Thermal Physics

More study materials for the topic of Thermal

Physics.  
 Energy  Transfer  
• When  two  objects  of  different  temperatures  are
placed  in  thermal  contact,  the  temperature  of  the
warmer  decreases  and  the  temperature  of  the  cooler
increases
• The  energy  exchange  ceases  when  the  objects  reach
thermal  equilibrium
• The  concept  of  energy  was  broadened  from  just
mechanical  to  include  internal
– Made  ConservaGon  of  Energy  a  universal  law  of  nature

IntroducGon  
 Heat  Compared  to    
Internal  Energy  
• Internal  Energy,  U,  is  the  energy  associated  
with  the  atoms  and  molecules  of  the  system  

• Heat  is  the  transfer  of  energy,  Q ,    between  a  

system  and  its  environment  because  of  a  
temperature  difference  between  them.  

SecGon  11.1  
 Units  of  Heat  
• Calorie  
– A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  energy  necessary  to  
raise  the  temperature  of  1  g  of  water  from  14.5°  C  
to  15.5°  C  .  
• A  Calorie  (food  calorie)  is  1000  cal  
• 1  cal  =  4.186  J  
– This  is  called  the  Mechanical  Equivalent  of  Heat  

SecGon  11.1  
Working Off Breakfast: A student eats a breakfast consisting of a bowl of
cereal and milk, containing a total of 3.20 × 102 Calories of energy. He
wishes to do an equivalent amount of work in the gymnasium by performing
curls with a 25.0-kg barbell. How many times must he raise the weight to
expend that much energy? Assume he raises it through a vertical
displacement of 0.400 m each time, the distance from his lap to his upper
chest.
 Working Off Breakfast: A student eats a breakfast consisting of a bowl of
cereal and milk, containing a total of 3.20 × 102 Calories of energy. He
wishes to do an equivalent amount of work in the gymnasium by performing
curls with a 25.0-kg barbell. How many times must he raise the weight to
expend that much energy? Assume he raises it through a vertical
displacement of 0.400 m each time, the distance from his lap to his upper
chest.

Q = 3.2 × 10 2 Cal = 3.2 × 10 2 kcal = 3.2 × 10 2 ( 4,186 J) = 1339520. J

Q 1339520. J
Wtotal = N2mgh = Q ⇒ N = = = 6834
2mgh 2(25.0kg)(9.8m/s2 )(0.4m)

€
 James  PrescoW  Joule  
• 1818  –  1889  
• BriGsh  physicist  
• ConservaGon  of  Energy  
• RelaGonship  between  
heat  and  other  forms  of  
energy  transfer  

SecGon  11.1  
 Heat  Capacity  
• The  heat  capacity  of  an  object  is  the  amount  of  heat  
added  to  it  divided  by  its  rise  in  temperature:  

Q  is  posiGve  if  ΔT  is  posiGve;  that  is,  if  heat  is  added  to  a  system.  
Q  is  negaGve  if  ΔT  is  negaGve;  that  is,  if  heat  is  removed  from  a  
system.  
SecGon  11.2  
 Specific  Heat  
• The  heat  capacity  of  an  object  depends  on  its  
mass.  A  quanGty  which  is  a  property  only  of  
the  material  is  the  specific  heat:  

SecGon  11.2  
 Units  and  Values  of  Specific  Heat  
• SI  units  
– J  /  kg  °C  
• Historical  units  
– cal  /  g  °C  
• See  table  11.1  for  the  specific  heats  of  various  
materials  
– These  values  are  typical  
• They  may  vary  depending  on  the  temperature  and  state  
of  the  material  

SecGon  11.2  
 Specific  Heats  
Here  are  some  specific  
heats  of  various  materials:  
 Heat  and  Specific  Heat  
• Q  =  m  c  ΔT  
• ΔT  is  always  the  final  temperature  minus  the  iniGal  
temperature  
• When  the  temperature  increases,  ΔT  and  ΔQ  are  
posiGve  and  energy  flows  into  the  system  
• When  the  temperature  decreases,  ΔT  and  ΔQ  are  
negaGve  and  energy  flows  out  of  the  system  

SecGon  11.2  
 A  Consequence  of  Different  Specific  Heats  

• Water  has  a  high  

specific  heat  compared  
to  land  
• On  a  hot  day,  the  air  
above  the  land  warms  
faster  
• The  warmer  air  flows  
upward  and  cooler  air  
moves  toward  the  
beach  

SecGon  11.2  
 Calorimeter  
• Used  in  one  technique  for  determining  the  
specific  heat  of  a  substance  
• A  calorimeter  is  a  vessel  that  is  a  good  
insulator  which  allows  a  thermal  equilibrium  
to  be  achieved  between  substances  without  
any  energy  loss  to  the  environment  

SecGon  11.3  
 Calorimetry  
• Analysis  performed  using  a  calorimeter  
• ConservaGon  of  energy  applies  to  the  isolated  system  
• The  energy  that  leaves  the  warmer  substance  equals  
the  energy  that  enters  the  water  
– Qcold  =  -­‐Qhot    
– NegaGve  sign  keeps  consistency  in  the  sign  convenGon  of  
ΔT  

SecGon  11.3  
Calorimetry  with  More  Than  Two  Materials  

• In  some  cases  it  may  be  difficult  to  determine  which  

materials  gain  heat  and  which  materials  lose  heat  
• You  can  start  with  ΣQk  =  0  
– Qk  is  the  energy  of  the  kth  object  
– Each  Q  =  m  c  ΔT  
– Use  Tf  –  Ti  
– You  don’t  have  to  determine  before  using  the  equaGon  
which  materials  will  gain  or  lose  heat  

SecGon  11.3  
 Stressing a Strut: A steel strut near a ship’s furnace is 2.00 m long, with a
mass of 1.57 kg and cross-sectional area of 1.00 × 1024 m2. During operation
of the furnace, the strut absorbs a net thermal energy of 2.50 × 105 J. (a)
Find the change in temperature of the strut. (b) Find the increase in length of
the strut. (c) If the strut is not allowed to expand because it’s bolted at each
end, find the compressional stress developed in the strut.

Q 2.5 × 10 5 J 
(a) Q = cmΔT ⇒ ΔT = = 
= 355 C
cm ( 448 J/kg C)(1.57kg)

(b) ΔL = αL0 ΔT = (11 × 10 −6 C)(2.00 m)( 355  C) = 7.8 × 10 −3 m

F ΔL 7.8 × 10 −3 m
(c) =Y = (2. × 10 Pa)
−11
= 7.8 × 10 8 Pa
A L0 2.01m

€
 Finding a Specific Heat: A 125-g block of an unknown substance with a
temperature of 90.0°C is placed in a Styrofoam cup containing 0.326 kg of
water at 20.0°C. The system reaches an equilibrium temperature of 22.4°C.
What is the specific heat, cx, of the unknown substance if the heat capacity of
the cup is neglected?

Energy Q transferred from the substance to the water is:

Qx → H 2 0 = c x mx (22.4  C − 90.0  C)

Energy Q absorbed by the water is :

Q x → H 2 0→ x = c H 2 0 m H 2 0 (22.4  C − 20.0  C)

∑Q k = 0 ⇒ Qx → H 2 0 + Q H 2 0→ x = 0 ⇒ c x mx (22.4  C − 90.0  C) + c H 2 0 m H 2 0 (22.4  C − 20.0  C) = 0 ⇒

c H 2 0 m H 2 0 (22.4  C - 20. C) 0.326kg(22.4  C - 20. C)

cx = = ( 4190J /kgC ) = 388 J/kg C
mx (90. C - 22.4  C)  
0.125kg(90. C - 22.4 C)

€
 Calculate an Equilibrium Temperature: Suppose 0.400 kg of water initially
at 40.0°C is poured into a 0.300-kg glass beaker having a temperature of
25.0°C. A 0.500-kg block of aluminum at 37.0°C is placed in the water and
the system insulated. Calculate the final equilibrium temperature of the
system.

Water - glass beaker - aluminum

∑Q k = 0 →QH 2 0 + Qglass + QAl = 0 ⇒

( ) ( ) ( )
c H 2 0 m H 2 0 Tf − 40.0  C + c glassmglass Tf − 25  C + c Al mAl Tf − 37.0  C = 0 ⇒

(4186J/kg C)(0.4kg)(T

f ) ( ) ( )
− 40.0  C + (837J/kg C)(0.3kg) Tf − 25  C + (900J/kg C)(0.5kg) Tf − 37  C = 0 ⇒

Tf (1674.40 + 251.1 + 450.) J/C - (66976. + 6277.5 +16650.) J = 0 ⇒

Tf = 37.9  C

€
 Phase  Changes  
• A  phase  change  occurs  when  the  physical  
characterisGcs  of  the  substance  change  from  one  
form  to  another  
• Common  phases  changes  are  
– Solid  to  liquid  –  melGng  (fusion)  
– Liquid  to  Solid  –  freezing  (fusion)  
– Gas  to  Liquid  –  condensaGon  (vaporizaGon)  
– Liquid  to  gas  –  boiling  (vaporizaGon)  
• Phases  changes  involve  a  change  in  the  internal  
energy,  but  no  change  in  temperature
SecGon  11.4  
 Latent  Heat  
• The  energy  Q  needed  to  change  the  phase  of  a  given  
pure  substance  is  
– Q  =  ±m  L  
• L  is  the  called  the  latent  heat  of  the  substance  
– Latent  means  hidden  
– L  depends  on  the  substance  and  the  nature  of  the  phase  
change  
• Choose  a  posiGve  sign  if  you  are  adding  energy  to  the  
system  and  a  negaGve  sign  if  energy  is  being  
removed  from  the  system  

SecGon  11.4  
 Latent  Heat,  cont.  
• SI  unit  of  latent  heat  are  J  /  kg  
• Latent  heat  of  fusion,  Lf,  is  used  for  melGng  or  
freezing  
• Latent  heat  of  vaporiza>on,  Lv,  is  used  for  
boiling  or  condensing  
• Table  11.2  gives  the  latent  heats  for  various  
substances

SecGon  11.4  
Latent  Heat,  cont.  

SecGon  11.4  
 SublimaGon  
• Some  substances  will  go  directly  from  solid  to  
gaseous  phase  
– Without  passing  through  the  liquid  phase  
• This  process  is  called  sublima>on  
– There  will  be  a  latent  heat  of  sublimaGon  
associated  with  this  phase  change  

SecGon  11.4  
Graph  of  Ice  to  Steam  

SecGon  11.4  
 Warming  Ice  
• Start  with  one  gram  of  
ice  at  –30.0°  C  
• During  A,  the  
temperature  of  the  ice  
changes  from  –30.0°  C  
to  0º  C  
• Use  Q  =  m  c  ΔT  
• Will  add  62.7  J  of  
energy  
SecGon  11.4  
 MelGng  Ice  
• Once  at  0°  C,  the  phase  
change  (melGng)  starts  
• The  temperature  stays  
the  same  although  energy  
is  sGll  being  added  
• Use  Q  =  m  Lf    
• Needs  333  J  of  energy  

SecGon  11.4  
 Warming  Water  
• Between  0°  C  and  100°  C,  
the  material  is  liquid  and  
no  phase  changes  take  
place  
• Energy  added  increases  
the  temperature  
• Use  Q  =  m  c  ΔT  
• 419  J  of  energy  are  added  

SecGon  11.4  
 Boiling  Water  
• At  100°  C,  a  phase  
change  occurs  (boiling)  
• Temperature  does  not  
change  
• Use  Q  =  m  Lv    
• 2  260  J  of  energy  are  
needed  

SecGon  11.4  
 HeaGng  Steam  
• Aqer  all  the  water  is  
converted  to  steam,  the  
steam  will  heat  up  
• No  phase  change  occurs  
• The  added  energy  goes  to  
increasing  the  
temperature  
• Use  Q  =  m  c  ΔT  
• To  raise  the  temperature  
of  the  steam  to  120°,  40.2  
J  of  energy  are  needed  

SecGon  11.4  
 Ice Water: At a party, 6.00 kg of ice at -5.00°C is added to a cooler holding 30
liters of water at 20.0°C. What is the temperature of the water when it comes to
equilibrium?

L f ,ice = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg

c ice = 2090J/kg C
c water = 4186J/kg C

€
 Ice Water: At a party, 6.00 kg of ice at -5.00°C is added to a cooler holding 30
liters of water at 20.0°C. What is the temperature of the water when it comes to
equilibrium?
L f ,ice = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg
c ice = 2090J/kg C
c water = 4186J/kg C
m
ρ water = water ⇒ mwater = ( 30 × 10 −3 m3 )(1000kg/m3 ) = 30kg
Vwater

ice − water
∑Q k = 0 ⇒ Qice + Qmelt + Qice,water + Qwater = 0 ⇒
c ice mice (Tf + 5  C) + L f ,ice mice + c water mice (Tf − 0  C) + c water mwater (Tf − 20  C) = 0 ⇒

  
(2090J/kg C)(6.00kg)(0 C + 5 C) + (3.33 × 10 J /kg)(6.00kg) +
5

   
(4186J/kg C)(6kg)(T − 0 C) + (4186J/kg C)(30kg)(T − 20 C) = 0 ⇒
f f

62700J + 2. × 10 6 J - 2.511 × 10 6 J + Tf (150696J/C) ⇒

Tf = 3 C

€
 Partial Melting: A 5.00-kg block of ice at 0°C is added to an insulated
container partially filled with 10.0 kg of water at 15.0°C. (a) Find the final
temperature, neglecting the heat capacity of the container. (b) Find the mass
of the ice that was melted.

L f ,ice = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg

c ice = 2090J/kg C
c water = 4186J/kg C

€
 Partial Melting: A 5.00-kg block of ice at 0°C is added to an insulated
container partially filled with 10.0 kg of water at 15.0°C. (a) Find the final
temperature, neglecting the heat capacity of the container. (b) Find the mass
of the ice that was melted.

L f ,ice = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg

c ice = 2090J/kg C
c water = 4186J/kg C
The total amount of energy available to be transferred to the ice to melt it is:
Q available = c water mwater (15  C) = ( 4186J/kg C)(10kg)(15  C) = 6.279 × 10 5 J

The amount of energy required to melt 5 kg of ice is :

Q melt = L f ,ice (5kg) = ( 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg)(5kg) = 1.665 × 10 6 J

There is not enough energy available so the ice will only partly melt and the
final temperature will be T = 0  C since ice melts at this temperature.

Q available 6.279 × 10 5 J
mmelt = = = 1.89kg (this is the amount of ice that will be melted.)
L f ,ice 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg

€
 Armageddon!:  A  comet  half  a  kilometer  in  radius  consisGng  of  ice  at  273  K  hits  Earth  
at  a  speed  of  4.00  ×  104  m/s.  For  simplicity,  assume  all  the  kineGc  energy  converts  to  
thermal  energy  on  impact  and  that  all  the  thermal  energy  goes  into  warming  the  
comet.  (a)  Calculate  the  volume  and  mass  of  the  ice.  (b)  Use  conservaGon  of  energy  
to  find  the  final  temperature  of  the  comet  material.  Assume,  contrary  to  fact,  that  
the  result  is  superheated  steam  and  that  the  usual  specific  heats  are  valid,  although  
in  fact  they  depend  on  both  temperature  and  pressure.  (c)  Assuming  the  steam  
retains  a  spherical  shape  and  has  the  same  iniGal  volume  as  the  comet,  calculate  the  
pressure  of  the  steam  using  the  ideal  gas  law.  This  law  actually  doesn’t  apply  to  a  
system  at  such  high  pressure  and  temperature,  but  can  be  used  to  get  an  esGmate.    
L f = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg
L v = 2.26 × 10 6 J/kg
c ice = 2090J/kg C
c water = 4186J/kg C
c steam = 2010J/kg C
4 3 4 3
(a) Vcomet = πR = π (0.5 × 10 3 m) = 5.24 × 10 8 m3
3 3
mcomet
ρice = ⇒ mcoment = ρiceVcomet = 4.8 × 1011 kg
Vcomet

€
 Armageddon!:  A  comet  half  a  kilometer  in  radius  consisGng  of  ice  at  273  K  hits  Earth  
at  a  speed  of  4.00  ×  104  m/s.  For  simplicity,  assume  all  the  kineGc  energy  converts  to  
thermal  energy  on  impact  and  that  all  the  thermal  energy  goes  into  warming  the  
comet.  (a)  Calculate  the  volume  and  mass  of  the  ice.  (b)  Use  conservaGon  of  energy  
to  find  the  final  temperature  of  the  comet  material.  Assume,  contrary  to  fact,  that  
the  result  is  superheated  steam  and  that  the  usual  specific  heats  are  valid,  although  
in  fact  they  depend  on  both  temperature  and  pressure.  (c)  Assuming  the  steam  
retains  a  spherical  shape  and  has  the  same  iniGal  volume  as  the  comet,  calculate  the  
pressure  of  the  steam  using  the  ideal  gas  law.  This  law  actually  doesn’t  apply  to  a  
system  at  such  high  pressure  and  temperature,  but  can  be  used  to  get  an  esGmate.    
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
2
(b) The energy available to heat the comet is : KE = micev comet = ⎜ ⎟( 4.8 × 1011 kg)( 4 × 10 4 m /s) = 3.84 × 10 20 J
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
∑Q k = KE ⇒ Q ice + Qmelt + Qwater + Qvap + Qsteam = KE ⇒

( )
c ice mcomet (0  C − (−0.15  C)) + mcomet L f + c water mcomet (100  C − 0  C) + mcomet Lv + c steam mcomet Tf −100  C = KE ⇒
 
(2090J/kg C)(4.8 × 10 kg)(0.15 C) + (4.8 × 10 kg)(3.33 × 10 J/kg) +
11 11 5

 
(4186J/kg C)(4.8 × 10 kg)(100 C) + (4.8 × 10 kg)(2.26 × 10 J/kg) +
11 11 6

(2010J/kg C)(4.8 × 10 kg)(T −100 C) ⇒

 11
f


( )
1.51 × 1014 J +1.6 × 1017 J + 2.0 × 1017 J +1.09 × 1018 J + 9.65 × 1014 Tf −100  C = 3.84 × 10 20 J ⇒
3.83 × 10 20 J 5
(Tf −100  C = ) 9.65 × 10 14 = 3.96 × 10 C ⇒ Tf ≅ 4 × 10
5 
C

€
 Armageddon!:  A  comet  half  a  kilometer  in  radius  consisGng  of  ice  at  273  K  hits  Earth  
at  a  speed  of  4.00  ×  104  m/s.  For  simplicity,  assume  all  the  kineGc  energy  converts  to  
thermal  energy  on  impact  and  that  all  the  thermal  energy  goes  into  warming  the  
comet.  (a)  Calculate  the  volume  and  mass  of  the  ice.  (b)  Use  conservaGon  of  energy  
to  find  the  final  temperature  of  the  comet  material.  Assume,  contrary  to  fact,  that  
the  result  is  superheated  steam  and  that  the  usual  specific  heats  are  valid,  although  
in  fact  they  depend  on  both  temperature  and  pressure.  (c)  Assuming  the  steam  
retains  a  spherical  shape  and  has  the  same  iniGal  volume  as  the  comet,  calculate  the  
pressure  of  the  steam  using  the  ideal  gas  law.  This  law  actually  doesn’t  apply  to  a  
system  at  such  high  pressure  and  temperature,  but  can  be  used  to  get  an  esGmate.    

nRT (2.66 × 10 mol)(8.31J/molK)( 4 × 10 K)

13 5
11
(c) PV = nRT ⇒ P = = 8 3 = 1.69 × 10 Pa
V 5.24 × 10 m
mcomet 4.8 × 1011 kg
where n = = −3 = 2.66 × 1013 mol
molar mass 18.02 × 10 kg/mol

€
 Methods  of  Heat  Transfer  
• Methods  of  Heat  Transfer  include  
– ConducGon  
– ConvecGon  
– RadiaGon  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConducGon  
• The  transfer  can  be  viewed  on  an  atomic  scale  
– It  is  an  exchange  of  energy  between  microscopic  parGcles  
by  collisions  
– Less  energeGc  parGcles  gain  energy  during  collisions  with  
more  energeGc  parGcles  
• Rate  of  conducGon  depends  upon  the  characterisGcs  
of  the  substance  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConducGon  example  
• The  molecules  vibrate  about  
their  equilibrium  posiGons  
• ParGcles  near  the  stove  coil  
vibrate  with  larger  
amplitudes  
• These  collide  with  adjacent  
molecules  and  transfer  
some  energy  
• Eventually,  the  energy  
travels  enGrely  through  the  
pan  and  its  handle  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConducGon,  cont.  
• The  rate  of  conducGon  depends  on  the  properGes  of  
the  substance  
• In  general,  metals  are  good  conductors  
– They  contain  large  numbers  of  electrons  that  are  relaGvely  
free  to  move  through  the  metal  
– They  can  transport  energy  from  one  region  to  another  
• ConducGon  can  occur  only  if  there  is  a  difference  in  
temperature  between  two  parts  of  the  conducGng  
medium  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConducGon,  equaGon  
• The  slab  of  material  
allows  energy  Q  to  
transfer  from  the  region  
of  higher  temperature  
to  the  region  of  lower  
temperature  
• A  is  the  cross-­‐secGonal  
area  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConducGon,  equaGon  explanaGon  
• A  is  the  cross-­‐secGonal  
area  
• Through  a  rod,  Δx  =  L  
• P  is  in  WaWs  when  Q  is  in  
Joules  and  t  is  in  seconds  
• k  is  the  thermal  
conduc>vity  of  the  
material  
– See  table  11.3  for  some  
conducGviGes  
– Good  conductors  have  high  
k  values  and  good  
insulators  have  low  k  
values  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConducGon  

Is  the  heat  conducted  in  the  parallel  arrangement  (a)  greater  

than,  (b)  less  than,  or  (c)  the  same  as  the  heat  conducted  
with  the  rods  in  series.  
ConducGon    

SecGon  11.5  
 Home  InsulaGon  
• Substances  are  rated  by  their  R  values    
– R  =  L  /  k  
– See  table  11.4  for  some  R  values  
• For  mulGple  layers,  the  total  R  value  is  the  sum  
of  the  R  values  of  each  layer  
• Wind  increases  the  energy  loss  by  conducGon  
in  a  home  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConducGon  and  InsulaGon  with  MulGple  
Materials  
• Each  porGon  will  have  a  specific  thickness  and  
a  specific  thermal  conducGvity  
• The  rate  of  conducGon  through  each  porGon  is  
equal  

SecGon  11.5  
 MulGple  Materials,  cont.  
• The  rate  through  the  mulGple  materials  will  be  

• TH  and  TC  are  the  temperatures  at  the  outer  

extremiGes  of  the  compound  material  

SecGon  11.5  
Conduc.ve  Losses  from  the  Human  Body:  In  a  human  being,  a  layer  of  fat  and  
muscle  lies  under  the  skin  having  various  thicknesses  depending  on  locaGon.  In  
response  to  a  cold  environment,  capillaries  near  the  surface  of  the  body  constrict,  
reducing  blood  flow  and  thereby  reducing  the  conducGvity  of  the  Gssues.  These  
Gssues  form  a  shell  up  to  an  inch  thick  having  a  thermal  conducGvity  of  about  0.21  
W/m    K,  the  same  as  skin  or  fat.  (a)  EsGmate  the  rate  of  loss  of  thermal  energy  due  
to  conducGon  from  the  human  core  region  to  the  skin  surface,  assuming  a  shell  
thickness  of  2.0  cm  and  a  skin  temperature  of  33.0°C.  (b)  Calculate  the  thermal  
energy  lost  due  to  conducGon  in  1.0  h.  (c)  EsGmate  the  change  in  body  
temperature  in  1.0  h  if  the  energy  is  not  replenished.  Assume  a  body  mass  of  75  kg  
and  a  skin  surface  area  of  1.73  m2.    
 Conduc.ve  Losses  from  the  Human  Body:  In  a  human  being,  a  layer  of  fat  and  
muscle  lies  under  the  skin  having  various  thicknesses  depending  on  locaGon.  In  
response  to  a  cold  environment,  capillaries  near  the  surface  of  the  body  constrict,  
reducing  blood  flow  and  thereby  reducing  the  conducGvity  of  the  Gssues.  These  
Gssues  form  a  shell  up  to  an  inch  thick  having  a  thermal  conducGvity  of  about  0.21  
W/m    K,  the  same  as  skin  or  fat.  (a)  EsGmate  the  rate  of  loss  of  thermal  energy  due  
to  conducGon  from  the  human  core  region  to  the  skin  surface,  assuming  a  shell  
thickness  of  2.0  cm  and  a  skin  temperature  of  33.0°C.  (b)  Calculate  the  thermal  
energy  lost  due  to  conducGon  in  1.0  h.  (c)  EsGmate  the  change  in  body  
temperature  in  1.0  h  if  the  energy  is  not  replenished.  Assume  a  body  mass  of  75  kg  
and  a  skin  surface  area  of  1.73  m2.    

(0.21 W /m K)(1.73m2 )(37  C − 33 C)

(a) P = = 73W
2 × 10 -2 m

(b) Q = PΔt = ( 73W )( 3600s) = 2.6 × 10 5 J

(c) Q = c body mbody (Tf − 37  C) = 2.6 × 10 5 J ⇒

 2.6 × 10 5 J 2.6 × 10 5 J
(Tf − 37 C) = = ⇒ (Tf − 37  C) = 1.0  C
c body mbody ( 3470J/kg/K)( 75kg)

€
 Conduction
Windows  A  0.5  cm  thick  glass  window  in  a  house  is  1.0  m  on  a  
side.  (a)  How  much  heat  is  lost  through  this  window  in  1  day  if  the  
temperature  in  the  house  is  21  °C  and  the  temperature  outside  is  
0.0  °C  ?  (b)  Suppose  the  area  is  quadrupled  and  the  thickness  is    
doubled.  If  everything  else  is  the  same  by  what  factor  does  the  
heat  flow  change?      
 Conduction
Windows  A  0.5  cm  thick  glass  window  in  a  house  is  1.0  m  on  a  
side.  (a)  How  much  heat  is  lost  through  this  window  in  1  day  if  the  
temperature  in  the  house  is  21  °C  and  the  temperature  outside  is  
0.0  °C  ?  (b)  Suppose  the  area  is  quadrupled  and  the  thickness  is    
doubled.  If  everything  else  is  the  same  by  what  factor  does  the  
heat  flow  change?      

(a) The flow of heat out of the window is :

ΔT (0.84W/m/K)(1m2 )(21 C − 0 C)
Q = kA t= (24 × 3600 s)
L 0.005m
Q = 3.0 × 10 8 J

(b) If you quadruple the area Q increases by 4 but if you double

the thickness Q is reduced by a factor of 2. So the Q increases by 2.

€
    Construc.on  and  Thermal  Insula.on:  (a)  Find  the  energy  transferred  in  1.00  h  by  
conducGon  through  a  concrete  wall  2.0  m  high,  3.65  m  long,  and  0.20  m  thick  if  
one  side  of  the  wall  is  held  at  5.00°C  and  the  other  side  is  at  20.0°C  (Fig.  11.8).  
Assume  the  concrete  has  a  thermal  conducGvity  of  0.80  J/s    m    °C.  (b)  The  owner  
of  the  home  decides  to  increase  the  insulaGon,  so  he  installs  0.50  in  of  thick  
sheathing,  3.5  in  of  fiberglass  bavng,  and  a  drywall  0.50  in  thick.  Calculate  the  R-­‐
factor.  (c)  Calculate  the  energy  transferred  in  1.00  h  by  conducGon.    
            Construc.on  and  Thermal  Insula.on:  (a)  Find  the  energy  transferred  in  1.00  h  by  
conducGon  through  a  concrete  wall  2.0  m  high,  3.65  m  long,  and  0.20  m  thick  if  one  
side  of  the  wall  is  held  at  5.00°C  and  the  other  side  is  at  20.0°C  (Fig.  11.8).  Assume  
the  concrete  has  a  thermal  conducGvity  of  0.80  J/s    m    °C.  (b)  The  owner  of  the  home  
decides  to  increase  the  insulaGon,  so  he  installs  0.50  in  of  thick  sheathing,  3.5  in  of  
fiberglass  bavng,  and  a  drywall  0.50  in  thick.  Calculate  the  R-­‐factor.  (c)  Calculate  the  
energy  transferred  in  1.00  h  by  conducGon  

Q A(Th − Tc ) A(Th − Tc )
P= = =
t R ∑ L i /k i

0.2m ⎛ m2 ⎞ m2
R= + 2⎜0.030  ⎟ = 0.31
(0.8J/s/m/ 
C) ⎝ J/s/m/ C ⎠ J/s/m/C

(2.0m × 3.65m)(20  C − 5  C)( 3600s)

(a) Q = 2 = 1.3 × 10 6 J
m
0.31
J/s/m/C

€
              Construc.on  and  Thermal  Insula.on:  (a)  Find  the  energy  transferred  in  1.00  h  by  
conducGon  through  a  concrete  wall  2.0  m  high,  3.65  m  long,  and  0.20  m  thick  if  
one  side  of  the  wall  is  held  at  5.00°C  and  the  other  side  is  at  20.0°C  (Fig.  11.8).  
Assume  the  concrete  has  a  thermal  conducGvity  of  0.80  J/s    m    °C.  (b)  The  owner  
of  the  home  decides  to  increase  the  insulaGon,  so  he  installs  0.50  in  of  thick  
sheathing,  3.5  in  of  fiberglass  bavng,  and  a  drywall  0.50  in  thick.  Calculate  the  R-­‐
factor.  (c)  Calculate  the  energy  transferred  in  1.00  h  by  conducGon.  

(b) R total = R air -layer + R concrete + R sheath + R fiberglass + R drywall + R air -layer ⇒
m2
R total = (0.030 + 0.25 + 0.233 +1.92 + 0.079 + 0.030) = 2.5
J/s/m/C

(2.0m × 3.65m)(20  C − 5  C)( 3600s)

(c) Q = 2 = 1.6 × 10 5 J
m
2.5
J/s/m/C

€
 ConvecGon  
• Energy  transferred  by  the  movement  of  a  
substance  
– When  the  movement  results  from  differences  in  
density,  it  is  called  natural  convec>on  
– When  the  movement  is  forced  by  a  fan  or  a  pump,  
it  is  called  forced  convec>on  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConvecGon  example  
• Air  directly  above  the  
flame  is  warmed  and  
expands  
• The  density  of  the  air  
decreases,  and  it  rises  
• The  mass  of  air  warms  
the  hand  as  it  moves  by  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConvecGon  applicaGons  
• Boiling  water  
• Radiators  
• Upwelling  
• Cooling  automobile  engines  
• Algal  blooms  in  ponds  and  lakes  

SecGon  11.5  
 ConvecGon  Current  Example  
• The  radiator  warms  the  air  
in  the  lower  region  of  the  
room  
• The  warm  air  is  less  dense,  
so  it  rises  to  the  ceiling  
• The  denser,  cooler  air  sinks  
• A  conGnuous  air  current  
paWern  is  set  up  as  shown  

SecGon  11.5  
 RadiaGon  
• RadiaGon  does  not  require  physical  contact  
• All  objects  radiate  energy  conGnuously  in  the  
form  of  electromagneGc  waves  due  to  thermal  
vibraGons  of  the  molecules  
• Rate  of  radiaGon  is  given  by  Stefan’s  Law  

SecGon  11.5  
 RadiaGon  example  

• The  electromagneGc  waves  carry  the  energy  from  the  

fire  to  the  hands  
• No  physical  contact  is  necessary  
• Cannot  be  accounted  for  by  conducGon  or  convecGon  
SecGon  11.5  
 RadiaGon  equaGon  
•  P  =  σ  A  e  T4  
– The  power  is  the  rate  of  energy  transfer,  in  WaWs  
– σ  =  5.669  6  x  10-­‐8  W/m2.K4  
• Called  the  Stefan-­‐Boltzmann  constant  
– A  is  the  surface  area  of  the  object  
– e  is  a  constant  called  the  emissivity  
• e  varies  from  0  to  1  
– T  is  the  temperature  in  Kelvins  

SecGon  11.5  
 Energy  AbsorpGon  and    Emissio  
n  by RadiaGon  
• The  rate  at  which  the  object  at  temperature  T  
with  surroundings  at  To  radiates  is  
– Pnet  =  σ  A  e  (T4    -­‐  To4)  
– When  an  object  is  in  equilibrium  with  its  
surroundings,  it  radiates  and  absorbs  at  the  same  
rate  
• Its  temperature  will  not  change  

SecGon  11.5  
 Ideal  Absorbers  
• An  ideal  absorber  is  defined  as  an  object  that  
absorbs  all  of  the  energy  incident  on  it  
– e  =  1  
• This  type  of  object  is  called  a  black  body  
• An  ideal  absorber  is  also  an  ideal  radiator  of  
energy  

SecGon  11.5  
 Ideal  Reflector  
• An  ideal  reflector  absorbs  none  of  the  energy  
incident  on  it  
– e  =  0  

SecGon  11.5  
 ApplicaGons  of  RadiaGon  
• Clothing  
– Black  fabric  acts  as  a  good  absorber  
– White  fabric  is  a  beWer  reflector  
• Thermography  
– The  image  of  the  paWern  formed  by  varying  radiaGon  
levels  is  called  a  thermogram  
• Body  temperature  
– RadiaGon  thermometer  measures  the  intensity  of  the  
infrared  radiaGon  from  the  eardrum  

SecGon  11.5  
 ResisGng  Energy  Transfer  
• Dewar  flask/thermos  boWle  
• Designed  to  minimize  
energy  transfer  to  
surroundings  
• Space  between  walls  is  
evacuated  to  minimize  
conducGon  and  convecGon  
• Silvered  surface  minimizes  
radiaGon  
• Neck  size  is  reduced  

SecGon  11.5  
 Global  Warming  
• Greenhouse  example  
– Visible  light  is  absorbed  and  re-­‐emiWed  as  infrared  
radiaGon  
• Earth’s  atmosphere  is  also  a  good  transmiWer  
of  visible  light  and  a  good  absorber  of  infrared  
radiaGon  

SecGon  11.6  
Polar Bear Club: A member of the Polar Bear Club, dressed only in bathing
trunks of negligible size, prepares to plunge into the Baltic Sea from the beach
in St. Petersburg, Russia. The air is calm, with a temperature of 5°C. If the
swimmer’s surface body temperature is 25°C, compute the net rate of energy
loss from his skin due to radiation. How much energy is lost in 10.0 min?
Assume his emissivity is 0.900 and his surface area is 1.50 m2.
 Polar Bear Club: A member of the Polar Bear Club, dressed only in bathing
trunks of negligible size, prepares to plunge into the Baltic Sea from the beach
in St. Petersburg, Russia. The air is calm, with a temperature of 5°C. If the
swimmer’s surface body temperature is 25°C, compute the net rate of energy
loss from his skin due to radiation. How much energy is lost in 10.0 min?
Assume his emissivity is 0.900 and his surface area is 1.50 m2.

[ 4 4
]
(a) P = σAe(T 4 − T04 ) = (5.67 × 10 −8 W /m 2K 4 )(1.5m 2 )(0.90) (298K) − (278K) ⇒
P = 146W

(b) Q = PΔt = (146W )(600s) = 8.76 × 10 4 J