PHYS 201 LAB 01

Interference and Diffraction Using Visible Light

1. Objective
The objective of this experiment is to show that light can exhibit wavelike properties
such as interference and diffraction.

2. Theory
NOTE: The theory used in this lab is covered in Serway & Jewitt “Principles Of Physics”
Fourth Edition, Chapter 27: Wave Optics in sections 27.1-3 and 27.6 .

2.1 Introduction

If two or more waves of light of the same frequency overlap at some point in space the
resulting effect produced depends both on the phases and amplitudes of the two waves.
This phenomenon, called interference, can not be explained on the basis of ray optics
or the corpuscular nature of light – the wave nature of light must be explicitly invoked.

Two sources of light are called coherent if they emit light waves of the same frequency
and the emitted waves have a constant phase relationship between them. Light
radiating from coherent sources is also called coherent light. Thus light from such
sources as a lightbulb, a candle or a star is incoherent. As described in your textbook,
light waves are transverse waves. To observe interference on the laboratory time scale
using light waves an additional condition must be imposed – the two interfering waves
must have the same polarization. One way to produce such two coherent waves is to
use radiation from two different parts of the same wavefront.

We will use the following notation for variables in this experiment:

a = width of slit(s)
d = distance between two slits in double-slit experiments
y = position of light sensor relative to center of interference pattern
θ = arctan( y / L ) = diffraction angle of light at position y

The diffraction angles involved in this experiment are small enough that we will assume
throughout that sin(θ) = tan(θ) = θ . Therefore we can write simply θ = y / L .

The following symbols indicate constants for the experiment:

λ = wavelength of laser light = 650nm

L = distance from slit(s) to light sensor = 80cm
 2.2 Double-Slit Interference Theory

Consider two point sources S1 and S2 of coherent light as shown below. The light waves
from each slit will spread out in all directions. At a particular point on the viewing screen,
the light waves from the two slits will interfere in a way that depends on their phases
difference.

If the two waves depicted in the diagram are in phase when they strike the target, we
expect constructive interference to produce a bright fringe, where the intensity is
maximum. If the two waves are out-of-phase, we expect a dark fringe, where the
intensity is minimum. We can approximate the path difference between the two waves
with the geometric construction shown below:

If L is much larger than d, then geometrically, we can approximate that δ ≈ d sin(θ) .

For a particular angle θ, we expect constructive interference to produce an intensity
maximum if the path difference δ is an integer multiple of λ. By the same reasoning, we
expect minima to occur when δ is a half-integer multiple of λ. Therefore we expect
bright and dark fringes to occur at the following angles:
Here we are using n as a label for keeping track of the different maxima and minima.
Using the small-angle approximation sin θ = tan θ = y / L and our known values for L
and λ we have the following approximate formula for minima:

2.3 Single-Slit Theory

Of course, each slit has a finite width and thus is not really a “point” source of light . By
the same reasoning we used for double-slit interference, light waves passing through
different parts of a single slit travel slightly different distances to the target. Thus light
from a single slit can interfere with itself! This self-interference is called diffraction.

To calculate the effects of diffraction, we use Huygens' principle: each point inside the
slit can be modeled as a point source of light. We then add together the effects of all
the points (or rather, integrate them - there are infinitely many points) to find a formula
for the single-slit interference pattern. If L >> a, the result is a Fraunhofer pattern:

Instead of calculating the actual Fraunhofer pattern, we need only approximate the
locations of its first few minima for our purposes. If we model the light passing through
the slit as two point sources a distance a/2 apart, then the double-slit interference
formula tells us the first minimum occurs when (a/2) sin(θ) = λ/2 . Modelling the light as
four point sources each a distance a/4 apart gives (a/4) sin(θ) = λ/2 , and so on for 8,
16, 32, etc. point sources. Therefore if m is any nonzero integer, we can write:
This derivation was not very rigorous, but this formula does gives the location of single-
slit intensity minima in the limit that L is much larger than a. Again using the small-angle
approximation and plugging in the known values of L and λ, we have:

In the double-slit experiments, both effects will be at work: diffraction of light through
each slit and interference from the two separate slits. The observed double-slit pattern
will have minima corresponding to both formulas, and the pattern itself will look like this:

The Fraunhofer pattern formed by diffraction at each slit acts as an “envelope” which
limits the amplitude of the intensity fringes formed by double-slit interference.

3. Experimental Details
The experiment is divided into two parts:

In Part 1 (Single Slit Diffraction), we shine laser light through a single slit and
analyze the resulting diffraction pattern on a target behind the slit. This is done for two
slits of different sizes. In Part II (Two-Slit Interference), we shine light through two
identical slits and analyze the resulting interference pattern. The distance between slits
is varied to observe changes in the interference pattern. Below is the summary of the
two experiments and their corresponding parameters.

Summary of Experimental Parameters

Part I – Single Slit Diffraction

a = 0.04 mm
a = 0.08 mm

Part II – Double Slit Interference

a = 0.04 mm, d = 0.25 mm

a = 0.04 mm, d = 0.50 mm

BEFORE YOU BEGIN: IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS

- Do not look directly at the laser. Doing so may lead to permanent damage to your
eyes.

- Handle the linear translator / light sensor assembly with care.

3.1 Apparatus

The apparatus consists of the following components, as viewed from above:

The light sensor and rotary motion sensor are mounted on a rack assembly called the
Linear Translator. The concept is simple: a laser shines onto one or more slits and the
resulting light strikes a target 80cm away, forming a horizontal interference pattern.

Before starting the experiments, run through the following checklist:

1. Turn on the laser. (There is a switch on the back.)

2. There are two different Slit Accessories marked Single Slit Set and Multiple Slit
Set. Check the Single Slit Set is in use. Look at the Slit Accessory from above and
ensure that the disk lines up approximately with the 20cm mark on the metal rail.

3. Turn the Slit Accessory disk so that the laser light passes through the 0.16mm slit. If
the laser is not aimed at the slit, use the adjustment knobs on the laser to re-aim it.

4. The laser light should strike the Aperture Bracket, which looks like this:

The light pattern should be horizontal and pass through the aperture to reach the light
sensor. If it does not, use the adjustment knobs to fine-tune the laser's aim. Rotate the
wheel to select aperture size setting #2 if it is not already in this position.

5. Check that the white plastic screen on the aperture is approximately lined up with the
100cm mark on the metal rail, as viewed from above.

3.2 Setting up the DataStudio software

Log in to the computer and double-click the Physics Experiment Resources folder,
then Interference and Diffraction of Light and DataStudio Files. Double-click the file
Diffraction.ds to open the DataStudio activity.

Check the Experiment Setup window. You should see a picture of the
ScienceWorkshop 750 USB interface box. (Be sure that the box is switched on!) If the
“Click To Connect” icon appears, click it. There should be icons for the light sensor and
rotary motion sensors indicating that both sensors are connected.

Click on the Diffraction and Interference window to bring it to the front. Select
Monitor Data in the Experiment pull-down menu (or press Command-M) to start
Monitor Mode. In this mode, DataStudio will display data on screen without recording.

Gently move the light sensor assembly back and forth along the Linear Translator rack.
It is important to move the assembly smoothly and slowly: it should take you about 30-
60 seconds to move the light sensor across the entire visible range of the interference
pattern. It is not necessary to move the assembly at a constant speed. (You may want
to lean the back of the assembly against the metal rail underneath it to prevent the light
sensor from tipping forwards, which can affect the accuracy of the experiment.)

If DataStudio is set up properly, you will see data points appear on-screen forming a
graph of light intensity vs. position. To exit Monitor Mode, click the Stop button at the
top of the screen. Clicking the Start button will begin data recording (don't do this yet).

3.3 Recording Data

Move the sensor assembly so that it rests against the black clamp on the Linear
Translator rack. Remember to do this before each experiment or the graphs from
different experiments will not line up correctly. (DataStudio always defines 0cm to be
the location of the sensor assembly when you first pressed the Start button.)

Click the Start button and move the sensor assembly across the entire visible
interference pattern. Click Stop when you are finished. If there is a problem during
data recording, you can select Delete Last Data Run from the Experiment menu (or
press Command-minus), click OK, and start again.

The screenshot above shows a typical DataStudio window with two data sets
superimposed: a single-slit data set with a = 0.04mm and a double-slit data set with a =
0.04mm and d = 0.25mm. The icons at the top will be used later for analysis.

Once you are satisfied with your data, repeat the experiment with the following settings.
(Use the Double Slit Set accessory for the third and fourth experiments.)
 Single Slit: a = 0.08mm

Double Slit: a = 0.04mm d = 0.25mm

Double Slit: a = 0.04mm d = 0.50mm

3.4 Analyzing Data

The Diffraction and Interference window will show the results of the most recently
recorded data. To view all of the data at once, use the Single-Double Comparison
window. Click the Data box in the toolbar at the top of the window to select which data
recordings should be displayed in the window.

Click the Scale to fit icon at the top left of either window to automatically re-size the
displayed data. To zoom in on a particular section of the data, use the Zoom Select
icon (a magnifying glass with a + and a dotted rectangle). Click and drag to draw a box
and DataStudio will zoom in on that box.

To find the coordinates of an individual data point, click the Smart Tool icon (the letters
xy with two perpendicular dashed lines.) Click on the center of the Smart Tool and drag
it to a data point to see that point's coordinates.

We are interested in the locations of the local intensity minima of the interference
pattern. To find these, drag the Smart Tool to each minimum value. The location will
be displayed as an x-coordinate on the graph. Write these down on the data sheet.
The Zoom In and Zoom Out tools may be useful for finding minima more precisely.

To keep track of the different minima, we label each with an order number. Minima
caused by single-slit diffraction have been labeled m and double-slit interference
minima have been labeled n. The different minima are labeled on the data sheet in the
order that they appear as the Smart Tool is moved away from the center of the pattern.

Note that DataStudio defines 0cm to be the starting position of the motion sensor, while
our theoretical predictions define 0cm as the center of the interference pattern. To
correct for this, write down each minimum left of center in the L column and each
corresponding mirror-image in the R column. Then calculate the distance ( R - L ) / 2
from each minimum to the midpoint between them.

The single- and double-slit experiments are (hopefully!) unchanged if the sign of y is
reversed. Therefore we expect every minimum at y to have a “mirror-image” at -y.
If this is indeed a symmetry of the experiment, then the minimum-to-midpoint distances
( R - L ) / 2 should be the same regardless of where we define 0cm to be.

3.5 Evaluating Error

The error in each measurment is defined to be ( measured - predicted ) / predicted .
For each order number, record the error calculated this way in the last column.

For example, suppose the m = 1 minimum is predicted to occur 0.650 cm from center.
Suppose the measured left and right minima occur at 3.671 cm and 4.995 cm . Then
the measured ( R - L ) / 2 distance is ( 4.995 - 3.671 ) / 2 = 0.662 cm . The error for this
measurement is ( 0.662 - 0.650 ) / 0.650 = 0.019 = +1.9% .

3.6 Just for Fun!

The Single Slit Set includes a black screen with a square hole of side s. Before shining
the laser onto this screen, discuss with each other what pattern will result. Sketch a
picture of the pattern you predict. Then shine the laser through this square and observe
the resulting pattern. Sketch a picture of the pattern you observe and explain it using
what you have learned in this lab.