel
R with R
When this applies, then, iL is the same in both
circuits for all values of RL.
 Example 9- Source Transformation
 Find the power associated with the 6 V source (absorbed or
delivered?)
 Start on the right end:
 Transform 40V + 5Ω into
current source :is= vs/R=40/5 = 8A.

 R5//20= 4Ω.
 Transform 8A with 4Ω parallel
resistor into voltage source:
vs = Ris = 4*8=32V.

 32V source in series with

resistors of: 4 + 6 + 10 = 20 Ω.
 Example 9- Source Transformations- ctd.
 Transform back to current source:
is = 32/20 = 1.6A

R20//30 = 600/50 = 12 Ω.

 Transform back to voltage source:

vs = is*R = 1.6*12 = 19.2V. I

19.2 −6
 I= = 0.825A
4+12
 P = VI= 6*0.825 = 4.95W (absorbed)
 Source Transformations: Special case
 If an additional resistor Rp is in
parallel with the voltage source, or a
resistance Rs in series with the current
source,
 No effect on the terminals ab for both
cases. Same current (iL) will flow.
 Example 10- Source Transformations
 Find v0 Fig.c
.

• 250V and 25Ω are replaced by a current

• We have 250V source in series with 25Ω, and source is=250/25=10A, in parallel with
another 125Ω in parallel with the voltage 25Ω resistor, see Fig.c.
source. The 125 resistor can be removed.
• Also, 8A source in parallel with 100Ω, and • The 2 current sources are replaced by a
another 10Ω in series with it. The 10Ω resistor single 2A current source.
can be removed. • Also, the 3 parallel resistors are replaced
• Also, 15+5 = 20Ω on the right, See Fig.b. by the equivalent resistor of 10Ω. See Fig.d
• Vo = IR=2*10=20V

Fig.b
Fig.d
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method

 Mesh current method

 Source transformations

 Thevenin equivalent circuits

 Norton equivalent circuits

 Superposition
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
 Motivation: To concentrate on circuit’s supplying outlet in terms of
voltage and current only, regardless of other elements in the
supply circuit.
 How? By applying Thevenin and Norton simplifying techniques
for all circuits with linear element (R,L, and C).
General circuit

Thevenin:
(eq. voltage source in series with eq. resistance, Norton: (eq. current source in
parallel with eq. resistance.)
replacing the original circuit elements).
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

 Determine Thevenin voltage Vth

 Determine Thevenin resistance Rth

 Open- circuit voltage Vab =Voc , should remain the same like
that of the original circuit. VTh = Voc.
 Short- circuit current at the terminals, Iab, should also be
the same like that of the original circuit.
𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝐼𝑠𝑐
 Iab = Isc = , from which: RTh =
𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑇ℎ
 Example 11- Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
1
Determine VTh and RTh.
 O.C. condition ≡ Large load resistance.
 No current flows in the 4Ω resistor.
 O.C. (or Vth) voltage = v1 across the 3A current source.
𝑣1−25 𝑣1
 Using node voltage method at node 1: + - 3=0
5 20

From which: v1 = VTh = 32V.

1


 S.C. condition: Zero resistance.

o First, find v2 using the node voltage:
𝑣2−25 𝑣2 𝑣2
o + -3 + = 0 from which: v2=16V.
5 20 4

o Isc = v2/4 = 16/4 = 4A

o RTh = VTh/Isc = 32/4 = 8Ω ………………….

Thevenin Equivalence..
 Example 11- Norton Equivalence-ctd.
We can deduce Norton equivalence from the result by
using the source transformation rule on the obtained
Thevenin equivalent circuit:

Applying:
Thevenin Equivalent circuit
iN = VTh/Rth = 32/8 = 4A.

Hence Norton equivalent circuit is:

4A =8Ω
Note: Norton Equivalent Circuit

 Similar to Thevenin circuit except that it consists of

an independent current source in parallel with a
Norton equivalent resistor.
 Find Norton Equivalent
 Sometimes easier to find it directly from initial
circuit.
 Sometimes easier to get Thevenin equivalent and
do source transformation to get the Norton
equivalent.
 Hint: Analyze the circuit well before finding
Thevenin equivalent to get Norton equivalent.
Ex.11- Solution using Source Transformation
• Transforming 25V source in series with 5Ω
resistor: is = 25/5 = 5A current source in parallel
with the 5Ω resistor.

• R 5//20 = (5*20)/25 = 4 Ω

• Add the 2 current sources: 5+3 = 8A in parallel

with the 4 Ω resistor.

• Transfer to: vs = VTh = 8*4 = 32V in series with 8

Ω (4+4). Thevenin Equivalence

• Transfer back to get Norton Equivalence:

is = IN = vs/R = 32/4 = 8A in parallel with 8 Ω.

• Same result like before.

Simpler Way to Find RTh

For circuits with independent sources:

 Voltage source is replaced by a S.C.
 Current source is replaced by an O.C.

 The equivalent resistor is:

RTh = R((5//20)+4) = 8Ω… same
value as derived before.
 Example 12- Thevenin
a. Find Thevenin equivalence for this circuit.
b. Find RTh by removing the independent sources.
a. Select reference node, and 2 voltage levels at other
nodes 1 and 2.
 O.C. condition:

1 2

 Applying KCL: node 2:

 Voltage divider rule:

 Example 12- ctd
SC condition
2

 Node 2: .. No current through the 60Ω resistor

because it is bypassed by the SC.

Apply KCL at 2:
Example 12- ctd

b. Find RTh
 Remove independent sources, by replacing voltage source
with a SC, and current source with OC, seethe figure.
 5Ω and 25 Ω are bypassed by a S.C.

 Then:
Thevenin Equivalent: Circuits with Dependent Sources
 Determine Vth and Rth
Note: ix =0 because there is
no return path to the source.
OC condition:
𝑉𝑡ℎ
Vth = v = 25*(-20i) = -500i V. and i = -
500

5−3𝑣 5−3𝑉𝑡ℎ
On the left side circuit: i = = ,
2000 2000
Comparing “i” terms: Vth = v = -5V.
SC condition: 25Ω resistor is bypassed and
control voltage v = 0, and therefore the
dependent voltage source 3v=0 (replaced by sc)
Also isc = -20i.
5
On the left side: i = = 2.5mA, and isc = -20i = -50mA.
2000

Vth −5
Rth = = 3 = 100Ω
 Maximum Power Transfer
 Power is normally transferred from a source to a load.
 2 important parameters:
 Efficiency of the transfer (e.g. power utility systems)
 Amount of transferred power (e.g. communications or
instrumentation systems)
 Maximum power transfer condition, for a resistive network containing
dependent and independent sources, and terminals ab to which a load RL
is connected.
 We need to estimate RL such that the power transferred to it is
maximum.
 First, the resistive network is replaced by Thevenin parameters.
Maximum Power Transfer- ctd.
𝑉𝑡ℎ
 Supply current i =
𝑅𝑡ℎ+𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑡ℎ
 Power absorbed by RL: P = i2RL = 2. 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑡ℎ+𝑅𝐿 .
 For the given circuit, Vth and Rth are fixed.
 Then, power dissipated is a function of RL.

to RL:
Maximum Power Transfer- ctd.
 Hence the maximum power transfer occurs
when the load resistor (impedance) is equal
to supply Thevenin equivalent resistor
(impedance).
Pmax 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝑹𝑳

 The corresponding maximum power is

calculated by substituting for RL:

𝑉𝑡ℎ
P = i2RL = 2. 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑡ℎ+𝑅𝐿
 Example – Max. power transfer
a. Find RL that gives max. power transfer.
Using the voltage divider rule: is
150
Voc = Vth = 360. = 300𝑉
150+30
Remove the 360V source, and find:
150∗30
Rth = R 150//30 = = 25Ω
150+30
For max. power: Rth = RL = 25 Ω.
b. Find Pmax
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ 3002
Pmax = = = 900𝑊.
4𝑅𝐿 4∗25

c. At Pmax, what percentage of the power is delivered to RL?

Voltage divider: vab = 300*(25/25+25) = 150V.
360−150
is = = 7𝐴, therefore source power = 7*360 = 2520W
30
900
Percentage: *100 = 35.7% of the power is delivered.
2520
Maximum Power Transfer: Example

 Find RL such that there is maximum power

transfer and calculate the power
 Matched load: RL=Rth
 Need to find Thevenin Equivalent
Superposition (just read, not required!!)
 Principle of superposition: when linear system is excited
with more than one independent source of energy, the
total response is the sum of the individual responses
 Useful in design and analysis of circuits
 Voltage source replaced by short circuit and current source
replaced by open circuit
 Sometime makes the analysis more complicated; when to use it?
Superposition: Example