Experiment 7

The Michelson Interferometer

The Michelson interferometer is described in section 25.7 of the Physics 2120
textbook.

Thomas Young was the first to develop an interferometer, he allowed a single,

narrow beam of light to fall on two narrow, closely spaced slits (a double slit). The
viewing screen opposite the slits showed a regular pattern of dark and bright bands. This
was an important experiment showing evidence for the wave nature of light.
78 years after Young (in 1881), A. A. Michelson designed and built an
interferometer using a similar principle. Originally Michelson designed his interferometer
as a means to test for the existence of the ether, a hypothesized medium in which light
propagated. Due in part to his efforts, the ether is no longer considered a viable
hypothesis. Michelson's interferometer has become widely used for measuring the
wavelength of light, for measuring extremely small distances, and for investigating
optical media.
Figure 1 shows a diagram of a
Michelson interferometer. The beam of
light from the laser strikes the beam-
splitter, which reflects 50% of the incident
light and transmits the other 50%. The
incident beam is therefore split into two
beams; one beam is transmitted toward the
movable mirror (M1), the other is reflected
toward the fixed mirror (M2). Both mirrors
reflect light directly back toward the beam-
splitter. Half the light from M1 is reflected
from the beam-splitter to the viewing
screen and half the light from M2 is
transmitted through the beam-splitter to the
viewing screen.

The original beam of

light has been split in two and
portions of the resulting beams
are brought back together. Since
the beams are from the same
source, their phases are highly
correlated. When a lens is
placed between the laser source
and beam-splitter, the light ray
spreads out, and an interference
pattern of dark and bright rings,
or fringes, is seen on the
viewing screen (see figure to
right).
 The relative phase of the two beams when they meet at the viewing screen
depends on the difference in the length of their optical paths in reaching that point. By
moving M1, the path length of one of the beams can be varied. Since the beam traverses
the path between M1 and the beam-splitter twice, moving M1 1/4 wavelength nearer the
beam-splitter will reduce the optical path of that beam by 1/2 wavelength. The interfer-
ence pattern will change; the former positions of maxima will now be minima and vice
versa. If M1 is moved an additional 1/4 wavelength closer to the beam-splitter, the
maxima and minima will again trade positions, the new arrangement will be identical to
the original.
By slowly moving the mirror a distance d, and counting the number of times the
fringe pattern is restored to its original state m, the wavelength of the light λ can be
calculated as:
2d
λ =
m
If the wavelength is known, the same procedure can be used to measure the
distance d.
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NOTE: The Compensator
In Figure 1, one beam (the one reflecting off M2) passes through the glass of the beam-
splitter only once, while the other beam passes through it three times. When using a laser
(which is highly coherent and monochromatic), this is no problem. With other light
sources this is a problem.
A compensator is identical to the beam-splitter, but without the reflective coating.
By inserting it in the beam path (as shown in Figure 1), both beams pass through the
same thickness of glass. This evens the path lengths and thus increases the coherence of
the beams at the viewing screen.
We do not need, and will not use the compensator.
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Setup and Operation

Set the interferometer base on a lab table with the micrometer knob pointing
toward you. Position the laser alignment bench (short, magnetic optical bench upon
which a laser can be placed) to the left of the base approximately perpendicular to the
interferometer base and place a laser on the bench.
Secure the "movable mirror" in the recessed hole in the interferometer base. Turn
the laser on. Adjust the height of the laser and the direction of the laser so that the laser
beam hits the middle of the mirror and reflects directly back into the laser aperture. The
laser's height can be adjusted using the leveling screws on the laser bench, the beam
direction can be adjusted by simply turning the laser alignment bench.
Mount the adjustable mirror on the interferometer base. Put a component holder
in front of the laser, holder side out. Place another holder opposite the adjustable mirror,
holder side in. Attach a white viewing screen (with millimeter scale) on the component
holder opposite the adjustable mirror.
Position the "beam splitter" at a 45° angle to the laser beam, atop the marks on the
interferometry table. There should now be two sets of bright dots on the viewing screen;
one set comes from the fixed mirror (adjustable mirror) and the other comes from the
movable mirror. Each set of dots includes a bright dot with two or more dimmer dots due
to multiple reflections. Adjust the angle of the beam-splitter until the two sets of dots are
aligned vertically, tighten the thumbscrew to secure the beam-splitter.
Using the thumbscrews on the back of the adjustable mirror, adjust the mirror
until the two sets of dots on the viewing screen coincide exactly. Attach the 18 mm FL
lens to the magnetic backing of the component holder in front of the laser. When
correctly placed, you will see circular fringes on the beam splitter (like in picture on page
1). If you don't see the fringes immediately, just play with the lens position for a while. If
you still don't see them, repeat setup procedure.

Turn the micrometer knob, you'll see the fringes shift. Don't screw the micro-
meter knob all the way in or all the way out.

Completed setup.

Other possible setup problems: While warming up, the laser intensity may vary
causing fringe shifts. If this occurs, it will go away as the laser warms up and becomes
more stable. If the mirror brackets have become bent, it may be impossible to obtain
fringes or the fringes may have significant distortion. You may also see background
fringes due to reflections off other surfaces. These background patterns generally don't
move when the mirror is moved and should have no impact on your measurements.
Vibration of the interferometer base or table can effect your interference pattern.
 Counting Fringes

It is not necessary that the interference pattern be perfectly symmetrical or sharp.

As long as you can clearly distinguish the maxima and minima, you can make accurate
measurements. You can move the viewing screen so that, say, a minimum in the fringe
pattern is aligned with a particular mark on the screen's millimeter scale. Then you'll have
advanced exactly one fringe when the next minimum is aligned with the same mark – the
pattern should then look identical to the original.
When turning the micrometer dial to count fringes, always turn it one complete
revolution before you start, then continue turning in the same direction while counting.
This will eliminate the "backlash" in the micrometer movement (the mechanical slippage
when reversing the direction of motion in a mechanical instrument).
The dark ring at the base of the micrometer knob adjusts the tension in the dial.
Be sure to adjust the tension to a comfortable level before taking measurements. Always
take several readings and average them for greater accuracy.

Wavelength Measurement

Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counterclockwise, continue turning until
the zero on the knob is aligned with the index mark. Adjust the position of your viewing
screen so that one of the marks on the millimeter scale is aligned with one of the fringes
in your interference pattern. You'll probably find it easier to count fringes if the reference
mark is one or two fringes out from the center of the pattern.
Rotate the micrometer knob slowly counterclockwise. Count the fringes as they
pass your reference mark. Continue until 30 fringes (or so) have passed your mark. Make
sure you do not count the fringe at the initial position of the micrometer knob as 1, but
the next fringe.) As you finish your count, the fringes should be in the same position with
respect to your reference mark as they were when you started to count. Record the final
reading on the micrometer dial. Ignore the numbers along the micrometer shaft.
The distance d (in µm, micrometers, 10-6 m) that the movable mirror moved
toward the beam-splitter is the reading from the micrometer knob. Record d and N, the
number of fringes that passed. Repeat the experiment two more times.
For each trial, calculate the wavelength of the light, then average your results.
λ = 2d/N
(Q1) In the calculation of λ, why did we multiply d by two?

Index of Refraction of Air Measurement

The speed of light through a

material depends on the index of
refraction of that material. If one of
our interferometry beams passes
through a section of vacuum while
the other traverses only through air,
the beams will end up additionally
out of phase.
 Attach the vacuum cell inside the rotational pointer using the magnetic backing,
and put the combination in the slot between the movable mirror and the beam-splitter.
See Figure 2.2 on the previous page. Push the air hose of the vacuum pump over the air
outlet hole of the cell. Adjust the alignment of the fixed mirror as needed so the center of
the interference pattern is clearly visible on the viewing screen. The fringe pattern will be
somewhat distorted by irregularities in the glass end-plates of the vacuum cell, this is not
a problem.
Practice using the handheld vacuum pump. Squeezing the trigger near the bottom
causes air to be removed from the vacuum cell, you should see the fringe patterns shift as
the air is pumped out. You can fill the cell with air again by flipping the vacuum release
toggle switch on the pump.
The initial reading on the vacuum pump should be zero. Slowly pump the air out
of the vacuum cell while counting the fringe transitions that occur. Do multiple pumps to
reduce the air pressure as far as the pump can achieve. Record the pressure change ∆P (in
cm Hg, centimeters of mercury) and number of fringes N.

Analyzing the Data

The pressure gauge indicates the change in pressure relative to atmospheric

pressure. So a reading of 34 cm Hg means the pressure was 34 cm Hg below atmospheric
pressure. Atmospheric pressure is about 76 cm Hg. The reading may be given in inches
of Hg, if so just convert to cm.
The fringe shifts indicate that the light going through the vacuum cell has gained
on the light that didn't (because of its greater speed in vacuum). From the number of
fringe shifts N, we can calculate the difference in the index of refraction (∆n) between the
two media. The formula is
∆n = N λ / (2d)
where λ is wavelength of the light in vacuum (calculated in the previous part) and d is the
length of the vacuum cell (3.0 cm).
Use this formula to calculate ∆n for your data. This formula represents the shift in
index of refraction from air to partial vacuum. Let's assume that the shift is linear and
extrapolate the data to determine ∆n between air and complete vacuum. This can be done
by setting up a simple proportion,
∆P ∆n
=
76 cm Hg ∆n0
where ∆n0 is the change in index between air and total vacuum, solve for ∆n0.

(Q2) Why did we use (2d) in the above formula?

(Q3) How does your result for ∆n0 compare to the textbook difference between the index
of refractions of air and vacuum?

(Q4) The index of refraction for a gas depends on temperature as well as pressure.
Describe an experiment that would determine the temperature dependence of the index of
refraction for air.