BIOLOGY - Somatic nervous system – innervate

the skeletal muscles (somatic nerves).

Lesson 2: The Sensory and Coordinating System of
 Conscious control over actions
Animals
- Autonomic nervous system –
 Command center and the spinal cord and nerves innervates all the other peripheral
as the relay system effectors other than the skeletal muscles,
 Sponges – lack nervous system such as smooth muscles, cardiac
 Cnidarians – simplest form of a nervous muscles, glands and adipose tissues.
structure evolved among cnidarians. In this  Interneurons or association neurons – links
form, all neurons are linked to one another in a sensory neuron to a motor neuron.
web-like manner, called nerve net, with very  Neurosecretory neurons – central position in
little coordination among body part. neuroendocrine interactions.
 Free-living flatworms - have a nervous system  Channels through which a
that can associate activities through the presence multitude of afferent stimuli,
of nerve cords, from which peripheral nerves after being processed, are
emanate. They are possess a primitive “brain”, a channeled to a variety of
ganglionic type of nervous system. endocrine stations.
 Insects and other arthropods – central  Exert control over these effector
coordination of complex responses to stimuli organs.
have increasingly become localized in the
simple “brain.” The Central Nervous System
Neuron – the primary structural and functional  Composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
component of the nervous system.
 Brain – central processor of information in the
- Building blocks of nervous system. nervous system.
- Composed of neurons and glial cells.  Information or impulses travel along nerve
- Designed for receiving information, fibers as electrical signals.
transmitting electrical impulses, and Brain
influencing other neurons or effector
tissues.  Brainstem – controls involuntary actions
- It has a cell body and extensions or (heartbeat and breathing)
process that emanate from it.  Cerebellum – coordinates movements of the
- Cell body – central part of the neuron muscles so that walking is smooth and balanced.
that contains the nucleus.  Cerebrum – largest part of the brain and is
- Dendrites – transmit impulses toward divided into halves or hemispheres.
the cell body. o Outer Layer of Cerebrum – has
- Axons – transmit impulses away from special areas to receive messages about
the cell body. sight, touch, hearing, and taste.
 Sensory or afferent neurons – information o Other areas – control movement,
from the receptors in the periphery is directed, intelligence, and personality.
by these neurons, to the CNS for interpretation
Spinal cord
and integration.
- Somatic sensory neurons – monitor the  Contains the central canal filled with
external environment. cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
- Visceral sensory neurons – monitor  Gray matter containing cell bodies and short
internal conditions (various organ fibers
systems)  White matter containing long fibers of
 Motor or efferent neurons – relay information Interneurons that run together in bundles called
from the CNS to effectors in the body found in tracts.
tissues, organs, or organ systems.
The Peripheral Nervous System
  Is divided into the somatic division (controls - Collectively known as ossicles, these
movement of muscles) and the autonomic bones transmit sound from the air inside
division (controls involuntary functions). the tympanic cavity into the cochlea.
 Includes cranial and spinal nerves that project
Inner Ear – consists of the cochlea, which
outwards from the CNS, making the name
transmits sound impulses to the brain by the
Peripheral Nervous System appropriate.
auditory nerve, and the vestibular system,
 Consist of nerves (a cluster of axons, ganglia,
which functions fro maintaining balance and
and neuron cell bodies) located outside of the
spatial orientation.
CNS.
Olfaction – primary function of the nose.
The Sensory Organs
- Elicited by the olfactory
Touch Sensation – function of the skin.
neuroepithelium in the nasal cavity of
- Diffused throughout the skin are nerve the nose. It is a modified form of
endings that receive stimuli from the respiratory epithelium.
environment and then relay these to the - Contains three cells:
brain.  Olfactory receptor cell
- Free nerve endings – are associated  Supporting cell
with pain and itch sensations and  Basal epithelial cell
detection of temperature.
Sense of Vision – made possible by a highly specialized
- Encapsulated nerve endings – are
organ that is the eye. Composed of three concentric
branched axons enclosed in a discrete layers.
connective tissue capsule.
- Outer fibrous layer – formed by the
Gustation or taste sensation – is the primary
sclera and cornea.
responsibility of the taste buds on the surface of the
- Middle vascular layer – composed of
tongue
choroid, ciliary body and iris
- There are five types of tastes: - Inner nervous layer – the retina
 Sweet - Optic Nerve – a cranial nerve supplied
 Sour to the eyes.
 Bitter - Photoreceptor neurons – in the retina
 Umami collect light and send signals to a
- Human have a significantly lower network of neurons that generate
threshold for bitter-tasting food. electrical impulses going to the brain.
- Sense of taste is very much related to Then the brain processes these impulses
sense of olfaction. and give information about what we are
seeing.
Ears – are the organs for hearing.

- External, middle and inner parts.

Lesson 1: Nutrition and Food Processing in Animals
External Ear – extends from the auricle or
pinna to the external auditory meatus. Vitamins – are organic compounds that functions as co-
enzymes and co-factors of enzymes.
- This segment conducts sound waves
from the environment toward the - Water-soluble vitamins – Vitamin C
tympanic membrane or the eardrum, and Vitamin B
a thin, fibrous membrane which  Transported as free compounds
transmits sound to the ossicles. in the blood and serve as co-
enzymes in metabolic reactions.
Middle Ear – refers to the tympanic cavity, an - Fat-soluble vitamins – Vitamins A, D,
air-filled chamber that houses the three smallest E and K
bones in the body, the malleus, incus and
stapes.
  Transported in blood as - From the oropharynx (the portion of
complexes that are linked to the pharynx situated behind the oral
lipids. cavity), the bolus of swallowed
substances now enters the esophagus
Minerals – are inorganic molecules that provides ions
and passes down the length of the tube
essential for the functioning of many enzymes or
by alternating contraction and relaxation
proteins.
of the muscles called peristalsis. The
 Significant amounts of ions may be lost by the opening into the stomach is guarded by
body through sweating, defecating, and the cardiac sphincter which assists in
urinating and thus must be replenished. preventing regurgitation of acidic chyme
 The body needs 3g of salt per day. from the stomach.
- The stomach serves as a temporary
Digestion in Lower Forms of Animals storage of food. Chemical digestion of
 Sponges – each individual cell is responsible for food takes place in the stomach. Then
the procurement of food that is mixed with water the food enters the small intestine which
inside the spongocoel or the body cavity. Some is a long coiled tube where food
cells do it through phagocytosis, while others undergoes final digestion and
use flagella to sweep the food from the water. absorption. Food enters the duodenum
 Intracellular Digestion – once the food is from the stomach by the pyloric
inside the cell, digestion takes place through the sphincter.
help of enzymes. - From the small intestine, undigested
 Cnidarians – they have gastrovascular cavity. food is channeled into the large
Extracellular digestion occurs throughout the intestine. In this organ, water and ions
cavity. are reabsorbed and the bulk that remains
 Roundworms or nematodes – the most is then stored for a while until mass
primitive type of gut or digestive tube is found movements occur and defecation reflex
in Roundworms. The digestive tube is is initiated.
specialized in different regions where a part is
involved in ingestion, storage, digestion and
absorption. Function of Enzymes in Chemical Digestion
 Earthworms – have a mouth, pharynx, crop,
gizzard, intestine, and anus. - Enzymes – organic catalysts that hasten
chemical reaction.
Incomplete Digestion – with only one opening (mouth, - Enzymes are present in large amounts in
anus) different parts of the digestive tract,
beginning from the oram cavity where
- Sponges, jellyfish, flatworms
salivary amylase (which initiates
- Sponges – filter feeders, water current
carbohydrate breakdown) and lingual
Complete Digestion – alimentary canal (mouth and lipase (which starts fat digestion) are
anus) only one passage found.
- In the stomach, where the pH is
- Earthworm, round worms maintained at a very acidic level (pH 1
The Human Digestive System and 2) by Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
secretions of parietal cells, the enzyme
- Food is ingested through the mouth, pepsinogen is produceed by the chief
chewed and ground into smaller sizes cells. It is then transformed by HCl into
with the help of the teeth, then mixed the active form, pepsin. Protein
with saliva, and pushed backward by the degradation into smaller particles begins
tongue. Food is then swallowed and by the action of this enzyme.
moved to the pharynx, a common - In the duodenum of the small intestine,
passage way for food and air. pancreatic juices are secreted by the
pancreas via the ampulla of vater, a
 duct formed by the union of the drain into the right and left hepatic ducts which then
pancreatic duct and the common bile merge to form the common hepatic duct. The
duct. gallbladder’s duct is also called cystic duct. The
 Trypsinogen – converted by common hepatic duct and the cystic duct join together to
eneterokinase to its active form the common bile duct or the duct of wirsung then
enzyme, trypsin, which is merge to form the ampulla of vater, which finally
responsible for breaking down drains into the duodenum. Bile flows from the liver
proteins into amino acids) canaliculi to the hepatic ducts and then to the common
 Chymotrypsinogen – once hepatic duct. It may flow into the gallbladder via the
activated also breaks down cystic duct to be stored, concentrated, and used at a later
proteins into their aromatic time.
amino acids.
Pancreas – both an endocrine and exocrine gland.
 Pancreatic lipase – breaks
down triglycerides into fatty - The islets of Langerhans are
acids and glycerol. responsible for the secretion of insulin
 Nucleases (in lowering bloid glucose levels) and
 Pancreatic amylase – breaks glucagon (in raising blood glucose
down starch, glycogen, and levels) ENDOCRINE
most other carbohydrates, - Acinar glands secrete digestive enzymes
except cellulose due to its such as trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen
special hydrogen binding and carboxypeptidase into the
structure. duodenum by the pancreatic duct and
- Brush border enzymes – function to the ampulla of vater. EXOCRINE
further cleave the now broken-down
products of digestion into more readily Other Information
absorbable particles. Includes sucrase, Intracellular Digestion – inside the cell
lactase (when deficient, results in
lactose intolerance) maltase, and other Extracellular Digestion – outside the cell (enzymes)
disaccharides.
Frog – anterior tongue
The accessory glands of the digestive system –
Bolus – partially digested food
contributes to make an organ of digestion more versatile.
Peristalsis – involuntary movement of food to the
Liver – largest gland of the body
stomach
- Its basic structural component is the
Cardiac sphincter – controls the flow of partially
hepatocyte. Blood circulates through
digested food
the liver by the portal vein and the
hepatic vein. Gastrovascular Cavity
- The liver neutralizes and eliminates
toxic substances from the passing blood. - Cnidarians – mouth to stomach
- It stores vitamins, iron and glucose. - Human body – mouth to anus
- It converts highly toxic ammonia Mechanical digestion – breaking down of food into
(accumulates in the body during protein smaller pieces (teeth)
breakdown) into urea, a more tolerable
form. Chemical digestion – conversion of macromolecules
- The liver produces bile, a fluid that into simpler units (enzymes)
contains cholesterol, bile acids and Appendicitis – inflammation of appendix
bilirubin which aid in lipid digestion. It
is stored and concentrated in the Ingestion – act of taking food into the body through the
gallbladder. mouth

Gallbladder – Canaliculi from within the liver merge to Digestion – mechanical and chemical
form bile ducts or intrahepatic ducts; the ducts then
Absorption – duodenum, jejenum and ileum o Regeneration – ability to replace its lost
part
Defecation – discharge of solid particles
o Parthenogenesis – incomplete
Stomach – hydrochloric acid fertilization
Asexual Sexual o Parthenocarpy – for plants
 Somatic or body  Gamete or sex o Hermaphrodite – individuals with both
cells cells ovary and testes
 Genetically  Genetic  Common to parasitic worm and
identical with variation liver flukes
parent  Long lifespan  Earthworms are also
 Short lifespan  Involves the hermaphrodite
 Does not involve fusion of gamete o Sequential Hermaphrodites – born
fusion of gamete or sex cells males, but can turn into females at some
 Mutation or point in their lives (clown fish)
change occurs;  Protogyny – a change from
may lead to female to male
extinction
 Protandry – a change from
Mouth – mechanical male to female
 Sexual Reproduction – two parent cells
Amylase – chemical involved; egg cell and sperm cells
Duodenum – controls partially digested food in the o External Fertilization – the egg and
stomach sperm meet outside the body of the
female
Bile – lipids and fats, pancreas; dissolves lipids o Internal Fertilization – the embryonic
development could be through;
Gallstones – too much cholesterol
 Oviparity – eggs are fertilized
Exocrine – produce enzyme internally and are deposited
outside the mother’s body to
complete their development
(birds)
 Ovoviviparity – fertilized eggs
are retained inside the mother to
complete its development, but
the embryo gets its nourishment
from the yolk (bony fish)
 Viviparity – the young
develops inside the mother and
obtains its nourishment directly
from the blood of the mother
through the umbilical cord and
Chapter 7 - Lesson 1: Reproduction and not from the yolk
Development in Animals  Monotremes – egg-laying
mammals
Reproduction
Stages of Mammalian Animal Development
1. Fertilization – refers to the fusion of the egg
 Asexual Reproduction – only a single parent; and sperm that results in the formation of a
no sex cells zygote
o Budding – outgrowth produces new 2. Cleavage – the zygote undergoes a series of cell
individual; hydra division without an increase in its size. This
o Fragmentation – body parts break into ends with the formation of a blastula, called
pieces; planarians blastocyst.
 3. Gastrulation – formation of body plan; this Glucose – blood – pancreas/brain – liver, adipose cells,
stage produces three germ layers. muscles – conversion of glucose into glycogen
a. Endoderm – outer layer
i. Skin
ii. Nervous system – first organ
system to be developed
b. Mesoderm
i. Muscles
ii. Connective tissues
c. Endoderm
i. Digestive tract
ii. Internal organs
4. Organogenesis – cells from the three primary
layers interact to form the organs. This is
initiated with the formation of the notochord and
the hollow dorsal nerve cord in the process
called neurulation.
Feedback mechanism – a loop system wherein the
system responds to perturbation
Negative Feedback Mechanism
 Vasodilation – expansion of blood vessels
 A regulatory system in which an increase in the
 Vasoconstriction – contraction of blood vessels
concentration of a substance inhibits the
continued synthesis of that substance, and vice  Thermoregulation – refers to endothermy and
versa. If conditions deviate from a set point, ectothermy
biochemical reactions will try to put it back to o Endotherm – warm-blooded
the normal set point. o Ectotherm – cold-blooded

Positive Feedback Mechanism

Negative Feedback Loop
o Acce lerates a change further in the same
Perturbing factor - Stimulus deviation from the start
direction. The effector drives an activity farther
point – Sensor constantly monitors condition –
from the set point thus making the system more
Integrating center compares condition to the set
unstable.
point – Effector causes changes to compensate for
deviation – Response return to the set point- Negative Wound – release of platelets – platelet release chemicals
feedback loop completed – blood clotting
Stimulus (high temp) – Sensor/receptors (skin) –
integrating center (brain) effector organs (blood
vessels) – response (sweating)