Anatomy and Physiology Part 2

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Original format: https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology
For more resources:

 Rizzo, D. C. (2015). Fundamentals of anatomy and physiology (4th ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Marieb, Elaine Nicpon, 1936-. (1991). Essentials of human anatomy & physiology. Redwood City,
Calif. :Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co.
 VanPutte, C. L., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill.
 Amerman, E. C. (2010). Exploring anatomy & physiology in the laboratory. Englewood, CO: Morton
Pub.
 Betts, J., Desaix, P., Johnson, E., Johnson, J., Korol, O., Kruse, D., Poe, B., Wise, J., Womble, M. and
Young, K., n.d. Anatomy & physiology.
 Martini, F., & Nath, J. L. (2009). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology. San Francisco:
Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.
 Peate, I., & Nair, M. Fundamentals of anatomy and physiology for nursing and healthcare students.
 Shier, D., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2007). Hole's human anatomy & physiology. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-
Hill.
 Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D., & Tate, P. (2002). Essentials of anatomy and physiology. Boston:
McGraw-Hill.
 Tortora, G. J., & Grabowski, S. R. (1996). Principles of anatomy and physiology. New York, NY:
HarperCollins College.
 Waugh, A., & Grant, A. (2013). Ross and Wilson: Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness (12th
edition). Churchill Livinstone
1.2 STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE
HUMAN BODY
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Describe the structure of the human body in terms of six levels of organization
 List the eleven organ systems of the human body and identify at least one organ
and one major function of each
Before you begin to study the different structures and functions of the human body, it is
helpful to consider its basic architecture; that is, how its smallest parts are assembled
into larger structures. It is convenient to consider the structures of the body in terms of
fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity: subatomic particles,
atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms and
biosphere.
Figure 1.3 Levels of Structural Organization of the

Human Body The organization of the body often is
discussed in terms of six distinct levels of increasing
complexity, from the smallest chemical building blocks
to a unique human organism.
1
The Levels of Organization
To study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building
blocks of matter: subatomic particles, atoms and molecules. All matter in the universe is
composed of one or more unique pure substances called elements, familiar examples of
which are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. The smallest unit of
any of these pure substances (elements) is an atom. Atoms are made up of subatomic
particles such as the proton, electron and neutron. Two or more atoms combine to form
a molecule, such as the water molecules, proteins, and sugars found in living things.
Molecules are the chemical building blocks of all body structures.
A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even bacteria,
which are extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a cellular structure.
Each bacterium is a single cell. All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and
almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells.
A human cell typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water-
based cellular fluid together with a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles. In
humans, as in all organisms, cells perform all functions of life. A tissue is a group of
many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a few related types) that work
together to perform a specific function. An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of
the body composed of two or more tissue types. Each organ performs one or more
specific physiological functions. An organ system is a group of organs that work
together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body.
This book covers eleven distinct organ systems in the human body ([link] and [link]).
Assigning organs to organ systems can be imprecise since organs that “belong” to one
system can also have functions integral to another system. In fact, most organs
contribute to more than one system.
2
Figure 1.4 Organ Systems of the Human Body Organs that work together are
grouped into organ systems.
3
Figure 1.5 Organ Systems of the Human Body (continued) Organs that work
together are grouped into organ systems.
The organism level is the highest level of organization. An organism is a living being
that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions
necessary for life. In multicellular organisms, including humans, all cells, tissues,
organs, and organ systems of the body work together to maintain the life and health of
the organism.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Original format: https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology

For more resources:

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Figure 1.3 Levels of Structural Organization of the

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