Introduction

Why Ethics Matters?

Ethics can be defined as a set of moral principles or rules of conduct that provide guidance for
our behavior when it affects others. Widely acknowledged fundamental ethical principles include
honestly, fairness, diligence, and care and respect for others. Ethical conduct follows those principles
and balances self-interest with both the direct and the indirect consequences of that behavior for other
people. Not only does unethical behavior by individuals have serious personal consequences ranging
from job loss and reputational damage to fines and even jail.
Governments and regulators have historically tried to combat misconduct through regulatory
reform, with various level of success. However, compliance with regulation alone is sufficiently to
fully earn trust. Individuals and organization must develop a “culture of integrity” that permeates all
levels of operations and promotes the ethical principles, above and beyond strict compliance with the
law. A strong ethical culture that helps honest, ethical people engage in ethical behavior will foster the
trust of every body, and ultimately benefit society. That is why ethics matters.
Ethics and Society
The premise is that we want to live in a socially, politically, and financially stable society that
fosters individual well-being and welfare of the public.
Ethics for a global industry should be universal and ultimately support trust and integrity
above acceptable local or regional customs and culture. Universal ethics for a global industry strongly
supports the efficiency, values, and mission of the industry as a whole. Different countries may be at
different stages of development in establishing standards of practice, but the end goal must be to
achieve rules, regulations, and standards that support and promote fundamental ethical principles on a
global basis.
Sustainability and the Actions of One
Individuals and organizations also have to look at the indirect impacts of their actions on the
broader community. The increasingly interconnected nature of global situation brings to the fore an
added consideration of sustainability, perhaps, less appreciated in years past. In addition to
committing to the highest levels of ethical behavior, today’s professionals and their employers should
consider the long-term health of the organization as a whole.
Professionals should consider how their decision-making processes affect the global
situations in the broader context of how they apply their ethical and professional obligations. Those in
positions of authority have a special responsibility to consider the broader context of sustainability in
their development and approval of policies.
In addition, compensation strategies should not encourage otherwise ethically sound
individuals to engage in unethical or questionable conduct for financial gain. Ethics, sustainability,
and properly functioning agencies/organizations are components of the same concept of protecting the
best interests of all.
 CHAPTER I
Ethics and Values

An Overview on the History of Ethics

The English word “ethics” is derived from an Ancient Greek word, êthikos, which means
“relating to one’s character”. The Ancient Greek adjective êthicos is itself derived from another Greek
word, the noun êthos meaning “character, disposition.
It comes from the Latin word “ethos” means customary, behavior, moral. The two words
Latin – ethicus and Greek ethikos have the same meaning which is customary.

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing,

defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The field of ethics, along with
aesthetics concern matters of value, and thus comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology
(study of value).
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and
evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.
Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:
1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how
their truth values (if any) can be determined
2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action
3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific
situation or a particular domain of action.
There are five significant periods of history that are worth to discuss with our subject “Ethics”.
1. The Classical Period
2. The Middle Ages
3. The Early Modern Period
4. The Nineteenth Century
5. The Contemporary Period
The Classical Period
Qualities of Mind during this period according to Jones, et. al
1. A concern with this world and its affair; an interest in nature and in the natural man
2. A thorough rationalism, a respect for evidence, as evidence was understood in those times
3. Most important of all, curiosity

We can summed up these qualities of mind in the term “Humanism”

Philosophers and their Principal Works:
1. Plato The Republic
2. Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics
3. Epicuros Letter of Herodotus
Letter of Menaeceus
Principal Doctrines

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The Middle Ages

This period is considered to be a study of continuity and discontinuity.

It is termed “Continuity” because many of the philosophers were steeped in classical doctrine. A good
example is Thomas Aquinas who put the teaching of Aristotle within the framework of Christianity.
On the other hand, it is termed “Discontinuity” in the sense that religion has come into the picture.
Philosophy such as Ethics and Metaphysics were interwoven with theology.
Philosophers and their Principal Works:
1. Boethius His Consolation of Philosophy
2. Augustine The Happy Life,
The City of Man
The City of God
3. St. Bernard of Clairvaux The Steps of Humility
4. Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologica

The Early Modern Period

The philosophy that develops during this period are the following:
1. A shift from the supernatural from natural, temporal and secular
2. An attempt to balance the supernatural and the temporal, as many of the philosophers were
not really weaned from the religion of the past
3. The rise of modern science specially physics
4. The changes brought about by the industrial and social revolutions towards the end of the
period

Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Nicolo Machiavelli The Prince
2. Thomas Hobbes Leviathan
3. Benedict Spinoza Ethics
4. John Locke Easy Concerning Human
Understanding
5. Joseph Butler Sermons
6. David Hume Picture of Human Nature
7. Emmanuel Kant Lecture on Ethics

The Nineteenth Century

Several tendencies characterized this period:
1. Utilitarianism with the level of “the greatest good to the greatest number”.
2. The scientific theory. Although this started in the previous century but many philosophers
applies it with ethical questions during this period like Bentham.
3. The individual versus the state
4. Scepticism as to the place of ethics in metaphysics, that is, if ethics can only be a chapter in
metaphysics or not.
5. Irrationalism: in contrast with the “man is a rational animal” of Aristotle, Aquinas, and their
followers

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Philosophers and their Principal Works:
1. Jeremy Bentham An Introduction to the Principles of
Morals and Legislation
2. George Wilhelm Friedrich The Philosophy of History
Hegel
3. Arthur Schopenhauer The World as Will and Idea
4. John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism
5. Soren Kierkegaard Either/Or
6. Friedrich Nietzcche Sounding Out Idols
7. Francis Herbert Bradley Ethical Studies

The Contemporary Period

The philosophers of this period exhibit a diversity of trends in moral beliefs: For and against the
scientific theory, logical positivism, return of belief of man as sinful, existentialism with its own
diverse spokesmen.
Better elucidation of “what man is” was emphasized.
1. Sigmund Freud Civilization and its Discontents
2. John Dewey Reconstruction in Philosophy
3. G. E. Moore Principia Ethica
4. Paul Tillich Systematic Theology
Theology of Culture
5. Jean Paul Sartre Being and Nothingness
6. Alfred Jules Ayer Language, Truth and Logic

Definitions of Ethics
As a field of study, ethics is a branch of philosophy which studies the principles of right or wrong in
human conduct. Right or wrong are qualities assigned to actions, conduct, and behavior. As such,
ethicists inquire into the correctness of such acts as promise keeping, truth telling, integrity,
deception, and compassion. Good and bad, on the other hand, are qualities that characterize ends,
goals, and purposes. As such, ethicists inquire into the reason for living and working; the goals that
should be pursued in order to lead a successful life; and the purposes that should motivate people in
their life choices (Porter, 1980)
Other definitions:
 Science of the morality of man.
 Study of human motivation, and ultimately of human rational behavior.
 Morality.
 “The principles of conduct governing an individual or profession” (Webster)
 It answers the question, “What do I do?”
 It is the study of right and wrong in human endeavors.

Ethical Foundations
“Ethics is concerned with questions that have no ultimate answers, yet are important to planning one’s
life, justifying one’s activities and deciding what one ought to do.”

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Ethical Principles
1. Beneficence
 Doing good for others
 Helping others
 Obligation to act in the interest of others
 Beneficence is the professional duty to do or produce good. By “good” is meant the
performance of acts of kindness and charity. “Doing good” is considered virtuous conduct.

General Duty to Beneficence

 How significant is the need to be met?
 Am I particularly qualified to meet the need?
 How likely is it that my action will achieve success, i.e., a desired outcome?
 How much of a risk is it to me? Does the potential benefit outweigh the risk to me?

2. Nonmaleficence
 Prevent harm or risk of harm to clients
 Includes misguidance, negligence, and impact of stress/burnout

3. Autonomy
 Self-rule or self-governance
 Free from the control of others
 Three conditions necessary
 Voluntary participation / no coercion
 Competence / can weigh risks and benefits
 Full disclosure of relevant information

4. Justice
 Fairness in relation to distribution or allocation of time, resources and services
 Equal Shares
 Need
 Motivation / Effort / Contribution
 Free-Market Exchange (supply and demand)
 Fair Opportunity

5. Fidelity
 Keeping promises or commitments
 Confidentiality
 Conflicts of Interests

Importance of Ethics
 Indispensable knowledge.
 Without moral perception, man is only an animal.
 Without morality, man as rational being is a failure.

Ethics is a requirement for human life

 It is our means of deciding a course of action.
 Without it, our actions would be random and aimless.
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  There would be no way to work towards a goal because there would be no way to pick
between a limitless numbers of goals.
 To the degree which a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize our
goals and actions to accomplish our most important values.

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from Ancient Greek
ethikos, from ethos, meaning ‘habit, custom’. The field of ethics, along with aesthetics concern
matters of value, and thus compromise the branch of philosophy called axiology.

The word philosophy is derived from two Greek words. The first word, philo, means “love”. The
second,sophy, means “love of wisdom”. Each individual has an attitude toward life, children, politics,
learning, and previous personal experiences that informs and shapes their set of beliefs. Although you
may not be conscious of it, this set of beliefs, or personal philosophy, informs how you live, work,
and interact with others.

The four main branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic.
Metaphysics – is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the nature
of ultimate reality. It asks questions like, what is real? What is the origin of the world? What is
beyond the stars? Your consideration of reality as an external creation or an internal construct can
influence your metaphysical beliefs and perspectives and your teaching. Regardless of your definition
of reality, the exploration and categorization of the physical universe form the foundation of several
school subjects.
Epistemology – is the branch of philosophy that considers how people come to learn what
they know. Derived from the Greek word episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding,
epistemology refers to the nature and origin of knowledge and truth. Epistemology proposes that there
are four main bases of knowledge: divine revelation, experience, logic and reason, and intuition.
These influence how teaching, learning, and understanding come about in the classroom.
Axiology – is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values.
These values are divided into two main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of
morals and personal values. Aesthetics is the examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful.
In axiology education is more than just about knowledge but also quality of life.
Logic – is the branch of philosophy that seeks to organize reasoning. Students of logic learn
how to think in a structurally sound manner. Logic has two types: deductive and inductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning involves examining a general case, deducing a general set of rules or principles,
and then applying these rules to specific cases. Inductive reasoning involves taking specific examples
and considering the general principles, rules, or cases that caused them.

Moral Distinctions
“Dictates of Reasons” stands for the norm of morality which is the standard by which actions are
judged as to their merits or demerits.
Classification of Actions According to the Norms of Morality
1. Moral (Good) actions
2. Immoral (Bad) actions
3. Amoral (Indifferent) actions

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Voluntariness comes from the Latin word “voluntas”, referring to the Will. It is essential to an act.
Without it, an act is a mere act of man.

The Modifiers of Human Acts

1. Ignorance – absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess
Classification of Ignorance
a. Vincible ignorance can easily be reminded through ordinary diligence and reasonable
efforts.
b. Invincible ignorance is the type which a person possesses without being aware of it, or
having awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it.

“Ignorance of the law excuses no one” – implies that no one should not act in the state of
ignorance and that no one who has done wrong may not claim ignorance as a defense.

2. Passions – either tendencies towards desirable objects, or tendencies away from undesirable
or harmful things.
Classification of Passions
a) positive emotions – love, desire, delight, hope and bravery.
b) negative emotions – hatred, horror, sadness, despair, fear, and anger.
Passions are psychic responses. As such, they are neither moral nor immoral, however, man
is bound to regulate his emotions and submit them to the control of reason.
3. Fear – disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger or
harm to himself or loved ones.

4. Violence – refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the
purpose of compelling said person to act against his will.
Bodily torture, maltreatment, isolation, and mutilation are examples of violence against
person.
5. Habits – is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a
certain manner. They are acquired inclinations towards something to be done.

Rights and Duties

Man is born with rights and duties and having rights is an attribute of a person. That is why we have
Commission on Human Rights that addresses violations of such rights.
We insists on our rights but ignore our duties. Duties however are more fundamental than rights.
The duty to do good and to avoid evil is above all rights.
Definition of Right
Objectively – it is anything which is owned or due.
Subjectively – that is, as residing in a person, right is a moral power, bound to be respected by others,
of doing, possessing, or requiring something.

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Kinds of Rights
1. Natural rights – are those based on the natural law, that is, on human nature.
2. Human rights – are those based on human positive laws, either those enacted by the State or a
religious sect.
3. Civil rights – are those dependent upon the laws of the state.
4. Ecclesiastical or religious rights – are those dependent upon the laws of a church or a
religious sect.
5. Alienable and inalienable rights – Alienable rights are those, civil or religious right, which
can be surrendered, renounced, or removed, such as the right to decent livelihood.
6. Right of Jurisdiction – is the power of lawful authority to govern his subjects and to make
laws for them.
7. Right of property- is the power to own, to sell, to barter, to lend, to change, or give away
one’s personal possessions.
8. Juridical right – refers to all rights insofar as they are based on laws. These rights must be
respected, allowed, fulfilled, as a matter of strict justice.
9. Non-Juridical rights – are those which are founded on laws, either natural or human, but on
virtue. Thus, these are also called moral rights.
Definition of Duty
Objectively – it is anything we are obliged to do or to omit.
Subjectively – it is a moral obligation incumbent upon a person of doing, omitting, or avoiding
something.
Duty is a moral obligation because it depends upon freewill. As such it resides on a person.
Duty is defined by law; any willful neglect of duty makes the person accountable for such act.
Kinds of Duties
1. Natural duties – are those imposed by natural law such as, the duty to care for our health.
2. Positive duties – are those imposed by a human positive law such as the duty to pay taxes and
to observe traffic rules.
3. Affirmative duties – are those which require the performance of a certain act, such as casting
a ballot during election; applying for a business licence.
4. Negative duties – are those which require the omission of a certain act such as not carrying
illegal firearms, or not destroying the property of other.

What are Values?

“Values” is the term given to those ideas, behaviors, and actions that are important to us.
Values are those things worth fighting for and those things worth sacrificing for. Our values strongly
influence our decision making and help determine where we place our emphasis on our personal and
professional lives. Values form the basis for our understanding of ethics.

There are some value, though, that are essentially universally held by society. These societal
values are those ideals that are held most dear by culture or group, and these are the values from
which we derive our understanding and expectation of ethics and ethical behavior. Such ideals
include:
 Integrity – the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles; moral uprightness.
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  Honesty – is when you speak the truth and act truthfully.
 Hard work – a great deal of effort or endurance. Working intelligently and vigorously at a
given task to complete it with maximum efficiency.
 Kindness – is defined as the quality of being friendly, generous, and considerate. Affection,
gentleness, warmth, concern, and care are words that are associated with kindness.
 Compassion – sympathetic pity and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others.
Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to help the physical, mental, or emotional
pains of another and themselves.
 Empathy – the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
 Sympathy – is a shared feeling, usually of sorrow, pity or compassion for another person.
 Justice – is the morally fair and right state of everything.
 Bravery – the quality or state of having or showing mental or moral strength to face danger,
fear, or difficulty: courageous behavior or character.

Types of Values
Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include:
1. Ethical/moral values – a person who knows the difference between right and wrong and
choose right is moral.
2. Doctrinal/ideological values – Doctrine (from Latin: doctrina, meaning “teaching”,
“instruction” or “doctrine”) is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions,
taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or
in a belief system.
Ideological – is an adjective that describes political, cultural, or religious beliefs. And
ideology is a body of ideas, and those who agree with the main idea of something take an
ideological stand to support it.
3. Social values – are a set of moral principles defined by society dynamics, institutions,
traditions and cultural belief.
4. Aesthetic values – is the value that an object, event or state of affairs (most paradigmatically
an art work or the natural environment) possesses in virtue of its capacity to elicit pleasure
(positive value) or displeasure (negative value) when appreciated or experienced aesthetically.

Kinds of Values - According to the level of human life to which they correspond.
1. Biological Values – necessary to the physical survival of man as an organism
1.a. Life and health
1.b. Food and shelter
1.c. Work
2. Social Values – necessary to the sensual needs and fulfilment
2.a. Leisure and Sex
2.b. Marriage
2.c. Family and Home
2.d. Parental Authority
2.e. Education
3. Rational Values – necessary to the functions and fulfilment of intellect and will
3.a. Understanding and Control of Nature
3.b. Guide and Control of Oneself
3.c. Solidarity
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 3.d. Parental Authority with Fellowmen
3.e. Religion

Moral Values – are those that directly pertain to the function of intellect and will: those choices,
decisions, and actions, by which man’s national faculties are involved and perfected.

What is Virtue?
The ancient Romans used the Latin word virtus (derived from vir, their word for man) to refer to all of
the “excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude.”
The French words vertu and virtu came from this Latin root. In the 13th century, the word virtue was
‹‹borrowed into English››.
Virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of
principle and good moral being.

Four moral virtues according to scholastic philosophy

1. Prudence - treats how you handle yourself
2. Justice – treats your interactions with other people
3. Fortitude/courage – treats your aversion
4. Temperance/moderation – treats your desire

1. Prudence – it is characterized by “being careful about one’s choices, not taking undue risks,
and not saying or doing things that might later be regretted”.
2. Justice – it is the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law,
religion, fairness, or equity, along with the punishment of the breach of said ethics.
Variations of Justice
a. Utilitarianism – it is a form of consequentialism, where punishment is forward-looking.
Justified by the ability to achieve future social benefits resulting in crime reduction, the
moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome.
b. Retributive Justice – it regulates proportionate response to crime proven by lawful
evidence, so that punishment is justly imposed and considered as morally correct and
fully deserved.
c. Restorative Justice – it is concerned not so much with retribution and punishment as
with (a) making the victim whole and (b) reintegrating the offender into society. This
approach frequently brings an offender and a victim together, so that the offender can
better understand the effect his/her offense had on the victim.
d. Distributive Justice – it is directed at the proper allocation of things – wealth, power,
reward, respect – among different people.
e. Oppressive Law – Exercises an authoritarian approach to legislation that is “totally
unrelated to justice”, a tyrannical interpretation of law is one in which the population
lives under restriction from unlawful legislation.
3. Fortitude – enables a person to stand firm against and endure the hardships of life, to restrain
fear, or to moderate fear in the face of danger, all done in accordance with reason.
4. Temperance – it is the habit of moderation in the use of pleasure things.
Other Values
1. Religious Values – pertain to man’s relationship with God, guiding and regulating his
communion with Him.
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 2. Cultural Values – pertain to man’s relationship sharing with others in a given community of
persons, shaping their spiritual kinship, and directing their attention to definite ideals of
behavior.
3. Social Values – pertain to the relationship necessary in the promotion of human society as a
whole, integrating the motivation and interest of members towards the common objective or
goal.
Hierarchy of Values
It refers to the order of values from lowest to the highest in importance.
The goods pertaining to the soul, the intellectual and will occupy the highest level of importance
while the biological values occupy the lowest rank.
The Highest Value – GOD
Benefits of knowing God
1. Eternal Life/Quality of Life – The first benefit is eternal life. It is not primarily about length
of life, for everybody will live eternally in one of two places. It is also about quality of life.
This means the more we know God and the more we understand and build a relationship with
him, the more our quality of life increases.
2. Proper Evaluation of Humanity – There is something else that happen when we encounter
God. We begin to rightly evaluate ourselves and others.
3. Knowing God Reveals Our Sin – Many people have a tendency to wrongly evaluate
themselves because they judge themselves by looking at other people.
4. Knowing God Helps Us Give Value to Humanity – When I look at our society and see the
killing of innocent babies, sex trafficking, the growing murder rates and suicide rates around
the world, we should realize this is happening because people don’t know God and can’t
properly value human life.
5. Proper Evaluation of Morality – The next benefit of knowing God is a proper evaluation of
morality. We have hinted at this already in looking at humanity, but a proper understanding of
God also affects how we evaluate morality – what is right and wrong. We see varying
lifestyles in society based on our understanding of God.
6. Not Knowing God Leads to Approval of Sin – When you look at society and see the
movies, the media, and the people that are elevated or put on pedestals, it is a picture of the
result of not knowing God.
Society says sex before marriage is right, homosexual is right, pornography is right, the
murder of the innocent is right, drug and alcohol abuse is right, and the worship of the biblical
God and the practice of biblical values is wrong, and often met with persecution.
The knowledge of God is necessary to help us properly evaluate morality – what is right and
wrong. We must study God to properly calibrate our hearts and minds.
7. Peace and Security – Therefore, the proverbs means that those who “know God and his
characteristics” will find safety, security, and peace.
8. Increased Wisdom – The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.
9. Multiplication of Blessings – It is through the knowledge of God that grace, peace, and
power are multiplied to believers.
10. Multiplied Grace – The first multiplied blessing he names is “grace,” which means
unmerited favour.
11. Multiplied Peace – In the bible there are two kinds of peace. There is peace with God that we
receive by accepting Christ as Lord and Savior.

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12. Multiplied Power – Finally, we also receive power. Being in God’s presence and knowing
him brings a certain amount of power in the life of the seeker.
13. A Worthy and Pleasing Life – The next benefit of knowing God is a worthy and pleasing
life. When a person really knows God; they start to demonstrate God’s worth in varying ways.
14. Fruitfulness – The next benefit of knowing God is fruitful life. And we pray this in order that
you may live a life worthy of the Lord and may please him in every way.
15. Endurance, Patience, Joy and Thanksgiving
 Endurance – means “to bear up under a heavy weight”. Through knowing God, we
receive power to endure a hard life situation. God gives us grace to persevere through
trials.
 Patience – the difference between endurance and patience, is the fact that patience
primarily has to do with people. God gives us power to endure difficult people
without retaliation.
 Joy – is an inward attitude that has nothing to do with circumstances, but is based on
one’s relationship with God. A person that is growing in the knowledge of God can
go through difficult situations with joy.
 Thanksgiving – finally, we see that thanksgiving is also a result of knowing God.
Thanksgiving is the outward expression of this internal joy in all circumstances. We
saw this perfectly modelled by Job as he thanked God even in the midst of his trials.
This was a man “filled with the knowledge of God’s will.

The Benefits of Wisdom

Wisdom is a by-product of knowing God

When you know God, you have a less
problematic life, and you are victorious
when problems come.

Wisdom provides the tools to face

Disappointment in light of the wisdom of God’s Word,
which tells us He is sovereign and has a plan
and destiny for each of us.

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