Programmable Logic Controller

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

CHENNAI – 600 025
STATE PROJECT COORDINATION UNIT
Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code: 1030
M – Scheme
e-TEXTBOOK
on
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
for
V Semester DEEE
Convener for EEE Discipline:
Er.R.Anbukarasi ME.,
Principal,
Tamilnadu Polytechnic College,
Madurai, 625011.
Team Members for PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
THIRUMATHI V.THENMOZHI , M.E., M.I.S.T.E

PRINCIPAL I/C
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KARUR
THIRU G.RAJAGOPAL, M.E.,

LECTURER/ELECTRICAL
P.A.C. RAMASAMY RAJA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, RAJAPALAYAM
THIRU M. SARAVANAKUMAR, B.E.,

PARTTIME LECTURER /EEE
TAMILNADU POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, MADURAI
Validated by:
THIRU. M.VARATHARAJAN,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR / EEE
THIAGARAJAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
MADURAI.
M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 1

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
M - SCHEME
Course Name: Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Subject Code: 1030 Semester: V
Subject Title: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
RATIONALE
Various control operations are to be performed automatically and sequentially on the
electrical machines to suit the industrial requirements. Programmable controllers are mainly
employed to control the process in industries. In order to impart knowledge on programmable
Logic Controller this theory subject is introduced.
OBJECTIVES
Unit :1
After completing this chapter, students should able to:
Explain the meaning of automation and List the types of automation
Define PLC and Explain why their use is valuable
Explain what PLC can do
Compare fixed and modular PLC
Explain the advantages of PLC
Explain the functions of various elements of power supply unit
Unit :2
Know the difference between digital and analog input and output signals
Observe how digital field device information gets into a PLC
Observe how analog field device information gets into a PLC
Understand I/O addresses and how they are used in a PLC
Unit :3
Describe PLC timer instruction and differentiate between a non-retentive and retentive timer
Program the control of outputs using the timer instruction
List and describe the functions of PLC counter instructions
Create PLC programs involving program control instructions, math instructions.
Unit :4
Explain the functionality of different levels of industrial network
Explain the concept of network topology and network protocols

Explain the concept of I/O bus networks etc.,
Unit :5
Describe the computer control of process
Explain the operation of SCADA
Explain the functions of the major components of a process control system
Explain how on/off control and PID control works
DETAILED SYLLABUS
33072 - PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (M - SCHEME)
Unit –I INTRODUCTION TO PLC Page No: 5 - 23
Automation – Types of Automation (manufacturing and Non-Manufacturing) – Advantages of

automation - PLC Introduction - Definition - Block diagram of PLC – Principle of operation –
Modes of operating – PLC Scan - Hardwire control system compared with PLC system - Advantages
and Disadvantages of PLCs – Criteria for selection of suitable PLC – Memory organization – Input
Types – Discrete input – Analog inout - Elements of Power supply unit - PLC Types (Fixed I/O and
Modular I/O) - List of various PLCs available – Applications of PLC.
Unit – II INPUT/OUTPUT MODULES Page No: 24 - 45

The I/O Section - Discrete I/O modules (DC and AC) – Analog I/O modules - Special I/O Modules –
I/O Module Specification - Typical Discrete and Analog I/O field Devices – Sensors – Limit switch
– Reed switch – Proximity sensor (Inductive and Capacitive) – Types of Photo Electric Sensor -
Sinking and Sourcing I/O modules – TTL output module – Relay output module – Isolated output
module -Input/Output Addressing scheme in important commercial PLCs..
Unit –III PLC PROGRAMMING Page No: 46 - 88
Types of programming methods – Types of programming devices – Logic Functions – AND Logic –
OR Logic – NOT Logic - Relay type instructions –Timer Instructions – ON Delay and OFF Delay
Timer – Retentive Timer Instruction – Cascading Timers – Counter Instruction – UP Counter –
DOWN Counter – UP/DOWN Counter – Cascading Counters – Program Control Instructions – Data
Manipulation Instruction – Data Compare Instructions – Math Instructions - Sequencer Instructions -
PID Instruction – PWM Function – Simple programs using above instructions.
Develop ladder logic for: Bottle filling system – Automatic car parking system - EB to Generator
Changeover system – Batch process – Elevator system - Automatic Star-Delta Starter – Traffic light
control.

Unit –IV NETWORKING Page No: 89 - 106
Levels of industrial network – Network Topology – Network Protocol – OSI Reference Model -
Networking with TCP / IP Protocol - I/O Bus networks – Block diagram of I/O Bus networks –
Types of I/O Bus networks - Protocol standards – Advantages of I/O Bus networks - Gateway –
Token passing – Data Highway – Serial Communication – Device Net – Control Net – EtherNet –
Modbus – Fieldbus – Profibus - Subnetting – Subnet mask - File transfer protocol.
Unit –V DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS Page No: 107 - 121
Computers in Process control – Types of processes - Structure of control system – ON/OFF Control
– Closed loop control - PID Control – Motion Control – Block diagram of Direct Digital Control -
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) – Block diagram of SCADA – Features of
SCADA – Functions of SCADA - SCADA software - Data Loggers – Tags – Alarms - landlines for
SCADA – use of modems in SCADA..
REFERENCE BOOKS:
# Name of the Book Author Publisher
Control of Electrical New Age International

1. S.K. Bhattacharya
Machines Publisher, New Delhi
Introduction to Thompson Delmer

2. Programmable Logic Gary Dunning Learning
Controllers II Edition

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO PLC
OBJECTIVES:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

 Explain the types of automation.
 Explain the different parts and modes of operation of PLC
 Explain the different types of PLC programming device.
 Compare the hard wired logic and PLC system.
 Explain the criteria for selection of PLC.
1.0 Introduction:
The word “Automation” was first used at the Ford motor company in the late 1940. One
definition of automation was proposed in 1947 as “the automatic handling of work pieces into,
between, and out of machines.
The word ‘Automation’ is derived from Greek words “Auto” (self) and “Matos” (moving).
Automation therefore is the mechanism for systems that “move by itself”.
Automation means automatic manufacturing without human control. Automation is a

technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronics and computer based systems to
operate and control production.
The objective of automation is to cause the work system to be automatic that is self-acting,
self-regulating and self-reliant.
1.1 Automation:
Automation is a set of technologies that results in operation of machines and systems without
significant human intervention and achieves performance superior to manual operation.
1.2 Types of automation:
1. Manufacturing automation:
a. Fixed Automation
b. Programmable Automation
c. Flexible Automation
2. Non-Manufacturing automation:
a. Office Automation
b. Home Automation
c. Building Automation

1.2.1 Manufacturing Automation:
This include fixed automation, programmable automation and flexible automation.
1.2.1.1 Fixed Automation:
Fixed automation refers to the use of special purpose equipment to automate a fixed sequence
of processing or assembly operations. This system involves automation and integration of various
fixed sequences of operation. It is also known as hard automation. It is used to produce product such
as gears, nuts and bolts etc., High specialized equipment, called special purpose machine tools are
utilized to produce a product very efficiently and at high production rates.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
i) Maximum efficiency i) Large initial investment
ii) Low unit cost ii) Inflexible in accommodating product variety.
iii) High production rate Applications:
i) Bottling plants
ii) Packaging plants
1.2.1.2 Programmable Automation:
In programmable automation, changes in the sequence of operations is possible by changing

the program. The variation in the sequence is achieved by varying the control instructions of the
automation system. New programs can be developed and entered to improve the flexibility.
Programmable automation is used when the volume of production is relatively low and there are
varieties of products to be made. In the Programmable automation products are produced in batches.
When one batch is completed, the equipment is reprogrammed to process the next batch.
i) Flexibility to deal with variation and changes i) New products requires long set up time
in product
Applications:
ii) Low unit cost for large batches
i) CNC Lathe
iii) High production rate
1.2.1.3 Flexible Automation:
In flexible automation system, different products can be produced on the same equipment in
any order or mix. It is also called as Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). The ability of the
system to produce various combination and schedule of products makes this system highly flexible

in accommodating the dynamic needs of an industry. There is no lost production time while
reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup.
i) Minimum production time losses i) Large initial investment
ii) Flexibility to deal with products design ii) High unit cost compared to fixed and
variations programmable automation
iii) Customized products. Applications:
i) Industrial Robots
1.2.2 Non-Manufacturing automation:
This include office automation and integrated data processing mechanism, automatic
elevators, transportation ticket selling equipments etc.,
1.2.2.1 Office automation:
Office automation refers to the varied computer machinery and software used to digitally
create, collect, store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic tasks.
The information may be of many processes and formats-payroll preparation, transportation,
reservation, scheduling, banking, security transaction and cost price analysis etc., Increased
productivity per office worker is the indeed a major advantages of office automation. Information
required for business management is rapidly managed, integrated and sent long distance through
office automation.
1.2.2.2 Home automation:
Home automation refers to the automatic and electronic control of household features,
activity, and appliances. Home automation systems are composed of hardware, communication and
electronic interfaces that work to integrate electrical devices with one another. The three main
elements of a home security system are sensors, controllers and actuators. Sensors can monitor
changes in daylight, temperature or motion detection; home automation systems can then adjust
settings to the preferred levels of a user. Controllers refer to the devices—personal computers,
tablets or smartphones—used to send and receive messages about the status of automated features in
users’ homes. Actuators may be light switches, motors or motorized valves that control a mechanism
or function of a home automation system.

1.2.2.3 Building automation:
Building automation is the centralized control of a buildings heating, ventilation, air

conditioning, lighting, fire fighting, water distribution and parking systems etc.,. It is controlled by a
building management system (BMS) or a building automation system (BAS). These are used in
smart buildings. The intelligent system/computers are used to control these systems.
1.3Advantages of automation:
 Increase in productivity
 Reduction in production cost
 Minimization of human fatigue.
 Less floor area required
 Reduced maintenance requirement
 Better working conditions for workers
 Effective control over production process
 Improvement in production quality
 Reduction in accidents
 Uniform components are produced.
 More safety
1.3.1Disadvantages of automation:
 High capital cost

 Increased unemployment
 Failure of one part may affect others
1.3.2 Systems used for automation:
a. CAD – Computer Aided Design

b. CAM – Computer Aided Manufacturing
c. CAE – Computer Aided Engineering
d. CIM – Computer Integrated Manufacturing
e. FMS – Flexible Manufacturing System
f. PC – Personal Computers
g. Robots - Robotics
h. PLC – Programmable Logic Controller
i. SCADA – Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
j. DCS – Distributes Control System
k. CNC – Computer Numerical Control

1.4 PLC Introduction:
The programmable Logic Controller is an assembly of solid state digital logic elements
designed to make logical decision and provide control. PLCs are used for the control and operation
of manufacturing process equipment and machinery. The PLC is an industrially hardened computer
designed to perform control functions in industrial environment. This means that unlike your
personnel computer, the PLC must be capable of operating in high temperature with poor power
conditions in dusty, dirty, corrosive atmospheres and withstand shock and vibration. In addition,
PLCs are designed to be programmed by individuals who are familiar with motor control circuits.
There, most PLC program in a language that resembles ladder diagrams, which makes learning PLCs
very easy for most electricians. In addition to switching functions, PLCs can also perform counting,
calculations, comparison, processing of analog signals and more.
1.4.1A Historical background of PLC:
 In the late 1960s the American motor car manufacturer General Motors was interested in the
application of computers to replace the relay sequencing used in the control of car plants.
 The Hydramatic Division of the General Motors Corporation specified the design criteria for
the first programmable controller in 1968. Their primary goal was to eliminate the high costs
associated with inflexible, relay controlled systems.
 The first PLC was invented in 1969 by Richard Dick E. Morley, who was the founder of the
MODICON Corporation.
 The specifications required a solid-state system with computer flexibility able to:
i) Survive in an industrial environment
ii) Be easily programmed and maintained by plant engineers and technicians
iii) Be reusable
1.5 Definition of PLC:
A programmable logic controller is a digital electronic apparatus with a programmable

memory for storing instructions to implement specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting and arithmetic to control machines and processes.
1.6 Block diagram of PLC :
PLC consists of three basic sections:

1. Central processing unit
2. Input/output Modules
3. Programming Device

1. CPU:
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) Module is the brain of the PLC. The Primary functions
are to read inputs, execute the control program, and update outputs.
The CPU consists of following three components:

i) Processor ii) Memory system iii) Power supply
i) Processor:
The processor executes the user program stored in the memory system in the form of ladder
diagrams. The processor accepts input data from various sensing devices, executes the stored
program from memory and sends appropriate output commands to control devices. It can also
perform arithmetic functions, data manipulation and communication between the local I/O,
remotely located I/O and other networked PLC.
ii) Memory system:

The memorysystem is the area in the CPU where all the programs, are stored and executed
by the processor to provide the desired control of field devices.
iii)Power supply:
Power supply is necessary to convert 120V or 240V a.c into the low voltage d.c (+5V & -5V)
required for processor and internal power required for the I/O modules. This power supply
unit does not supply power for the actual input or output devices. This can be built into the
PLC or be an external unit. Common voltage levels required by the PLC are 24Vdc, 120Vac,
220Vac etc.,
Figure 1.1 Block Diagram of a PLC

2. Input/output Section:
Input modules:
 It senses the presence or absence of an input signal at each of its input terminals.
 It accepts signal from the machine or process and convert them into signals that can be
used by the controller.
 The input module provides isolation between the input signal and the PLC.
 The status of input signals are stored in the input image table.
Output Modules:
 It receives the signal from the CPU.
 It converts the controller signals into external signals used to control the machine or
process.
 It switches ON or OFF the outputs.
 It provides isolation between CPU and output stage.
 The status of output signals are stored in the output image table.
3. Programming device:
The programming unit allows the engineer or technician to enter and edit the program to be
executed. The programming device must be connected through cable to the controller when entering
or monitoring the control program.
1.7 Principle of Operation:
Figure 1.2 (a) Principle of Operation
 The CPU accepts input signal from sensors like push buttons, limit switches, analog sensors,
selector switches, and thumbwheel switches.
 Stores the status of input in the memory area called input image table.

 Execute the stored user program from memory and sends appropriate output commands to
control devices like lamp, motor starters, solenoid valves, pilot lights, and position valves
through output image table.
 Update the content of output image table.
 The system power supply provides all the voltages required for the proper operation of the
various central processing unit sections.
Figure 1.2 (b) Operating Sequence
1.8 Modes of Operation:

Run Mode:
 Places the processor in the RUN mode.
 Executes the ladder program and energizes output devices.
 Prevents online program editing.
PROG Mode:
 Places the processor in the program mode.
 Allows you to perform program entry and editing.
 Prevents the processor from scanning or executing the ladder program.
REM Mode:
 Places the processor in the Remote mode.
 Allows you to change the processor mode from a program/operator device.
 Allows you to perform online program editing.
1.9 PLC Scan:
PLC scan is a sequential process in which the PLC processor performs specific duties on a cyclic
basis. During its operation, the CPU completes three processes:
i) Reads the input data from the field devices via the input interfaces
ii) Executes the control program stored in the memory system
iii) Writes the output devices via the output interfaces.
This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in memory, and
updating the outputs is known as scanning. Figure 1.3 illustrates a graphic representation of a scan.

In each process cycle, the processor begins by reading
or taking a snapshot of the status of the devices connected to
input modules and storing the ON/OFF status of each in a
special memory called the input image table. After the inputs
have been read and stored in the input image table, the
processor executes the control program.
During program execution, the processor evaluates the
conditions of each statement by looking back at the input
image table to see if the input condition are met. If the
conditions controlling an output are met, the processor
immediately writes a 1 in a special memory called output
image table.
The scan time is the specific amount of time required
for a PLC to perform both the I/O scan and the program
scan. Each PLC’s scan time is different. The PLC scan time
specification indicates how fast the controller can react to
changes in inputs. Scan time varies with program content Figure 1.3 PLC Scan
and length. The time taken to scan the user program is also
dependent on the clock frequency of the microprocessor
system.
1.10 Comparison between hardwire control system and PLC System:
# Criterion for comparison PLC Hardwired
1 Requirement of Instruction Instructions are required Instructions are not required
2 Time required for Less time More time

modification
3 Memory Requirement Memory is required for Memory is not required
storing the program
4 Cost Initial cost is high Initial cost is low
5 Power Consumption Less High
6 Space Required Small Large
7 Heat generated Less High
8 Technology Latest Old
9 Fault identification Easy Not easy
10 Error Correction Easy Not easy
No control circuit. It is Control circuit involves lot of
11 Control circuit
controlled by program internal wiring

1.11 Advantages of PLC:
The major advantages of PLC circuit over hardwired relay panel circuits are listed below:
1. Flexibility
2. Large quantity of contacts
3. Speed of operation
4. Reliability & Security
5. Documentation
6. Fail safe operation
7. Newer technology
8. Less power consumption
9. Required less floor space
10. Fault location and rectification is easy
11. Logic changes can be reprogrammed
12. Ladder programming method
13. Documentation
14. Pilot running
1.11.1 Disadvantages of PLC:

1. High Cost
2. Need software for programming
1.12 Criteria for selection of suitable PLC:
The process of selecting a PLC is listed below:

1. List the number and types of Input & Output.
2. Memory capacity needed to store the program
3. Speed of processing
4. Communication requirements
5. Special or specific module required
6. Consider safety, reliability and expandability
1.13 Memory Organization;
Figure 1.4 illustrates this memory organization, known as a memory map. The memory system
is composed of two major sections:
1. System memory
2. Application memory
1. System Memory:
The executive and scratch pad areas are hidden from the user and can be considered a single
area of memory that, for our purpose, is called system memory.

i) Executive Area:
The executive is a permanently stored collection of programs that are considered part
of the system itself. These supervisory programs direct system activities, such as execution of
the control program, communication with peripheral devices, and other system housekeeping
activities.
ii) Scratch Pad Area:

This is a temporary storage area used by the CPU to store a relatively small amount of
data for interim calculations and control. The CPU stores data that is needed quickly in this
memory area to avoid the longer access time involved with retrieving data from the main
memory.
Figure 1.4 Memory Organasation

2. Application Memory:
The application memory stores user programs and any data the processor will use to perform
its control functions.
i) Input Image Table:
The portion of memory area used to store the status of input field devices is called
input image table. If the input switch is ON, the corresponding bit will be set as 1. During
PLC operation, the processor will read the status of each input in the input module and place
a value (1 or 0) in the corresponding address in the input image table.
ii) Output Image Table:

The portion of memory area used to store the status of output field devices is called
output image table. The output tableis an array of bits that controls the status of digital output
devices that are connected to the PLC’s output interface. If a bit in the table is turned ON,
then the connected output is switched ON.

iii) Internal Bit and Register storage:
The internal bit storage area contains storage bits that are referred to as internal outputs,
internal coils, and internal relays. These internals provide an output, for interlocking
purposes, of ladder sequences in the control program. The register/word storage area is used
to store groups of bits (bytes and words).
iv) User Memory:

This area provides storage for programmed instructions entered by the user. The user
program area also stores the control program.
1.13.1 Factors affecting the memory size of PLC:
1. Number of I/Os
2. Size of control program
3. Data collecting requirements
4. Supervisory functions required
5. Future Expansion
1.14 Input Types:
1. Discrete 2. Analog
1.14.1Discrete :
PLC can only understand a signal that is ON or OFF. Binary 1 indicates that a signal is
present, or the switch is ON. Binary 0 indicates that the signal is not present or the switch is OFF.
The logic concept exists only in two
predetermined states. In logic input (digital)
systems, these two-state conditions can be
thought of as signals that are present or not
present, activated or not activated, high or
low, on or off, etc.
Here, binary 1 represents the presence
of a signal, while binary 0 represents the
absence of the signal. In digital systems, these
two states are actually represented by two
distinct voltage levels, +V and 0V. One
voltage is more positive than the other. Often,
binary 1 (or logic 1) is referred to as TRUE, Figure 1.5 Logic Input
ON, or HIGH, while binary 0 (or logic 0) is
referred to as FALSE, OFF, or LOW.

Digital Inputs include push-buttons, limit switches, relay contacts, proximity switches, photo
sensors (On/Off), pressure switches and more. Digital inputs devices are available in both DC as
well as AC and some are voltage independent such as a switch contact.
1.14.2 Analog:
Figure 1.6 Analog Input
An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous signal. Analog input modules, are
used in applications where the field device’s signal is continuous. Typical analog inputs may vary
from 4 to 20mA or 0-10 volts d.c. Analog signals are used to represent changing values such as
speed, temperature, weight and level. This analog signal is converted into binary data that can be
stored in the data table and used by the PLC when it solves the PLC program.
1.15 Output Types:
i) Logic (Discrete) output
ii) Analog Output
1.15.1 Digital Output:
A discrete output can either turns a device ON or OFF such as lights, LEDs, small motors,
and relays. Some examples are motors that need just be ON or OFF, Lighting, solenoid valves, door
locks. Digital output modules are available for DC output, AC output or a mix.
Typical digital output devices are:

i) Motor starter coils
ii) Pilot lights
iii) Solenoids
iv) Alarms
v) Control relays
vi) Horns
vii) Start / stop signals to VFD/VSD

1.15.2 Analog Output:
Analog output (AO) are for variable level or range of output between OFF or stopped and
ON or full speed as for an electric motor for instance. Examples of analog outputs are a VFD
(Variable Frequency Drive), a valve position actuator, and a industrial variable power supply.
The output signal can be divided into 32,767 increments and represented in a 16 bit word. To
achieve precision in controlling the valve, the 0 to 10 volt signal will be split into 32,767 steps. Since
the output module automatically converts the 16 bit output word to the proper analog value.
Figure 1.7 Analog Output
Example of analog output could be a valve in a tank filling application. The positioning of
the valve can be represented by a voltage level of zero volts when the valve is closed and upto +10V
dc when the valve is completely open. Any voltage between 0V dc and 10V dc would represent how
far open the valve would be compared to its fully open state. The analog output module transforms a
digital bit value from the processor's output status table to an analog output voltage or current
level. Inside the analog output module a digital to analog converter (D/A converter) is the solid state
device that makes the conversion.
Typical analog output devices are: Typical analog signals are:

i) Analog valves i) 0 to 10V d.c
ii) Actuators ii) -10 to +10V d.c
iii) Chart recorders iii) 0 to 5v d.c
iv) Electric motor drives iv) 1 to 5 v d.c
v) Analog meters v) 0 to 20mA
vi) Pressure Transmitter vi) -20 to +20mA
vii) 4 to 20mA
1.16 Elements of Power Supply Unit:
Usually, PLC power supplies require input from an AC power source; however, some PLCs
will accept a DC power source.
I/O Module need : 120 VAC or 220 VAC or 24 VDC
CPU need : +5V and -5V

Line Conditioner:
This unit is used to purify the AC wave form. The input waveform is normally a perfect sine
wave, but it can be distorted at times by two external factors.
1. Distortion due to switching operation
2. Harmonics due to load
Figure 1.8 Block Diagram of Power Supply Unit
Step down transformer: The 230 volt a.c voltage is connected to the primary of the transformer.
Then the transformer step down the a.c voltage, to the level required for the desired d.c output.
Converter /rectifier:An electronic circuit used for converting a.c voltage into unidirectional voltage
is called as converter/rectifier. It changes the bidirectional a.c into a pulsating, unidirectional dc
waveform. Internally a transformer step-down the voltage to an appropriate level. Then bridge
rectifier produce pulsating dc output.
Filter:
The filter consists of internal circuitry, including capacitors and resistors or inductors. This
circuit is used to reduce the ripple content in the pulsating d.c and tries to make it smoother.
Regulator:

It keeps the output voltage constant under variable load conditions as well. Thus the voltage
regulator keeps the voltages as or near +5v & -5V levels regardless of load.
1.17 PLC Types (Fixed and Modular) :
1.17.1 Fixed I/O PLC:

This PLC has the sections like input module, CPU and associated memory, power supply and
output module. These sections are built into one self-contained unit. Fixed PLCs are also referred as
“Shoebox” or “brick” by manufacturers due to their shape and size. In this type the number of inputs
and outputs cannot be expanded.
Example : Allen Bradley Micrologic 1000 has 6 discrete inputs and 4 discrete outputs.
Figure 1.9 Fixed I/O PLC

Advantages:
i) Less scanning time
ii) Low cost
iii) Less trouble shooting time
Disadvantages:
i) Limited number of inputs and outputs
ii) Not suited for future expansion
iii) If part of the unit fails, need to replace entire unit.
1.17.2 Modular I/O PLC:
Figure 1.10 Modular I/O PLC

A modular PLC is built with several components that are plugged into a common rack with
extendable I/O capabilities. It consists of a rack, power supply, CPU and I/O modules. On a rack
these modules are fixed as separate hardware items. Modular PLCs are further divided into small,
medium and large PLCs based on the program memory size and the number of I/O features.
Example: Siemens: S7-300 and S7-400
Allen Bradley: SLC 5/01, SLC 5/02 etc.,
1.18 List of various Brands of PLCs available:
1. SIEMENS
2. Allen Bradley
3. Omron
4. GE Fanuc
5. MODICON
6. Keyence
7. Mitsubishi
8. Toshiba
9. Honeywell
10. Festo Corp.
1.19 Applications of PLCS:

 Conveyor Systems,
 Food Processing Machinery,
 Bottle filling (water, soft drinks, canned food)]
 Auto Assembly (e.g. automobile industry)
 Fluid Level Control ( e.g. water tanks)
 Mixing Fluids (paint industries)

UNIT – I INTRODUCTION TO PLC
MODEL QUESTIONS
Two Mark Questions:
1. Define the term automation.

2. What are the advantages of fixed automation?
3. What are the advantages of programmable automation?
4. What are the advantages of flexible automation?
5. Give any two example for office automation.
6. Give any two example for home automation.
7. Give any two example for building automation.
8. State any two advantages of automation.
9. What are the major parts of a PLC?
10. What are the different operating modes of a PLC?
11. What is the use of input image table?
12. What is the use of output image table?
13. List the types of input module.
14. What is the function of input module?
15. List the types of output module.
16. What is the function of output module?
17. State the advantages of fixed PLC.
18. What is a modular PLC?
19. List the name of any two market available PLC.
Three Mark Questions:
1. What are the types of automation?

2. List the advantages of automation.
3. Explain about fixed automation.
4. Explain about programmable automation.
5. Explain about flexible automation.
6. What do you know about office automation?
7. What do you know about home automation?
8. What do you know about building automation?
9. Define PLC
10. Write short notes on modes of operation of PLC
11. Write short notes on PLC scan.
12. Compare PLC circuit versus hardwired circuits. (any 3)
13. Write short note on logic input in PLC.
14. Write short note on analog input in PLC.
15. Write short note on discrete output in PLC.
16. Write short note on analog output in PLC.
17. List the criteria for selection of suitable PLC for particular application?

18. List the name of any six market available PLC.
19. List any three advantages of PLC?
20. List out few applications of PLC.
Ten Mark Questions:
1. Draw and explain the block diagram of PLC.

2. With neat sketch explain the principle of operation of PLC.
3. Draw and explain the block diagram of memory organization.
4. With neat sketch explain about PLC scan.
5. With neat sketch explain the construction of modular PLC’s
6. Compare hardwire control system versus PLC system.
7. Write brief notes on logic input and analog input.
8. Draw and explain the power supply unit of PLC

UNIT- 2 INPUT/OUTPUT MODULES
OBJECTIVES:

 Know the difference between digital and analog input and output signals
 Observe how digital field device information gets into a PLC
 Observe how analog field device information gets into a PLC
 Understand I/O addresses and how they are used in a PLC
2.1 I/O Section:

The input/output (I/O) section of a PLC is the section to which all field devices are connected
and provides the interface between them and the CPU. Input interface modules accept signals from
the machine or process devices and convert them into signals that can be used by the controller.
Output interface modules convert controller signals into external signals used to control the machine
or process. Input/output arrangements are built into a fixed PLC while modular types use external
I/O modules that plug into the PLC.
2.1 Discrete I/O Module:

The most common type of I/O interface module is the discrete type. This type of interface
connects field input devices of the ON/OFF nature such as selector switches, pushbuttons, and limit
switches. Likewise, output control is limited to devices such as lights, relays, solenoids, and motor
starters that require simple ON/OFF These are used to connect the sensors that are of digital in
nature, i.e., only for switch ON and OFF purpose. These modules are available on both AC and DC
voltages and currents with variable number of digital inputs.
2.1.1 DC Discrete Input Module:

Figure 2.1 shows a circuit diagram of a typical DC Discrete input module.
i) Power section:
A DC input module interfaces with field input devices that provide a DC output voltage. The
difference between a DC input interface and an AC/DC input interface is that the DC input does not
contain a bridge circuit, since it does not convert an AC signal to a DC signal. The input voltage
range of a DC input module varies between 5 and 30 VDC.

Figure 2.1 Circuit Diagram of DC Discrete Input Module
ii) Isolator section:

After the detection of a valid signal, it passes the signal to logic section through an isolation
circuit. The isolator circuit is usually made up of an optical isolator (called as opto- coupler). It is
used to isolate the logic circuit from power circuit.
This optical isolation:
1. Helps to reduce the effect of electrical noise
2. Prevents damage to the processor due to line voltage transient.
ii) Logic Section:

DC signals from the opto-coupler are used by the logic section to pass the input signal to the
CPU. The LED in the logic circuit is used to indicate the presence of a logic 1 signal in the logic
section.
LED glow - input signal is present
LED not glow - input signal is not present
2.1.2 AC Discrete Input Module:

Figure 2.2 (a) and (b) shows a schematic and circuit diagram of a typical AC Discrete input
module.
It has three primary parts:
i) Power section ii) Isolator section iii) Logic section
i) Power Section:
The bridge rectifier circuit of the power section converts the incoming AC signal to a DC-
level signal. It then passes the signal through a filter circuit, which protects the signal against
bouncing and electrical noise on the input power line. Threshold circuit detects if the incoming
signal has reached or exceeded a predetermined value for a predetermined time.

Figure 2.2 (a) Schematic Diagram of AC Discrete Input Module
Figure 2.2 (b) Circuit Diagram of AC Discrete Input Module

After the detection of a valid signal, it passes the signal to logic section through an isolation
circuit. The isolator circuit is usually made up of an optical isolator (called as opto- coupler). It is
used to isolate the logic circuit from power circuit.
This optical isolation helps to reduce the effect of electrical noise and Prevents damage to the
processor due to line voltage transient.
ii) Logic Section:

DC signals from the opto-coupler are used by the logic section to pass the input signal to the
CPU. The LED in the logic circuit is used to indicate the presence of a logic 1 signal in the logic
section.
LED glow - input signal is present
LED not glow - input signal is not present.

2.1.3 D.C Discrete Output module:
This block diagram and circuit of D.C Output module is shown in figure 2.3(a) and
(b). This output module consists primarily of the logic and power sections, coupled by an isolation
circuit.
i) Logic Section:
During normal operation, the processor sends an output’s status, according to the logic
program, to the module’s logic circuit. If the output is to be energized, the logic section of the
module will latch, or maintain, a 1. This sends an ON signal through the isolation circuit, which in
turn, switches the voltage to the field device through the power section of the module. The LED in
the logic circuit is used to indicate the presence of a logic 1 signal in the logic section.
Figure 2.3 (a) Schematic Diagram of DC Discrete Output Module

After the detection of a signal from CPU, it passes the signal to power section through an
isolation circuit. The isolator circuit is usually made up of an optical isolator (called as opto-
coupler). It is used to isolate the logic circuit from power circuit. This electrical separation helps
prevent large voltage spikes from damaging either the logic side of the interface or the PLC.
Figure 2.3 (b) Circuit Diagram of DC Discrete Output Module

iii) Power section:
The switching circuit in the power section of a DC output module uses a power transistor to
switch ON the load. The AC switch is normally protected by a freewheeling diode across the load.
DC outputs may also incorporate a fuse to protect the transistor during moderate overloads.
2.1.4 A.C Discrete Output Module:

Figure 2.4 (a) and (b) shows a schematic and circuit diagram of A.C Discrete output
Module. The circuit consists of logic and power sections, coupled by an isolation circuit.
i) Logic Section:
During normal operation, the processor sends an output’s status, according to the logic
program, to the module’s logic circuit. If the output is to be energized, the logic section of the
module will latch, or maintain, a 1. This sends an ON signal through the isolation circuit, which in
turn, switches the voltage to the field device through the power section of the module. The LED in
the logic circuit is used to indicate the presence of a logic 1 signal in the logic section.
Figure 2.4 (a) Schematic Diagram of AC Discrete Output Module
Figure 2.4 (b) Circuit Diagram of AC Discrete Output Module

After the detection of a signal from CPU, it passes the signal to power section through an
isolation circuit. The isolator circuit is usually made up of an optical isolator (called as opto-
coupler). It is used to isolate the logic circuit from power circuit. This electrical separation helps
prevent large voltage spikes from damaging either the logic side of the interface or the PLC.

iii) Power section:
The switching circuit in the power section of an AC output module uses either a TRIAC or SCR
to switch power. The AC switch is normally protected by an RC snubber or a metal oxide varistor
(MOV). This snubber and MOV circuits prevent electrical noise from affecting the circuit operation.
Furthermore, an AC output circuit may contain a fuse that prevents excessive current from damaging
the switch.
2.2 Analog I/O Module:

2.2.1 Analog input module:
The Analog input module is used to convert analog signal from analog devices, such as
analog sensors, temperature probes, pressure indicator etc., to equivalent digital values using analog
to digital converter. The analog input signal is usually a varying voltage in the range of 0-10V or
current in the range of 4-20mA. The transformed analog value is the digital equivalent of the analog
input signal. Each converter value is stored in the memory in a digital form, typically as a 16-bit
word for internal processing. They provide optical isolation for electrical noise protection.
Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of Analog Input Module

2.2.2 Analog Output Module:
Figure 2.6 Schematic Diagram of Analog Output Module
The analog output modules converts processed digital values from the CPU into equivalent
analog signals, typically in the range of 0 -10V or 4 -20mA, to operate analog output devices using
digital to analog converter.This analog output value is proportional to the digital numerical value
received by the module.
Analog output modules are selected to send out either a varying current or voltage signal. An
analog output could send a 4 to 20mA signal to a variable speed drive. The drive will control the
speed of a motor in proportion to the analog signal received from analog output module.
Example of analog output field devices: Analog valves, Actuators, Chart recorders, Electric
motor drives, analog meters and pressure transducers.
2.3 Special I/O Module:
# Special Input Module Description

1 Basic Module A basic module is a specialized module that allows the PLC
to interface to serial peripheral devices. Basic modules
usually reside in the local chassis, close to the CPU
2 Communication module:
i) ASCII I/O MODULE ASCII I/O modules allow the interfacing of bar code readers,
meters, printers and data terminals to a PLC.
ii) RS-232C Interface It is used to connect a PLC to telephone lines using a modem.
Module By using this facility operator can modify or edit program
from remote place.

3 High Speed Counter It is used to count pulses from sensors, encoders and switches
Module at very high speeds. When input pulses come in faster rate a
high speed counter module is used.
4 Remote I/O Subscanner It is used to scan the status of I/O and relieves the burden of
the CPU.
5 RTD Module A RTD input module interfaces a PLC to RTD temperature-
sensing elements and other types of resistance input devices
such as potentiometers.
6 Stepper Motor Control It provides a digital output pulse train for stepper motor
Module application.
7 Thermocouple/Millivolt It converts inputs from various thermocouple or millivolt
Module devices into values that can be input and stored into PLC data
tables.
8 TTL Module It allows the transmitting and receiving of TTL signals for
communication with the PLC processor.
9 Thumbwheel Module It allows the uses of thumbwheel switches for feeding

information in parallel to the PLC to be used in the control
program. It information is usually in BCD form.
10 PID Module It is used in process control applications that incorporate PID
algorithm. It prevents the CPU from being burdened with
complex calculations.
2.4 I/O Module Specification:
2.4.1 Input Module Specification:
# Term Description
1 Nominal Input Voltage It specifies the magnitude (e.g., 5 V, 24 V, 230 V) and type
(AC or DC) of user-supplied voltage that a module is
designed to accept.
2 Input Threshold Voltages It specifies two values:

i) a minimum ON-state voltage that is the
minimumvoltage at which logic 1 is recognized as
absolutely ON;
ii) a maximum OFF-state voltage which is the voltage at
which logic 0 is recognized as absolutely OFF.

3 Ambient Temperature It specifies what the maximum temperature of the air
Rating surrounding the I/O modules should be for best operating
conditions.
4 Output Voltage It specifies the magnitude (e.g., 5V, 115 V, 230 V) and type
(AC or DC) of user-supplied voltageat which a discrete
output module is designed to operate.
5 Output Current These values specify the maximum current that a

singleoutput and the module as a whole can safely carry
under
load (at rated voltage).
6 Inrush Current An inrush current is a momentary surge of current that an
AC or DC output circuit encounters when energizing
inductive, capacitive, or filament loads.
7 Short Circuit Protection It designate whether the particular module’s design has
individual protection for each circuit or if fuse protection is
provided for groups (e.g., 4 or 8) of outputs.
8 Leakage Current This value specifies the amount of current still conducting
through an output circuit even after the output has been
turned off.
2.4.2 Output Module Specification:
# Term Description
1 Channels per module Circuits on analog I/O modules are often referred to as
channels. These modules normally have
4, 8, or 16 channels.
2 Input current/voltage range These are the voltage or current signal ranges that an analog
input module is designed to accept.
3 Output current/voltage It defines the current or voltage signal ranges that a particular
range analog output module is designed to output under program
control.
4 Input protection Analog input circuits are usually protected against
accidentally connecting a voltage that exceeds the specified
input voltage range.
5 Resolution The resolution of an analog I/O module specifies how
accurately an analog value can be represented digitally.
6 Input impedance and For analog I/Os, these values must be matched to the external
capacitance device connected to the module.

7 Common-Mode Rejection It refers to an analog module’s ability to prevent noise from
interfering with data integrity on a single channel and from
channel to channel on the module. It is normally expressed in
decibels or as a ratio.
2.5.1 Typical Discrete Input Field Devices:

 Circuit breakers contacts
 Level switches
 Limit switches
 Motor starter contacts
 Photoelectric eyes
 Proximity switches
 Push buttons
 Relay contacts
 Selector switches
 Toggle switch
 Thumbwheel switches (TWS)
2.5.2 Typical discrete output field devices:

 Alarms
 Control relays
 Fans
 Horns
 Lights
 Motor starters
 Solenoids
 Valves
2.6 Sensor:
Sensors are devices used to provide information on the presence or absence of an object.
Sensors are connected to the input of a PLC. A pushbutton is one example of a sensor that is
connected to the PLC input. An electrical signal is sent from the pushbutton to the PLC indicating
the condition (open/closed) of the pushbutton contacts.
Figure 2.7 Proximity Sensor

Hence sensor allows a PLC to detect the state of a process. Logical sensors can only detect a
state that is either true or false.
2.7 Limit Switch:

The term limit switch is used for a switch which is used to detect the presence or passage of a
moving object. A limit switch will change its output from NO to close or NC to open when an object
is physically touching the switch. Its contacts are available in several configurations. They may be
normally open (NO), normally closed (NC), or a combination of NO & NC contacts.
Figure 2.8Symbol of Limit Switch

A typical limit switch consists of a switch body and an operating head. The switch body
includes electrical contacts to energize and de-energize a circuit. The operating head incorporates
some type of lever arm or roller or cam, referred to as an actuator.
When no external force is applied the actuator position is called as free position. When
external force is applied or moving object is detected the actuator moves from free position to
operating position. In the operating position the contacts of the limit switch change from their
normal state (NO or NC) to their operated state.
Figure 2.8Limit Switch
2.8 Reed Switches:

Reed switches are very similar to relays, except a permanent magnet is used instead of a wire coil.
It consists of two overlapping, but not touching strips (contacts) sealed in a glass or plastic envelop.

Figure 2.9 Hermetically sealed reed switch
When a magnet is brought close to the switch, the strips become magnetized and attract each
other. As the permanent magnet is moved further away, the contact tab ends are demagnetised and
return to their original positions. The magnetic reed switch is also inertia free. Because of the sealed,
they are unaffected by dust, humidity, and fumes. When the switch contact is operated by an
electromagnet, it is known as reed relay. Such a switch is widely used with burglar alarms.
Figure 2.10 Working of Reed switch
2.9 Proximity Sensor:

Proximity sensors are discrete sensors that sense when an object has come near to
the sensor face.
Types of Proximity sensor:
1. Inductive proximity sensor
2. Capacitive proximity sensor
2.9.1 Inductive Proximity Sensor:

Inductive proximity sensor operates on the principle that the inductance of a coil and the
power losses in the coil vary as a metallic object is passed near it. Because of this principle,
inductive proximity sensors are only used for sensing metal object. They will not work with non-
metallic materials.
Figure 2.11 Block Diagram of Inductive Proximity Sensor

The block diagram of inductive proximity sensor is shown in figure. It consists of tuned
oscillator, triggering circuit and output switching element. When the oscillator operates, there is an
alternating magnetic field produced by the coil. This magnetic field radiates through the face of the
sensor. The oscillator circuit is tuned such that as long as the sensing field senses non-magnetic
material it will continue to oscillate, it will trigger the trigger circuit, and the output switching device
will be off (the output contains inverter). The sensor will therefore send an OFF signal through the
cable.
When metallic object comes near the face of the sensor, the alternating magnetic field in the
target produces circulating eddy currents are a power loss. As the target moves nearer, the eddy
current loss increases, which loads the output of oscillator. This loading effect causes the output
amplitude of the oscillator to decrease and causes the output switching device to switch ON.
2.9.2 Capacitive Proximity Sensor:

Capacitive sensing is a noncontact technology suitable for detecting metals,
nonmetals, solids, and liquids, although it is best suited for nonmetallic targets because of
its characteristics and cost relative to inductive proximity sensors. In most applications
with metallic targets, inductive sensing is preferred because it is both a reliable and a more
affordabletechnology.

Capacitive sensor components
The sensor consists of four basic components:
 A capacitive probe or plate
 An oscillator
 A signal level detector
 A solid-state output switching device
 An adjustment potentiometer
Capacitive proximity sensors are similar in size, shape, and concept to inductive proximity
sensors. However, unlike inductive sensors which use induced magnetic fields to sense objects,
capacitive proximity generate an electrostatic field and reacts to changes in capacitance caused when
a target enters the electrostatic field.
When the target is outside the electrostatic field, the oscillator is inactive. As the target
approaches, a capacitive coupling develops between the target and the capacitive probe. When the
capacitance reaches a specified threshold, the oscillator is activated, triggering the output circuit to
switch states between ON and OFF.

Capacitive proximity operation
The ability of the sensor to detect the target is determined by the target’s size, dielectric
constant and distance from the sensor. The larger the target’s size, the stronger the capacitive
coupling between the probe and the target. Materials with higher dielectric constants are easier to
detect than those with lower values. The shorter the distance between target and probe, the stronger
the capacitive coupling between the probe and the target.
2.10 Photo Electric Sensor:

A photoelectric sensor is a device that detects a change in light intensity. Typically, this
means either non-detection or detection of the sensor’s emitted light source.
Photoelectric sensors are made up of a light source (LED), a receiver (phototransistor), a signal
converter, and an amplifier. The phototransistor analyzes incoming light, verifies that it is from the
LED, and appropriately triggers an output. The emitter and detector are positioned so that an object
will block or reflect a beam when present
Figure 2.13 Block Diagram of Photo electric sensor

Operation:
In the figure the light beam is generated on the top, focused through a lens. At the detector
side the beam is focused on the detector with a second lens. If the beam is broken the detector will
indicate an object is present. The oscillating light wave is used so that the sensor can filter out
normal light in the room. The light from the emitter is turned on and off at a set frequency. When the
detector receives the light it checks to make sure that it is at the same frequency. If light is being
received at the right frequency then the beam is not broken. The frequency of oscillation is in the
KHz range, and too fast to be noticed. When the beam is broken the part will be detected.

Types of photo electric Sensor:
i) Thru-beam Sensor
ii) Retro reflective sensor
iii) Diffuse mode sensor
2.10.1 Thru-beam Sensor:
The transmitter and receiver of the

thru-beam sensor are housed in different cases
that are separated from each other. The
Emitter (E) transmits directly to the Receiver
(R). If an object (O) interrupts the light beam,
the receiver voltage drops and the switching
function is initiated.
2.10.2 Retro-Reflective sensor:
The retro-reflective sensor contains the

emitter and receiver in a single housing. The
light from the transmitter is beamed back from
a reflector to the receiver. If the beam of light
is interrupted, the switching function is
initiated.
2.10.3 Diffuse Mode Sensor:
The structure of the diffuse mode

sensor is based on the same principle as a retro
reflective sensor. In this sensor, the light
reflected from the recorded object is evaluated
by the receiver.

2.11 Sinking and Sourcing:
Sinking and sourcing references are terms used to describe a current flow relationship
between field input and input module.
2.11.1 Input module sourcing:

Figure shown below is an example of a
sourcing application. The positive potential is
connected to the input module and the negative
potential is connected to the input device. Using
conventional current flow (positive to negative) it
is said that the input module is the source of
supply for the real world input device. Now the
input device receives current from the input Fig: Input Module Sourcing
module. If an input module provides current, it is
said to be sourcing.
2.11.2 Input module sinking:

sinking application. In this configuration, the
positive potential is connected to the input device
and the negative potential is connected to the
input module. In this case, using a conventional
(positive to negative) current flow, the input
device is said to be providing current to the input
module. If the input module is receiving current,
Fig: Input Module Sinking
it is said to be sinking.
2.11.3 Output module sourcing:

Figure shown below is an example of a sourcing application. The positive potential is
connected to the output module and the negative potential is connected to the output device. Using
conventional current flow (positive to negative) it is said that the output module is the source of
supply for the real world output device. Now the output device receives current from the output
module. If an output module provides current, it is said to be sourcing.
Fig: Output Module Sourcing

2.11.4 Output module sinking:
sinking application. In this configuration, the
positive potential is connected to the output
device and the negative potential is connected to
the output module. In this case, using a
conventional (positive to negative) current flow,
the output device is said to be providing current
to the output module. If the output module is Fig: Output Module Sourcing
receiving current, it is said to be sinking.
As a general rule, sinking modules are used with output modules when interfacing with
electronic equipment (TTL or CMOS), while sourcing modules are used for dc load such as
solenoids.
2.12 TTL Output Module:

Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) output modules switch 5V dc signals. A TTL output
module allows for interface between the PLC and TTL comparable devices. An example of a TTL
interface would be interfacing a PLC to various 5V dc field devices including ICs and Seven
segment displays.
TTL modules usually have eight available output terminals; however, high-density TTL
modules may be connected to as many as sixteen devices at a time. A TTL output interface requires
an external power supply.
Fig: TTL Output Module
Digital output modules take TTL-level signals from a measurement system to control an
SSR’s output. A bleeder resistor assures that the load will turn off when the SSR’s output achieves a
high-impedance state.

2.13 Relay Output:
Relay output modules are also known as contact outputs or dry contact outputs. The relay
output modules are used to switch a.c or d.c loads at low voltages and low current.
Relay contacts are described as three
main arrangements or forms. The three
arrangements are FORM A, FORM B and
FORM C. A FORM A relay contact is a single
pole normally open contact. The FORM B
relay contact is a single pole normally closed
contact which is similar to a single normally
closed switch. The FORM C relay contact is a
single pole double throw contact.
PLC output units are available with all
three contact arrangements but typically
FORM A and FORM C are used. Relay
outputs are also available with a common
terminal and as isolated contacts.
Fig: FORM C Relay Output Module

An output unit with three FORM C contacts having a common terminal is shown in Figure.
Note in this figure that the common terminal of each of the three relays is connected to one common
terminal of the output unit labeled OUTPUT COM.
2.14 Isolated Output module:

Isolated AC and DC outputs modules
allows the interface to control output devices
powered by different sources, which may also be
at different ground levels. For isolated output
module extra terminals are necessary for the
independent return lines. Figure shows a typical
system output wiring diagram using an output
unit having three FORM C isolated outputs. In
this type output unit, the relay contacts have no
connection between them. Each output has three
terminals. The C terminal is the common
terminal of the relay.
Fig: FORM C Isolated Relay Output Module

2.15 I/O ADDRESSING SCHEME IN IMPORTANT PLCs
1. Mitsubishi PLC:
a. Input Address: X400, X401, X402 etc Where, X - Input
b. Output address: Y430, Y431, Y432 etc., Y - Output
2. Siemens PLC:
Input: I0.0, I0.1, I0.2 etc., Where, I - Input
Output: Q0.0, Q0.1, Q0.2 etc., Q - Output
Example:
3. Allen Bradley PLC: X:XXX/XX
Example:
Input: I:0/0, I:0/1, I:0/2
Output: O:0/0, O:0/1, O:0/2

UNIT- II: INPUT AND OUTPUT MODULES
PART- A: Two Mark Questions
1 List the name of two types of I/O module.

2 Give example for discrete inputs.
3 What is sinking input module?
4 What is sourcing input module?
5 List the name of any two special input modules.
6 Give example for analog inputs.
7 What are the types of photo electric sensor?
8 Suggest suitable type of proximity sensor for sensing non-metal object.
9 Assign the address for NO and NC contacts of Siemens PLC.
10 Assign the address for NO and NC contacts of Allen Bradley PLC.
11 Assign the address for NO and NC contacts of Mitsubishi PLC.
12 Expand the term TTL.
13 Suggest the suitable type of output module for D.C load only.
14 Suggest the suitable type of output module for A.C load only.
15 Suggest the suitable type of output module for both A.C and D.C loads.
16 What is an FORM A relay output?
17 What is an FORM B relay output?
18 What is an FORM C relay output?
19 What is an isolated output module?
20 What is the voltage and current rating normally used with analog I/O module?
21 Assign the address for output coil instruction of Mitsubishi PLC.

22 Assign the address for output coil instruction of AB PLC.
23 Assign the address for output coil instruction of SIEMENS PLC.
PART- B: 3 Mark Questions
1 Draw the block diagram of D.C discrete input module.

2 What are the 5 main sections of an A.C input module?
3 List the advantages of relay output over solid state output.
4 List the name of special input modules.
5 What are the different types of sensors used in automation industry using PLC
6 What is the function of limit switch?
7 What is the function of reed switch?
8 What is photo electric sensor?
9 List out various input and output elements connected to PLC.

10 What is the necessity of TTL output module?
11 Explain where you would use an isolated I/O module.
12 Name any three analog outputs.
PART-C: 10 Marks Questions
1 With neat sketch explain the operation of A.C discrete input module.
2 With neat sketch explain the operation of D.C discrete input module.
3 With neat sketch explain about sinking and sourcing input module.
4 Explain the working of limit switch and reed switch with neat sketch.
5 Briefly explain about different types of photo electric sensor.
6 With neat sketch explain the operation of inductive type proximity sensor.
7 With neat sketch explain about sinking and sourcing output module.
8 With neat sketch explain the operation of A.C discrete output module.
9 With neat sketch explain the operation of D.C discrete output module.
10 With neat sketch explain the operation of relay type output module.
11 With neat sketch explain the operation of transistor type output module.
12 With neat sketch explain the operation of TRIAC type output module.
13 Briefly explain about surge suppression in PLC output.
14 With suitable example explain about analog output.

UNIT-3 PLC PROGRAMMING
OBJECTIVES:
 Explain the different types of PLC programming methods.
 Develop ladder logic using relay type instruction, Timer and counter instructions.
 Develop ladder logic diagram for Bottle filling system, Automatic car parking system,
EB to Generator Changeover system, Batch process, Elevator system, Automatic Star-
Delta Starter and Traffic light control etc.,
3.1 Types of Programming Methods:
The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) has created a standard (ICE 1131-3)
for five programming languages for PLC. These five languages are known as:
1. Function Block Diagram (FBD)

2. Instruction List (IL)
3. Ladder diagram (LD)
4. Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
5. Structured Text (ST)
3.1.1 Functional Block Diagram: (FBD)
It is a graphical language for depicting signal and data flows through functional blocks. A
FBD program is constructed using function blocks that are connected together to define the data
exchange. This programming language is a graphic language that uses a library functions in
combination with custom functions to create programs. The inputs and outputs of function
blocks can be inverted.
3.1.2 Instruction List (IL):

It is a low level ‘assembler like’ language using text. Whenever the rung is started, it
must use a rung code. Use LD to indicate the rung is starting with NO contacts and LDI to
indicate the rung is starting with NC contacts. All rungs must end with an OUT i.e output. It is
best suited for small applications and fast execution.
3.1.3 Ladder Diagram (LD):
Ladder programming has evolved from the wiring diagrams that are used in the car
industry for describing the relay control schemes. This method is easy to understand by people
who are familiar with simple electronic or electrical circuits. Also it is well accepted by
electrician an d plant technician. Faults can be quickly traced is the advantage of this method.
The ladder symbols and facilities vary between different PLC products. It has limited facilities
for building complex sequences.

3.1.4 Sequential Function Charts (SFC):
It is a graphical language for depicting sequential behavior of a control system. It is used

for defining control sequences that are time and event driven. While providing structure and
coordination of sequential events, alternative and parallel sequences are supported as well.It
containsFlowchart of steps and transitions.
3.1.5 Structured Text (ST):
It is a high level textual language that encourages structured programming. It has a

language structure (syntax) that strongly resembles PASCAL. ST is an excellent language for
complex processes or calculations that are not graphic friendly.
5.2 Ladder Diagram:
Ladder diagram are very similar to ladder schematics. A ladder diagram is a symbolic
representation of an electrical circuit.
A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is based on the use of ladder
diagrams. Writing a program is then equivalent to drawing a switching circuit. The ladder
diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as
horizontal lines, i.e. the rungs of the ladder, between these two verticals.
Figure: Scanning the ladder diagram
Rules for ladder diagram:
i) The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which circuits are
connected.
ii) Horizontal lines represent rung of a ladder.
iii) Input devices are connected towards left rail.
iv) Output devices are connected towards right rail.
v) A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom. The top rung is read
from left to right. Then the second rung down is read from left to right and so on.
vi) Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at least one output.
The inputs and outputs are all identified by their addresses, the notation used depending on the
PLC manufacturer.
Comparison:
Example program: (For SIEMENS PLC)
3.2 Types of Programming Device:
Programming device:
 A Programming device is needed to enter, modify, monitor and troubleshoot the PLC
program.
 Once the program has been entered and the PLC is running, the programming device may
be disconnected.
Types of programming Device:

1. Hand held Instrument
2. Dedicated Desktop programmer
3. Personal Computer
3.2.1 Hand held Instrument:
A hand held programmers are smaller, cheaper and more portable. This unit contain
multicolored, multifunction keys, and LCD or LED display window. The keys are used entering
and editing the instruction, navigation keys for moving around the program. It has minimum
display capability. It is well suited for parameter changes in the user program.

Advantages of hand held instrument:
1. Easy transfer of PLC program
2. Low cost
3. Easy to use and easy to learn
4. Compact size
Figure 4.11 Handheld Instrument
5. Works with industrial environment
Disadvantages of hand held instrument:
1. Limited ladders can be displayed

2. Documentation not displayed
3. Program stored in the memory will lost when battery is failure.
4. Need more keystroke to enter the program
5. Take more time to enter a big program
6. Modification of program is difficult.
3.2.2 Dedicated Desktop programmer:
It is designed for programming and monitoring the PLC. They are not capable of
performing other computer functions. It consists of a keyboard, Video Display Terminal (VDT)
and necessary electronic circuits and memory unit. Most dedicated programmer keyboards have
electrical symbol keys for NO, NC, Timers etc., VDT is used to give visual display of the
program.
Advantages of Dedicated desktop programmer:
1. Portable and withstand the mechanical shock

2. It can works with industrial environment
3. Not affected by electrical noise, high temperature and humidity
4. Easy for electrician or technician to enter or modify the program.
Figure 4.12 Dedicated Desktop of Industrial Computer

3.2.4 Personal Computer:
With software available for all major brands of PLCs, the PC is now most common
programming device.
Figure 4.13 Personal Computer (PC)

Advantages of PC programmer:
1. It can display multiple rungs

2. Easy for trouble shooting operation
3. Program can stored on the computer hard disk
4. Program can be stored in floppy, pen drive etc.,
5. Running comments, symbols and other related text can be displayed.
6. Data table can be easily monitored.
7. Easy editing and modifying the program
Disadvantages of PC programmer:
1. PC is not designed for industrial environment

2. It is affected by electrical noise, temperature and humidity
3.3 Logic Function:
3.3.1 Logic:
 Logic is the ability to make decisions.

 The binary concept has two predetermined states. For instance, a light can be on or off, a
switch open or closed, or a motor running or stopped.
 This two-state concept can be the basis for making decisions. The binary 1 represents the
presence of a signal, while binary 0 represents the absence of the signal.
 These two states are actually represented by two distinct voltage levels:+V & 0V.
 The binary 1 (or logic 1) is referred to as TRUE, ON, or HIGH, while binary 0 (or logic 0)
is referred to as FALSE, OFF, or LOW.
 The use of binary logic to represent the more positive voltage level as 1 is referred to as
positive logic.Negative logic uses 0 to represent the more positive voltage level.
PLCs are based on three fundamental logic functions—AND, OR, and NOT.

3.3.2 The AND function:
 An AND gate is a device with two or more inputs and one output.
 The AND gate output is 1 only if all inputs are 1.
 In Practical application, when push button PB1 and PB2 are operated, the alarm gives sound.
 The AND gate operates like a series circuit that produces an output voltage when a voltage
appears at each of its inputs.
3.3.3 The OR function:
 An OR gate can have any number of inputs but only one output.
 The OR gate output is 1 if one or more inputs are 1.
 In Practical application, when either PB1 or PB2 is operated, the alarm gives sound.
 The OR gate is essentially a parallel circuit that produces an output voltage when a voltage
appears at any input.

3.3.4 The NOT function:
 The NOT function can have only one input.

 The NOT output is 1 if the input is 0. The output is 0 if the input is 1.
 The result of the NOT operation is always the inverse of the input, and the NOT function is
therefore called an inverter.
 In application circuit, when the push button is not actuated, the output is ON and when the
pushbutton is actuated, the output is OFF.
3.4 Relay type Instruction:
Relay instructions form the category of programming instructions that deals with the
simple energizing and de-energizing of inputs and outputs. Contacts and coils fall into this
category.
 There are two kinds of relay contact input instructions:

 examine-if-closed
 examine-if-open
 There are four kinds of relay coil output instructions:
 simple output
 internal output
 latch/unlatch output
 one-shot rising instructions
Instruction Used to
XIC – Examine if closed Examine a bit for an ON condition
XIO – Examine if open Examine a bit for an OFF condition
OTE – Output Enable Turn ON or OFF a bit
OTL – Output Latch Latch a bit ON
OTU – Output Unlatch Unlatch a bit OFF
ONS – One shot Detect an OFF to ON transition
OSR –One Shot Rising Detect an OFF to ON transition
OSF – One Shot Falling Detect an ON to OFF transition

3.4.1 Examine if closed: (XIC)
 Typically represents any input to the control logic.

Ex: Pushbutton, contact etc.,
 It has a bit level address.

 The status bit will be either 1 (ON) or 0 (OFF).
 The status bit is examined for an ON condition.
 If the status bit is 1 (ON), then the instruction is TRUE.
 If the status bit is 0 (OFF), then the instruction is FALSE.
3.4.2 Examine if opened: (XIO)
 Typically represents any input to the control logic.

Ex: Pushbutton, contact etc.,

 The status bit will be either 1 (ON) or 0 (OFF).
 The status bit is examined for an OFF condition.
 If the status bit is 0 (OFF), then the instruction is TRUE.
 If the status bit is 1 (ON), then the instruction is FALSE.
3.4.3 Output Energize: (OTE)
 It represents any output that is controlled by some combination of input

logic.
 An output can be a connected device or an internal relay output.
 The status bit is set to 1 (ON), when the rung is TRUE.
 The status bit is set to 0 (OFF), then the instruction is FALSE.
 If the status bit is 0 (OFF), then the instruction is FALSE.
3.4.4 Output Latch: (OTL)
 It is an output instruction with a bit level address.

 When the instruction is true, it sets a bit in the output image table.
 It is a retentive instruction because the bit remains in the previous state when the latch
instruction goes false.
3.4.5 Output Unlatch: (OTU)
 It is an output instruction with a bit level address.

 When the instruction is true, it resets a bit in the output image table.

 It is a retentive instruction because the bit remains in the previous state when the unlatch
instruction goes false.
3.4.6 One Shot Rising : (OSR)
 A one-shot rising instruction is not a coil instruction, but rather, a contact instruction.
 This instruction is used to energize an output coil for only one scan.
 It is usually the last contact in a rung, located just before the output coil.
 This instruction’s reference address bit can be located in either the binary file (file 3) or
the integer file (file 7).
 Its address cannot be shared by another contact or coil, and it cannot correspond to a real
input or output device.
 Also, the MicroLogix allows only one one-shot rising instruction per rung.
3.4.7 One shot :(ONS)
ONS or the one shot instruction is an instruction used to trigger a signal for one scan of the
plc. PLCs generally scan their ladder programs many times per second and can execute things
over and over again quite quickly. However with a one shot you can execute something for one
scan.
3.5 Timer Instruction:
 Timers are output instructions.

 Timing instructions are programming instructions that replace the need for
electromechanical timers.
 It is used to activate or deactivate a device after a preset interval of time.
 The advantages of PLC timer:
o Their settings can be altered easily.
o Timer accuracy and repeatability are extremely high
 Allen Bradley PLC 5 and SLC – 500 PLC timer elements each take three data table word:
the control word, preset word and accumulated word.
 The control word uses three control bits: EN, TT & DN

 Enable bit (EN): The enable bit is true whenever the timer instruction is true.
When the timer instruction is false, the enable bit is false.
 Timer Timing bit (TT): The timer timing bit is true whenever the accumulated
value of the timer is changing which means the timer is timing. When the timer is
not timing, the accumulated value is not changing, so the timer timing bit is false.
 Done bit (DN): The done bit changes state whenever the accumulated value
reaches the preset value.
 Preset: (PRE)
 The preset word is the set point of the timer.
 The preset word has a range of 0 through 32767 and is stored in binary form.
 The preset will not store a negative number.

 Accumulated: (ACC)
 The accumulated value word is the value that increments as the timer is timing.
 The accumulated value will stop incrementing when its value reaches the preset
value.
Time base:
 Timer instruction also requires that you enter a time base which is either 1.0s or 0.01 s or
0.001s.
 Actual time delay = Preset Value x Time base
Ex: Preset value = 50, Time base = 0.01s,
Actual Time delay = Preset value x time base = 50 x 0.01s = 5 sec.
3.6 Types of Timer Instruction:

1. Timer ON delay (TON) 2. Timer OFF delay (TOF) 3. Retentive timer (RTO)

3.6.1 Timer ON Delay Instruction: (TON)
 The timer ON-delay instruction is a block-format instruction that is represented by the

symbol shown in Figure below.
 This block has two outputs:
• an enable output coil (EN)
• a done output coil (DN)
 A timer ON-delay instruction energizes its done output (DN) after the timer block’s input
turns on and a specified delay has occurred.
 This instruction is sometimes called a timer ON-delay energize instruction.
 When the timer block’s input has logic continuity, the block’s enable output (EN) will
turn on. As a result, a 1 will be stored in bit 15 of the timer’s control word.
 Once the timer is enabled, it will start to time. Thus, a 1 will be stored in bit 14, which is
the timer timing bit.
 As the timer times, the accumulated value increases until it equals the preset value. At
that point, the timer timing bit (TT) will become a 0, and the done bit (DN) will become a
1, meaning that the done output (DN) will turn on.
 This done output (DN) is the timer’s delay action contact.
 The length of the time delay can be adjusted by changing the preset value.
Figure: A timer ON-delay block and its associated timing diagram
Sequence of operation:
1. When the input I:0.0/0 is closed, it will cause the timer’s enable output (EN) to turn ON.
2. At the same time the timer starts counting and counts until the accumulated value equals the
preset value.
3. For example the preset time for this timer is 4 seconds.
4. When the accumulated value reaches 4 seconds, the done bit (DN) goes from false to true
and timer timing bit (TT) goes from true to false and causing the output coil O:0/0 to turn
on.
5. When input I:0.0/0 goes false, the timer instruction goes false and also resets, at which time
the control bits are all reset and the accumulated value resets to 0.
3.6.2 Timer OFF Delay Instruction: (TOF)
 The timer OFF delay instruction is also a block-format instruction that is represented by
the symbol shown in Figure below.
 This block has two outputs:
• an enable output coil (EN)
• a done output coil (DN)
 A timer OFF delay instruction de-energizes its done output (DN) after the timer block’s
input turns off and a specified delay has occurred.
 Thus, the timer OFF delay instruction is also called a timer OFF-delay de-energize
instruction.
Figure: A timer OFF-delay block and its associated timing diagram
Sequence of Operation:
 The done output (DN) will be off when the program is first started and the timer’s input
is off.
 When the input logic turns on, both the block’s enable output (EN) and done output (DN)
will turn on. However, the timer will not start timing because it is waiting for an OFF
signal instead of an ON signal
 When the block’s input turns off, the enable output will turn off and the timer will start
timing. The done output will stay on because it is waiting for the timer to time out before
it will turn off.
 Once the accumulated value equals the preset value, the timer will stop timing and the
done output (DN) will turn off, implementing the OFF-delay de-energize function.
 This done output (DN) is the timer’s delay action contact.
 The length of the time delay can be adjusted by changing the preset value.
3.6.3 Retentive Timer Instruction:
Retentive Timer ON : (RTO)
A retentive timer instruction operates much like a timer ON-delay instruction. A retentive
timer, however, can stop timing and then start timing again without its accumulated value
resetting to 0.
 When the input logic turns on, the enable output will turn on, and the timer will start
timing.
 If the input logic turns off, the enable output will turn off, and the timer will stop timing.
 The accumulated value, however, will not reset to 0.
 When the timer starts timing again, it will pick up where it left off.
 When the accumulated value finally reaches the preset value, the done output will turn
on.
 Once a retentive timer has timed out, its done output will remain on even if its input logic
and enable output turn off.
 A reset instruction must be used to turn the done output off and reset the timer’s
accumulated value.
 The RES instruction has the same address as the timer it is to reset.

3.6.4 Cascading Timers
The programming of two or more timers together is called cascading. The timer can be
interconnected or cascaded to satisfy any required control logic.
The operation of the circuit can be summarized as follows:
i) Motor starter coil M1 is energized when the momentary start pushbutton PB2 is actuated.
ii) As a result, motor 1 starts, contact M1 closes to seal in PB2, and timer coil T4:1 is
energized to begin the first time-delay period.
iii) After the preset time period of 20 s, T4:1/DN contact closes to energize motor starter coil
M2.
iv) As a result, motor 2 starts and timer coil T4:2 is energized to begin the second time-delay
period.
v) After the preset time period of 20 s, T4:2/DN contact closes to energize motor starter coil
M3, and so motor 3 starts.
vi) Hence actual time delay to start Motor 3 = Time dlay of T4:1 + Time delay of T4:2
3.7 Counter Instruction
 Counter instructions are output instructions.

 Counter instructions are programming instructions that replace the need for
electromechanical counter.
 A counter instruction has two values associated with it:
 • the preset value
 • the accumulated value

 The preset value specifies the target number of counts, while the accumulated value
indicates the actual number of counts that have already occurred.
 In a counter, the preset and accumulated values always increase or decrease in increments
of one.
 Each Allen-Bradley PLC 5 and SLC 500 counter instruction occupies three memory word
locations in the C5 counter data file.
 These three data words are the control word, preset word and accumulated word.
 Control word:
 Count-down Enable bit: The count down enable bit is used with the count down
counter and is true whenever the count down instruction is true.
 Done bit (DN) : The done bit is true whenever the accumulated value is equal to
or greater than the preset value of the counter.
 Overflow bit (OV) : The overflow bit is true whenever the counter counts past its
maximum value which is 32,767.
 Underflow bitt (UV) : The underflow bit will go true when the counter counts
below -32768.
 Preset Value: (PRE)

o The preset value specifies the value that the counter must count to before it
changes the state of the done bit. The preset value is the set point of the counter
and ranges from -32,768 to +32,768.
 Accumulated value: (ACC)

o It is the current count based on the number of times the rung goes from false to
true. It can also ranges from -32,768 to +32,768.
3.7.1 UP Counter
Up-counters perform a counting function when the associated input element transitions
from an OFF to ON state. Up-counters begin at some preset value and increment upward. Up-
counters are retentive and require an associated reset element to clear the counted values.
Counter Up Instruction: (CTU)
 A count up instruction is represented by the symbol shown in Figure below.

 The function of a count up instruction is to increase its accumulated value by one every
time the block’s input makes an OFF-to-ON transition.

 After a certain number of OFF-to-ON transitions have occurred, the count up instruction
will energize its output.
 A count up block has two output coils:

 a count up output coil (CU) : which indicates that the counter block is energized
 a done output coil (DN), which indicates that the count is complete
Example:
The solenoid (SOL) should turn on after the limit switch (LS1) has turned on three times. The
circuit operates as follows:
 When the limit switch turns on for the first time, the count up output will be energized,
and the accumulated value will increase to 1.
 When the limit switch turns off then on again, the accumulated value will increase to 2.
 When the switch makes its third OFF-to-ON transition, the accumulated value will
increase to 3 and the done output will turn on because the accumulated value is equal to
the preset value.
 When the done output turns on, the solenoid output in the second rung will be energized.
 In a counter circuit, the counter will continue to count even after the accumulated value
has reached the preset value.
 The done output will remain on as long as the accumulated count is greater than or equal
to the preset count.
 The only way to reset the accumulated value and turn off the done output is to use a reset
instruction.
3.7.2 Down Counter:
Down-counters perform a counting function when the associated input element

transitions from an OFF to ON state. Down-counters begin at some preset value and decrement
downward. Down-counters are retentive and require an associated reset element to clear the
counted values.

Counter Down Instruction: (CTD)
 A count down instruction decreases its accumulated value by one every time the block’s
input makes an OFF-to-ON transition.
 When the accumulated value becomes less than the preset value, the count down
instruction de-energizes its output.
 When the counter’s accumulated value is greater than or equal to its preset value, the
counter’s output will be on.
 A count down instruction also has two outputs:
 a count down output : which indicates that the counter is energized
 a done output : which signals that the target count value has been reached.
Example:
 In this circuit, the count down block’s done output will already be on because the
accumulated value is greater than the preset value.
 When the block’s input I0.0/0 is turns from OFF to ON, the accumulated value will
decrease to 3.
 When the block’s input makes this OFF-to-ON transition again, the accumulated
value will decrease to 2.
 When the input makes one more OFF-to-ON transition, the accumulated value will
drop to less than the preset value and the done output will turn off, deenergizing the
done output C5:2/DN and output O:0/0.
 The CTD instruction requires the RES instruction to reset its accumulated value and
status bits.

3.7.3 UP/DOWN Counter:
 In the up/down counter shown in Figure below, both counters share the same address and the
same preset and accumulated values.
 As a result, the up counter increases the accumulated value every time a certain event occurs,
while the down counter decreases the same accumulated value if another event occurs.
3.7.4 Cascading counters:
Depending on the applications, it may be necessary to count events that exceed the
maximum number allowable per counter instruction. One way of accomplishing this count is by
interconnecting or cascading two counters.
 A counter instruction’s accumulated value has a range from –32,768 to +32,767.

 Once a counter reaches a count of +32,767, it cannot go any higher. Therefore, it wraps
the accumulated count back around to –32,768 and starts counting up again.
 To count past the +32,767 count value, you must cascade two counters, making sure that
they self-reset in each scan.
 When two counters are cascaded, they are programmed so that one counter provides the
input to the other counter (see Ladder below).
 Ladder shows below has two cascaded counters that implement a count to 100,000. These
cascaded counters have addresses C5:10 and C5:11.

3.8 Program control instruction:
The program control instructions allow for greater flexibility and greater efficiency in the
program scan.
Command Name Description
It is an output instruction and it Jump forward/backward

to a corresponding label instruction. The label is a target
JMP Jump to Label for the jump. A jump instruction jumps to a label with the
same address. If the jump coil is energised, all logic
between the jump and label instruction is bypassed and
the processor continues scanning after the LBL
instruction.
LBL Label
Specifies label location. The label is a target for the jump.
It is the first instruction in the rung and it is always true.
JSR Jump to Subroutine

Jump to a designated subroutine instruction. When rung
condition is true for this output instruction, it causes the
processor to jump to the targeted subroutine file. Each
subroutine must have a unique file number.
Return from
RET
Subroutine It is an output instruction that marks the end of the
subroutine file. It exits current subroutine and returns to
previous condition.
SBR Subroutine
It is first instruction on the first rung in the subroutine
file. It identifies the subroutine program.
TND Temporary End

It is an output instruction used to conditionally omit the
balance of the current program file of subroutines.
Clears all set outputs between the paried MCR

instructions. This instruction can be programmed to
Master Control control an entire rungs or selected rungs of the program.
MCR
Reset The MCR instruction establishes a zone is the user
program in which all non-retentive outputs can be turned
off simultaneously. The MCR zone is enclosed by a start
fence, which is a rung with a conditional rung, and an end
fence, which is a rung with an unconditional MCR.
SUS Suspend
Identify specific conditions for program debugging and

system troubleshooting.
3.9 Data Manipulation Instruction:
Data manipulation involves transfer of data and operation on data with math functions,
data conversion, data comparison and logical operations. Data manipulation can be placed in two
categories: 1. Data transfer 2. Data comparison
1. Data transfer instruction: It simply involves the transfer of the contents from one word
or register to another.
MOV Move
It is used to copy the value in one word to another word. It moves

the data from source word to a destination word.
MVM Masked
Move

It is used to copy the desired part of a 16-bit word by masking the
rest of the value.
AND And
Performs a bitwise AND operation.
OR Or
Performs a bitwise OR operation.
XOR Exclusive
Or

Performs a bitwise XOR operation.
NOT Not
Performs a NOT operation.
CLR Clear Sets all bits of a word to zero.
3.10 Data Compare Instruction:
Data transfer instructions are all output instruction whereas data compare instructions are input
instruction. It compare the data stored in two or more words or registers and take decision based
on the program instructions.
LIM Limit Test
Tests whether one value is within the limit range of two

other values.
Masked comparison for

MEQ
equal
If the data at the source address match the data at the

compare address bit-by-bit, the instruction is true
otherwise it is logically false.

EQU Equal
It is an input instruction that compares source A to
source B. When source A is equal to source B, the
instruction is logically true; otherwise it is logically
false.
NEQ Not Equal

source B. When source A is not equal to source B, the
false.
LES Less than

source B. When source A is less than source B, the
false.
GRT Greater than

source B. When source A is greater than source B, the
false.
LEQ Less than or Equal

source B. When source A is less than or equal to source
B, the instruction is logically true; otherwise it is
logically false.
GEQ Greater than or Equal

source B. When source A is greater than or equal to
source B, the instruction is logically true; otherwise it is
logically false.
3.11 Math Instruction:
CPT Compute Evaluates an expression and sores the result in the destination
ADD Add
Add source A to source B and stores the results in the destination.
SUB Subtract
Subtract source B from source A and stores the results in the

destination.
MUL Multiply
Multiplies source A by source B and stores the results in the

destination.

DIV Divide
Divide source A by source B and stores the results in the destination

and math register.
SQR Square Root
Calculate the square root of the source and places the integer result
in the destination.
NEQ Negate Changes the sign of the source and places it in the destination.
Converts a 16 bit integer source value to BCD and stores it in the

TOD To BCD
math register of the destination.
Converts a BCD value in the math register or the source to an

FRD From BCD
integer and stores it in the destination.
3.12 Sequencer Instruction:
Programmed sequencers can perform the same specific on or off patterns of outputs that are
continuously repeated with a drum switch, but with much more flexibility. For example, the
on/off operation of 16 discrete outputs can be controlled, using a sequencer instruction, with only
one ladder rung.
Sequencer It is an output instruction that uses a file to control various output

SQO
Output devices.
Sequencer It is an input instruction that compares bits from an input file to
SQI corresponding bits from a source address. The instruction is true if
Input
all pairs of bits are the same.
Sequencer It is an output instruction that compares bits from an input source
SQC file to corresponding bits from data words in a sequence file. If all
Compare
pairs of bits are the same, then a bit in the control register is set to 1.
Sequencer It is an output instruction used to transfers data from the input
SQL source module to the sequencer file. The instruction functions much
Load
like a file-to-word transfer instruction.

3.13 PID Instruction:
The PID instruction is an output instruction that controls physical properties such as
temperature, pressure, liquid level, or flow rate using process loops.
The PID Concept:

The PID instruction normally controls a closed loop using inputs from an analog input
module and providing an output to an analog output module. For temperature control, you can
convert the analog output to a time proportioning on/off output for driving a heater or cooling
unit.
Process Variable:
PV is an element address that stores the process input value. This address can be the
location of the analog input word where the value of the input A/D is stored. This value could
also be an integer value if you choose to pre-scale your input value to the range 0 to 16383.
Control Variable:
CV is an element address that stores the output of the PID instruction. The output value
ranges from 0 to 16383, with 16383 being the 100% on value. This is normally an integer value,
so that you can scale the PID output range to the particular analog range your application
requires.
Setup Screen:
Double click Setup Screen on the instruction to bring up a display that prompts you for
other parameters you must enter to fully program the PID instruction.
3.14 PWM Function:
PWM is the acronym for “Pulse Width Modulation”. Pulse width modulation is a very
powerful function that is commonly used to control the positioning of servo valves. It is also
used for laser pulse control, motion control, light intensity controls and other other applications.
The single pulse feature of the function is applicable to any single pulse output need.
A pulse width modulated output signal is one that has a period and an output “on time”,
or duty cycle, within that period.

The figure , on the right, illustrates a PWM output signal. Most PLC digital outputs are
“sinking” transistor outputs – so when the output is on, the output sinks, pulling the signal low.
The next figure show a standard PWM on the top, and a single pulse PWM output on the
bottom. A single pulse PWM output is active for its defined “on time” within the PWM period. It
does not repeat. If you want to output another pulse, your program must execute another “Start
PWM pulse” block.
Perform PWM Function in PLC
 To perform this two timers are used to Turn ON and OFF an output according to
the length of a pulse.
 Timer preset value should vary such that when preset of one timer is increased,
preset value of other timer should decrease in order to maintain Turn ON and OFF time of
output.
 Select input bits such that we can directly enter digits and place it into Preset
value of a timer.
 This can be done by using a digital input device which generates 0-9 numerical
digits.
 Output of this Digital device is always in BCD form and Timers preset values
store data in Hexadecimal, so whichever data are sent to preset register of a time, it has to be
converted into Hexadecimal form.
 FRD instruction can be used to perform BCD to Hex conversion.
 Output of this conversion is directly moved to preset register of timer which can
be performed by MOV instruction.

Description of language ladder
There are different types of programming languages for PLCs. Perhaps the most common is the
ladder programming. The ladder diagrams are commonly used schemes to represent the control
logic of industrial systems. Is called "ladder" diagram because they resemble a ladder, with two
vertical rails (supply) and "rungs" (horizontal lines), in which there are control circuits that define
the logic through functions. In this way the main ladder language features are:
 Input instructions are entered on the left.

 Output Instructions are located on the right.
 Power rails are the power supply lines L1 and L2 for alternating current circuits, and 24 V
- earth for DC circuits.
 Most PLC allows more than one output for each row (Rung).
 The Processor (or "Controller") explores rungs of the ladder from top to bottom and from
left to right.
3.15.1 Ladder Diagram for DOL starter:
DESCRIPTION:
 Starts directly the motor through M coil by means
of contacts ‘M’ connected with motor.
 Assume that control circuit as mentioned in hard
wire circuit.
 As like the hard wire control STOP button is
normally close one so we choose NC for STOP
while enter in ladder. Likewise for START
chooses make contact for this one.
 For the output M coil we could choose normal
output energizer in ladder entry and make LATCH
circuit contact as a feedback loop which is of for
START operation.
 Figure : Hard Wire Circuit
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Figure: PLC Ladder Diagram for DOL Starter (Allen Bradley PLC)
i) Rung 0: When the Start push button is pressed, the NO instruction I:0/1 is set to
HIGH. The Rung 0 is TRUE and allows to energise Main coil which is
connected to output instruction O:0/0. The NO contact of output instruction
O:0/0 is set to high and provides sealing effect. The motor is started with full
line voltage and continues to run.
ii) Rung 0: When the stop push button is pressed, the NC instruction I:0/0 is set to LOW.
Now Rung 0 is FALSE and deenergise Main coil and stop the motor.
3.16 Bottle filling system:

Description:
 In this automatic bottle filling system
conveyer action done by an output
feed motor drive M1 and filling fluid
action is performed by an output
solenoid valve.
 For to make sensing input (bottle)
limit switch will done that action as
PLC input.
 Timers used in ladder for filling time
and delay operation.
 Fixed rollers used to pass the filled
bottle to out feed conveyor that it
always in ON during process.
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List of Input and outputs
I:0/0 -STOP(NC) ; I:0/1 - START(NO) ; I:0/3 - SENSOR(LIMIT SWITCH )
O:0/0 - SOLENOID VALVE ; O:0/1 - CONVEYOR MOTOR ;O:0/2 –OUT FEED MOTOR
T4:0 – FOR FILLING TIME; T4:1 – DELAY AFTER FILLING TO MOVE.
 When the start button is pressed the bit address B3:0/0 will get energized and out feed
motor starts run by means of energisation of O:0/2.
 For the energisation of output B3:0/0 it make the conveyor motor to start till the limit
switch senses (I:0/3).
 If the limit switch senses conveyor motor O: 0/1 output get deenergized and make the
energization of solenoid value for some time period (T4:0) to fill.
 After filling the process waits for some delay (T4:1) and starts the conveyor to move and
repeat the operation till the stop button pressed
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3.17 Automatic car parking system:
Description
A parking plot has total capacity of Cars. Numbers of empty spots are displayed on the
display outside the Parking Plot and which spots are available is to be indicated by
LEDs. Implement this in PLC using Ladder Diagram programming language.
Problem Solution
 Counter is used to count the number of empty spots.
 Proximity Sensors or IR Sensors are used to detect the presence of car.
 Here in this system IR Sensor can be well installed to make this system cost efficient
since Proximity Sensors are costly than IR Sensors.
 Value of counter is displayed on the display which is mounted outside the parking plot.
 This counter value is converted into decimal.
Display arrangement:
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 Counter Up CTU and Counter Down CTD are used to determine the Exit and Entry of
cars respectively.
 Value 5 is already stored in the accumulator since only 5 number of spots are there in this
Parking Plot.
 So whenever car enters or exits from the Parking area, the value in the counter is
incremented and decremented accordingly.
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 Accumulator holds decimal values, this value thus sent to the display through BCD
converter which converts Decimal digits into equivalent Binary Coded Decimal signals.
 Display receives whatever the value Accumulator holds, in terms of BCD.
 I:1/5 and I:1/6 are two inputs from other two IR Sensors to detect the exit and entry of
cars accordingly.
 Here again, CTU and CTD both have the same address in order to vary accumulator value
of both counters according to Exit and Entry of cars.
 XIO (Normally Closed) contact is used here for IR Sensor outputs so that LED is ON
when the spot is empty.
3.18 EB to Generator Changeover:
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HIGH. The Rung 0 is TRUE and allows to set internal memory B3:0/0 to
HIGH. The NO contact internal memory B3:0/0 to high in rung 0, rung 1 and
2. No contact B3:0/0 in rung provides sealing effect.
ii) Rung 1: i) Three sensors can be used to sense the availability of phases. If ‘R’, ‘Y’
and ‘B’ phases are available, the corresponding NO contact I:0/2, I:0/3
and I:0/4 will set to high. Now EB coil which is connected with output
instruction O:0/0 and OFF delay Timer instruction T4:0 are energized.
Now EB supply lines will be connected to the load circuit.
ii) If any one of the three phases are not-available, the corresponding NO
contact will set to LOW. Now EB coil which is connected with output
instruction O:0/0 and OFF delay Timer instruction T4:0 are de-energized.
Now EB supply lines will be disconnected to the load circuit. Timer T4:0
will operate its NC contact T4:0/DN in rung 2 after preset time delay.
iii) Rung 2: i) Because of presence of ‘R’, ‘Y’ and ‘B’ phases, the corresponding NC
contact I:0/2, I:0/3 and I:0/4 will set to low. Without time delay Timer
T4:0 will open its NC contact T4:0/DN immediately and the EB interlock
contact O:0/0 also opened to make rung 2 as FALSE. Now GEN coil
which is connected with output instruction O:0/1 and OFF delay Timer
T4:1 are set to LOW.
ii) If any one of the three phases are not-available, the corresponding NC
contact will set to HIGH. EB interlock contact O:0/0 is closed and after
preset time delay NC contact T4:0/DN will come to closed condition to
make rung 1 as TRUE. Now GEN coil which is connected with output
instruction O:0/1 and OFF delay Timer T4:1 are set to HIGH. Without
time delay Timer T4:1 will open its NC contact T4:1/DN immediately and
the GEN interlock contact O:0/1 also opened to make rung 1 as FALSE.
iv) Rung 0: When the stop push button is pressed, the NC instruction I:0/0 is set to LOW.
Now Rung 0 is FALSE and deenergise remaining coils in remaining rungs.
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3.19 BATCH PROCESS:
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 When the start push button is pressed, input valve V1 opens, allowing water to come in
the tank.
 In case water goes above high level L1, the input valve closes.
 The motor conveyor turns ON allowing weighted quantity of dry material to pour in to the
hopper. When the weight sensor is ON, the conveyor motor turns OFF.
 The hopper valve turns open allowing the weighted dry material to add to the liquid.
 The stirrer motor and heater turn ON to stir the liquid. The heater turns ON to maintain
the temperature between TL and TH for a period of 10 minutes. Both motor, stirrer and
heater turns OFF.
 The output valve Vout turns ON, to empty the mixture down to level Le (LOW). When the
mixer level goes below the low level L2 output valve Voutcloses.
 Close hopper valve. Once the hopper valve closespress preset/stop push button.
3.20 Elevator system:

The elevator as a control system has a number of components. These can basically be divided
into the following:
1. Inputs.
2. Outputs.
1- Inputs, which include:

A- Sensors. (Limit switch)
B- Buttons. (Start and Stop push button)
C- Key controls/hall switch (Up/ Down push button)
2- Outputs, which include:
A- Actuators (Motors(Up/Down) ).
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 When the start push button is pressed, the platform is driven to the down position.
 When the stop push button is pressed, the platform is halted at whatever the position it
occupies at that time.
 When the up push button is pressed, the platform if it is not in a down motion, is driven to
the up position.
 When the down push button is pressed, the platform if it is not in a up motion, is driven to
the down position.
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3.21 Automatic Star Delta Starter:
Control circuit of star delta starter
HIGH. The Rung 0 is TRUE and allows to energise Star coil which is
connected to output instruction O:0/0. The NO contact of output instruction
O:0/0 is set to high and provides sealing effect.
ii) Rung 1: The NO contact of star coil output instruction O:0/0 is set to high and allows
to energise Main coil which is connected to output instruction O:0/1 and ON
delay Timer instruction T4:0. Now the motor is started with star connection.
iii) Rung 2: Timer T4:0 will closed its NO contact T4:0/DN after the preset time delay.
Now the motor is disconnected from star connection. (Neither star nor delta).
iv) Rung 3: After the preset time delay, T4:0/DN is closed and allows to energise ON
delay Timer T4:1.
v) Rung 4: After the preset time delay of T4:1, it closes its NO contact T4:1/DN and
allows to energise Delta coil which connected to output instruction O:0/2.
Timer T4:1 is used to provide pause time between star to delta transition.
Now the Motor continues to run with delta connection.
vi) Rung 5: When the stop push button is pressed, the NC instruction I:0/0 is set to LOW.
Now Rung 0 is FALSE and deenergise star coil, main coil and delta coils.
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Figure : PLC Ladder Diagram for Star-Delta Starter (Allen Bradley PLC)
3.22 Traffic light control:

Description
Implement controlling of Traffic Lights and Pedestrian Lights using PLC in Ladder Diagram
programming language.
Problem Solution
 As we have solved Traffic Lights problem, similarly we can solve this problem using
Sequencer Output SQO instruction.
 In this program, two bits and outputs are added.
 File length, Control, File and Destination remain same.
 Mask data changes due to 2 added outputs.
 As 2 outputs are added, Mask will now have value 00FFh as total numbers of bits used
are 8. In order to pass all 8bits, data flow is masked with 11111111 and moved to output.
 When Green light of South-North is ON, Pedestrian Light and Red light of East-West
should be ON and vice-versa.
 Use Coil to Master Start and Stop the entire process.
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 While using ordinary method to Master Start and Stop, when stop is pressed, the process
is just paused and is not entirely reset, hence resetting of Position in SQO instruction and
Outputs using the same Stop PB can be done manually.
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i) Rung 0: Master Start and Stop the process.
ii) Rung 1:  File; #N7:0 and File length is 10, hence output sequence is varied
from N7:0 to N7:10 with each input.
 Destination is set to O:2 hence with each transition, N7:0 to N7:10 are
moved to O:2 with masking.
 O:2/0 to O:2/5 are used as the output address to Traffic Lights and
hence Mask has value 003Fh which means data flow of N7:0/0…N7:10/0
to N7:0/5…N7:10/5 is passed and the remaining N7:0/6…N7:10/6 to
N7:0/15…N7:10/15 are blocked.
 Control parameters are assigned to register R6:0.
iii) Rung 2:  Time base is set to 4secs, hence after every 4secs, output sequence is
changed to its next register pattern outputs which is then transferred to
O:2 and O:2/0 to O:2/5 are energized accordingly.
 As we can see, from N7:1 to N7:4 have the same bit pattern. So, these
bits are set to 1 for 4 cycles that is 16secs. These bits are used for South-
North Green light and East-West Red light.
 Similarly the entire sequence is followed.
iv) Rung 3: When Stop I:1/1 is pressed, Position is reset to 0 and all the outputs are de-
energized.
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UNIT – III PLC ROGRAMMING
MODEL QUESTIONS
Two Mark Questions:
1. Name the different types of PLC programming languages.

2. Expand the term FBD and STL.
3. Expand the term SFC and ST.
4. What is ladder diagram?
5. Give any 2 relay type instructions.
6. Explain EXAMINE IF CLOSED instruction and assign its address.
7. Explain EXAMINE IF OPEN instruction and assign its address.
8. Draw the symbol of LATCH instruction and assign the address
9. Draw the symbol of UNLATCH instruction and assign the address
10. State the different types of timer instruction.
11. What is a TON instruction?
12. What is a TOF instruction?
13. State the different types of timer instruction.
14. What is a CTU instruction?
15. What is a CTD instruction?
16. What is preset in timer instruction?
17. What is accumulator in timer instruction?
18. What is preset in counter instruction?
19. What is accumulator in counter instruction?
20. What is the need of cascaded timer instruction?
21. What is the need of cascaded counter instruction?
Three Mark Questions:
1. Write short notes on ladder diagram.

2. Draw the schematic diagram of scanning of ladder diagram.
3. Write short notes on FBD
4. Write shot notes on STL
5. Write short note on XIC instruction.
6. Write short note on XIO instruction.
7. Write short note on OTE instruction.
8. Write short note on OTL instruction.
9. Write short note on OTU instruction.
10. Write short note on OSR instruction.
11. Why do we need timer instructions?
12. Explain various parameters associated with timer instruction.
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13. Develop simple ladder logic using TON instruction.
14. Develop simple ladder logic using TOF instruction.
15. Develop simple ladder logic using CTU instruction.
16. Develop simple ladder logic using CTD instruction.
17. What is a RTO instructions?
18. Why do we need counter instructions?
19. Explain various parameters associated with counter instruction.
Ten Mark Questions:
1. Briefly discuss about different types of PLC programming languages.

2. With neat symbol explain about different types of relay type instructions.
3. What is a TON instruction? Explain its working with the help of suitable ladder diagram
and timing diagram.
4. What is a TOF instruction? Explain its working with the help of suitable ladder diagram
and timing diagram.
5. Explain the operation of cascaded timers with suitable ladder diagram.
6. What is a CTU instruction? Explain its working with the help of suitable ladder diagram
and timing diagram.
7. What is a CTD instruction? Explain its working with the help of suitable ladder diagram
and timing diagram.
8. Make UP-DOWN counter using CTU and CTD instructions and explain its working.
9. Explain the operation of cascaded counters with suitable ladder diagram.
10. Develop ladder logic for DOL starter and explain the sequence of operation.
11. Develop ladder logic for star delta starter and explain the sequence of operation
12. Develop ladder logic for rotor resistance starter and explain the sequence of operation.
13. Develop ladder logic for EB to Generator changeover and explain the sequence of
operation.
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UNIT- 4 NETWORKING
OBJECTIVES:
 Explain the functionality of different levels of industrial network

 Explain the concept of network topology and network protocols
 Explain the concept of I/O bus networks etc.,
4.1 Levels of industrial network:
Figure 4.1: Levels of Industrial Networking
Field level:
The lowest level of the automation hierarchy is the field level which includes the field
devices such as actuators and sensors. The task of the devices in the field level is to transfer data
between the manufactured product and the technical process. The data may be either binary and
analog. Nowadays, the field bus is often used for information transfer in the field level.
Cell level:
At the cell level, the information flow mainly consists of the loading of programs,
parameters and data. In processes with short machine idle times and readjustments, this is done
during the production process. In small controllers it may be necessary to load subroutines during
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one manufacturing cycle. This determines the timing requirements. For the cell level operations,
machine synchronizations and event handlings may require short response times on the bus. In
order to achieve the communication requirements in this level, local area networks have been
used as the communication network.
Area level:
The area level consists of cells combined into groups. Cells are designed with an
application-oriented functionality. By the area level controllers or process operators, the
controlling and intervening functions are made such as the setting of production targets, machine
start up and shutdown, and emergency activities.
Plant level:
The plant level is the top level of a plant or an industrial automation system. The plant
level controller gathers the management information from the area levels, and manages the whole
automation system.
4.2 Network Topology:
The term network topology refers to the shape of how the computers and other network
components are connected to each other.
The topology of a local area network is the geometry of the network, or how individual
nodes are connected to it. The basic network topologies used today are star, common bus, and
ring.
Figure 4.2: Types of Network Topology
4.2.1 Star Topology:
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In a star topology, a central control device or hub is connected to several nodes. This
configuration allows for bidirectional communication between the central control device and each
node. All transmission must be sent to the hub which then sends them to the correct node. The
first PLC networks consisted of a multiport host computer with each port connected to the
programming port of a PLC. Figure shows this arrangement, known as star topology. The
network controller can be either a computer, a PLC, or another intelligent host.
The main advantage of this topology is that it can be implemented with a simple point to-
point protocol—that is, each node can transmit whenever necessary.
Figure 4.3: Star Topology
Disadvantages of Star topology:
• All nodes are dependence on a central node.

• The wiring costs are high for large installations.
• Messages between two nodes must pass through the central node (low throughput).
• Failure of the central node will crash the network.
4.2.2 Common bus topology:
The common bus topology has a main trunk line to which individual PLC nodes are
connected in a multidrop fashion. A coaxial cable with proper terminators is typically the
communication medium for the trunkline. In contrast to the star topology, communication in a
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common bus network can occur between any two nodes without passing information through a
network controller. An inherent problem of this scheme, however, is determining which node
may transmit at which time, to avoid data collision.
4.2.2 Common bus topology:
The common bus topology has a main trunk line to which individual PLC nodes are
connected in a multidrop fashion. A coaxial cable with proper terminators is typically the
communication medium for the trunkline. In contrast to the star topology, communication in a
common bus network can occur between any two nodes without passing information through a
network controller. An inherent problem of this scheme, however, is determining which node
may transmit at which time, to avoid data collision.
Figure 4.4: Common Bus Topology
Common bus topologies are very useful in distributed control applications, since each
station has equal independent control capability and can exchange information at any given time.
Also, this topology requires little reconfiguration to add or remove stations from the network.
The main disadvantage of this topology is that all of the nodes depend on a common bus trunk
line. A break in this trunk line can affect many nodes.
4.2.3 Ring Topology:
Ring topology, is not used in industrial environments because failure of any node will
crash the network, unless the failed node is bypassed. Thus, it is a good candidate for fiber-optic
networks, since fiber-optic transmission media allows fast communication speed and long
distance connectivity.
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Figure 4.5: Ring Topology
4.3 Network Protocol:

A protocol is a set of rules that two or more devices must follow if they are to communicate
with each other. Protocol includes everything from the meaning of data to the voltage levels on
connection wires. A network protocol defines how a network will handle the following problems
and tasks:
1. Communication line errors
2. Flow control (to keep buffers from overflowing)
3. Access by multiple devices
4. Failure detection
5. Data translation
6. Interpretation of messages
4.4 OSI Reference Model:
Networks follow a protocol to implement the transmission and reception of data over the
network medium (e.g., coaxial cable). In 1979, the International Standards Organization (ISO)
published the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, also known as the ISO IS
7498, to provide guidelines for network protocols. This model defined seven layers of functions
in a communication system.
In network protocols, the physical layer (layer 1) and the medium access control sub-layer
(layer 2A) are usually implemented with hardware, while the remaining layers are implemented
using software. The hardware components of layers 1 and 2A are generally referred to as
modems (or transceivers) and drivers (or controllers), respectively.
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Structure of simplified OSI model:
1) Physical Layer:
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a Communication
channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It
defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (for example,
an electrical cable, an optical fiber cable, or a radio frequency link). This includes the layout
of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics
for connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices. It is
responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium. Bit
rate control is done at the physical layer. It may define transmission mode as simplex, half
duplex, and full duplex. It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the
most common.
Figure 4.6 : OSI Reference Model
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2) Data Link Layer
It is responsible for transmitting a group of bits between adjacent nodes. The group of bits
so formed is called frame or packet. This layer adds header and trailer information to the data
unit. If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back
an acknowledgement frame.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sub layers:
 Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a
network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
 Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network
layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi,
and 802.15.4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over
several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
3) Network Layer:
This is responsible for addressing messages and data so they are sent to the correct
destination, and for translating logical addresses and names (like a machine name FLAME) into
physical addresses. This layer is also responsible for finding a path through the network to the
destination computer.
4) Transport Layer:
Ensures that data is delivered error free, in sequence and with no loss, duplications or corruption.
This layer also repackages data by assembling long messages into lots of smaller messages for
sending, and repackaging the smaller messages into the original larger message at the receiving
end.
5) Session Layer:
Allows two applications to establish, use and disconnect a connection between them called a
session. Provides for name recognition and additional functions like security, which are needed to
allow applications to communicate over the network
6) Presentation Layer:
Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different data representations to
communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined.
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7) Application Layer:
It is the highest layer in the OSI model. Login, password checking, file transfer, etc., are some
of the functions of the application layer. The application layer contains a variety of protocols that
are commonly needed by users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web.
4.5 TCP/IP Protocol:
The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications
protocols used on the Internet and similar computer networks. It is commonly known
as TCP/IP because the foundational protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). It is occasionally known as the Department of
Defense (DoD) model, because the development of the networking method was funded by
the United States Department of Defense through DARPA.
The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should
be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received. This functionality is organized into
four abstraction layers which classify all related protocols according to the scope of networking
involved. From lowest to highest, the layers are the link layer, containing communication
methods for data that remains within a single network segment (link); the internet layer,
providing internetworking between independent networks; the transport layer handling host-to-
host communication; and the application layer, which provides process-to-process data exchange
for applications.
TCP/IP protocol suite is a collection of protocols used for the internet services. The
TCP/IP suite contains networking protocols used for setting up the internet.
Application Layer
Transport layer
Internet layer
Host to Network layer
Figure 4.7: TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
i) Application Layer:
Application layer consists of all higher level protocols such as virtual terminal
(TELNET), file transfer (FTP) and electronic mail. The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on
one machine to log on to a remote machine. Domain Name Service (DNS) is used for mapping
host names onto their network addresses.
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ii) Transport Layer
Host-to-Host or Transport layer provides end-to-end data transfer service. This layer may
include reliability mechanism. It hides the details or underlying network or networks from the
application layer. It provides support to TCP or UDP protocol.
The transport layer includes the following two transport level protocols:
1. Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)
2. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
iii) Internet layer:

The internet layer holds the whole architecture together. It defines a packet format and protocol
called IP (Internet Protocol). Internet layer is concerned with routing of data. It handles machine
to machine communications.
iv) The Host to Network Layer:

Below the internet layer is great void. It is responsible for accepting and transmitting IP
datagram. It also point out that the host has connect to the network using some protocol so it can
transmit IP packets over it. This protocol is not specified and varies from host to host and
network to network.
Understanding I/P address

An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an IP network. The
address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network portion and host
portion with the help of a subnet mask. The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8
bits). Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot). For this reason, an IP
address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for example, 172.16.81.100). The value
in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 - 11111111 binary.
Here is how binary octets convert to decimal: The right most bit, or least significant bit, of an
octet holds a value of 20. The bit just to the left of that holds a value of 21. This continues until
the left-most bit, or most significant bit, which holds a value of 27. So if all binary bits are a one,
the decimal equivalent would be 255 as shown here:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255)
Here is a sample octet conversion when not all of the bits are set to 1.
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 64 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0+64+0+0+0+0+0+1=65)
And this sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and decimal.
10. 1. 23. 19 (decimal)
00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011 (binary)
These octets are broken down to provide an addressing scheme that can accommodate large and
small networks. There are five different classes of networks, A to E. This document focuses on
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classes A to C, since classes D and E are reserved and discussion of them is beyond the scope of
this document.
4.6 Introduction to I/O Bus Networks:
Figure 4.8: Block Diagram of I/O Bus Network

The basic function of an I/O bus network is to communicate information with, as well as
supply power to, the field devices that are connected to the bus. In an I/O bus network, the PLC
drives the field devices directly, without the use of I/O modules; therefore, the PLC connects to
and communicates with each field I/O device according to the bus’s protocol. These devices
communicate not only the ON/OFF state of input and output controls, but also diagnostic
information about their operating states. For example, a photoelectric sensor (switch) can report
when its internal gain starts to decrease because of a dirty lens, or a limit switch can report the
number of motions it has performed. This type of information can prevent I/O device malfunction
and can indicate when a sensor has reached the end of its operating life, thus requiring
replacement.
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4.7 Types of I/O Bus Networks:
Figure 4.9: Types of I/O Bus Network
Device bus networks:

Device bus networks interface with low-level information devices (e.g., push buttons, limit
switches, etc.), which primarily transmit data relating to the state of the device (ON/OFF) and its
operational status (e.g., operating OK). Device bus networks that include discrete devices, as well
as small analog devices, are called byte-wide bus networks. These networks can transfer between
1 and 50 or more bytes of data at a time. Device bus networks that only interface with discrete
devices are called bit-wide bus networks.
Process bus networks:

Process bus networks, on the other hand, connect with high-level information devices (e.g.,
smart process valves, flow meters, etc.), which are typically used in process control applications.
Process bus networks handle large amounts of data (several hundred bytes), consisting of
information about the process, as well as the field devices themselves. Process bus networks
work slower because of their large data packet size, so they are more applicable for the control of
analog I/O devices, which do not require fast response times.
4.8 Protocols Standard:

Neither of the two I/O bus networks have established protocol standards; however, many
organizations are working towards developing both discrete and process bus network
specifications. In the process bus area, two main organizations, the Fieldbus Foundation and the
Profibus (Process Field Bus) Trade Organization, are working to establish network and protocol
standards. Other organizations, such as the Instrument Society of America (ISA) and the
European International Electronics Committee (IEC), are also involved in developing these
standards. This is the reason why some manufacturers specify that their analog products are
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compatible with Profibus, Fieldbus, or another type of protocol communication scheme. Figure
below illustrates a block diagram of available network and protocol standards.
Figure 4.10: Protocol Standard
One of these de facto standards for the byte-wide device bus network is DeviceNet, originally
from PLC manufacturer Allen-Bradley and now provided by an independent spin-off association
called the Open DeviceNet Vendor Association. Another is SDS (Smart Distributed System)
from Honeywell. Both of these device bus protocol standards are based on the control area
network bus (CANbus), developed for the automobile industry, which uses the commercially
available CAN chip in its protocol. InterBus-S from Phoenix Contact is another emerging de
facto standard for byte-wide device bus network.
The de facto standards for low-end, bit-wide device bus networks include
Seriplex, developed by Square D, and ASI (Actuator Sensor Interface), a standard developed by a
consortium of European companies. Again, this is why I/O bus network and field device
manufacturers will specify compatibility with a particular protocol (e.g., ASI, Seriplex, InterBus-
S, SDS, or DeviceNet) even though no official protocol standard exists.
4.9 Advantages of I/O Bus networks:

 It allows more than one fielddevice to be connected to a wire due to addressing
capabilities.
 PLCs in an I/O bus perform a minimal amount of analog-to-digital and digital-
to-analog conversions, since the devices pass their data digitally through the bus to the
controller.
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 Process bus–compatible field devices can pass a digital value proportional to a
real-world value to the PLC, thus eliminating the need to linearize or scale the process
data.
 The reduction in the amount of wiring in a plant alone can provide incredible
cost savings for manufacturing and process applications.
4.10 Gateway:
Gateways make communication possible between different architectures and protocols.
They repackage and convert data going from one network to another network so that the one can
understand the other’s application data. Gateways can change the format of a message so that it
will conform to the application program at the receiving end of the transfer. If network access
translation is their only function, the interfaces are known as bridges. If the interface also adjusts
data formats or performs data transmission control, then it is called a gateway.
4.11 Token passing:

In a token passing network, a node can transmit data on the network only when it has
possession of a token. A token is simply a small packet that is passed from node to node. When a
node finishes transmitting messages, it sends a special message to the next node in the sequence,
granting it the token. The token passes sequentially from node to node, allowing each an
opportunity to transmit without interference. Tokens usually have a time limit to prevent a single
node from tying up the token for a long period of time.
4.12 Data Highway:
The Allen-Bradley Data Highway networks, Data Highway Plus (DH+) and DH-485, are
proprietary communications networks. They use peer-to-peer communication implementing
token passing. The medium is shielded twisted pair cable.
4.13 Serial Communication:
Serial data communication is implemented using standards such as RS-232, RS-422, and
RS-485. The RS in the standard’s name means Recommended Standard that specifies the
electrical, mechanical, and functional characteristics for serial communications. The simplest
type of connection is the RS-232 serial port. The RS-232 type of serial transmission is designed
to communicate between one computer and one controller and is usually limited to lengths up to
50 feet. RS-422 and RS-485 serial transmission types are designed to communicate between one
computer and multiple controllers, have a high level of noise immunity, and are usually limited to
lengths of 650 feet (for RS-485) or 1650 feet (for RS-422).
4.14 Device Net:
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DeviceNet is an open device-level network. It is relatively low speed but efficient at
handling the short messages to and from I/O modules. As PLCs have become more powerful,
they are being required to control an increasing number of I/O field devices. Therefore, at times it
may not be practical to separately wire each sensor and actuator directly into I/O modules.
Conventional systems have racks of inputs and outputs with each I/O device wired back to the
controller. The DeviceNet protocol dramatically reduces costs by integrating all I/O devices on a
4-wire trunk network with data and power conductors in the same cable. This direct connectivity
reduces costly and time-consuming wiring.
4.15 Control Net:
ControlNet is positioned one level above DeviceNet. It uses the Common Industrial
Protocol (CIP) to combine the functionality of an I/O network and a peer-to-peer network
providing high-speed performance for both functions. This open high-speed network is highly
deterministic and repeatable. Electronic device data sheets (EDS-Files) are required for each
ControlNet device. During the setup phase the ControlNet scanner must configure each device
according to the EDS-Files.
4.16 EtherNet:
EtherNet/IP (Ethernet Industrial Protocol) is an open communications protocol based on the
Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) layer used in both DeviceNet and ControlNet. It allows users
to link information seamlessly between devices running the EtherNet/IP protocol without custom
hardware.
4.17 Modbus:
Modbus is a serial communication protocol originally developed by Modicon for use with
its PLCs. Basically, it is a method used for transmitting information over serial lines between
electronic devices. The device requesting the information is called the Modbus Master and the
devices supplying information are Modbus Slaves. Modbus is an open protocol, meaning that it’s
free for manufacturers to build into their equipment without having to pay royalties. It has
become a standard communications protocol in industry, and is one of the most commonly
available means of connecting industrial electronic devices.
4.18 Fieldbus:
Fieldbus is an open, serial, two-way communications system that interconnects
measurement and control equipment such as sensors, actuators, and controllers. At the base level
in the hierarchy of plant networks, it serves as a network for field devices used in process control
applications.
4.19 Profibus:
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PROFIBUS-DP (where DP stands for Decentralized Periphery) is an open, international
fieldbus communication standard that supports both analog and discrete signals. It is functionally
comparable to DeviceNet. The physical media are defined via the RS-485 or fiber optic
transmission technologies. PROFIBUS-DP communicates at speeds up to 12 Mbps over distances
up to 1200 meters.
4.10 Subnetting:
Subnetting is a technique that lets network administrators use the 32 bits available in an
IP address more efficiently by creating networks that aren’t limited to the scales provided by
Class A, B, and C IP addresses. With subnetting, you can create networks with more realistic host
limits. Subnetting provides a more flexible way to designate which portion of an IP address
represents the network ID and which portion represents the host ID. With standard IP address
classes, only three possible network ID sizes exist: 8 bits for Class A, 16 bits for Class B, and 24
bits for Class C. Subnetting lets you select an arbitrary number of bits to use for the network ID.
Two reasons compel people to use subnetting. The first is to allocate the limited IP
address space more efficiently. If the Internet was limited to Class A, B, or C addresses, every
network would be allocated 254, 65 thousand, or 16 million IP addresses for host devices.
Although many networks with more than 254 devices exist, few (if any) exist with 65 thousand,
let alone 16 million. Unfortunately, any network with more than 254 devices would need a Class
B allocation and probably waste tens of thousands of IP addresses.
The second reason for subnetting is that even if a single organization has thousands of
network devices, operating all those devices with the same network ID would slow the network
down to a crawl. The way TCP/IP works dictates that all the computers with the same network ID
must be on the same physical network. The physical network comprises a single broadcast
domain, which means that a single network medium must carry all the traffic for the network. For
performance reasons, networks are usually segmented into broadcast domains that are smaller
than even Class C addresses provide.
Example
In order to subnet a network, extend the natural mask with some of the bits from the host
ID portion of the address in order to create a subnetwork ID. For example, given a Class C
network of 204.17.5.0 which has a natural mask of 255.255.255.0, you can create subnets in this
manner:
204.17.5.0 - 11001100.00010001.00000101.00000000
255.255.255.224 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000
--------------------------|sub|----
By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.224, you have taken three bits (indicated by "sub")
from the original host portion of the address and used them to make subnets. With these three
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bits, it is possible to create eight subnets. With the remaining five host ID bits, each subnet can
have up to 32 host addresses, 30 of which can actually be assigned to a device since host ids of
all zeros or all ones are not allowed (it is very important to remember this). So, with this in mind,
these subnets have been created.
204.17.5.0 255.255.255.224 host address range 1 to 30
4.21 Subnet Mask :

A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of IP addresses that can be used in a
network. Subnet masks are used to designate subnetworks, or subnets, which are typically local
networks LANs that are connected to the Internet. Systems within the same subnet can
communicate directly with each other, while systems on different subnets must communicate
through a router. Therefore, subnetworks can be used to partition multiple networks and limit the
traffic between them.
A subnet mask hides, or "masks," the network part of a system's IP address and leaves
only the host part as the machine identifier. A common subnet mask for a Class C IP address is
255.255.255.0. Each section of the subnet mask can contain a number from 0 to 256, just like an
IP address. Therefore, in the example above, the first three sections are full, meaning the IP
addresses of computers within the subnet mask must be identical in the first three sections. The
last section of each computer's IP address can be anything from 0 to 255. For example, the IP
addresses 10.0.1.201 and 10.0.1.202 would be in the same subnet, while 10.0.2.201 would not.
Therefore, a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 allows for close to 256 unique hosts within the
network.
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4.22 File Transfer protocol:
File transfer protocol is the standard mechanism provided by the internet for copying a
file from one host to another. FTP is a TCP/IP client-server application for copying files from
one host to another. The problem occurred during file transfer is solved by FTP.
Fig: Block diagram of FTP

The client has three components:
1. User Interface
2. Client control process
3. Client data transfer process
The server has two components:
1. Server control process
2. Server data transfer process
FTP uses the service of TCP. It needs two TCP connections. Port 21 is used for the control
connection and port 20 is used for the data connection.
The control connection is made between the data transfer process. The control connection is
maintained during the entire interactive FTP session. The data connection is opened and then
closed for each file transferred. It opens each time commands that involve transferring files are
used, and it closes when the file is transferred. In other words, when a user starts an FTP session,
the control connection opens. While the control connection is open, the data connection can be
opened and closed multiple times if several files are transferred.
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UNIT-4 NETWORKING
Model questions
Part A (2 mark)
1. What is the function of process bus network.
2. Mention the levels of industrial networking.
3. What is plant level?
4. Define network topology.
5. What is the main advantage of star topology.
6. What is protocol?
7. What is physical layer?
8. What is data link layer?
9. What is gateway?
10. Mention the components of FTP?
11. List any two advantages of networking
12. What is the main advantage of star topology.
13.
Part B
1. Explain about star, ring topologies.
2. Explain about physical and presentation layer.
3. Explain about controlnet,profibus.
4. Explain modbus, field bus.
5. Explain about subnetting.
6. What is the function of transport layer in OSI model?
Part C
1. Explain with structure of simplified OSI model.
2. Explain with block diagram of I/O bus networks.
3. Explain the different types of network topologies.
4. Explain with block diagram of FTP.
5. Explain TCP/IP protocol with reference model.
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UNIT- 5DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES:
 Describe the computer control of process

 Explain the operation of SCADA
 Explain the functions of the major components of a process control system
 Explain how on/off control and PID control works
5.1 Computers in Process control:
Process control is the automated control of a process. Such systems typically deal with
analog signals from sensors. The ability of a PLC to perform math functions and utilize analog
signals makes it ideally suited for this type of control. Manufacturing is based on a series of
processes being applied to raw materials. Typical applications of process control systems include
chemical-processing industries, petrochemical production, oil refining, basic metals industries
(iron and steel, aluminum), and food processing.
5.2 Types of processes control:
Usually, manufacturing industries are classified as
 Process industries
i) Continuous process
ii) Batch processing
iii) Hybrid
 Discrete manufacturing
Continuous process:
A continuous process is one in which raw materials enter one end of the system and the
finished product comes out the other end of the system; the process itself runs continuously.
Batch processing:
In batch processing, there is no flow of product material from one section of the process to
another. Instead, a set amount of each of the inputs to the process is received in a batch, and then
some operation is performed on the batch to produce a product. Products produced using the
batch process include food, beverages, pharmaceutical products, paint, and fertilizer.
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Hybrid :
Applications having elements of batch and continuous process control are often
called hybrid applications
Discrete manufacturing:
Discrete manufacturing is characterized by individual or separate unit production. With this

manufacturing process, a series of operations produces a useful output product. Discrete
manufacturing systems typically deal with digital inputs to PLCs that cause motors and robotic
devices to be activated. The work piece is normally a discrete part that must be handled on an
individual basis. Making car interiors is one example of discrete manufacturing.
5.3 Structure of control system:
Process control system can be defined as the functions and operations necessary to change
a material either physically or chemically. Process control normally refers to the manufacturing
or processing of products in industry. A block diagram representation of an industrial process
control is shown in figure.
Components of process control system:
Transducer / Sensor:
i) Provide inputs from the process and from the external environment
ii) Convert physical information such as pressure, temperature, flow rate and position into
electrical signals.
iii) It output can be used to monitor and control a process.
HMI:
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i) Allows inputs from a human to set up the starting conditions or alter the control of a
process.
ii) Allows human inputs through various types of switches, controls and keypads.
iii) Operates using supplied input information that may include emergency shut down or
changing the speed, the type of process to be run, the number of pieces to be made or
the recipe for a batch mixer.
Signal Conditioning:
i) Involves converting input and output signals to usable form.

ii) Includes signal condition techniques such as amplification, attenuation, filtering scaling
A/D and D/A converters.
Actuators:
i) Convert system output electrical signals into physical action.
ii) Examples: Flow control valves, pumps, positing drives, VFD, clutches, brakes, solenoids,
stepper motor and power relays.
Output devices
i. Indicate the state of the process variables through external actuators such as meters, CRT
monitors, printers, alarms and pilot lights.
ii. It can send outputs directly from the controller to a computer for storage of data and
analysis of results.
Controller:
I. Controller is the brain of the control system that takes decision to maintain the
process variables at its desired value (set point).
II. It generates output signals which operate actuators to carry out the decision.
Multiplexer:
i. Multiplexer has large number of inputs and only one output.
ii. If the multiplexer is connected at input of ADC then it is called as analog
multiplexing and if it is connected at output of ADC it is called as digital
multiplexing.
5.4 ON/OFF control:
In an ON-OFF control action the output has only two states, fully ON or fully OFF. The
time temperature response of an ON-OFF controller in a heating application is shown in the
figure. In this control, the output turns ON when the temperature falls below the set point and
turns OFF when the temperature reaches the set point.
Advantages: i) Simple control ii) Low cost
Disadvantages: i) Overshoot ii) Oscillation (Hunting) about set point
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Remedy: Oscillation can be reduced by in amplitude buy increasing the sensitivity of the
controller.
Fig: ON/OFF Control Waveform
5.5 Closed Loop Control:
The closed loop system is one of the control system in which the feedback taken from the
output and then this feedback is feed is applied to the comparator for the comparing with the set
point and the error is then applying to the further circuit. The operation and block diagram of the
closed loop system is shown in the figure.
Fig: Closed Loop Block Diagram
Set point:It is the input that determines the desired operating point for the process.
Comparator: It is used to obtain the difference between actual output with set point. The set
point signal is applied at the positive terminal and output signal is applied at negative terminal.
Error amplifier:It amplify the error signal and give to the controller because the error signal is
very weak in amplitude, it may not directly operate the controller. So the weak signal is amplified
by error amplifier.
Controller: It produces the output signal for the process based on the input error signal.
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Final control element :It controls the output of the controller stage and input of the process
state.
Sensor Feedback: It provides input from the process to the set point or comparator which
compare the set point and feedback signal.
5.6 PID Control:
PID control is a feedback control method that combines proportional, integral, and
derivative actions. The proportional controller reduces the offset. But offset will not become zero.
The integral action automatically corrects offset. The derivative action responds quickly to large
external disturbances. The PID controller is the most widely used type of process controller.
When combined into a single control loop the proportional, integral and derivative modes
complement each other to reduce the system error to zero faster than any other controller. Figure
shows the block diagram of a PID control loop, the operation of which can be summarized as
follows:
 During setup, the set-point, proportional band, reset (integral), rate (derivative), and output
limits are specified.
 All these can be changed during operation to tune the process.
 The integral term improves accuracy, and the derivative reduces overshoot for transient
upsets.
 The output can be used to control valve positions, temperature, flow metering equipment,
and so on.
The response of a PID loop is the rate at which it compensates for error by adjusting the
output. The PID loop is adjusted or tuned by changing the proportional gain, the integral gain,
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and/or the derivative gain. A PID loop is normally tested by making an abrupt change to the set
point and observing the controller’s response rate. Adjustments can then be made as follows:
 As the proportional gain is increased, the controller responds faster.

 If the proportional gain is too high, the controller may become unstable and oscillate.
 The integral gain acts as a stabilizer. Integral gain also provides power, even if the error is
zero (e.g., even when an oven reaches its set point, it still needs power to stay hot).
Without this base power, the controller will droop and hunt for the set-point.
 The derivative gain acts as an anticipator. Derivative gain is used to slow the controller
down when change is too fast.
5.7 Motion Control:

A motion control system provides precise positioning, velocity, and torque control for a
wide range of motion applications. PLCs are ideally suited for both linear and rotary motion
control applications. Pick and Place machines are used in the consumer products industry for a
wide variety of product transfer applications. The machine takes a product from one point to
another. One example is the transfer of a product to a moving conveyor belt.
A basic PLC motion control system consists of a controller, a motion module, a servo
drive, one or more motors with encoders, and the machinery being controlled. Each motor
controlled in the system is referred to as an axis of motion. The controller stores and executes the
user program that controls the process. This program includes motion instructions that control
axis movements. A motion command represents the desired position, velocity, or torque of the
servo motor at the particular time the calculations take place.
The motion module receives motion commands from the controller and transforms them
into a compatible form the servo drive can understand. In addition it updates the controller with
motor and drive information used to monitor drive and motor performance. The servo drive
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receives the signal provided by the motion module and translates this signal into motor drive
commands.
The following diagram illustrates the essential components of a motion control system.
Figure The motion controller is the heart of the motion control system.
What’s the Difference between a Motor and a Drive?
It is important to distinguish between motors and drives. A motor is the mechanical or

electrical device that generates the rotational or linear force used to power a machine. A drive is
the electronic device that harnesses and controls the electrical energy sent to the motor. The drive
feeds electricity into the motor in varying amounts and at varying frequencies, thereby indirectly
controlling the motor’s speed and torque.
There are two types of drives: a standard inverter drive for controlling speed and torque only; and
a servo drive for controlling speed and torque, as well as positioning machine components used
in applications that require complex motion.
Together, a motor and drive form a “drive system.”
5.8 Direct Digital Control (DDC):
A microprocessor based controller performing the monitoring, control loop processing and
direct control of the mechanical system in response to system input. DDC is the automated
control of a process by a digital device.
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Fig: Block Diagram of DDC
DDC completely replaces the traditional pneumatic or electronic controllers. Direct

Digital Control (DDC) is a type of energy management system with closed loop control. The
term “Direct” means a microprocessor is directly in the control loop. The control is accomplished
by “digital” electronics that read or control both digital and analog signals.
A basic DDC system is shown in figure. In this system a large number of transducer are
connected and each transducer being connected to one input of a multiplier. Multiplexer has large
number of inputs and only one output. Here the multiplexer is connected at input of ADC then it
is called as analog multiplexing. The data from output of ADC is transmitted to CPU through
data bus.
When CPU has analyzed the data from one or more transducer and has compared them
with the appropriate set points in the computer program, it sends signals along the data bus to the
values controlling the system as follows. The digital signal produced by the CPU is converted
into an analog signal by a DAC and the analog signal is transmitted to the appropriate control
valve through a demultiplexer. As this is being performed, data are displayed on the operator
visual display unit and if necessary, he can remotely change the set points associated with various
sections of the process.
5.9 Introduction about SCADA:

SCADA refers to the combination of telemetry and data acquisition system. SCADA
encompasses the collecting of the information, transferring it back to the central site, carrying out
any necessary analysis and control and then displaying that information on a number of operator
screens or displays. The required control actions are then conveyed back to the process.
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5.9.1 Block diagram of SCADA:
SCADA systems typically have four major elements:

1. Master Terminal Unit (MTU)
2. Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
3. Communication Equipment
4. SCADA Software
1. Master Terminal Unit (MTU):

The Master Terminal Unit is usually defined as the master or heart of a SCADA
system. It is located at the operator’s central control facility. The MTU initiates virtually all
communication with remote sites and interfaces with an operator. Data from remote field devices
(pumps, valves, alarms, sensors etc.) is sent to the MTU to be processed, stored and/or sent to
other systems.
2. Remote Terminal Unit (RTU):

The Remote Terminal Unit is usually defined as a communication satellite within
the SCADA system and is located at the remote site. The RTU gathers data from field devices
(pumps, valves, alarms, etc.) in memory until the MTU initiates a send command. Some RTUs
are designed with microcomputers and programmable logic controllers (PLCs) that can perform
functions at the remote site without any direction from the MTU.
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3. Communication Equipment:
In the SCADA system network but there must be uninterrupted, bidirectional
communication between the MTU and the RTU for a Data Acquisition system to function
properly. Private wire lines, buried cable, telephone, telemetry hardware like wireless radios and
modems, microwave dishes, satellites, or other atmospheric means, DSL (Digital Subscriber
Line), Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN), cable, fiber optics, WiFi, or other broadband
services.
4. SCADA Software:
A typical SCADA system provides a Human Machine Interface (HMI) allowing
the operator to visualize all the functions as the system is operating. The operator can also use the
HMI to change set points, view critical condition alerts and warnings, and analyze or present data
trends. Common HMI software packages include Cimplicity (GE-Fanuc), RSView (Rockwell
Automation)
5.10 Features of SCADA:

 User interface
 Graphics displays
 Alarms
 Trends
 RTU (and PLC) interface
 Scalability
 Access to data
 Database
 Networking
 Fault tolerance and redundancy
 Client/server distributed processing
5.11 Functions of SCADA:

1. Data Collection (Data acquisition)
2. Data Transmission
3. Monitoring
4. Supervision and Alarm
5. Control and indication
6. Data logging
7. Data Display
5.12 SCADA Software:
SCADA software are two types: 1. Run time 2. Works
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SCADA works software contains both application development software and run time software.
Using this software user can develop application program and also run this application. SCADA
runtime contains only runtime program. Using this software user can run the application
program, but cannot develop application program.
Various SCADA Software available in the market:
# Developer Name of the Software
1 Siemens WinCC
2 AllenBradly RSView 32
3 GeFanuc Cimplicity
4 Wonderware InTouch
5 General Electric Intellution iFIX
6 Honeywell SCAN 3000 SCADA
5.13 Data Loggers:
Data loggers are electronic devices which automatically monitor and record
environmental parameters over time, allowing conditions to be measured, documented, analysed
and validated. The data logger contains a sensor to receive the information and a computer chip
to store it. Then the information stored in the data logger is transferred to a computer for analysis.
Data logging facility is also available with SCADA software.
5.14 Tags:
A Tag is a logical name for a variable in a device or in logical memory. Tags that receive
data from an external source such as a PLC is referred as device tags. Tags that receive their data
internally from SCADA software are referred to as memory tags. Tags are stored in the tag
database and their names are then used in other parts.
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Tag Types:
Sl.No Types of Tag Description
It stores 0 or 1. These tags can represent device that can only be ON

1 Digital Tag
or OFF.
It stores range of values. These tags represent variable states such as

2 Analog Tag
pressure, temperature, level, flow etc.,.
It stores ASCII string, series of characters or whole words. These

3 String Tag tags can represent devices that use text, such as a bar code scanner,
which uses alphanumeric product code.
It stores information generated while the system is running,

4 System Tag including alarm information and the system time and date. We
cannot edit or write to system tags but we can use them.
5.15 Alarm system:
Industrial processes are often supervised by an SCADA. It monitors analog and digital signals
from the plant and checks on limits for the values. There is need to have the record of alarm and
alarms acknowledgement information. An alarm occurs when something goes wrong. It can
signal that a device or process has ceased operating within acceptable, predefined limits or can
indicate breakdown, wear or a process malfunction. An alarm should only be activated when the
process limit violated. Set up a systems of alarms in the tag database editor by linking alarms to
value table, they are compared to the limits you assigned, when you configured the alarm. If a tag
value exceeds the configured limits, an alarm of a present severity is triggered.
Fig: Alarm actions in an operator display
118
Requirements of good alarm system:
• Client server architecture

• Unmistakable
• Alarms are shared to all clients
• Alarms displayed in chronological order
• User-defined formats and colors
• Context-sensitive help
• On-line alarm disable and threshold modification
5.16 Landlines for SCADA:

Even with the reduced amount of wire when using a PC to IED system, there is usually a
lot of wire in the typical SCADA system. This wire brings its own problems, with the main
problem being electrical noise and interference. Interference and noise are important factors to
consider when designing and installing a data communication system, with particular
considerations required to avoid electrical interference. Noise can be defined as the random
generated undesired signal that corrupts (or interferes with) the original (or desired) signal. This
noise can get into the cable or wire in many ways. It is up to the designer to develop a system that
will have a minimum of noise from the beginning. Because SCADA systems typically use small
voltage they are inherently susceptible to noise. The use of twisted pair shielded cat5 wire is a
requirement on most systems. Using good wire coupled with correct installation techniques
ensures the system will be as noise free as possible.
Fiber optic cable is gaining popularity because of its noise immunity. At the moment most
installations use glass fibers, but in some industrial areas plastic fibers are increasingly used.
Optical fiber cable
An optical fiber cable, also known as fiber optic cable, is an assembly similar to
an electrical cable, but containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The
optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a
protective tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed. Different types of
119
cable are used for different applications, for example long distance telecommunication, or
providing a high-speed data connection between different parts of a building.
Reliability and quality
Optical fibers are very strong, but the strength is drastically reduced by unavoidable
microscopic surface flaws inherent in the manufacturing process. The initial fiber strength, as
well as its change with time, must be considered relative to the stress imposed on the fiber during
handling, cabling, and installation for a given set of environmental conditions.
There are three basic scenarios that can lead to strength degradation and failure by
inducing flaw growth: dynamic fatigue, static fatigues, and zero-stress aging.
5.17 Modem use in SCADA systems:
Often in SCADA systems the RTU (remote terminal unit (PLC, DCS or IED)) is located
at a remote location. This distance can vary from tens of meters to thousands of kilometers. One
of the most cost-effective ways of communicating with the RTU over long distances can be by
dialup telephone connection. With this system the devices needed are a PC, two dialup modems
and the RTU (assuming that the RTU has a built in COM port). The modems are put in the auto-
answer mode and the RTU can dial into the PC or the PC can dial the RTU. The software to do
this is readily available from RTU manufacturers. The modems can be bought off the shelf at the
local computer store.
Line modems are used to connect RTUs to a network over a pair of wires. These systems are
usually fairly short (up to 1 kilometer) and use FSK (frequency shift keying)to communicate.
Line modems are used to communicate to RTUs when RS-232 or RS-485 communication
systems are not practical. The bit rates used in this type of system are usually slow, 1200 to 9600
bps.
120
Unit V
Model Questions
Part A
1. What is process control?

2. What are the types of process control?
3. What are the functions of SCADA?
4. Mention the types of SCADA software.
5. Mention SCADA softwares available in market.
6. What do you mean by data logger?
7. What is tags?
8. Expand the term SCADA.
Part B
1. Explain about any two types of process control.

2. Explain about closed loop control.
3. What are the features of SCADA.
4. Explain about the types of Tag.
5. What are the requirement of good alarm system.
6. Give example of any three SCADA software
7. Explain ON/OFF control with suitable example.
8. What are the benefits of SCADA?
9. What is data logger? State its functions
Part C
1. Draw the structure of control system and explain about the components of process
control system.
2. Explain the PID control with neat sketch.
3. Explain with block diagram of DDC.
4. Explain the use of landlines and modems in SCADA
5. With neat block diagram explain the operation of SCADA.
6. With neat block diagram briefly explain about proportional integral process
7. Describe the hardware and software involved in SCADA system
121

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Team Members for PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

THIRUMATHI V.THENMOZHI , M.E., M.I.S.T.E

THIRU G.RAJAGOPAL, M.E.,

THIRU M. SARAVANAKUMAR, B.E.,

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 1

Subject Code: 1030 Semester: V

Subject Title: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 2

Unit –I INTRODUCTION TO PLC Page No: 5 - 23

Automation – Types of Automation (manufacturing and Non-Manufacturing) – Advantages of

Unit – II INPUT/OUTPUT MODULES Page No: 24 - 45

Unit –III PLC PROGRAMMING Page No: 46 - 88

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 3

Unit –V DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS Page No: 107 - 121

# Name of the Book Author Publisher

Control of Electrical New Age International

Introduction to Thompson Delmer

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 4

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

Automation means automatic manufacturing without human control. Automation is a

1.2 Types of automation:

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 5

This include fixed automation, programmable automation and flexible automation.

1.2.1.1 Fixed Automation:

i) Maximum efficiency i) Large initial investment

ii) Low unit cost ii) Inflexible in accommodating product variety.

iii) High production rate Applications:

ii) Packaging plants

1.2.1.2 Programmable Automation:

In programmable automation, changes in the sequence of operations is possible by changing

1.2.1.3 Flexible Automation:

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 6

i) Minimum production time losses i) Large initial investment

iii) Customized products. Applications:

1.2.2 Non-Manufacturing automation:

1.2.2.1 Office automation:

1.2.2.2 Home automation:

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 7

Building automation is the centralized control of a buildings heating, ventilation, air

 High capital cost

1.3.2 Systems used for automation:

a. CAD – Computer Aided Design

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 8

1.4.1A Historical background of PLC:

1.5 Definition of PLC:

A programmable logic controller is a digital electronic apparatus with a programmable

1.6 Block diagram of PLC :

PLC consists of three basic sections:

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 9

The CPU consists of following three components:

ii) Memory system:

Figure 1.1 Block Diagram of a PLC

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 10

1.7 Principle of Operation:

Figure 1.2 (a) Principle of Operation

M SCHEME_33072 COURSE MATERIAL 11

Figure 1.2 (b) Operating Sequence