Alexandria University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
Third Year Communications Section

Microwave
Transmission Media
Lab Manual

Spring 2017
 Experiment 1
Wave Propagation in Rectangular
Waveguides

Part (I): Measurement of Guided Wavelength

Objective
To use a slotted line to measure the amplitude of a standing wave and the frequency of a
microwave signal in a waveguide.

Discussion
When a sinusoidal source is connected to a waveguide, sinusoidal voltage and current
waves will propagate along it. The voltage and current values depend on the values of the
characteristic impedance Zo of the waveguide and the terminating load ZL. If the load is
matched to the waveguide, i.e. if its impedance is equal to Zo , it will absorb all of the
power incident on it and none will be reflected. Therefore, the only waves in the
waveguide will be travelling from the source to the load.

On the other hand if the load is not matched to the waveguide, it will absorb only some
of the incident power and the remaining power will be reflected back towards the source.
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The two travelling waves, going in opposite directions, combine to produce what is
known as a standing wave along the line. As shown in Figure 1(b), the sum of the incident
and reflected waves will produce a stationary pattern containing minima and maxima
called a standing wave.

Such a pattern can be obtained for the voltage as well as for the current. A voltage
standing wave pattern is a graphical representation of the rms amplitude distribution of
the microwave voltage at any position along the waveguide.

When the incident and reflected voltages add in phase, the voltage of the standing wave
is maximum. Minima are produced when the incident and reflected voltages add 180o out
of phase. The pattern is stationary and the distance between two consecutive minima or
maxima is equal to half the guided wavelength of the signal.

The amplitudes of the maxima and the minima depend upon the amplitude of the
reflected wave, which in turn depends upon the load impedance. The ratio of the
maximum voltage to the minimum voltage of the standing wave pattern is called the
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR).

Clearly, the value of the SWR depends on the characteristics of the load. For example, if
the load is a short circuit, the incident wave will be completely reflected. Then the
maximum amplitude will be twice that of the incident wave, while the minimum
amplitude will be zero (or very close to it in practice).

This property of standing wave patterns can be used to measure the wavelength of a
microwave signal in a waveguide. The frequency of the signal can then be calculated
using the following equation:

√( ) ( )

where
c = 3x108 m/s is the speed of light.
a is the width of the waveguide in m.
g is the guided wave length in m.

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 Figure 1 Dimensions of rectangular wave guide.

This technique cannot be used to measure the microwave signal frequency in a

waveguide terminated with a matched load as there will be no standing wave in this case.

The distance between the minima and maxima of a standing wave pattern can be
measured using a slotted line. A slotted line is a low loss waveguide section with a narrow
longitudinal slot in the top wall. An adjustable depth probe is inserted into this slot to
sample the electric field inside the waveguide. Figure 2 shows a slotted waveguide and its
symbolic representation.

Figure 2 A slotted line and its symbolic representation.

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Waveguide theory of propagation
There are a number of different types of electromagnetic waves that can propagate
within the waveguide. These different types of waves correspond to the different
elements within an electromagnetic wave.

 TE waves: Transverse electric waves, also sometimes called H waves, are

characterized by the fact that the electric field (E) is always perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

 TM waves: Transverse magnetic waves, also called E waves are characterized by

the fact that the magnetic field (H) is always perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.

 TEM waves: The Transverse electromagnetic wave cannot propagate within a

waveguide, but is included for completeness. It is the mode that is commonly used
within coaxial and open wire feeders. The TEM wave is characterized by the fact
that both the electric field (E) and the magnetic vector (H) are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

TE and TM modes are designated by two integers after them: TEm,n. The numerals m and
n can take on separate values from 0 or 1 to infinity, where m is the number of half-wave
patterns across the width of the waveguide and n is the number of half-wave patterns
across the height of the waveguide. Only a limited number of different m, n modes can
be propagated along a waveguide depending on the waveguide dimensions and wave
type.

Figure 3 TE modes for a rectangular waveguide.

For each mode there is a definite lower frequency limit. This is known as the cut-off
frequency. Below its cut-off frequency a given mode cannot propagate along the
waveguide. It is possible for many modes to simultaneously propagate along a
waveguide. The number of possible modes for a given size of waveguide increases with
frequency. The mode with lowest frequency that can be transmitted is called the
dominant mode. The dominant mode is the mode normally used in waveguides.
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It should be remembered, that the wall of the waveguide conducts current. For many
calculations it is assumed to be a perfect conductor. In reality this is not the case, and
some losses are introduced as a result.

Procedure

Figure 4 Experiment setup.

1- Make sure that all the power switches are in the 0 (off) position.
2- Assemble the set-up shown in Figure 4.
3- Adjust the variable attenuator to 1.90 mm.
4- Make the following adjustments on the Gunn Oscillator power supply:
VOLTAGE ………………………. MIN
MODE ……………………………. 1 kHz
METER RANGE ………………. 10V

5- Make the following adjustments on the SWR meter:

RANGE ………………………….. -30 dB -Normal
GAIN ……………………………… Fully CW
INPUT ……………………………. HIGH

6- Turn on the Gunn oscillator power supply and the SWR meter. Wait 1-2 minutes to
allow power supply to warm-up.
7- Adjust the Gunn oscillator power supply voltage to 8 V.
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8- Move the slotted line probe along the slotted line until you find a maximum. Then
adjust the GAIN control of the SWR meter to get a reading of -33dB. If this is not
possible, adjust the variable attenuator to get a reading of -33dB.
9- Move the probe to the load side, then move the probe along the slotted line
towards the source and record the position of each minimum and maximum in
Table 1. To obtain better accuracy, you may change the RANGE on the SWR meter
to -40dB or lower. But don’t readjust the GAIN control knob.

Minimum Maximum
(mm) (mm)
Null1
Null2

Table 1 Location of minima and maxima with a short circuit load.

10- From the position of the minima in Table 1, calculate the guided wavelength g of
the microwave signal.
( )
11- Use the equation below to calculate frequency of the microwave signal.

√( ) ( )

c = 3x108 m/s is the speed of light.

a = 22.9 x 10-3 m is the width of the waveguide.
g is the guided wave length in m.

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Part (II): Measurement of Unknown Load Impedance
Using a Slotted Line

Objective
To find the impedance of an unknown load from standing wave measurements made
with a slotted line using a Smith Chart.

Procedure

Figure 5 Experiment setup.

1- Replace the short circuit load with a horn antenna to get the setup of Figure 5.
2- Place the triple slit polarizer 8 cm apart from the horn antenna (the slits must be
placed parallel to the electric field (vertical)).
3- Move the slotted line probe along the slotted line until you find the minimum
located between Null1 and Null2 observed in part(I). Record the location of the
minimum dmin and the SWR meter reading Pmin.
4- Move the slotted line probe along the slotted line until you find the maximum
reading of the SWR meter. Record the SWR meter reading Pmax.
5- Calculate the SWR and the distance d between the standing wave minimum
observed with this load dmin and Null2 .

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6- Calculate the magnitude of the reflection coefficient using the following equation:

| |

7- Use the following equation to calculate the phase of the reflection coefficient.

( )

8- Plot the circle corresponding to the measured SWR on a Smith Chart, draw the
radius corresponding to the angle  and determine the normalized load impedance
ZL norm.
9- Place the triple slit polarizer 8 cm apart from the horn antenna (the slits must be
placed perpendicular to the electric field (horizontal)).
10- Repeat steps 3 to 8.
11- Turn the voltage control knob on the Gunn oscillator power supply to its min
position. Switch off the SWR meter then switch off the Gunn oscillator power
supply.

Review Questions
1- What does a standing wave pattern represent?
2- What is the distance, in terms of wavelengths, between successive minima in a
standing wave?
3- What causes a maximum on a standing wave?
4- What is the dominant mode of a rectangular waveguide?
5- Explain how to determine a microwave signal’s frequency with a slotted line.
6- Explain how to plot complex impedance on a Smith Chart.

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 Experiment 2
Wave Propagation in Transmission Lines

Part (I): Time Interval Measurements

Objective
To find the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves inside a coaxial cable, the
dielectric constant of the cable and its attenuation coefficient.

Discussion

Figure 6 Terminated coaxial cable.

When the coaxial cable is terminated with mismatched load, a percentage of the power
incident on the load is reflected back towards the source. The time delay between the
reflected and incident signals is equal to the time taken by the signal to travel from the
source to the load and back again, i.e.

where  is the velocity, t is the time delay and L is the length of the cable. Therefore,
the velocity of propagation is equal to

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The dielectric constant of the coaxial cable can be calculated from the velocity using the
formulae

√
( )

where c is the speed of light and equals 3x108 m/s.

If the input voltage is equal to Vin, then the voltage reaching the load will be equal to
, where  is the attenuation coefficient of the coaxial cable. The signal reflected
at the load will be equal to . Since the voltage reflected from the load will
travel a distance L to reach the source, the magnitude of reflected voltage at the source is
equal to
| |

For a short circuit load, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is equal to one,
, hence the attenuation factor can be calculated using the equation:

Procedure
1- Set the experiment as shown in Figure 7.
2- Connect the zero ohms load to the terminal of the coaxial cable.
3- Set the HP8116A function generator to the following:
Output Waveform: square wave
Frequency : 900 kHz
Duty cycle : 10%
Offset voltage : 0V
4- Make the following connection for a short circuited transmission line, the 25 feed
through is used to match the generator (50) to the coaxial cable (75).
5- Press the Disable button on the HP8116A.
6- Press Autoscale on the oscilloscope.

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7- Measure the time delay between the incident and reflected pulses from the
oscilloscope. Calculate the velocity of propagation given that the cable length is
30m.
8- Find the value of the dielectric constant.
9- Measure the voltage amplitude of the incident and reflected pulses. Calculate the
attenuation factor.

Figure 7 Experiment setup.

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Part (II): Reflection Coefficient Measurements

Objective
To find the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable and the reflection coefficient for
different resistive loads.

Procedure
1- Connect the 75 load to the terminal of the coaxial cable. Observe the output on
the oscilloscope and explain what you see.
2- Measure the voltage amplitude of the incident and reflected pulses for different
loads.

ZL Vin Vref 

75
150
200
300
Table 2 Reflection coefficient for different loads.

3- Calculate the reflection coefficient for each load using the equation:

4- Compare the results in step 3 with the expected theoretical values.

Review Questions
1- Explain how to measure the propagation velocity in a coaxial cable.
2- Explain how to measure the reflection coefficient of an unknown load.
3- Why is the reflected pulse –ve for some resistor values and +ve for other values?

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 Experiment 3
Impedance Measurement Using Network
Analyzer

Objective
To measure the impedance of an unknown load using network analyzer.

Discussion

Figure 8 Smith chart.

The Smith chart is a graphical aid designed for electrical and electronics engineers
specializing in radio frequency (RF) engineering to assist in solving problems with
transmission lines and matching circuits. The Smith chart can be used to simultaneously
display multiple parameters including impedances, admittances, reflection coefficients,
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scattering parameters, noise figure circles, constant gain contours and regions for
unconditional stability. The Smith chart is most frequently used at or within the unity
radius region.

The Smith chart is a polar plot of the complex reflection coefficient (also called gamma
and symbolized by ). Or, it is defined mathematically as the 1-port scattering parameter
S or s11 .

In a Smith chart, a load is characterized by its reflection coefficient ΓL. The ΓL is more
useful when dealing with RF frequencies. We know the reflection coefficient is defined as
the ratio between the reflected voltage wave and the incident voltage wave. The amount
of reflected signal from the load is dependent on the degree of mismatch between the
source impedance and the load impedance. Its expression has been defined as follows:

Because the impedances are complex numbers, the reflection coefficient will be a
complex number as well.
We can then define normalized load impedance by:

Figure 9 Fundamentals of Smith chart.

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After plotting the complex reflection coefficient, the normalized impedance can be
obtained by reading the values of the intersection of  with the resistive circles (shown in
green in Figure 9) and reactive circles (shown in black. Smith charts are also used to
calculate the VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio).

A network analyzer is an instrument that measures the network parameters of electrical

networks. Today, network analyzers commonly measure s–parameters because reflection
and transmission of electrical networks are easy to measure at high frequencies. Network
analyzers are often used to characterize two-port networks such as amplifiers and filters,
but they can be used on networks with an arbitrary number of ports.

Figure 10 HP 8720D Network Analyzer.

Procedure
Port Reflection Calibration:
A three-standard or S11 calibration is carried out as follows:

1- Press the CAL key in the RESPONSE panel to the right of the display screen to get
the calibration menu.
2- Press the CAL KIT soft key to select a calibration kit from the menu, then select the
“3.5 mm” soft key.
3- Press the RETURN soft key at the bottom to exit the CAL KIT menu.
4- Press the CALIBRATE MENU soft key in the CAL menu to get the CALIBRATE menu.
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5- Select “S11 1-PORT” soft key in the CALIBRATE menu.
6- The menu will display three choices OPEN, SHORT and LOAD. This menu invites you
to mount the three standards on the test port.
7- Mount a matched load in port 2.
8- Mount the open circuit standard on the test port. When mounting the standard
loads, hold the standard in one hand without turning it. Turn the nut on the mating
connector anticlockwise until it is tight. Never turn the standard.
9- Press the OPEN soft key in the menu and the 8720 will display OPEN underlined.
10- Repeat step 8 for the short load standard and press the SHORT soft key, the 8720
will display SHORT underlined.
11- Press LOAD, then press BROADBAND to select the broadband matched load.
12- Press DONE 1-PORT CAL soft key to complete the calibration sequence. The
HP8720 reports COMPUTING CAL COEFFICIENTS and then press SAVE Reg1 using
soft keys. Now the HP8720 is calibrated.

Measurement of Unknown Load:

Figure 11 Connection of device under test.

13- Press the MEASUREMENT key in the RESPONSE panel.

14- Press the “ Reflection S11” soft key.
15- Mount the broadband load. From the RESPONSE panel, press FORMAT and then
press the SMITH CHART soft key. Observe the output displayed.
16- Repeat step 13 for OPEN and SHORT standards.
17- Disconnect the standard and connect the HP8720’s electronic line stretcher.
18- Connect the broadband load.

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19- To adjust the measurement plane, press SCALE REF key from the RESPONSE panel.
Then press the ELECTRICAL DELAY soft key.
20- Use the large knob to add electrical delay until the display shows a dot at the
center of the Smith Chart.

Review Questions
1- How can we measure the impedance from a Smith chart?
2- How can the network analyzer be used to find the impedance of an unknown load?

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 Experiment 4
Measurement of the Acceptance Angle of
an Optical Fiber

Objective
To measure the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber.

Discussion
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non-conducting waveguide) that
transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists
of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials.
To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater
than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be
abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.

Figure 12 Light propagation in an optical fiber.

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In order for light to travel through the core of the optical fiber, light incident on the core-
cladding boundary must be completely reflected back to the core; this is called total
internal reflection. TIR is achieved only if the angle of incidence at the core-cladding
boundary is greater than or equal to the critical angle c. The sine of the critical angle is
equal to the ratio of the refractive index of the cladding to that of the core.

( )

Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle,
only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber
without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The
size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the
fiber's core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle, acceptance angle
a, from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will travel, in the core of
the fiber. The sine of this acceptance angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber.
Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a
smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.

( ) √

Procedure
1- Set the experiment as shown in Figure 13.
2- Switch on the laser source and the photometer.
3- Adjust the optical fiber so that it is directly facing the laser source, this will
correspond to zeroo angle.
4- Record the readings of the photometer.
o

I
Table 3 Photometer readings

5- Increase the angle by steps of 5o and record the photometer readings (stop at
angle = 60o).

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6- Plot the output intensity versus the angle of incidence and find the acceptance
angle which is the angle where the output intensity is less than 5% of its maximum
value.

Figure 13 Experiment setup.

Review Questions
1- Define the critical angle and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.
2- What are the advantages and disadvantages of using fiber optic cables?

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