SUBJECT CODE : CS524PE JNTUH - R18 B.Tech., IIl-1 (CSE)Professional Elective - I DISTRIBUTED DAT. Iresh A. Dhotre ME. (Information Technology) ExFaculy, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune BASES | FEATURES © Written by Popular Authors of Text Books of Technical Publications Covers Entire Syllabus [@) Question - Answer Format [YZ] Exact Answers & Solutions @& Fill in the Blanks with Answers for Mid Term Exam Z MCQs with Answers for Mid Term Exam Solved Model Question Paper (As Per R18 Pattern) A Guide For Engineering Students @(DECODE. A Guide For Engineering Students DISTRIBUTED DA’ SUBJECT CODE : CS524PE B.Tech, IIl-I [CSE] Professional Elective - II © Copyright with Technical Publications Al publishing rights (printed ond ebook version) reserved with Technical Publications, No part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrieval sysiem without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune Published by “TECHNICAL Printer Yosia) Pinter & Binders, SxNo. 10/1, rrded Village Road, Tal. = Havel, Dist = Pane = 411041 Ghul Indusval Estate, ISBN 978-81-947993-5-1 Jil 199 INTUH 18 9799194799351 [1 “iySYLLABUS Distributed Databases [CS524PE] UNIT «1 Introduction : Distributed Data Processing. Distributed Database S areas, Distributed DBMS Architecture : Architectural Model ystem, Promises of DDBSs, Problem for Distributed DBMS, DDMBS Architecture, Distributed Database Design : Alternative Design Si ategies, Distribution Design issues, Fragmentation, Allocation. (Chapter - 1) UNIT-II Query processing and decomposition : Query processing objectives. characterization of query processors, layers of query processing. query decomposition, localization of distributed data Distributed query Optimization : Query optimization, centralized query optimization, distributed query optimization algorithms. (Chapter - 2) UNIT - III Transaction Management : Definition, properties of transaction, types of transactions, distributed concurrency control : seria izability, concurrency control mechanisms & algorithms, time - stamped & optimistic concurrency control Algorithms, deadlock Management. (Chapter - 3) UNIT -1V Distributed DBMS Reliability : Reliability concepts and measures, fault-tolerance in distributed systems, failures In Distributed DBMS. local & distributed reliability protocols. site failures and network partitioning. Parallel Database Systems : Parallel database system architectures, parallel data placement, parallel query processing, load balancing. database clusters. (Chapter - 4) UNIT-V Distributed object Database Management Systems : Fundamental object concepts and models, object distributed design. architectural issues. object management. distributed object storage. object query Processing Object Oriented Data Model : Inheritance. object identity. persistent programming languages persistence of objects, comparison OODBMS and ORDBMS. (Chapter 5)TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter-1 Introduction (1 - 1) to (1-28) Unit - IV 1.1 Distributed Data Processing............... 1-1 Chapter-4 Distributed DBMS Reliability 1.2 Distributed Database System.............. 1-2 (4-1) to (4-19) 13° Problem Areas ....... we ded 4.1 Reliability Concepts and Measures.......... 4-1 1.4 Distributed DBMS Architecture............ 1-5 4.2 Local & Distributed Reliability Protocols. .... 4-3 L5 Distributed Database Design.............. 1-16 4.3 Site Failures and Network Partitioning... . 4-10 1.6 Distribution Design Issues................ 1-19 4A Parallel) Database Systeme... Fill in the Blanks with Answers 4.5 Parallel Data Placement.................. for Mid Term Exam ....... . 4.6 Parallel Query Processing & Load Balancing. 4 - 15 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers 4.7 Database Clustering..................0.. 4-17 for Mid Term Exam .......... teneeeeee 1-26 Fill in the Blanks with Answers Multiple Choice Questions with Answers Chapter- 2 Query Processing and for Mid Term Exam ................0-- 4-18 Decomposition (2 - 1) to (2 - 14) ; . a Unit - V 2.1 Query Processing Objectives............... 2-1 2.2 Distributed Query Optimization ............ 2-5 Chapter-5 Distributed Object Database Fill in the Blanks with Answers Management st to (5-11) for Mid Term Exam .............--2..4 2-13 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers $5.1 Fundamental Object Concepts and Models. . . . 5 - 1 for Mid Term Exam . 12-13 5.2 Object Distributed Design................. 5-4 Unit - III $5.3 Architectural Issue...... 00... .000.ee eee 5-5 5.4 Object Management & Distributed Object Chapter-3 Transaction Management Storage {3 - 1) to (3 - 23) 5.5 Object Oriented Data Model............... 5-8 3.1. Transaction Management ................. 3-1 5.6 Persistent Programming Languages 3.2. Distributed Concurrency Control ........... 3-8 and Persistence of Objects................. 5-9 3.3 Serializability..............0.......2...3 215 Fill in the Blanks with Answers for Mid Term Exam .. 3.4 Deadlock Management . . . Multiple Choice Questions with Answers Fill in the Blanks with Answers for Mid Term Exam .....-2++02+eeeeees $-11 for Mid Term Exam .......... seneeeeeed 22 Solved Model Question Paper (M - 1) to (M - 2) Multiple Choice Questions with Answers for Mid Term Exam ........-..00-0000e 3-22 (iv)Introduction 1.1: Distributed Data Processing Q.1 Define database. Ans. : A database is a collection of named data items. Q.2 What is a database management system ? Ans.: A Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. Q.3 What is distributed data processing ? Explain advantages and disadvantages. Ans,:¢ Distributed data processing allows multiple computers to be used anywhere. Distributed data processing allows multiple computers to be working among multiple geographically separate sites where local computers handle local processing needs. Distributed processing is a database's logical processing is shared among two or more physically independent sites that are connected through a network. Data processing is organized around several information processing units distributed throughout the company. End user controls the information processing unit. DDP uses centralized database. * Database can be distributed similar to the distribution of the data processing capability. Fig. 0.3.1 shows distributed data processing. elt dramatically reduced workstation costs and improved user interfaces and desktop power. It increases ability to share data across multiple servers. Advantag Availability Resource sharing, Incremental growth 1 2 3 4. Increased user involvement and control 5. End-user productivity 6. Distance and location independence 7. Privacy and security Disadvantages - 1. More difficulty test and failure diagnosis 2. More dependence on communication means more points of failure components — and Incompatibility of components Incompatibility of data More complex management and control Fig. Q.3.1 Distributed data processing a-1)Distributed Databases 1 6. Difficulty in control of corporate information 7. Suboptimal procurement 8. Duplication of effort 1.2 : Distributed Database System Q.4 What is a distributed database system ? Ans. Distributed database as a collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over a computer network. A distributed database system consists of loosely coupled sites that share no physical component. ** Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) consists of a sir logical database that is split into a number of fragments. Each fragment is stored on one oF more computers under the control of a separate DBMS, with the computers connected by a communications network, A distributed database is a database in which devices are not all attached to a common ich as the CPU, storay processing, unit | controlled by a distributed database management system. It may be stored in multiple sites, located in. the same physical location or remote location, © Management of distributed data with different levels of transparency : This refers to the physical placement of data (files, relations, ete.) which is not known to the user (distribution transparency). Q.5 Define distributed database management system. Ans. A distributed database management system is defined as the software system that permits the management of the distributed database and makes the distribution transparent to the users «Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) logical database that is split into ‘a number of fragments. consists of a sin Each fragment is stored on one or more computers under the control of a separate DBMS, with the computers connected by a communications network Q.6 What systems ? is the goal of distributed database Introduction Ans.: Goal of distributed database systems is to achieve data integration and data distribution transparency Q7 Explain pull-onl delivery modes. push-only and hybrid data Ans, : Pull-only mode : The transfer of data from servers to clients is initiated by a client pull # When a client request is received at a server, the responds by requested information server locating the © The arrival of new data items or updates to existing data items are carried oul at a server without notification to clients unless clients explicitly poll the server, * Conventional DBMSs offer primarily _pull-based data delivery Push-only mod # Transfer of data from servers to clients is initiated by a server push in the absence of any specific request from clients. In push-based — mode, disseminate information to either an unbounded set of clients servers (random broadcast) who can listen to a medium or selective set of clients (multicast), who belong to some categories of recipients that may receive the data Hybrid The hybrid mode of data delivery combines the client-pull and server-push mechanisms. * The transfer of information from servers to clients is first initiated by a client pull, and the subsequent clients is transfer of informa updated ion to initiated by a server push Q8 Define transparency. Ans.: Transparency refers to separation of the higher-level semantics of a system from lower-level implementation issues. Q.9 What is data independence ? Ans.: The ability to modify a scheme definition in ‘one level without affecting a scheme definition in a higher level is called data independence. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONDistributed Databases 1 Q.10 What is physical data independence ? Ans.: The ability to modify the physical scheme without causing application programs to be rewritten, Modifications at this level are usually to improve performance Q.11 What is logical data independence ? Ans. The ability to modify the conceptual scheme without causing application programs to be rewritt Usually done when logical structure of database altered, Q.12 List the frequency measurements that can use to classify the regularity of data delivery. Ans. : « The typical frequency measurements that can be used to classify the regularity of data delivery periodic, conditional, and ad-hoc or irregular. ‘In periodic delivery, data are sent from the server to clients at regular intervals. # In conditional delivery, data are sent from servers whenever certain conditions installed by clients in their profiles are satisfied. © Ad-hoc delivery is irregular and is performed mostly in a pure pull-based system, Q.13 Explain network, replication and fragmentation transparency. Ans. : 1, Network Transparency In a distributed database system, transparency means that the DDBMS hides all the added complexities of distribution, allowing users to think that th system, DDBMS should be Distribution Transparent, That is, the user need not be aware of how data is are working with a single centralized fragmented or the physical stora fragments, ige locations of © Sometimes two types of distribution transparency are identified transparency Location transparency and naming ‘* In location transpai fa task is independent of both the location of the ney, command used to perform data and the system on which an operation is carried out, The main advantage of location transparency is that the database may be physically reorganized without impacting on the application programs that access them. Introduction * Naming transparency means that a unique name is provided for each object in the database. ‘The DDBMS must ensure that no two sites create a database object with the same name. Central name server is used to solve this problem. This server has the responsibility for ensuring uniqueness of all names in the system, 2. Replication Transparency * Closely related to location transparency is replication transparency, which means that the user is unaware of the repli Replication transparency is implied by location tion of fragments, transparency. However, it is possible for a system not to have location transparency but to have replication transparency 3. agmentation Transparency Data can be distributed by storing individual tables at different sites. Data can also. be distributed by decomposing a table and_ storing portions at different sites called Fragmentation. * Horizontal fragmentation allows a relation or class to be partitioned into disjoint tuples or instances. Vertical fragmentation allows a relation or class to be partitioned into disjoint sets of columns or altributes except the primary key Q.14 How to achieve reliability through distributed transactions ? Ans. : Reliability through Distributed Transactions * Reliability refers to the fact that with multipte copies of the data available over the system, this provides excell t warm standby recovery fa in the event of failure at one or possibly more sites. * The failure of a single site, or the failure of a communication link which makes one or more sites unreachable, is not sufficient to bring down. the entire system. In the case of a distributed database, this means that some of the data may be unreachable. A transaction consists of a series of operations performed on a database. Transaction is a unit of consistency and reliability. DBMS that provides full transaction support guarantees that concurrent execution of user transactions will not violate database consistency in the face of system failures as long as each transaction is correct TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONDistributed Databases © Distributed transaction access data from remote sites or multiple sites. In distributed transactions A. distributed tion is composed of several sub-transactions, ch running on a different site. Each database manager can decide to abort more than one server involves. Q.15 How to improve the distributed database ? Ans. : Distributed da performance of abase performance is increases by two ways 1, Distributed DBMS fragments the conceptual database, enabling data to be stored in close proximity to its points of use. The performance will increase, as transaction can perform queries from a local site and not worry about network problems, The inherent parallelism of distributed systems may be exploited for inter-query and intra-query parallelism. Inter-query parallelism results from the ability to execute multiple queries atthe same time while intra-query parallelism is achieved by breaking up a single query into a number of sub-queries each of which is executed at a different site, accessing a different part of the distributed database. Q.16 Explain data independence. Ans. : «Da transparency that we look for within a DBMS. Data independence is a fundamental form of definition occurs at two levels. At one level the logical structure of the data are specified, and at the other level its physical structure, The ability to modify a scheme definition in one level without affecting a scheme definition in a higher level is called data independence. «There are two kinds : Physical data independence and logical data independence. 1, Physical data independence : The ability to adify the physical scheme without causing, programs to be tions at this level are usually to improve application rewritten. Modi performance, 2 Logical data independence : The ability to modify the conceptual scheme without causing application programs to be rewritten. Usually Introduction done when logical structure of database is, altered * Logical data independence is harder to achieve as application programs are usually heavily cal structure of the data. 1.3 : Problem Areas Q.17 List and explain problems in designing distributed DBMS. Ans, : Problem Areas : * Problems in designing. distributed DBMS are as follows 1. Distributed database design Distributed query processing, 3. Distributed directory management 4. Distributed concurrency control Distributed deadlock management 6. Reliability of distributed DBMS. 7. Operating, system support 8. Heterogeneous database. | Query Optimization * Qui er diff distributed DBMS than to centralized database systems because additional fragmentation, replication, and transmission cost y optimization poses gre y to variables of network Because additional variables are added, the search tree for opti nal query plan will be expanded and it will be harder to choose an optimal plan, For example, it is not readily apparent to the optimizer whether or not to move a relation over to another site and do a join or join after other operations are completed then the join sets might have become smaller. 2. Concurrency Control and Recovery Method * As with centralized database systems, DDBMS have to guarantee ACID properties, where the ACID properties are atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONDistributed Databases In distributed DBMS, problems when transactions span multiple sites. For example, how will distributed DBMS ensure that when a rans. the distributed DBMS has to ensure that all sub-transactions will be committed ? on commit If some sites, how will recovery process work ? The purpose of this survey paper to look at various protocols enforcing, atomicity and durability and what future works could be done in this area. Q.48 Why to use distributed database ? Ans: 1 Local Autonomy > Permits setting and enforcing local policies regarding the use of local data. 2 Improved Performance ; The regularly used data given the parallelism inherent in distributed systems. is proximate to the users and Data higher Retiability/A vailability used to obtain lability. The f the different sites ensures Improved replication can be reliability and ava autonomous processing, capability a graceful degradation property Shareability : Allows preexisting sites to share data. Reduced Communication Overhead : The fact that many applications are local clearly reduces with the communication overhead respect to. centralized databases. There are five big reasons for using a distributed database system : 1, Many organizations are distributed in nature Multiple transparently 3. Databas needs databases canbe —_ accessed can be expanded incrementally - As arise, additional computers can be connected to the distributed database system, 4. Reliability and Distributed database can replicate data among sites. So fails, redundancy in data will lead to availability and reliability of the data as a whole. availability is increased several even if one. site 5. Performance will increased - Query processing can be performed at multiple sites and as such distributed database systems can mimic parallel database network, systems in a _ high-performance Q.19 List disadvantages of centralized approach. Introduction and briefly explain distributed advantages and database with Ans. : Advantages Data located near greatest demand F 1 3. Faster data processing, 4 ster data access Reduced operating costs User friendly interfaces 6. Less chance of single point failure Disadvantages of DDBMS 1. Complexity 2 Security 3. Lack of standards 4. Increased storage requirements Difficulty managing the data. 1.4 : Distributed DBMS Architecture Q.20 Explain components of distributed DBMS. Ans. : Components of DDBMS are as follows © Computer workstations or remote devices (sites or nodes) that form the network system. The distributed database system must be independent of the computer system hardware, * Network hardware and software components that reside in each workstation or device. The network components allow all sites to interact and exchange data, Because the components-computers, operating, systems, network hardware, and so on-are likely to, be supplied by diffe! ensure that distributed database functions can be run on multiple platforms, vendors, it is best to © Communications media that carry the data from another. The DDBMS communications media-independent; that is, it must ‘one node to must be bbe able to support several types of communications media The Transaction Processor which is the (TP), software component found in each computer or device that requests data, The transaction processor receives and processes the application’s data requests (remote and local). The TP is also known asthe Application Processor (AP) or — the Transaction Manager (TM). TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONDistributed Databases ©The Data Processor (DP) component residing on each computer or device that stores and retrieves data located at the site. The DP is also known as the Data Manager (DM), A data processor may even be a centralized DBMS, which is the software Q.21 Describe functional of centralized DBMs. Ans.: Fig. Q2U1 centralized DBMS. layers shows functional layers of a © The layers are the interface, control, compilation, troduction The interface layer manages the interface to the applications, ©The control layer controls the query by adding semantic integrity predicates and authorization # The query processing (or compilation) layer maps the query into an optimized sequence of lower-level operations. This layer is concerned with performance. @ The execution layer directs the execution of the execution; = dale exes, | and. Mtinsmatency access plans, including transaction management management. (commit, restart) and synchronization of algebra operations. Applications ' User intertoces |__ inter fertace, ‘View management relational calculus ' Semantic integriy corral ral Som ‘Authorization checking | reitona cous Guery decompastton and optimization Compilation 7 7 = Fee ‘acess plan management relatonal agebce ' Feces plan execution conta Execution ‘Algebra operation execution retrieval update t Baer management - Data access feces methods rebeval update t Coneurrenay conv Consistency Logging 7 cr Database Fig. 21.4 THNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ust for krowtodgeDistributed Databases © The data access layer manages the data structures implement the files, manages the buffers by caching the most frequently that indices, etc. It also accessed data. * The consistency layer manages concurrency control and logging for update requests. This layer allows and media recovery alter transaction, system, Q.22 Draw and explain ANSVSPARC architecture of distributed DBMS, An ANSI/SPARC Fig. Q22.1 shows distributed DBMS, The three-schema architecture is also called architecture or three-level architecture. ANSISPARC architecture of * This framework is used to describe the structure of The separate database system, three schema the a specific architecture is also used to user applications and physical database. ‘# The three-schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the cat database down into three different The external view is of the end user and an internal view is of the system or machine. The conceptual view is related to the enterprise. For each of these views, an appropriate schema definition is required. stoma! External enteral ew! vewn ievel Concepts! Cancapual schema Internal Internal schema level Stored database Fig. 0.22.1 The ANSUSPARC architecture * Internal view is deals with the physical definition and organization of data. Data location of different storage devices and the access mechanisms are used to manipulate data. troduction # External view is related with how users view the database. An individual user's view represents the portion of the database that will be accessed by that user as well as the relationships that the user would like to see among the data, Q.23 Define Autonomy, to autonomy ? Ans, ; DDBMS architectural models : What are the alternatives *# The architecture of a system defines its structure 1. The components of the system are identified; 2. ‘The function of each component is specified; 3. The interrelationships and interactions among, the components are defined There is a close relationship between the architecture of a system, standardization efforts, and a reference model. Architectural models for DDBMSs can be classified along, three dimensions 1. Autonomy 2. Distribution _3. Heterogeneity Fig. Q23.1 shows alternatives in distributed database systems ‘Autonomy * Autonomy refers to the distribution of control, no data DBM: It indicates the degree to. which individual -an operate independently © Three alternatives are as follows I. Tight integration 2. Semiautonomous systems 3. Total isolation Tight integration : A single-image of the entire database is available to any user who wants to share the information, which may reside in multiple databases. From the user's perspective, the data is logically centralized in one database. ‘© Semi-autonomous systems : The DBMSs can operate independently. Each of DBMss determines what parts of their own database they will make accessible to users of other DBMSs, Total stand-alone isolation : The individual sy DBMSs, which the her of the how to. know nei existence of other DBMSs_ nor communicate with them. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS ‘0 up ths or krowto0geDistributed Databases Distriubuted homogeneous DBMS Distributed heterogeneous DBMSs —___-4 Logically integrates homogeneous multiple DBMSs Heterogeneous = integrated DBMSS: Heterogeneity troduction Distributed homogeneous “Yederated" DBMSs Autonomy Single ste homogeneous federated DBMSS Fig. 0.23.1 Alternatives in distributed database systems Autonomy has different dimensions © Design autonomy : Each individual DBMS is free to use the data models and transaction management techniques that it prefers. ‘* Communication autonomy : Each individual DBMS is free to decide what information to provide to the other DBMSs * Execution autonomy : Each individual DBMS can execute the transactions that are submitted to it in any way that it wants to. Distributions ‘Distributions refer to the distributions of data. Here we are considering the physical distribution of data over multiple sites; the user sees the data as one logical pool © Two alternatives : client / server distribution and peer-to-peer distribution (full distribution) Client / server distribution : The cli distribution concentrates data management duties at servers while the clients focus on providing the nt / server application environment interface. The communication duties are shared between the client machines and servers. Client / server DBMSs represent the first attempt at distributing functionality. including the user * Peer-to-peer distribution : Therv is no distinction of client machines versus servers. Each mi ine has full DBMS functionality and can communicate with other machines to execute queries and transactions, Heterogeneity ‘* Heterogeneity may occur in’ various forms in distributed heterogeneity and differences in networking protocols to variations in data managers, systems, ranging from hardware # It representing data with different modeling tools creates heterogeneity because of the inherent expressive powers and limitations of individual data models. # Heterogeneity in query languages not only involves the use of completely different data access paradigms in different data models, but also covers differences in languages even when the individual systems use the same data model, # The dimensions are identified as : A (autonomy), D (distribution) and HH (heterogeneity). The alternatives along each dimension are identified by numbers as : 0, 1 oF 2 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up tit fr krowtedpeDistributed Databases 1-9 Introduction ¢ Taxonomy of Distributed Data Systems | Distributed data systems Federated DBMS (At, Dx, Hy) (A2, Dx, Hy) Fig. Q.23.2 * For distributed DBMS, global schema refers to the (AO, D1, HO) ~~ The more interesting case is where the union of all the local databases. For multi-DBMS, database is distributed even though an global schema refers to a subset of the union of all integrated view of the data ls, Provided the local databases. to users (client / server distribution). | (A0, D2, HO) The s b f tr rency is © Tightly coupled system has a global schema. 6 ) provided to the user ina ally ° Loosely - coupled system does not have a global distributed environment. There is no schema. distinction among clients and servers, each site providing identical functionality. Numbers Name LC AQ sight integration (Al, D0, HO) These are semiautonomous systems, { which are commonly termed federated Al semiautonomous systems DBMS. The component systems in a . 4 federated environment have significant A2 i i ‘ 2 : i total isolation autonomy in their execution, but their DO no distribution participation in the federation indicate —= =} Se that they are willing to cooperate with __ DI |_ slient / server systems other in executing user requests that D2 peer-to-peer systems access multiple databases. Ho homogeneous systems (AL, DO, HI) | These are systems that introduce a heterogeneity as well as autonomy, call S 8) a heterogeneous federated DBMS. ¢ Numbers with their descriptions : Al, D1, H1) System of this type introduces + distribution by pacing component Numbers Descriptions systems on different machines. They may be referred to as distributed, (A0, DO, HO) | If there is no distribution or heterogeneous federated DBMS. heterogeneity, the system is a set of multiple DBMSs that are logically (A2, D0, HO) | Now we have full autonomy. These are multidatabase systems (MDBS). The integrated. components have no concept of (A0, DO, H1) If heterogeneity is introduced, one has cooperation. Without heterogeneity and multiple data managers that are distribution, an MDBS is an heterogeneous but provide an interconnected collection of autonomous integrated view to the user. databases. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up thrust for knowledge