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CHAPTER 1

Ethics and Values

An Overview on the History of Ethics

The English word "ethics” is derived from an Ancient Greek word, êthikos, which means
relating to character. The Ancient Greek adjective ethikos is itself derived from another Greek word,
the noun ethos meaning "character, disposition.

It comes from the Latin word "ethos” behavior, moral. The two words Latin - ethicus and Greek
ethikos have the same meaning which is customary.

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves

systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The field of ethics,
along with aesthetics concern matters of value, and thus comprise the branch of philosophy called
axiology (study of value).

Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right
and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral philosophy also is
related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.

Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their
truth values (if any) can be determined

2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action

3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a
particular domain of action

There are significant periods of history that are worth to discuss with our subject “Ethics”.

1. The Classical Period

2. The middle Ages
3. The Early Modern Period
4. The Nineteenth Century
5. The Contemporary Period

The Classical Period

Qualities of Mind during this period according to Jones, et. Al

1. A concern with this world and its affair; an interest in nature and in the natural man
2. A thorough rationalism, a respect for evidence, as evidence was understood in those times
3. Most important of all, curiosity

We can summed up these qualities of mind in the term “Humanism”

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Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Plato The Republic

2. Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics
3. Epicuros Letter of Herodutus
Letter to Menaeceus
Principal Doctrines

The Middle Ages

This period is considered to be a study of continuity and discontinuity.

It is termed “Continuity” because many of the philosophers were steeped in classical doctrine. A good
example is Thomas Aquinas who put the teaching of Aristotle within the framework of Christianity.

On the other hand, it termed “Discontinuity” in the sense that religion has come into the picture.
Philosophy such as Ethics and Metaphysics were interwoven with theology.

Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Boethius His consolation of Philosophy

2. Augustine The happy life, The city of Man, The city of

God

3. St Bernard of Clairvaux The steps of Humility

4. Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologica

The Early Modern Period

The philosophy that develops during this period are the following:

1. A shift from the supernatural, temporal and secular

2. An attempt to balance the supernatural and the temporal, as many of the philosophers were not
really weaned from the religion of the past

3. The rise of modern science specially physics

4. The changes brought about the industrial and social revolutions towards the end of the period

Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Nicolo Machiavelli The Prince

2. Thomas Hobbes Leviathan

3. Benedict Spinoza Ethics

4. John Locke Easy concerning Human understanding

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5. Joseph Butler Sermons

6. David Hume Picture of Human Nature

7. Emmanuel Kant Lecture on Ethics

The Nineteenth Century

Several tendencies characterized this period:

1. Utilitarianism with the level of “the greatest good to the greatest number”.

2. The scientific theory. Although this started in the previous century but many philosophers applies it
with ethical questions during this period like Bentham.

3. The individual versus the state

4. Skepticism as to the place of ethics metaphysics, that is. If ethics can only be a chapter in
metaphysics or not.

5. Irrationalism: in contrast with the “man is rational animal” of Aristotle, Aquinas and their followers

Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Jeremy Bentham An introduction to the principals of morals

and legislation

2. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel The philosophy of history

3. Arthur Schopenhauer The word as will and idea

4. John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism

5. Soren Kierkegaard Either/or

6. Friedrich Nietzche Sounding Out Idols

7. Francis Herbert Bradley Ethical Studies

The Contemporary Period

The philosophers of this period exhibit a diversity of trends in moral beliefs: For and against the
scientific theory, logical positivism, return of belief of man as sinful, existentialism with its own divers
spokesmen

Better elucidation of “what man is” was emphasized.

1. Sigmund Freud Civilization and its Discontents

2. John Dewey Reconstruction in Philosophy

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3. G.E. Moore Principal Ethica

4. Paul Tillich Systematic Theology

Theology of Culture

5. Jean Paul Sarte Being and Nothingness

6. Alfred Jules Ayer Language, truth and Logic

Definition of Ethics

As a field of study, ethics is a branch of philosophy which studies the principles of right or wrong in
human conduct. Right or wrong are qualities assigned to actions, conduct, and behavior. As such,
ethicists inquire into the correctness of such acts as promise keeping, truth telling, integrity, deception,
and compassion. Good and bad, on the other hand, are qualities that characterize ends, goals, and
purposes. As such, ethicists inquire into the reasons for living and working; the goals that should be
pursued in order to lead a successful life; and the purposes that should motivate people in their life
choices (Porter, 1980)

Other definitions:

 Science of the morality of man.

 Study of human motivation, and ultimately of human rational behavior.

 Morality.

 "The principles of conduct governing an individual or profession (Webster)

 It answers the question, "What do I do?"

 It is the study of right and wrong in human endeavors.

At a more fundamental level, it is the method by which we categorize our values and pursue them

Ethics outlines theories of right or wrong, morality translate these theories into action. Therefore,
morality is nothing else but it is a doing of ethics.

Ethics is, in essence, doing the right thing, whatever that may be. The "right thing is based on those
values society holds dear.

Ethical principles are premised on the notion that right is always right and wrong is always wrong.

When officers fail to do what is right, and especially when they do what is clearly and blatantly wrong,
they erode the public trust just a little more and further degrade law enforcement's ability to work within
the community and carry out its mission. Adherence to high ethical standards, then, is as vital to
achieving the overall goal of modern policing as any other tactic, technique or practice.
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Rush worth Kidder states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as
the science of the ideal human character or 'the science of moral duty. Richard William Paul and Linda
Elder define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior
helps or harms sentient creatures". The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word
"ethics" is "Commonly interchangeably with 'morality' and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean
the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual." Paul and Elder state that most people
confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social treat conventions, religious beliefs and the law
and don’t treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.

The word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral
philosophy, a project that attempts to use reason to answer various kinds of ethical questions. As the
English philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: “What makes an
inquiry a philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally
persuasive.” Williams describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad
question, "how one should live.”

Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about ethical problems that is not particular to
philosophy. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the capacity to think
critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human
capacity. Ethics can also be used to describe a particular person's own idiosyncratic principles or
habits. For example: “Joe has strange ethics."

Ethical Foundations

"Ethics is concerned with questions that have no ultimate answers, yet are important to planning one's
life, justifying one's activities and deciding what one ought to do."

Ethical Principles

1. Beneficence

 Doing good for others

 Helping others

 Obligation to act in the interest of others

 Beneficence is the professional duty to do or produce good. By "good" is meant the

performance of acts of kindness and charity. "Doing we good” is considered virtuous conduct.

General Duty to Beneficence

 How significant is the need to be met?

 Am I particularly qualified to meet the need?

 How likely is it that my action will achieve success, i.e., a desired outcome?

 How much of a risk is it to me? Does the potential benefit outweigh the risk to me?

 2. Nonmaleficence
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 Prevent harm or risk of harm to clients (s)

 Includes misguidance, negligence, and impact of stress/burnout

 3. Autonomy

 Self-rule or self-governance

 Free from the control of others

 Three conditions necessary

 Voluntary participation / no coercion

 Competence/ can weigh risks and benefits

 Full disclosure of relevant information

 4. Justice

 Fairness in relation to distribution or allocation of time, resources and services

 Equal Shares

 Need

 Motivation/ Effort / Contribution

 Free-Market Exchange (supply and demand)

 Fair Opportunity

 5. Fidelity

 Keeping promises or commitments

 Confidentiality

 Conflicts of Interest

Importance of Ethics

 Indispensable knowledge.

 Without moral perception, man is only an animal.

 Without morality, man as rational being is a failure.

Ethics is a requirement for human life

 It is our means of deciding a course of action.

 Without it, our actions would be random and aimless.

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 There would be no way to work towards a goal because there would be no way to pick
between a limitless number of goals.

 To the degree which a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize our
goals and actions to accomplish our most important values.

Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to be. The most successful professional, is
nothing unless he too is morally upright. Thus, the philosophers speak of Ethics as the "only
necessary knowledge".

Morality is the foundation of every human society. Without civic morality, communities perish; without
personal morality their survival has no value. Every culture admits the importance of morality as a
standard of behavior. When the moral foundations of a nation are threatened, society itself is
threatened.

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from Ancient Greek
ethikos, from ethos, meaning ‘habit, custom’. The field ethics, along with aesthetics concern matters of
value, and thus comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology.

The word philosophy is derived from two Greek words. The first word, philo, means “love”. The second,
sophy, means “wisdom." Literally, then, philosophy means “love of wisdom”. Each individual has an
attitude toward life, children, politics, learning, and previous personal experiences that informs and
shapes their set of beliefs. Although you may not be conscious of it, this set of beliefs, or personal
philosophy, informs how you live, work, and interact with others.

What you believe is directly reflected in both your teaching and learning processes. This chapter
explores the various philosophical views that influence the teaching profession.

To understand the foundations of educational philosophies, it's necessary to first examine philosophy's
four main branches. Understanding educational philosophy will contribute to the understanding of how
these foundations have given rise to what is commonly practiced and believed in the classroom today.

The four main branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic.

1. Metaphysics - is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the nature of
ultimate reality. It asks questions like, what is real? What is the origin of the world? What is beyond the
stars? Your consideration of reality as an external creation or an internal construct can influence your
metaphysical beliefs and perspectives and your teaching. Regardless of your definition of reality, the
exploration and categorization of the physical universe form the foundation of several school subjects.

2. Epistemology - is the branch of philosophy that considers how people come to learn what they
know. Derived from the Greek word episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding, epistemology
refers nature and origin of knowledge and truth. Epistemology proposes that there are four main bases
of knowledge: divine revelation, experience, logic and reason, and intuition. These influence how
teaching, learning, and understanding come about in the classroom
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3. Axiology - is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values. These
values are divided into two main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of morals and
personal values. Aesthetics is the examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In axiology
education is more than just about knowledge but also quality of life

4. Logic - is the branch of philosophy that seeks to organize reasoning. Students of logic learn how to
think in a structurally sound manner. Logic has two types: deductive and inductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning involves examining a general case, deducing a general set of rules or principles,
and then applying these rules to specific cases. Inductive reasoning involves taking specific examples
and considering the general principles, rules, or cases that caused them.

Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right
and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral philosophy also is
related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.

Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their
truth values (if any) can be determined

2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action

3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a
particular domain of action

Ethics and Law

Legal history confirms that customary ethics, rather than laws, have been the prime source of social
conformity. For instance:

1. The Code of Hammurabi (1726-1686 BC) did not in essence introduce new rules but merely
reaffirmed prevailing customs,

2. Plato in his Republic put little emphasis on laws per se and more on the development of a polis – a
perfect city – where laws would be unnecessary. Leaders of the polis were expected to be “men of
gold,” endowed with collective rationality and wisdom.

3. The Common Law that emerged under the Norman rule essentially to control “ruffians”

4. The practice of chivalry, common among the English noble men at the time, needed no legal
support because it was “law unto itself”

5. The high level of social order among traditional Islamic societies in which relatively very few positive
laws exist

It is necessary to clarify the undermine the law or to replace it, but to complement it by deferring to the
spirit of the law and to rules of equity.

Ethics Law

Study of human motivation Concerned with what we do, not what we

feel
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Study of external actions. It explores Concerned with the externality of the act.
thoughts and feelings.

Requires that man desires that of which is Requires that we perform the required
good and act in accordance with that desire action regardless of our feelings towards
such action.

Addresses all human activities Applies to behaviours that lawmakers

choose to regulate

Seeks to change people from the inside Attempt to change people from outside
outward inward

Ethical principles are constant, universal Laws are frequently changing

and everlasting

Solidly based on the reasoning process “Logistical instrument” of social control that,
essential to appropriate discretion for the most part, are not necessarily
products wisdom

Prescriptive in nature Basically reactive instrument

Dependent upon knowledge, rationality and Dependent for their effectives upon
goodwill procedures and complex rules of evidence

Morality therefore, has a wider implication than law, because law can either be moral or immoral. Thus,
what is legal is not necessarily moral; but what is worth legalizing.

Ethics is not simply a body of do’s and don’ts in the manner law are.

Ethics is a personal commitment to uphold what is true and good. Ethics aims to develop
“right disposition and inner spirit” for accepting what is lawful.

Human Acts Acts of man

Actions performed by man, knowingly Actions which happen in man

Deliberate or intentional actions, or, Instinctive and are not within the control of
voluntary the will

Actions are the result of conscious Biological and physiological movements in

knowledge and are subject to the control of man such as, metabolism, respiration, fear,
the will. anger, love, and jealousy.

Morality is the quality of human acts by which they are constituted as good, bad, or indifferent.
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Moral Distinctions

“Dictates of Reasons” stands for the norm of morality which is the standard by which actions are
judged as to their merits or demerits.

Classification of Actions to the Norms of Morality

1. Moral (Good) actions

2. Immoral (Bad) actions

3. Amoral (Indifferent) actions

Moral (Good) actions are those actions which are in conformity with the norm of morality.

Immoral (Bad) actions are those actions which are not in conformity with the norm of morality.

Amoral (Indifferent) actions are those actions which stand neutral in relation to the norm of morality.
They are neither good nor bad in themselves. But certain amoral actions may become good or bad
because of the circumstance attendant to them.

Voluntariness comes from the Latin word “voluntas”, referring to the will. Voluntariness is essential to
an act. Without it, an act is mere act man.

The Modifiers of Human Acts

1. Ignorance – absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess

Classification of Ignorance

a. Vincible ignorance can easily be reminded through ordinary diligence and reasonable efforts

b. Invincible ignorance I the type which a person possess without being aware of it, or, having
awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it.

Ignorance of the law excuses no one – implies that no one should not act in the state of ignorance and
that no one who has done wrong may not claim ignorance as a defense.

2. Passions – either tendencies towards desirable objects, or tendencies away from undesirable or
harmful things

Classification of Passions

a. positive emotions – love, desire, delight, hope

b. negative emotions – hatred, horror, sadness, despair, fear and anger

Passions are psychic responses. As such, they are neither moral nor immoral, however, man is bound
to regulate his emotions and submit them to the control of reason.

3. Fear – disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger or harm to
himself or loved ones
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Fear is an instinct for self – preservation. We even fear experiences or situations such as, embarking
on a long journey, being left alone in a strange place, or being asked to speak before a group of
people.

4. Violence – refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose of
compelling said person to act against his will.

5. Habits – is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain
manner. They are acquired inclinations towards something to be done. They assume the role of a
second nature, moving one who has them to perform certain acts with relative ease.

The word “habit – forming” that we use to refer to certain experience shows how easy it is for one to
acquire a habit. It also implies that a habit is not easy to overcome or alter. It requires a strong – willed
person to correct a habit successfully within a limited period of time.

Rights and Duties

Man is born with rights and duties and having rights is attribute of a person. That is why we have
Commission on Human Rights that addresses Violations of such rights.

We insist on our rights but ignore our duties. Duties however are more fundamental than rights.

The duty to do good and to avoid evil is above all rights,

Definition of right

Objectively - it is anything which is owed or due.

Subjectively -that is, as residing in a person, right is a moral power, bound to be respected by others,
of doing, possessing or requiring something.

Kinds of Rights

1. Natural rights

2. Human rights

3. Civil rights

4. Ecclesiastical or religious rights

5. Alienable and inalienable Rights

6. Right of jurisdiction

7. Right of property

8. Juridical right

9. Non-Juridical rights

Natural rights are those based on the natural law, that is, on human nature.

Human rights are those based on human positive laws, either those enacted by the State or a religious
sect.
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Civil rights are those dependent upon the laws of the state.

Ecclesiastical or religious rights are those dependent upon the laws of a church or a religious sect.

Alienable and Inalienable Rights

Alienable rights are those, civil or religious rights, which can be surrendered, renounced, or removed,
such as the right to decent livelihood.

Right of jurisdiction is the power of lawful authority to govern his subjects and to make laws for them.

Right of property is the power to own, to sell, to barter, to lend, to change, or give away one's personal
possessions.

Juridical right refers to all rights insofar as they are based on laws. These rights must be respected,
allowed, fulfilled, as a matter of strict justice.

Non-Juridical rights are those which are founded on laws, either natural or human, but on virtue. Thus,
these are also called moral rights.

Definition of Duty

Objectively - it is anything we are obliged to do or to omit.

Subjectively - It is a moral obligation incumbent upon a person of doing, omitting, or avoiding

something.

Duty is a moral obligation because it depends upon freewill.

AS such it resides on a person. Duty is defined by law, any wilful neglect of duty makes the person
accountable for such act.

Kinds of Duties

1. Natural duties

2. Positive duties

3. Affirmative duties

4. Negative duties

Natural duties are those imposed by natural law such as, the duty to care for our health.

Positive duties are those imposed by a human positive law such as the duty to pay taxes and to
observe traffic rules

Affirmative duties are those which require the performance of a certain act, such as casting a ballot
during election applying for a business license.

Negative duties are those which require the omission of a certain act such as not carrying legal
firearms, or not destroying the property of other.
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Ethics as Value Education

Ethics relies solely on human reason to investigate truths. Ethics takes the form of Value Education. A
value is something a person prizes, cherishes and esteems as important to him. The aim of Value
Education is to guide the individual in choosing wisely his values and in acting upon them.

Man is a person who possesses an intellect (insight) and will (volition). Person is considered as self or
ego which implies self sufficiency of the person and implies worth or value.

The first and most fundamental of the values is self.

For example-Actions are values because they are the result of intellect and will, motivated towards
something desirable (another value).

Value is intimately related to the search for meaning in human life, Life is meaningful when a man has
found something capable of arousing his commitment to it, something deserving for his best efforts,
something worth living for and worth dying for.

Values enable man to change, to establish self-control and self-direction.

What Are Values?

Values" is the term given to those ideas, behaviors, and actions that are important to us. Values are
those things worth fighting for and those things worth sacrificing for. They're what we hold most dear.
Our values strongly influence our decision making and help determine where we place our emphasis
on our personal and professional lives. Values form the basis for our understanding of ethics.

Within society, we have personal values and societal values. Our personal values are ours alone and
are informed by our upbringing, cultural and ethnic background, religious beliefs and personal
experiences. Because personal values are unique to each individual, they are not a proper platform on
which to base professional ethics, though they may inform how we view, appreciate and approach
ethical behavior.

It comes from the Latin word "valere" which means "to be strong or to be worth".

Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes.
As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all,
"Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and dignity are
representatives of values.

In ethics, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining
what actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics), or to describe the
significance of different actions. Value systems are proscriptive and prescriptive beliefs, they affect
ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are
strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn
depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases or alters. An object with ethic
value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good (noun sense)

There are some values, though, that are essentially universally held by society. These societal values
are those ideals that are held most dear by culture or group, and these are expectation the values or
from which we derive our understanding and expectation ethics and ethical behavior. Such ideals
include:
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 Integrity

 Honest

 Hard work

 Kindness

 Compassion

 Empathy

 Sympathy

 Justice

 Bravery

Integrity- the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles, moral uprightness.

"He is known to be a man of integrity", "I never doubted his integrity

Honesty - Honesty is when you speak the truth and act truthfully. Many children think honesty means
you "don't tell a lie-and that is definitely part of being honest. But honesty means more than not lying.
A more complete definition of honesty shows that an honest person doesn't do things that are morally
wrong.

Hard work a great deal of effort or endurance. Working intelligently and vigorously at a given task to
complete it with maximum efficiency.

"It takes hard work to be successful in business"

Kindness - Kindness is defined as the quality of being friendly, generous, and considerate. Affection,
gentleness warmth, concern, and care are words that are associated with kindness. While kindness
has a connotation of meaning someone is naive or weak, that is not the case. Being often requires
courage and strength.

Compassion - sympathetic pity and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others. Compassion
motivates people to go out of their way to help the physical, mental, ore emotional pains of another
and themselves.

"The victims should be treated with compassion"

Empathy - the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.

"What is really important about learning a language is learning empathy for another culture"

Sympathy - is a shared feeling, usually of sorrow, pity or compassion for another person. You show
concern for another person when you feel sympathy for them.. With empathy, you put yourself in
another's shoes, often feeling things more deeply than if you just felt sympathy.

The differences between the most commonly used meanings of these two terms is:
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Sympathy is feeling compassion, sorrow, or pity for the hardships that another person encounters

Empathy is putting yourself in the shoes of another, which is why actors often talk about it.

Justice is the morally fair and right state of everything. To have justice as a person's character trait
means that they are just and treat everyone the same, or how they would like to be treated.

Formal justice - is the impartial, consistent and strict application of established rules or laws, material
justice concerns the justice or injustice of the content of rules or laws.

Now formal justice can be defined as treating persons in accordance with their rights, where the
question of what a person's rights are.

Bravery – the quality or state of having or showing mental or moral strength to face danger, fear or
difficulty: courageous behavior or character.

"Perhaps I’ll get a medal for bravery”

These ideals, these so-called universal values, help guide us toward ethical behavior and ethical
decision making. They help inform us of what is expected of us and what actions we should take.

Personal Values

Personal values evolve from circumstances with the external world and can change overtime. Integrity
in the application of values refers to its continuity; persons have integrity if they apply their values
appropriately regardless of arguments or negative reinforcement from others. Values are applied
appropriately when they are applied in the right area.

For example, it would be appropriate to apply religious values in times of happiness as well as in times
of despair.

Personal values are implicitly related to choice; they guide decisions by allowing for an individual’s
choices to be compared to each choices associated values.

Personal values developed early in life may be resistant to change. They may be derived from those
of particular groups or systems, such as culture, religion and political party. However, personal values
are not universal; ones genes, family, nation and historical environment help determine one’s personal
values. This is not to say that the value concepts themselves are not universal, merely that each
individual possess a unique conception of them.

Example: A personal knowledge of the appropriate values for their own genes, feelings and
experience.

Personal value of other persons is the dignity of that other person.

Your values are the things that you believe are important in the way you live and work. They (should)
determine your priorities, and deep down, they are probably the measures you use to tell if your life is
turning out the way you want it to.
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Types of values

Values to influence attitudes and behaviour and these types include

1. Ethical/moral values

2. Doctrina/ideological (political, religious) values

3. Social values

4. Aesthetic values

Ethical/moral values – a person who knows the difference between right and wrong and chooses right
is moral. A person whose morality is reflected in his willingness to do the right thing – even if it is hard
or dangerous – is ethical. Ethics are moral values in action.

Moral values are relative values that protect life and are respectful of the dual life value of self and
others. The great moral values, such as truth, freedom, charity, etc. have one thing in common.

Doctrins/ideological values

Doctrine (from Latin: doctrina, meaning “teaching”, “instruction” or “doctrine”) is a codification of beliefs
or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a
given branch of knowledge or in a belief system.

Ideological – is an adjective that describes political, cultural or religious beliefs. An ideology is a body
of ideas and those who agree with the main idea of something take an ideological stand to support it.

Social values – are a set of moral principles defined by society dynamics, institutions, traditions and
cultural beliefs. These values are implicit guidelines that provide orientation to individuals and
corporations to conduct themselves properly within a social system.

Aesthetic values – aesthetic value is the values that an object, event or state of affairs (most
paradigmatically an art work or the natural environment) possesses in virtue of its capacity to elicit
pleasure (positive value) or displeasure (negative value) when appreciated or experienced
aesthetically.

The nature of Aesthetic Value proposes that aesthetic goodness, the property in virtue of which works
of art are valuable, is a matter of their capacity in appropriate circumstances to give satisfaction.

Kinds of Values – according to the level of human life to which they correspond.

1. Biological Values

2. Social Values

3. Rational Values

Biological Values – necessary to the physical survival of man as an organism

1. Life and health

2. Food and shelter

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3. Work

Social Values – necessary to the sensual needs and fulfilment

1. Leisure and Sex

2. Marriage

3. Family and Home

4. Parental Authority

5. Education

Rational Values – necessary to the functions and fulfilment of intellect and will

1. Understanding and control of nature

2. Guide and control of oneself

3. Solidarity

4. Parental authority with fellowmen

5. Religion

Moral Values – are those that directly pertain to the function of intelligent and will: those choices,
decisions, and actions, by which man’s national faculties are involved and perfected.

Characteristics of Moral Values

1. Moral values are goods having intrinsic qualities of desirability

2. Moral values are universal – they appeal to man a man and to man as specific individual

3. Moral values are obligatory – they come as natural duty, because possession of them is expected
as an integral quality to man as rational creature directed by natural powers towards truth and
goodness.

What is Virtue?

The ancient Romans used the Latin word virtus (derived from vir, their word for man) to refer to all the
“excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude.” The
French words vertu and virtu came from this Latin root. In the 13th century, the word virtue was <<
borrowed into English>>.

Virtue (Latin: virtus, ancient greek: ὰῤꜪᵀή<<arête>> is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality
that is deemed to be orally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being.
Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting collective and individual greatness.

Four moral virtues according to scholastic philosophy

1. Prudence – treats how you handle yourself

2. Justice – treats your interactions with other people

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3. Fortitude/courage – treats your aversion

4. Temperance/moderation – treats your desire

Aristotle’s Cardinal Virtues and Their Subdivisions

Subjective Parts 1 Potential Parts 2 Integral Parts 3

Prudence: In self – direction Ability in Memory

command
Habit of choosing right In domestic Docility
means to achieve behaviours Ability in
worthy ends execution Sagacity
In public affairs
Valuation

Reasoning

Inventiveness

Foresight

Circumspection

Caution

Justice: Commutative Religion Give rights to others

Justice
Habit of rendering the Piety to parents Avoid injury to others
other his /her rights Distributive Justice
Obedience
Legal Justice
Respect to
superiors
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Liberality

Fidelity

Friendliness

Gratitude

Patriotism

Temperance: Frugality Continence Senses of shame

Habit of moderation in Abstinence Meekness Senses of propriety

use of pleasurable
things Sobriety Clemency Calmness

Chastity Humility

Modesty Self – respect

Dignity Studiousness

Good temper Good manners

Proper dress

Fortitude: None Same as integrals About actions:

Habit of restraining fear Magnanimity

or moderation of rash
behavior in the face of Magnificence
danger or difficulty Munificence

About bearing:

Patience

Perseverance

Notes:

1. Subjective parts: sub – categories of the virtues that are distinct from each other.

2. Potential parts: Virtues related to the cardinal virtues but are not a complete expression of the
cardinal virtue.

3. Integral parts: Conditions and actions that are necessary to perfect the virtue as a habit.

Aristotle’s ethics is an inquiry into how humans should lie in order to achieve the highest good,
eudiamonia in Greek. This term is often translated as ‘happiness but can also mean flourishing.’
Humans seek this highest good, this flourishing, in accordance with human nature, which for Aristotle,
is set apart by rationality.
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Aristotle describes virtue as a habit, a tendency of character to act in accordance with practical reason
toward worthy ends.

Furthermore, Aristotle regarded virtue as occupying a state between extremes, a state between two
vices, one of excess and the other of deficiency. The cardinal virtues are those habits of character
which are primary in guiding the individual toward that ‘golden mean’ in particular situations.

Other variables Aristotle recognized as in influencing our ability to develop virtues include the culture
in general, sufficient income, enough power to resist being overwhelmed by the less virtuous, a
positive body image, parents who live long enough to raise you and peer support.

I – Prudence

It is a characterized by “being careful about one’s choices, not taking undue risks, and not saying or
doing things that might later be regretted.” Prudence’s roots date back to Aristotle’s writing on practical
wisdom, in which he hails it as a crucial, linking virtue.

Prudence is described as an intellectual habit (virtue) enabling the person to deliberate properly in
order to choose the virtuous course, the right means of action in any here and now situation. As such,
it is primary over the other cardinal virtues. Its integral parts all relate to cognitive activities related to
making good choices.

Currently, prudence is usually used I reference to financial or political situations, but to psychologist
prudence’s meaning extends much further. According to Peterson and Seligman (2004), “Individuals
with this strength have the following attributes:

1. They take a foresighted stance toward their personal future, thinking and caring about it, planning
for it, and holding long – term goals and aspirations.

2. They are skilled at resisting self – defeating impulses and at persisting in beneficial activities that
lack immediate appeal.

3. They show a style of thinking about everyday life choices that is reflective, deliberate, and practical.

4. They harmonize the multiple goals and interests that motivate them, forming these into a stable,
coherent, and UN – conflicted form of life.

II – Justice

It is the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, fairness or
equity, along with the punishment of the breach said ethics.

According to most theories or Justice, it is overwhelmingly, important: [John Rawils] claims that
“Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought." Justice can be thought
of as distinct from and more fundamental than benevolence, charity, mercy, generosity or compassion.

Justice has traditionally been associated with concepts of fate reincarnation or Divine Providence, The
association of justice with fairness has thus been historically and culturally rare and is perhaps chiefly
a modern innovation [in western societies.

It is a familiar virtue to most of us and can be defined as rendering to others his/her rights.
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Variations of justice

1. Utilitarianism

It is a form of consequentialism, where punishment is forward-looking. Justified by the ability to

achieve future social benefits resulting in crime reduction, the moral worth of an action is determined
by its outcome.

2. Retributive Justice

It regulates proportionate response to crime proven by lawful evidence, so that punishment is justly
imposed and considered as morally correct and fully deserved. The law of retaliation (lex talionis) is a
military theory of retributive justice, which says that reciprocity should be equal to the wrong suffered;
"life for life, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.

3. Restorative Justice

It is concerned not so much with retribution and punishment as with (a) making the victim whole and (b)
reintegrating the offender into society. This approach frequently brings an offender and a victim
together, so that the offender can better understand the effect his/her offense had on the victim.

4. Distributive Justice

It is directed at the proper allocation of things -wealth, power, reward, respect- among different people.

5. Oppressive Law

Exercise an authoritarian approach to legislation that is “totally unrelated to justice”, a tyrannical

interpretation of law is one in which the population lives under restriction from unlawful legislation.

III – Fortitude

Enables a person to stand firm against and endure the hardships of life, to restrain fear, or to
moderate fear in the face of danger, all done in accordance with reason.

Fortitude is one of the four cardinal virtues. As such, it can be practiced by anyone, since, unlike the
theological virtues, the cardinal virtues are not, in themselves, the gifts of good through grace but the
outgrowth of habit.

Fortitude is commonly called courage, but is different from what much of what we think as a courage
today. Fortitude is always reasoned and reasonable; the person exercising fortitude s willing to put
himself in danger if necessary, but he does not seek danger for danger’s sake.

St. Thomas Aquinas ranked fortitude as the third of the cardinal virtues, because it serves prudence
and justice, the higher virtues. Fortitude is the virtue that allows us to overcome fear and to remain
steady in our will in the face of obstacles. Prudence and justice are the virtues through which we
decide what needs to be done; fortitude gives us the strength to do it.

IV – Temperance

(Sophrosyne) in Greek is defined as “moderation in action, thought or feeling; restraint.” It is the habit
of moderation in the use of pleasurable things.
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Choosing our Values

Man must be wise enough to choose his values in accordance to their intrinsic worth.

Guides in our preference to choose values

1. Permanent or lasting values must be preferred over temporary values.

Example: Education over courtship

2. Values favoured by greater number of people must be preferred over those that appeal only to the
few

Example: Discipline over personal freedom

3. Values that are essential must be preferred over those

4. That are accidental

Example: health over beauty

5. Values that give greater satisfaction must be preferred over those that provide short-lived
pleasures

Example: pursuing your artistic hobby over fanatical devotion to a movie star

The Highest Value – GOD

Summum bonum – Latin expression meaning << the highest good>>, which was introduced by the
Roman philosopher Cicero, to correspond to the idea of the Good in ancient Greek philosophy. The
summum bonum is generally thought of as being an end in itself and at the same time containing all
other goods.

The term was used in medieval philosophy. In the Thomist synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christianity,
the highest good is usually defined as the life of the righteous and/or the life led in communion with
God and according to God>s precepts. In Kantianism, it was used to describe the ultimate importance,
the singular and overriding end which human beings ought to pursue.

He is the Summum Bonum, the ultimate and absolute good that will fulfil all human desires. God is
the ultimate end of

human life. God is not only the Alpha and the Omega of the created universe, he is the preserver of
values.

This principle obligates the ethical reasoner to examine all possible goods that bear on an issue, to
rank them in an ascending, and to choose the highest among them as the "master good.” Such
ranking can be based on the truths of purpose, goodness, morality, and utility, among others. As such,
the concept of summum bonum characterizes "the morals of all morals" and the ethics of all ethics.

Benefits of Knowing God

What makes knowing God the highest good? As we said the summum bonum is the highest good out
of which all good flows. If we are going to fully give ourselves to the endeavor of studying and knowing
God, we must be fully convinced of the benefits of this endeavor.
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I – Eternal Life/Quality of Life

The first benefit is eternal life. Eternal life is not primarily about length of life, for everybody will live
eternally in one of two places. It is also about quality of life. This means the more we know God and
the more we understand and build a relationship with him, the more our quality of life increases. We
start to live life the way it was meant to be lived.

We study God to have a relationship with him that enriches our quality of life and will continue
throughout eternity as we know God. We study God to know what life is, and therefore, what life is not.

II- Proper Evaluation of Humanity

There is something else that happens when we encounter God. We begin to rightly evaluate ourselves
and others. Studying God is like looking at a mirror. We see our faults, our problems, and maybe even
our virtues. This happens in order that we may be changed.

III – Knowing God Reveals Our Sin

Many people have a tendency to wrongly evaluate themselves because they judge themselves by
looking at other people. I am really smart in comparison with him. I am really beautiful in comparison
with her. I am really holy in comparison with those people. Pride exists because people are looking at
the wrong person. They are looking at themselves or one another, instead of God. Pride would be
eliminated if people had a proper relationship with God. Knowing God not only helps us evaluate
ourselves but also others. As our society turns father away from God, the more it will be common for
man to praise evil and hate good.

IV – Knowing God Helps Us Give Value to Humanity

When we look at our society and see the killing of innocent babies, sex trafficking, the growing murder
rates and suicide rates around the world, we should realize this is happening because people don’t
know God and can’t properly value human life. Man is made in the image of God, and therefore, has
value. I have value because in some way or another even though I sin, I bear the image of God.
Having God as my maker and having been created in his likeness, gives me innate value. Humanity
has values.

V – Proper Evaluation of Morality

The next benefit of knowing God is a proper evaluation of morality. We have hinted at this already in
looking at humanity but a proper understanding of God also affects how we evaluate morality – what is
right and wrong. We see varying lifestyles in society based on our understanding of God.

When society starts to deny God, they will become an unwise, incompetent, and loveless society.
Without proper thinking, proper decision making, and proper love, the whole value system of society
will be fractured.

VI – Not Knowing God Leads to Approval of Sin

When you look at society and see the movies, the media, and the people that are elevated or put on
pedestals, it is a picture of the result of not knowing God.
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Society says sex before marriage is right, homosexuality is right, pornography is right, the murder of
the innocent is right, and alcohol abuse is right, and the worship of the biblical God and the practice of
biblical values is wrong, and often met with persecution.

The knowledge of God is necessary to help us properly evaluate morality – what is right and wrong.
We must study God to properly calibrate our hearts and minds.

VII – Peace and Security

Therefore, the proverb means that those who "know God and his characteristics” will find safety,
security, and peace. When others are afraid and fearful at events in life, God keeps those who know
him at peace and protects them.

VIII – Increased Wisdom

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. Next, when Solomon says, the knowledge of the Holy
One is understanding, he probably is just using Hebrew parallelism to say the same thing. To fear the
Lord means to know the Holy One, and to receive Wisdom is the same as understanding. Solomon is
using a parallel statement for emphasis.

IX – Multiplication of Blessings

Peter says the knowledge of God leads to "multiplied" blessings. It is through the knowledge of God
that grace, peace, and power are multiplied to believers.

X – Multiplied Grace

The first multiplied blessing he names is "grace," which means unmerited favor.

XI – Multiplied Peace

May grace and peace be multiplied to you in the knowledge of God and Jesus our Lord" (emphasis
mine). In the Bible receive two kinds of peace. There is peace with God that we receive by accepting
Christ as Lord and Savior.

XII – Multiplied Power

Finally, we also receive power. Being in God’s presence and knowing him brings a certain amount of
power in the life of the seeker. Peter says the person who knows God receives power to be godly.

XIII – A Worthy and Pleasing Life

The next benefit of knowing God is a worthy and pleasing life.

Christians who offer God “everything plus” are people who are “pleasing” to God. He enjoys them and
rejoices over them with songs. That is what happens when a person really knows God; they start to
demonstrate God’s worth in varying ways.

XIV – Fruitfulness

The next benefit of knowing God is a fruitful life. And we pray this in order that you may live a life
worthy of the Lord and may please him in every way: “bearing fruit in every good work, growing in the
knowledge of God”.
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XV – Endurance, Patience, Joy and Thanksgiving

Endurance

Endurance means “to bear up under a heavy weight”. Through knowing God, we receive power to
endure a hard life situation. God gives us grace to persevere through trials.

Patience

What is the difference between endurance and patience? It seems that the difference between
patience and endurance is the fact that patience primarily has to do with people. God gives us power
to endure difficult people without retaliation.

Joy

Joy is an inwards attitude that has nothings to do with circumstances, but on one’s relationship with
God. A person that is growing in the knowledge of God can go through difficult situations with joy

Thanksgiving

Finally we see that thanksgiving is also a result of knowing god. Thanksgiving is the outward
expression of this internal joy in all circumstances. We saw this perfectly modelled by job as he
thanked God even in the midst of his trials. This was a man “filled with the knowledge of God’s will

The Benefits of Wisdom

Wisdom is byproduct of knowing God.

When you know God, you have a less problematic life, and you are victorious when problems
come.
Wisdom provides the tools to face disappointment in light of the wisdom of God’s Word, which
tells us He is sovereign and has a plan and destiny for each of us.