Color, Space, and Style

COLOR,
SPACE,
AND STYLE
COLOR,
SPACE,
AND STYLE
ALL THE DETAILS INTERIOR DESIGNERS
NEED TO KNOW BUT CAN NEVER FIND
CHRIS GRIMLEY
MIMI LOVE
Introduction 6
Perspective on Fundamentals
Deborah Berke 70
CONTENTS
Perspectives on Space
Michael Gabellini 128
Perspectives on Surface
Annabelle Selldorf 206
Perspectives on Environments
Yabu Pushelberg 230
Perspectives on Elements
Calvin Tsao 260
Perspectives on Resources
Shashi Caan 276
Index 282
Acknowledgments 287
Chapter 1 Starting an Interior Project 10
Chapter 2 Project Management 18
1 FUNDAMENTALS
Chapter
Chapter
3 Drawing Basics
4 Presentation and Communication
24
58
Chapter 5 Proportions of a Room 78

Chapter 6 Sequencing Spaces 84
2 SPACE
Chapter
Chapter
7
8
Types of Rooms
Code and Accessibility
92
112
Chapter 9 Color 136
3
Chapter 10 Material 154
Chapter 11 Texture 190
Chapter 12 Pattern 200
SURFACE
Chapter 13 Natural Light 214
4 ENVIRONMENTS
Chapter 14 Artificial Light
Chapter 15 Invisible Systems
218
224
5
Chapter 16 Details 238
Chapter 17 Furniture 250
Chapter 18 Elements and Display 256
ELEMENTS
Chapter 19 Sustainability Guidelines 268
6
Chapter 20 Manual Resources 270
Chapter 21 Digital Resources 274
RESOURCES
i.
INTRODUCTION
This book was conceived as a resource for a wide readership, whether in answer-
ing specific questions for established interior designers or providing an overview of
the design process for the layperson. It is compact and easy to slip into a shoulder
bag, but precisely because of its handy size, it cannot address every issue related
to interior design. Instead, we believe that by distilling the essential principles of
interior design and clarifying steps and goals of the design process itself, higher
quality design will reach the broadest possible audience.
Guides to interior design generally fall into two categories. The first type is the beau-
tiful coffee table book by style mavens. These books are full of personality and style,
but lack an overall structure that describes the fundamental principles for making
design decisions. The second type is the design manual. These volumes are full of
useful information, but eschew a specific attitude about design strategies. Our goal
is to create the classic textbook for interior design, yet with more inspiring design
theory and better visual taste. We hope this book presents a fresher approach that
represents the cultural preoccupations of a younger generation of designers.
The book has been organized thematically into six sections:
Section 1, “Fundamentals,” provides a step-by-step examination of an interior

project. It describes the scope of professional services, the project schedule, and
drawing and presentation techniques.
6
Section 2, “Space,” offers an overview of the design of rooms and larger sequences
of spaces, while addressing functional and life-safety issues.
Section 3, “Surface,” details specific tactics for designing with color, materials,
textures, and patterns. It also considers performance and maintenance issues.
Section 4, “Environments,” looks at aspects of interior design that help to create a

specific mood or character, such as natural and artificial lighting, and the invisible
systems that impact the comforts of a space.
Section 5, “Elements,” identifies useful details for a range of interior applications.

It also includes a chart of canonical twentieth-century furniture—pieces every inte-
rior designer should know. In addition, it outlines ideas for the display of artwork,
collectibles, and accessories.
Section 6, “Resources,” provides a wealth of useful information, from a summary of

sustainable design strategies to lists of recommended books, blogs, and websites.
Finally, we have interspersed throughout the book interviews with our favorite prac-
titioners to demonstrate how the topics covered in each section can be creatively
interpreted in practice.
7
1.
F U N DA M E N TA L S
8
Managing an interior design project requires as much creative thought-
fulness as the design itself, and the best projects begin with a carefully
planned project schedule. Typically, a project process is broken down into
distinct phases to establish decision-making milestones, both within the
design team and with the client. At the beginning of the design process,
innumerable options present themselves, but as the design progresses,
the number of options gradually reduces as the project gels around spe-
cific themes and configurations.
Drawings are the primary format through which design choices are ex-
plored and communicated. The mode of drawing changes as the project
is refined and finessed. At the beginning of the design, freehand sketch-
es are the best way to test concepts, while later in the process compu-
ter-aided design (CAD) is necessary to fine-tune dimensional decisions
and coordinate with consulting engineers. New technologies are mak-
ing it easier to explore design concepts in three dimensions at several
stages of the design process.
9
01
Chapter 1: Starting an Interior Project

The thought of starting an interior project can be daunting; however, with a bit
of strategic planning, a project can be launched smoothly and effectively. What-
ever the scale of the project, four basic elements must be considered from the
beginning: project site, program, schedule, and budget. These four items are
seldom determined exclusively by the client or the designer, but usually by both
in collaboration. The fewer the variables, the more efficient the process will be.
SITE PROGRAMMING SCHEDULE BUDGET
PROJECT SITE
In general, a client engages a designer once a site or space is in hand. It is then the designer’s
task to analyze the space to ensure that it will meet the client’s needs. Sometimes, a client may
not have a single space in mind, but rather a few options that the designer will test to ascertain
which one best suits the client’s needs. Both of these scenarios suggest that the client is work-
ing toward a particular program; however, sometimes the physical space generates the program.
In this case, the designer’s task is to decide the best layout for the space and design a program
within those constraints.
PROGRAMMING
Programming is the process of defining the needs of those who will use the space, in advance
of creating the design. Whether for a home kitchen renovation or for a newly constructed
restaurant, this exercise should evaluate the functional performance, opportunities, and
constraints of the existing space. Furthermore, the program should articulate what spaces,
features, or attributes must be added to improve functionality and give an appropriate and
compelling character to a space. The programmatic goals should be precisely qualified in a
brief, the written document that outlines all functional, dimensional, and relational require-
ments. This list of objectives will form the basis for evaluating design solutions in subsequent
phases of the project.
10 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

01
Programming can be broken down into three central types of activities: gathering, analyzing,
and documenting information. Within this framework, the process for establishing the project
goals and the format of the program wish list can vary widely. For small projects, gathering
data and analyzing the client’s needs are essential; providing a written report is less so. That
said, to avoid miscommunication, some record of the process must be made. Thus, program-
ming might consist of a filled-in questionnaire, a detailed interview, or a inventory that defines
the microdeterministic issues, such as the number and type of shoes within a closet or the
amount of cupboard space needed to accommodate everyday dishes and fine china. For large
corporate and institutional projects, the designer will need to listen to and put in order criteria
from a broad range of stakeholders. Often the interior designer must synthesize conflicting
information and make recommendations to the client that can have policy implications beyond
physical planning. Documentation is essential. In all cases, the designer is required to priori-
tize wish lists to make meaningful and finite design decisions.
Although this step might at times seem extraneous, programming is critical to the design
process because it is here that the client’s problems and goals are clearly identified. Good
communication is key to articulating the program and managing expectations for the design
phase. A lack of understanding the goals at this stage may result in cost overruns during the
construction phase or, even more detrimental, a project that does not meet the client’s basic
needs. Ideally, the program serves as a core map from which design objectives, spatial adja-
cencies, and building constraints are elaborated.
PROGRAMMING ACTIVITIES
Gathering Information Analyzing Information Documenting Information
• Collect floor plans. • Analyze interview notes. • Document client’s mission

and project goals.
• Visit site with client. • Create bubble diagrams of
ideal spatial relationships. • Summarize program for
• Report field observations.
current needs and future
• Determine staff counts and
• Determine client structure growth.
future projections.
and end users (Who makes
• Include meeting notes from
the decisions? Who uses the • Develop lists of type and
interviews.
spaces?). quantity of spaces.
• Obtain client approval on
• Compile information on • Define specific needs within
program and projections.
client (client’s mission, a given space (i.e., storage
structure of organization, for a specific number of • Compile report.
future goals, etc.). files).
• Interview client representa- • List issues that need clarifi-
tives and end users. cation or resolution.
11
01
SCHEDULE
An ideal project schedule specifies not only the designer’s responsibilities, but also the
important decisions to be made by the client, as well as the critical role of the contractor as
a member of the project team. As a result, the schedule should address all of the project
milestones, in the form of a checklist, and assign to a team member the primary responsibility
for oversight. Schedules include, but are not limited to, establishing the timeframe for execut-
ing contracts and acquiring existing condition surveys; defining the length of design phases;
receiving concept design and budget sign-off; bidding and negotiating with contractors; obtain-
ing permits; defining construction duration; and fixing a move-in date. If the date for moving in
is already known, it is best to work backward from this date to determine the duration of each
milestone. Reviewing the overall timeframe against the checklist of activities will determine its
reasonableness. It is also important to research the duration of the regulatory and approvals
processes in the local area because they often consume more time than expected.
Week
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2
CHECKLIST
Contract Negotiations
Programming / Pre-Design
Interior Survey
Presentation of Design Concepts
Approval of Design Concept
Schematic Design
Conceptual Price Estimate
Review and Approval of Budget Estimate
Design Development
Review and Approval / Design Sign-Off
Construction Documents
Bids and Negotiations
Award Contract
Acquisition of Permits
Mobilization of Site
Construction Administration
Installation of Furnishings

01
Month
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6
Starting an Interior Project 13

01
BUDGET
Establishing a project budget is crucial for streamlining the design process. It instantly com-
municates the scope of the work and the level of finishes. Project budgets are divided into hard
and soft costs. For an interior project, hard costs cover the cost of construction and fixtures,
furniture, and equipment (FF&E). A typical assumption for an FF&E budget is 10 percent of the
overall construction cost. Soft costs include, but are not limited to, designer’s fees, consultant’s
fees, project management fees, permitting fees, insurance, and project contingencies.
A designer’s primary concern is to meet the budget for hard costs. To ensure that a budget is
realistic, a conceptual pricing estimate should be conducted early in the process. For small
projects, it may not be realistic to have an estimator or a contractor on board at the initial stage.
Instead, the designer may be able to provide “ballpark” numbers based on their experience.
The danger is that construction costs are extremely volatile and subject to change depending
on many factors, such as inflation and shifting market conditions. So for early pricing studies
or ballpark assumptions, it is important to include contingencies for unknown factors. There
are several types of contingencies, whose percentages of the total estimate will change as the
design develops.
TYPES OF CONTINGENCIES
Design Contingencies Money that is reserved for design elements that are not
known during a pricing study. The earlier that a pricing esti-
mate is completed, the higher the percentage for design con-
tingencies should be. As the design is further documented,
this percentage decreases—until the category disappears at
the end of the construction documents. These contingencies
typically range from 5 to 10 percent of the overall estimate.
Construction Money reserved for unknown conditions due to the renovation

Contingencies of existing buildings. These contingences can range from 5 to
15 percent of the overall estimate.
Owner Contingencies Money an owner reserves for change orders once a project is
in construction. Change orders typically occur due to a change
in scope, schedule, or a combination of the two. These contin-
gences can range from 5 to 15 percent depending on the con-
dition of the existing building. Generally, the older the building,
the more the owner should reserve for unforeseen situations.
Escalation Money reserved for increased costs for materials and labor
due to time lapses from the initial pricing study to actual con-
struction. These contingences can range from 3 to 5 percent
per year, from when the project was originally priced.

01
BUDGET TERMINOLOGY
Change Order Document submitted by the contractor indicating a change in

the cost, schedule, or scope of service required to complete
a project.
Competitive Bid Open request for bids on a project based on completed con-
struction documents and specifications. Whether the client is
a government agency, institution, or private business owner,
the job is typically awarded to the lowest bidder.
Guaranteed Maximum Price Cost for construction, guaranteed by a construction manager

(GMP) based on incomplete design documents. Given the risk of pric-
ing with incomplete documents, the client and construction
manager must agree to the timing of the GMP. If set too early
in the process, the scope can easily shift, and change orders
will upset the GMP.
Invitation to Bid Request for prequalified contractors to bid on a project based

on completed construction documents and specifications.
Value Engineering (VE) Effort to reduce project costs by eliminating or downgrading

items that add costs without benefiting a particular function
or answering the program requirements. VE requires the in-
volvement of the client, construction manager/contractor, and
designer.
As the design of a small project is further developed, it is important to work with a contractor
who will estimate the project costs based on drawings and specifications that the designer
provides. For small projects, estimates should not be based on square footage, but rather,
should identify and price all construction materials and labor costs. For medium to large proj-
ects, either a cost estimator or a construction manager will prepare the budget. Cost estima-
tors are hired exclusively to put together construction estimates. Construction managers are
contractors/builders that are hired early in the design process to manage the cost of a project
through the design phases. These experts typically have significant market experience and
can establish a project budget based on a dollar value per square foot; however, the budget
should always be tested against a detailed breakdown based on project scope. For very large
projects, it is standard to request several estimates to test the market value of the project.
When large discrepancies appear in prices, quantity surveyors might be hired to verify material
quantities. Price variations are more symptomatic of different material quantities than of dif-
ferent unit prices, and the quantity surveyor can help resolve these disputes.

01
Budget Formats
For small projects, budgets are typically itemized based on how a general contractor would
ask a subcontractor to bid the job. The trades may be broken down in general categories such
as carpentry, plumbing, electrical, plaster and paint, millwork, and so on. For medium to large
projects, budgets should be formatted according to the Construction Specification Institute’s
(CSI) index, a standard index that breaks down construction costs by trade. This helps the
designer evaluate where most of the construction costs are concentrated. The following table
outlines the CSI index and expands on the divisions that are most relevant to interior projects.
CSI INDEX
Index No. Divisions Subdivisions

01000 General Conditions
02000 Site Work
03000 Concrete
04000 Masonry
05000 Metals 05010 Metal Materials

05030 Metal Finishes
05700 Ornamental Metal
06000 Woods & Plastics 06200 Finish Carpentry

06400 Architectural Woodwork
06600 Plastic Fabrications
07000 Thermal & Moisture

Protection
08000 Doors & Windows 08100 Metal Doors & Frames

08200 Wood & Plastic Doors
08250 Door Opening Assemblies
08400 Entrance & Storefronts
08500 Metal Windows
08600 Wood & Plastic Windows
08700 Hardware
08800 Glazing

01
09000 Finishes 09100 Metal Support Systems

09200 Lath & Plaster
09230 Aggregate Coatings
09250 Gypsum Board
09300 Tile
09400 Terrazzo
09500 Acoustical Treatment
09540 Special Surfaces
09550 Wood Flooring
09600 Stone Flooring
09630 Unit Masonry Flooring
09650 Resilient Flooring
09680 Carpet
09700 Special Flooring
09780 Floor Treatment
09800 Special Coatings
09900 Painting
09950 Wall Coverings
10000 Specialties 10100 Chalkboards & Tackboards
10260 Wall & Corner Guards
10500 Lockers
10600 Partitions
10650 Operable Partitions
10670 Storage Shelving
10800 Toilet & Bath Accessories
10900 Wardrobe & Closet Specialties
11000 Equipment
12000 Furnishings 12050 Fabrics

12100 Artwork
12300 Manufactured Casework
12500 Window Treatment
12600 Furniture & Accessories
12670 Rugs & Mats
12700 Multiple Seating
12800 Interior Plants & Planters
13000 Special Construction
14000 Conveying Systems
15000 Mechanical
16000 Electrical 16500 Lighting
16700 Communications
16900 Controls

02
Chapter 2: Project Management

The designer and client must reach a common understanding of the contracts,
fees, and design process for a project to succeed. For large projects, a project
manager will assume responsibility for coordinating these business aspects of
the job. For smaller projects, the designer has both to design and to manage the
project. Typically, management issues weigh heavily at the beginning of a project,
but they must be attended to throughout to ensure that the fees, schedules, and
agreements are all being met.
SCOPE QUALIFICATIONS ASSUMPTIONS EXCLUSIONS DURATION TERMS
CONTRACTS
The first step in embarking on a project is for the designer and client to sign a contract. The
contract defines the scope, qualifications, assumptions, exclusions, duration, and terms of
the project. Ideally, it is set up in a manner that separates the scope into specific design
tasks, determining, for example, the number of meetings to be held or the number of render-
ings or sample boards to be provided. In addition to detailing the scope, the contract should
include a list of qualifications, which are limitations placed on the scope. A typical qualifica-
tion might be “the project fee is based on 20,000 square feet” or “the project fee is based on
a six-month design period.” Including a list of assumptions will avoid miscommunication; for
example, “as-built AutoCAD drawings will be provided by owner” or “the project will be phased
into two construction projects.” It is equally important to list exclusions to the contract, such
as “an interior survey is not in contract” or “furniture selections are not part of contract.” This
will help to identify issues or consultants for which the designer is not responsible. The con-
tract must also provide a written description or a graphic schedule that outlines the project
timeline.

02
Terms of Agreement to Include in Every Contract
Limitations of liability
Payment terms
Code interpretations and ADA compliance
Ownership of documents
No consequential damages
Termination or suspension
Insurance and indemnification
Common Mistakes to Avoid When Establishing a Contract
Not defining a detailed scope of work
Starting before the contract is signed
Not defining a method of compensation
Not red-flagging additional services as they arise
Not listing reimbursable items
Not halting work when payments are overdue
DESIGN FEES
When negotiating a fee, it is up to the designer and the client to agree on the fee structure.
For most design disciplines, there is no such thing as “typical” or “standard” fees for design
services, due to the vastly different nature of individual projects. A residential project, for in-
stance, can range from a modest renovation to a new custom-tailored design, and the fee may
be best structured on an hourly basis. At the other end of the spectrum, for a large commer-
cial project, it would be reasonable to assume a fee based on the number of square feet (or
meters). That said, most designers choose among several methods for structuring fees, either
alone or in combination, and adjust them to suit a client’s particular needs.
19
02
FEE STRUCTURES
Fixed Fee (or Flat Fee) Specific sum that is based on human resources, hourly
rates, and duration of phases for all services. Reimburs-
able expenses are eliminated from the fixed fee.
Hourly Fee (or Time and Compensation for every hour spent by the designer on a
Material) project, based on a predetermined hourly rate. In addition
to the hourly fee, materials (e.g., color copies, printing,
samples) are also billed.
Hourly Fee to a Maximum Fee Compensation for every hour spent by the designer up to
a maximum set fee based on the agreed scope.
Cost Plus Fee based on the designer purchasing materials, furnish-

ings, and services (e.g., carpentry, drapery workrooms,
picture framing) and reselling them to the client at the
designer’s cost, plus an additional specified percentage
to compensate the designer for time and effort.
Percentage of Construction Fee structured on the overall cost of construction.

Costs
Calculated Area Fee Fee determined by multiplying the project area, generally
in square feet (but in square meters for federal commis-
sions), by an agreed-upon cost per square foot or meter.
Typically, the larger the project becomes, the lower the
cost per square foot (or meter).
Until recently, cost plus was the most widely used fee structure for residential designers. Now,
however, it is becoming more common for designers to charge an hourly rate for design ser-
vices and cost plus for products.
In general, a designer will request a retainer upfront. A retainer is money paid by the client to
initiate the design process. It is usually due when the contract is signed and is deducted from
the project’s final invoice.
ENGAGING CONSULTANTS
No set standards exist for engaging consultants for an interior project. Hiring a consultant will
depend on the size, type, and scope of the project. For example, however important light-
ing is to a kitchen renovation, it may not be necessary to enlist a lighting designer, but their
expertise is indispensable for an art gallery project. It is the designer’s responsibility to make
suggestions to the owner for hiring consultants. The chart on the opposite page lists the con-
sultants an interior designer may recommend for a project.

02
TYPES OF CONSULTANTS
Consultant ID A Responsibilities
Acoustic Engineer Design, detail, and specify construction

× × methods for acoustic criteria.
Art Consultant Recommend and install artworks.

×
Color Specialist Recommend and specify paint scheme.
× ×
Feng Shui Consultant Review design in accordance with feng shui
× principles.
Fire Protection Engineer Design fire sprinkler system and provide

× × calculations for building officials.
Furniture Consultant Recommend, select, and specify furniture,

× × fixtures, and equipment.
Kitchen Consultant Design and detail a custom kitchen.

×
Landscape Architect Design ground plane and landscape
× components.
Lighting Consultant Design and specify lighting and lighting

× × controls.
Mechanical, Electrical, and Design and specify mechanical, electrical,

Plumbing Engineers × × and plumbing systems.
Media Consultant Design and install audio-visual systems.

×
Signage/Wayfinding Consultant Design and specify building signage.
× ×
Sustainability Consultant Provide recommendations for integrating sus-
× × tainable solutions.
Structural Engineer Design and specify structural components of

× × the project.
ID = Interior Designer Heavier × indicates profession more

A = Architect likely to hire consultants.
Project Management 21
02
DESIGN PHASES
All practitioners must address the standard phases of the design process. The table below
identifies the duration and goals for each phase of a small-to-medium-sized interior design
project. Depending on the circumstances of a particular project, the timeline can vary greatly;
however, the project goals should be adhered to for each design phase.
Programming Conceptual Design Design Development
2 Weeks
• Negotiate a
contract. 3 Weeks
• Develop a project
schedule. • Prepare graphic materials 6 Weeks
• Survey and to describe each design
document existing concept. • Develop the approved design
conditions. concept.
• Review design concepts
• Determine with client. • Prepare drawings, including plans,
design objectives reflected ceiling plans, interior
• Identify life-safety and
and spatial elevations. and details.
building code issues.
requirements. • Develop art, accessory, and graphic/
• Evaluate and select a
• Document project signage programs.
design concept to be
goals. developed. • Prepare a list of materials and
• Identify additional equipment for specification.
consultants that • Engage a contractor or estimator for
may be required. preliminary pricing of design.
PROJECT PHASES DEFINED

Programming: Identification, analysis, and concept that will be further developed as the
documentation of the client’s needs and project progresses, and to agree on a direction
goals in a written document. This becomes for the character and aesthetic intent of the
the basis for evaluating design solutions in project.
the subsequent phases.
Design Development: Most design-intensive
Conceptual Design: Brainstorming phase of phase of a project, in which all design ele-
the design process, where many options ments are developed, including the partition
are considered and evaluated. The goal is and furniture layout; wall, window, floor, and
to gain client approval for a single design ceiling treatments; furnishings, fixtures, and

02
Construction Documents Construction Administration
8 Weeks
Duration of Construction
• Gain approval of scope based on pricing
exercise. • Confirm that building permits have been
obtained.
• Prepare documents for construction.
• Review and approve shop drawings and
• Identify and interview qualified contractors.
samples.
• Assist client with awarding contracts.
• Conduct site visits.
• Prepare specifications.
• Oversee the installation of furnishings,
fixtures, and equipment (FF&E).
• Prepare a punch list of pending
construction deficiencies.
millwork; color, finishes, and hardware; and and equipment. At the end of this phase,
lighting, electrical, and communication sys- the designer must communicate the design
tems. The goal is to define and gain approval intent in an illustrated and written format for
of all of the design recommendations. construction purposes.
Construction Documents: Preparation of Construction Administration: Administration
working drawings and specifications that of contract documents. Acting as the client’s
define the approved recommendations agent, the designer must approve shop
for non-load-bearing interior construction, drawings and regularly visit the site during
materials, finishes, furnishings, fixtures, construction to ensure that the project is be-
ing built according to the documents.
Project Management 23
03
Chapter 3: Drawing Basics

The ability to draw is essential to the design process. In the interior deign profes-
sion, the meaning of “to draw” takes many forms: It can refer to hand drafting, to
computational drawing, or even to photography and other methods of communica-
tion. A number of standards have been established to facilitate the transmission of
visual data and ideas about a design, and it is important to understand how they
function within the world of the interior designer.
MEASUREMENT IN INTERIOR DESIGN
Before the first line is drawn, the interior designer must grasp the language of measurement.
The worldwide system of measurement collectively known as the International System of
Units, or SI, is the most widely used standard for determining the length, weight, or volume of
an object and its relation to other objects. It comprises a decimal system whose the base unit
is the meter, which when increased or decreased by a power of 10, generates all other units
of measure. Designers working in the United Sates should be familiar with both the metric
system and the U.S. customary units system. Derived from a method originally developed in
the United Kingdom, the latter is an irregular system that combines several unrelated base
measurements—inches and feet (and their fractioned derivatives), for example—for linear
measurement. Although all federal commissions require projects to be in SI units, the con-
struction industry in North America continues to refer to measurements in customary units (a
2" × 4" piece of wood, a 4' × 8' sheet of plywood), as do many architectural and engineering
practices.
CONVERTING UNITS OF MEASURE
Often, dimensional units are interchanged freely, and it is helpful to know how to translate
between units. Designers will find a range of publications and websites with extensive con-
version tables for length, area, and volume, among other measurements. Numerous online
calculators also allow for swift conversions of specific dimensions. Interior designers will most
frequently turn to the following formulas.
USEFUL CONVERSION FORMULAS
Multiply by to obtain Multiply by to obtain

inches 25.4 millimeters millimeters 0.039 370 inches
feet 304.8 millimeters millimeters 0.003 281 feet
feet 0.304 8 meters meters 3.280 8 feet
yards 914.4 millimeters millimeters 0.001 093 6 yards
yards 0.914 meters meters 1.093 613 3 yards

03
Multiply by to obtain Multiply by to obtain

square inches 645.16 square square 0.001 550 0 square inches
millimeters millimeters
square feet 92 903.04 square square 1.076 391×10-5 square feet
square feet 0.092 903 04 square square 10.763 910 square feet
square yards 836 127.36 square square 1.195 990 ×10-6 square yards
square yards 0.836 127 36 square square 1.195 990 square yards
LINEAR CONVERSIONS
Inches Millimeters (mm) Centimeters (cm) Meters (m)

0.25 6.35 0.635 0.00635
0.5 12.7 1.27 0.0127
0.75 19.1 1.91 0.0191
1 25.4 2.54 0.0254
1.25 31.8 3.18 0.032
1.5 38.1 3.81 0.038
1.75 44.5 4.45 0.045
2 50.8 5.08 0.051
3 76.2 7.62 0.076
4 101.6 10.16 0.102
5 127.0 12.7 0.127
6 152.4 15.24 0.152
7 177.8 17.78 0.178
8 203.2 20.32 0.203
9 228.6 22.86 0.229
10 254.0 25.4 0.254
11 279.4 27.94 0.279
12 304.8 30.48 0.305
24 610.0 61.0 0.610
36 914.5 91.45 0.915
48 1 219.2 121.92 1.219
60 1 524.0 152.4 1.524
72 1 828.8 182.88 1.829
25
03
Inch-to-Millimeter Conversions (to scale)
6
16
1
152.4 mm
/4
/2 1
17
3
/4
0
0
177.8 mm
7
18
1
/4
1
1
/4
1
/2
19
1
/2
3
/4
2
3
/4
25.4 mm
1
20
7.87"
8
3
203.2 mm
1
/4
21
1
/4
1
/2
4
1
/2
3
/4
22
3
/4
1.96"
5
50.8 mm
2
228.6 mm
9
23
1
/4
6
1
1
/4
/2
24
1
3
/2
/4
7
3
/4
76.2 mm
3
25
9.84"
8
10
254.0 mm
1
/4
26
1
/4
1
/2
9
1
/2
3
/4
27
10
3.93"
/4
101.6 mm
4
28
11
279.4 mm
1
/4
11
1
/4
1
/2
29
1
12
/2
3
/4
3
/4
30
11.81"
5
127.0 mm
13
12
304.8 mm
1
/4 1
14
/2
5.9"
3
/4
15

03
Construction Calculators
Construction calculators provide easy access to a full range of conversions needed in the con-
struction-related industries. They can quickly convert feet and inches to their metric equiva-
lents, as well as translate units of weight and volume. Many models also calculate other data
that is useful to the interior designer, such as stair length and riser height, stringer length,
stud spacing, and material calculations, such as paint or wallpaper quantities.
FEET INCH
Pitch Rise Run Diag Hip/V
Bd Ft Stair circ R/Wall Jack
m cm mm Weight
Yds feet inch /
Conv 7 8 9 ÷
Every attempt has been made
in this book to represent accu-
rately the relationship between
Rcl 4 5 6 ×
customary and SI units. Except
where noted, soft conversions
are used throughout—rounding
M+ 1 2 3 −
up 12 inches to 305 millime-
ters rather than 304.8—and,
due to constraints of space,
are usually written as follows:
% 0 . = +
36" (914).
Drawing Basics 27
03
MANUAL DRAF TING TOOLS
Although the computer has taken over as the primary method of drawing in most interior
design practices, manual tools continue to be a part of the design process. Manual drafting
is often used for developing quick ideas and details, and is still employed quite frequently for
final perspective drawings.
DRAWING TOOLS
Lead Holders Device that hold leads of 2 millimeters diameter; a spring-push action
increases the length of lead for sharpening.
Mechanical Leads, in various diameters up to 0.9 millimeter, that do not require
Pencils sharpening.
Other Pencils Standard wood-encased pencils; good for freehand drawing and
sketching.
Lead Pointers Manual sharpener whose blades give leads a specified sharpness.
Graphite Leads in various hardnesses; good for drawing or sketching on tracing
papers and vellum.
Colored Leads Nonprint and nonphoto varieties do not show up on certain reproduc-
tion machines.
Plastic Leads Leads designed for use on drawing films such as vellum and Mylar.
Technical Pens Pens of specific widths designed for drafting; used exclusively on
drafting films and vellums; tips can dry out and require frequent
cleaning.
PARALLEL TOOLS
T-squares Plastic straightedges with a perpendicular attachment at one end
to ensure that vertical lines on the page remain perpendicular to
horizontal lines.
Parallel Rules Plastic straightedges whose system of cables, rollers, and springs
provides an edge that can move in one direction on a drawing surface.
Triangles Clear plastic triangles that come in 45/90-degree and 30/60/90-degree
variations.
Adjustable Clear plastic triangles that can be set to any angle.
Triangles
Templates Wide variety of plastic sheets whose cutouts simplify drawing repeti-
tive elements such as circles, polygons, and furniture.
Flex Curves Measurable rulers that can flex to a user-defined curve or arc.
French Curves Plastic guides that offer many curved radii.

03
Paper Description Sizes Best Use

Tracing Paper thin, transparent paper rolls in standard sketching and drafting de-
that comes in white or drafting sizes (12", tails; overlay work; pencil,
yellow 18", 24", and 36") ink, and marker
Vellum thicker than trace; avail- sheets and rolls construction documents;
able in various weights hard-line detail drawings;
(16, 20, and 24 lbs.); perspective drawings;
transparent and smooth pencil, ink, and marker.
finish
Drafting Film often referred to as sheets (in stand- construction documents;
Mylar; one- or two-sided ard drafting sizes) plastic lead and ink; erases
drawing surface; of its and rolls (36" and well and is resistant to
various weights .003 42") tearing.
and .004 are the most
common
Bond opaque paper that sheets of varying final drawings; pencil,
comes in a variety of sizes though ink and watercolor
thicknesses and fin- can be used on certain
ishes of which hot- and papers
cold-pressed are the
most common
Illustration Board finish paper laminated sheets of varying finish presentation draw-
to a cardboard backing; sizes ings; model making
comes in single ply (1/16")
and double ply (3/32")
Foam Core polystyrene core faced sheets up to 48" quick model studies; dry
with clay papers; comes x 96" mounting presentation
in a variety of thick- boards
nesses
Drawing Basics 29
03
UNDERSTANDING DRAWING CONVENTIONS
For legibility and comprehension, designers employ a number of graphic conventions in their
drawings that communicate the designs equally to clients, consultants, and contractors. In a
necessary abstraction, lines, symbols, and text all combine to convey the designer’s vision.
LINE WEIGHTS AND TYPES
Lines are essential to the communicative language of an interior designer. Lines convey a
project’s intended plan, demonstrate the sectional quality of the space, and visually cue
the reader to matters of hierarchy, type, and intent. Line weights and types can be created
through various media, both manually and digitally.
Line types have many functions in an interior drawing. The designer determines the relative
meaning for different weights; however, heavier lines are typically reserved for plans and sec-
tion cuts, while lighter lines form the outlines of surfaces and furniture within a room.
Heavy
0.05" (1.27)
Used for borders of drawings, profiles of objects,
0.04" (1.02)
and cut lines in plans and sections.
0.03" (0.76)
0.025" (0.64)
Medium and Light

0.014" (0.36)
Used for dimensions, lines on objects that are
0.007" (0.18)
not in the cutting plane, and objects hidden from
view.
0.003" (0.08)
Dashed
Dashed
Dashed .5x Used for hidden objects, either above or below the
cutting plane.
Dash-dot-dash
Dashed lines represent many different elements, from objects that are hidden from view to
objects above the cut plane (e.g., cabinets above kitchen counters), from the type of wall
construction to changes in level. They can also be tied to consultant trades, showing, for
example, structural grids, electrical wiring, lighting and switching, or mechanical routing.

03
Hierarchy in a plan drawing is established through the careful use of line weights and types.
Here the walls that are cut are the most heavily rendered; furniture and built-ins are lighter;
and hidden elements such as shelving and cabinetry are expressed with dashed lines.
heavy outline
for cut object
dash indicating
objects above
medium line showing

dash indicating perimeter of object
objects above
medium line showing
line within object
dash indicating
object hidden
from view
dash indicating
swing of door
break line
Drawing Basics 31
03
DRAWING SYMBOLS
Drawing symbols provide a codified language by which to specify the essential

elements in drawings across a set. Below are some of the symbols typically
used for an interior set.
NUM
standard drawing window type 1
SHEET
identifier
NUM
1
SHEET enlarged detail door type
reference
NUM
4 2 interior wall type 1
SHEET
elevation
3
NUM wall or detail centerline C

section L
SHEET
A
NUMBER
column grid room tag NAME
1
DRAWING NAME
1 drawing label wall coverings 1
SCALE
floor coverings 1
2
revision cloud
wall finishes 1
and number
lighting fixture
break line

03
Symbols on a plan drawing are keyed to other drawings in the set, including reflected ceiling
plans, elevations, sections, and details. Elements needed to implement a design are thus
easily read from drawing to drawing, and revisions are readily coordinated. Dimensions are
indicated in strings around the plan, or in some cases, within the plan itself. Legibility of text
and numbers is crucial to reading a plan.
A B
1
NUM
SHEET
DIMENSION
NUM NUM
SHEET
4 SHEET 2
NUMBER
NAME
DN
1
3
DRAWING NAME
1 SCALE
Drawing Basics 33
03
TYPES OF DRAWINGS IN INTERIOR DESIGN
Drawings are the main communicative tool in an interior designer’s arsenal. Some drawing
types will overlap with those of other disciplines, such as architecture or electrical engineer-
ing, while others are unique to interior design. The following pages demonstrate the typical
drawings with which an interior designer should be familiar.
Floor Plans
Floor plans establish the limits—from demising parti-

tions to exterior walls—that will frame the project. Walls
are indicated by their dimensions, and doors by their
centerline, for easy location within the floor plate. Plans
are drawn at a scale that allows them to be comprehen-
sible in one view.
2
DIMENSION
DIMENSION
CL
1
CL
A B C D

03
Reflected Ceiling Plans
Reflected ceiling plans (RCPs) depict the upper surface of a room as viewed through a mirror.
All light fixtures, soffits, transoms, and other ceiling data such as heights and materials are
noted on RCPs. Standard symbols are used to describe fixture types and location and are
keyed to a legend on the drawing sheet.
LEGEND
recessed track lighting
recessed down light
2' x 4' fluorescent

fixture
GWB CEILING
9'-0" AFFL
2
CL
DIMENSION
CL
A B C D
Drawing Basics 35
03
Furniture Location Plans
Interior designers often specify furniture—both custom and purchased—for their projects.
These items are indicated on many other plans, but furniture location plans specifically dimen-
sion their placement within the project.
2
DIMENSION
A B C D
Floor Finish and Wall Finish Plans
Floor finish and wall finish plans describe the various finishes used in a project. The fin-
ishes are dimensioned as necessary. Standard symbols that identify finish types are tied
to a legend that accompanies each plan.

03
Floor Finish Plan

Floor finish plans set the type,
location, and dimensions of any
pattern that is within the scope
DIMENSION
of the design, including, if neces-
sary, a start tile.
start
tile
Wall Finish Plan

Wall finish plans, with a simple
tagging system, provide the data
for start and stop points of color,
for materials such as wallpapers
and other wall coverings like
wood paneling, and for acoustic
treatments.
Drawing Basics 37
03
Interior Elevations
Elevations are typically drawn at a larger scale than the plans of a project. This allows for
the inclusion of more detail, such as specific information about the dimensional and material
qualities of objects in the interior. Elements on elevational drawings are cross-referenced to
section and plan details that further develop the design. Here, cabinets, transoms, door and
glazing details, and custom fixtures are highlighted.
NUM
A
SHEET
transom
NUM
sidelight wall beyond
SHEET
Details
Details indicate how the design is to be

fabricated, and range from wall sections
to mechanical coordination details to
millwork construction. They are produced
at a larger scale than all other drawings
in the set. Scales for details can be
as small as 1/4" = 1" (1:2) through to full
scale. Occasionally, details are drawn at
larger than full scale to transmit clearly
the intent of the designer to the fabrica-
tor or contractor. In detail drawings,
materials are rendered symbolically, and
annotations specify the material and
fabrication methods to be used.

03
NUM
B
SHEET
NUM
SHEET
NUM
SHEET
glazing beyond
DIMENSION
Drawing Basics 39
03
DRAWING NAVIGATION
Single sheets are often used for overall plans, whether complete
or partial. Multiple drawing sheets are typically used for elevations,
details, and millwork drawings that require greater elaboration of the
design intent, and at a larger scale than plan drawings. These types
of drawings are numbered by a coordinate system outlined at bottom.
In interior practices, all

floor plans, RCPs, and
coordination plans that
can fit on one sheet are
drawn at the same scale,
typically 1/16", 1/ 8", or 1/4"
(1:200, 1:100, or 1:50).
1 2 3
When many types and

scales of drawings are
B contained on a single
sheet, their arrangement
flows from bottom left
to top right, and they are
numbered in the manner
shown. Cells, which con-
A tain single drawings, can
be added to the sheet,
but legibility is key to how
many can fit comfortably
on a sheet.

03
Chasing the Details
A typical sequence for following the links in a drawing set is illustrated below. A plan drawing
(A) contains information regarding, among other things, an enlarged plan. Navigating to the
cross-referenced sheet (B) indicates a further link to room elevations (C), which are marked
with sectional information found on yet another sheet (D). As with the multidrawing sheet, the
gridded coordinate system allows for more details to be easily added as necessary.
A B
NUM
SHEET
NUM
SHEET
NUM
SHT
C D
Drawing Basics 41
03
DRAWING ORDER
The order of drawings may vary from one design firm to another. For clarity and organization,
the types of drawings that comprise an interior design set are numbered in sections that
generally move from overall plans to specific details. After these drawings, consultants’ sets
should follow in a sequence similar to that listed below.
Section Drawings Purpose

Cover Sheet Gives project name and location, and firm information
Index Sheet Outlines drawings in the set, abbreviations, etc.
Site or Location Plan Provides context for project
100 Demolition Plans Outline extent of demolition (if required)
200 Floor Plans Delineate new wall and opening locations
300 Reflected Ceiling Plans Locate lighting and ceiling fixtures
400 Finish Plans Specify finishes and finish locations
500 Furniture Installation Plans Indicate furniture type and placement
600 Elevations Locate heights of details and finishes
700 Wall Sections Detail wall construction and classification
800 Millwork Develop custom furniture designs
900 Details Provide construction information
S Structural
Q Equipment
F Fire Protection
P Plumbing
M Mechanical
E Electrical

03
PAPER SIZES
Various paper sizes are used for the presentation of a working set of drawings. In the United
States, the common format is the architectural classification. Others formats include the en-
gineering format ANSI (American National Standards Institute), and in Europe and elsewhere,
the A-Series ISO 216 (International Organization for Standardization).
ANSI Architectural ISO 216
Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters

1 3
A 8.5 × 11 216 × 279 ARCH-A 9 × 12 229 × 305 A0 33 /8 × 46 /4 841 × 1 189
B 11 × 17 279 × 432 ARCH-B 12 × 18 305 × 457 A1 233/8 × 331/8 594 × 841

1 3
C 17 × 22 432 × 559 ARCH-C 18 × 24 457 × 610 A2 16 /2 × 23 /8 420 × 594
D 22 × 34 559 × 864 ARCH-D 24 × 36 610 × 914 A3 113/4 × 161/2 297 × 420

1 3
E 34 × 44 864 × 1 118 ARCH-E 36 × 48 914 × 1 219 A4 8 /4 × 11 /4 210 × 297
ANSI Architectural
ISO
Relative Paper Sizes The ISO 216 Series

The drawing above illustrates all of the paper Each smaller paper size in the ISO series is
sizes overlaid. The various ratios and sizes derived by dividing in half the previous paper
can be seen clearly. size parallel to its smaller side.
Drawing Basics 43
03
THREE-DIMENSIONAL DRAWING TYPES
Three-dimensional drawings are used in interior projects to demonstrate aspects of the design
that cannot be readily understood through two-dimensional representations. In general, three-
dimensional drawings should clarify the intent of the design. In interiors, they can demon-
strate and explain many aspects of a project: furniture details, color, finish, light, and shadow.
Numerous types of three-dimensional drawings can be incorporated into a project, including
paraline drawings—where all lines in the image remain parallel to each other—and perspec-
tive drawings—where lines converge to points on a horizon.
Paraline Drawings
Also known as axonometric, isometric, and oblique, paraline drawings are extremely useful
to the designer as they represent the third dimension in ways that are parallel and measur-
able, and combine plan, section, and elevation into a single drawing. The choice of angle will
emphasize certain parts of the object; choosing the correct angle and projection method is
essential to the success of the drawing as a communicative tool.
30˚ 45˚ 60˚

Elevation Obliques
30˚ 45˚ 60˚

Plan Obliques
Oblique Projections
Oblique projections can be either plan- or elevation-based. Plan obliques allow for a true plan
to be used in the construction of the drawing. The angle of view is also higher than in other
projections. Elevation obliques draw a true elevation in the picture. For both, an angle is
chosen to represent the volume of the object (usually 30 or 45 degrees), and the depth of the
object is extruded from the picture plane. Oblique drawings often appear distorted and are
compressed by a third or a half to restore proportion to the object.

03
Isometric and Dimetric
Trimetric Exploded Axonometric
Isometric, Dimetric, and Trimetric Projections
Isometric, dimetric, and trimetric projections constitute the second classification of paraline
drawings, and all are referred to as axonometric drawings. In these, the angles from which the
object is viewed is lower than in obliques. Often, plans and sections cannot be used as the
basis of the drawing, as there is inherent distortion in each projection. In an isometric projec-
tion, the three axes of the object are equal in angle to the picture plane and are foreshortened
equally. Because of this equality, isometric projection is the most popular of the axonomet-
ric types. A dimetric projection foreshortens two axes and the third is either elongated or
shortened to prevent distortion. In a trimetric drawing, all axes are foreshortened by different
amounts.
On occasion, designers may prefer the exploded axonometric, a technique of pulling individual
faces away from the object to reveal elements within. Key to the exploded axonometric draw-
ing is the ability for the eye to reconstitute the complete object. Dashed lines are added to
this drawing to indicate the direction and length to which the drawing has been taken apart.
Drawing Basics 45
03
Perspective Drawings
Interior perspective drawings do not differ in construction from their architectural counter-
parts, though their obvious focus on the interior makes the choice of reference point much
easier. Care must be taken, however, not to distort the image by making the cone of vision
too large an angle or the picture frame too wide.
Picture Plane (PP): Flat surface, always Horizon Line, or eye height (HL): Locates
perpendicular to the viewer’s center of vi- the horizon as established by the viewer’s
sion, on which the image in perspective is height; it is typically projected from the verti-
projected. cal measuring line (ML).
Station Point, or eye point (SP): Locates Ground Line (GL): Represents the intersection
the position and height of the viewer. of the ground plane and the picture plane.
PP
SP
HL
C
GL
elevation
with ML
picture frame
One-Point Perspective

03
Center of Vision (C): In a one-point perspec- Vanishing Point (VP): Vanishing points in a
tive, a line perpendicular to the horizon line two-point perspective are found by projecting
is drawn from the center of vision to estab- lines parallel to each axis of the plan until
lish the point to which all lines converge. they meet the picture plane. Lines are then
projected perpendicular to the horizon line.
PLAN
PP
SP
HL
VPL VPR
GL
elevation
with ML
Two-Point Perspective
Drawing Basics 47
03
DIGITAL DESIGN SOF TWARE
Perhaps the most challenging and important decision any interior designer can make is the
choice of computational software that will form the basis of their design methodology. Cer-
tainly, the industry acknowledges particular standards; at the same time, several emerging
technologies are beginning to affect the way in which design is thought about, represented,
and produced. These applications have been categorized into the distinct groups that fol-
low—not to suggest an authoritative list, but rather to provide a framework for selecting the
best software to suit an individual practice.
IMAGING SOF TWARE
An increasingly important tool for the interior designer, imaging software allows photographs
and drawings to be manipulated by inserting images of materials, colors, and other elements
(such as furniture, fixtures, or lights). Imaging software is typically used for adding people to
perspectives, indicating zones of a plan, or including details on plans and elevations. Many
applications permit layering, so that different aspects of the design can be emphasized and
alternative schemes explored.
A visual depiction of
layers in a raster image.
Layering in 2-D software
allows for the isolation of
specific parts of a draw-
ing, whether it is a sche-
matic image or a working
construction document.

03
Raster Images
A raster image is a collection of pixels (or points of color) that depend on their resolution for
their integrity. The more pixels in a given image, the greater its resolution, providing more
information about the image displayed on screen. Resolution also determines the size of the
printed image; the greater the resolution, the higher the quality, which allows for a larger print.
A raster image is very memory-intensive, as each pixel and its combination of colors must be
considered in the document. To be saved at smaller sizes, raster images employ compression
techniques that can effect the quality of the image. Such formats are often referred to as
“lossy” because they lose information in the compression of the original.
Raster File Types

TIFF, JPG, GIF, BMP, and PNG are all examples of raster file types. Each has its advantages
and use. TIFFs are not as compressed as JPGs, but have larger files. JPGs and GIFs are use-
ful for displaying images in an on-screen presentation or over the Internet, and PNGs create
smaller files than JPGs while using less compression.
Raster Image Processing

Several applications exist for processing and editing raster images, the most popular of which
is Adobe’s Photoshop. These programs allow users to correct mistakes in an image; add mate-
rial content to perspectives, plans, and sections; and create images entirely from scratch.
TIFF 200 dpi PNG 200 dpi
The images adjacent demonstrate the

loss in quality—occasionally referred to
as artifacting—as raster compression
increases.
JPG 200 dpi HIGH QUALITY JPG 200 dpi LOW QUALITY
Drawing Basics 49
03
Vector Images
A vector image is the opposite of a raster image. Vector files are translations of mathemati-
cal data into a visual format in the form of points, lines, curves, and polygons. Each of these
shapes is defined by a series of coordinates, which a computer application then translates
into a visible graphic. Vector files have the advantage of being resolution independent. This
independence allows them to be printed at a very small or very large scale without any loss
of information. Moreover, compared to raster images, the file size is quite small, as it is es-
sentially a sequence of numerical relationships.
Vector files maintain their resolu-

tion regardless of how large they
are scaled. Curves are main-
tained, though line weights may
need to be adjusted if the image
is made too large.
Vector File Types

Several types of files can contain vector information. The most common of these is EPS,
which can be written and read by most vector-based applications. Others include AI, DWG,
DXF, SVG, IGS, and PS.
Vector Image Processing

Computer applications allow users to create vector-based images and edit them by object,
segment, or point. By default, most computer-aided design (CAD) software is vector-based.
The advantage of vector drawing is both in its resolution-independence (which allows images
to be blown up for close examination without losing any image quality) and in the user’s ability
to snap to points within the drawing. A number of applications can display vector files, includ-
ing Adobe’s Photoshop and Acrobat, but their editing is reserved for drawing applications such
as Autodesk’s AutoCAD, Adobe’s Illustrator, and ACD’s Canvas, among others.

03
Vector Development
Pierre Bézier, working as an engineer at the Renault car company in the 1960s, developed a
computational method for representing curves both in 2-D and 3-D space. The curve is con-
nected by two end points, or anchors, and the shape of the curve is made by control points.
The position of the control points in relation to the anchors defines the nature of the curve.
control point
curve
anchor point
A Note about PDFs

Adobe developed the Portable Document Format (PDF) as a way
to transmit documents, drawings, and other types of information.
The benefits of this format are that it allows for the preservation
of format, the correct printing of line weights, and the inclusion
of both raster and vector images within the same document. PDF
files can also contain links, similar to HTTP links on a website,
that facilitate ease of movement through a set of documents—
ranging from specifications to construction documents or even a
presentation to a client. It should be noted that numerous appli-
cations can create PDF files, but Acrobat is the most widely used
for editing, appending, and organizing them.
PDF files that contain vector art can be opened in vector applications like AutoCAD, Illustra-
tor, and Canvas, or can be rasterized upon import to a raster image editor like Photoshop.
This allows for a relatively open format for the transmission of documents. Files can also be
password-protected to prevent unwanted editing; as such, and with the introduction of digital
signatures, they have become increasingly accepted as legally binding documents.
Choosing the Right Image Type

The choice of file type is ultimately up to the designer. For clarity and scalability, technical
drawings such as plans and sections should remain vector-based. Raster images should be
reserved for scans, perspectives, and any renderings that include entourage—people, trees,
and other elements.
Drawing Basics 51
03
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
Computer-aided design, or CAD, has been available to the design profession for several
decades, and increasingly it has become the standard by which interior designers pro-
duce work. The computer has changed the practice of interior design in many ways—from
facilitating communication within a project team to tracking and handling changes among
all parties in incredibly accurate ways to translating design ideas directly into custom-
fabricated pieces. But first, the designer must determine which application to use, a choice
that takes into consideration many factors, including the computer platform (Macintosh,
Unix, or PC) and the complexity of the work being produced.
TWO -DIMENSIONAL DRAWING APPLICATIONS
While most projects will require exploration in three

dimensions, smaller studies, such as plans and eleva- workstation
tions, can be accomplished with two-dimensional draw-
ings. Two-dimensional drawing applications enable a
designer to replicate digitally the ink-on-Mylar process
interoffice
of developing a design. The benefits of computer draft-
ing are the degree of precision that the software en-
ables, the collaborative possibilities, the ease of shar-
ing information with consultants, and the efficiency
of repetitive output. The information entered into the
computer is essentially dumb, however: A line is only a
line, and a complex set of details are simply a collec-
ftp
tion of lines representing the idea of the designer.
In the digital environment, drawings are created at full

scale (that is, at the scale at which they are expected
to be constructed) and then organized and scaled
down for output. Because two-dimensional applica-
tions replicate the manual drafting environment, they
require the same coordination of working drawings and
construction documents. Close attention is needed to consultants
ensure that cross-referencing, schedules, and annota-
tions are revised as a project progresses. Collaborative Drawing
Typically, CAD drawing is a collaborative
The dominant drawing application continues to be process; plans and sections are refer-
enced so that they can be worked on by
AutoCAD, but others include MicroStation by Bent-
many people within an office. Drawings
ley Systems as well as VectorWorks and Allplan by for consultants are uploaded to an FTP
Nemetschek. server for retrieval.

03
Layering and Standards
The sharing of information across users, both within an interior design office and among
consultants, requires a close agreement on how layers are named and organized. Several or-
ganizations have developed strategies for systems that facilitate information interchange. The
National CAD Standard and the AIA Layer Guidelines are two prominent ones, though several
other layering systems exist. A strategy for layer use and formatting is usually agreed upon
during the contract negotiation phase of a project.
The National CAD Standard also covers the annotation of drawing sets, model files, and sheet
files. The drawing below demonstrates the system as deployed by the NCS:
Discipline Major Group Minor Group Status

Code
Any combination of a discipline code and a major group constitutes an acceptable layer nam-
ing convention. For example, a typical layer breakdown could be as follows:
A-WALL-INTR-DEMO to indicate a layer for interior walls that are to be demolished

A-WALL-INTR to identify a layer for new interior walls
Typical layer formats within the interior design profession include, but are not limited to:
A-CLNG I-ANNO-TEXT I-EQPM

A-WALL I-ANNO-SYMB I-EQPM-MOVE
A-DOOR I-ANNO-LEGN I-FURN
A-FLOR I-ANNO-DIMS I-FURN-CASE
A-GLAZ I-ANNO-TTLB I-FURN-POWR
(Note: The A designation is typically used for architecture layers, but as there is a lot of
overlap among disciplines, it is best to keep the standard consistent.)
File Interchange
All drafting applications write data to their own file types, yet it is essential to be able to
share the information created with others on the project. The most common format for this
is the DWG and DXF (Drawing Exchange Format) file types. These are native to AutoCAD,
and most, if not all, of the applications on the market write to them with varying levels of
success.
Drawing Basics 53
03
THREE-DIMENSIONAL DESIGN SOF TWARE
Three-dimensional design applications, often referred to as modeling software, enable interior

designers to imagine the space and details of their design as volumetric projections. These
models can be used for analytic study in the development of details and as representations
of the project as it evolves—complete with accurate material, lighting, and atmospheric
qualities. Three-dimensional design programs offer great potential for engaging directly with
a design as it is being created, though they are not without their limits. Several options avail-
able to the designer are outlined below.
Three-dimensional modeling applications are often categorized by the types of objects they
create; that is, as either surface modelers or solid modelers. While several applications can
produce both solid and surface types, most specialize in one or the other. Not all available
applications are designed for interior visualization, and any decision to purchase software
should be considered carefully alongside issues of licensing and training.
Surface Modelers
Surface models are constructed by drawing three-dimensional splines and using a sweep func-
tion to form a surface; by making meshes that are then lofted and transformed into design
objects; or by creating a parametric surface that responds to changes in control points and
control polygons—also known as NURBS (Non-uniform Rational B-Spline). In a surface model,
faces and segments can easily be transformed, attached, and accumulated to create complex
forms. Surface modelers are especially useful in rapid prototyping scenarios, where the
designer desires the direct translation of the model to a physical object. One chief drawback
is how easy it is to delete individual surfaces, thus opening the precise modeling process to
error.
profile face
edge or segment
revolved object
Surface Model Solid Model

An example of a surface model shows the Solid models have volume, and must have all
profile line and the surface object. Surfaces faces of the object closed along their con-
have no implicit volume. necting edges.

03
Solid Modelers
Solid modeling applications create objects that have closed geometries; a cube, for example,
can only be solid if it has six sides whose segments coincide with each other. Such an object
is considered to be well formed and therefore solid. Solid models are well suited to archi-
tecture and interior design practices, as they function in a way similar to the construction
process: Objects are decided on, created, and accumulated to form the intended design. This
cumulative approach is ideal for the creation of spaces that have a lot of detail and tectonic
qualities. In addition, various functions (copy, rotate, scale, etc.) can be used to alter the solid
after it has been created to reach the desired shape.
Boolean Operations
Solid models can also be affected by subtractive and additive functions known as Boolean
operations. Boolean operators can subtract solid volumes from each other, add volumes to-
gether, and split volumes into their component pieces, so that from an original object come a
number of resultant objects. Booleans depend on the order of objects picked. In the following
diagrams, the lower rectangular volume was picked first.
Original Objects
Union: One Solid Difference: One Solid Intersection: One Solid Split: Two Solids
Drawing Basics 55
03
Building Information Modelers

The limits of solid and surface modelers are similar to those of two-dimensional
technologies, in that the information (except for some parametric data control in
NURBS objects) cannot represent the exact nature and process for building an
interior. By contrast, building information modelers, or BIMs, are an emerging
technology in the architecture, interior design, and construction management worlds
that enable the designer—or team of designers—to create a complete, functional,
though virtual, representation of a space as it is being designed.
In a BIM system, all of the elements of a building are modeled using parametric ob-
jects: objects that have parameters (materiality, width, height, mass, or cost) that can
be changed as the design develops. The result is a precise simulation of the design
in terms of aesthetics, cost, and building performance. All typical two-dimensional
drawings, schedules, and details are derived from an active three-dimensional model,
and any changes made to the base model are instantly reflected in the documenta-
tion required for the project. This allows for more time spent designing and less time
documenting, maximizing the opportunity to explore the design in full.

03
Translation and Limitations

Most three-dimensional drawing applications write files in a format native to their application;
however, several file export types are available for translation to other platforms and pro-
grams. As with two-dimensional applications, the most common are DXF and DWG, which, be-
ing proprietary to Autodesk, are susceptible to change with each new release. Other formats
include 3DMF, OBJ, and 3DS.
Several companies have begun to offer seamless translation from one program to another
for enhanced rendering and animation. These translations allow models to be updated in one
application—a BIM, for instance—and have it rendered in another to examine how spatial
changes in the design affect light and material. All translations change the information in the
model, and it is a good idea to confirm the best format for a particular project.
3-D MODELING SOFTWARE
Application Solid Surface Animation Platform Price

AutoCAD × × Windows ****
3D Studio × × × Windows ****
Blender 3D OS X, Windows, free

× × Linux
Cinema 4D × OS X, Windows ****
Maya OS X, Windows, *****

× × Linux
Modo × OS X, Windows ***
LightWave × × OS X, Windows ****
Form•Z × × × OS X, Windows ****
Cheetah3D × × OS X *
SketchUp OS X, Windows free for personal

× × use, ** for pro use
BUILDING INFORMATION MODELERS
Application Solid Surface Animation Platform Price

Revit × × × Windows ****
ArchiCAD × × × OS X, Windows ****
(REFER TO THE RESOURCES CHAPTER FOR FURTHER INFORMATION AND LINKS TO SOFTWARE VENDORS.)
Drawing Basics 57
04
Chapter 4: Presentation and Communication

Drawings perform multiple tasks for the interior designer. They help communicate
ideas to the client at the beginning stages of a project; they present the image and
content of the design at strategic points in the process; and they are integral to the
construction documentation. Their effectiveness, however, depends on the manner in
which they are presented. Designers have a variety of presentation methods avail-
able to them, all of which have specific functions in the design process. Anything that
an interior designer transmits to the public should be considered a reflection of the
design practice. Letterheads, business cards, proposals, brochures, design boards,
models, and projected images all serve to communicate the designer’s ideas. It is
thus important to develop a clear and graphically cohesive program regardless of how
the work is being presented.
DEVELOPING A PRESENTATION
A key skill for the designer is the ability to develop an appealing and successful presentation
that translates the ideas and processes that led to specific design decisions. Creating a nar-
rative, outlining and storyboarding the presentation, and determining the appropriate medium
for the content are but a few of the interior designer’s tasks.
The designer must also grasp how drawings—used as graphic elements—function within
different types of presentations, and how the principles of graphic design can influence the
presentation. It is a good idea to keep an updated library of graphic design references that not
only offer inspiration, but also provide strong examples of article layout and narrative develop-
ment. The design award issues of graphics magazines are an excellent starting place.
Keep in mind that the relatively recent appearance of high-quality color prints—even from
fairly inexpensive inkjet printers—has expanded the resources available for presenting ideas
in printed form. It is important that the interior designer take a look at how the format of a
print can affect the translation of design ideas, and also how to draw on graphic skills to sup-
port this communication.

04
DESIGN BOARDS
Design boards set up a sequential and ordered structure in which the intent of the
proposal is illustrated. For boards to succeed, the principles of storyboarding must be
applied to the information being presented; this entails the hierarchy of the elements on
the board itself and the sequence in which the narrative unfolds. Design boards allow the
client to spend as much time with the work as possible, and thus elements should be
paced to allow for further discovery the longer they are examined. Numerous issues need
to be considered when designing presentation boards.
Number of Boards: In determining the num- Spacing, Scale, and Speed: When developing
ber of boards in a presentation, several the layout for a presentation, it is important
questions must be asked: What is the size to consider how the boards will be viewed.
of the project? How many drawings will be Some viewers will quickly scan the boards,
needed to adequately describe the project? and others will pause to look at the work in
Are there going to be perspectives? Will depth. By anticipating this, layout strategies
samples be attached directly to the board or regarding the spacing and scale of objects
scanned and added to a perspective? can begin to address the speed at which
they are examined.
Narrative Development and Outlining:
Developing a narrative for the presentation Orientation: Boards arranged with their
means, essentially, telling the story of the length in the vertical dimension are said
design process. A well-conceived narra- to be in portrait format and those with a
tive structures what and when to include width longer than height are referred to as
in the presentation. Narratives provide a landscape. Each has its benefits: Portrait-
framework that can allocate emphasis and oriented boards have a visual resonance
importance to certain aspects of the proc- with the printed page, and when displayed
ess. Maintaining an outline of the design in sequence, allow for more information in
intent, and developing it as the project itself less horizontal space. Landscape-oriented
evolves, will focus the narrative. boards enable a more natural cropping of
views for perspectives, and their width en-
courages a more relaxed sequencing.
59
04
White Space: The surrounding white space Labeling and Annotation: Often overlooked,
can be used to increase the relative im- one of the most important factors in de-
portance of any drawing, sample, or text termining how a layout is perceived is
on the page. Designers should avoid over- the choice of fonts that will translate the
complicating the layout of the presentation designer’s text. Clear, legible type, used at
by crowding too few boards with too much varying type sizes, can add another layer to
information. Adding another board is always how a board is read; it also offers another
an option. graphic element for the design of the board.
Establishing a good hierarchy of fonts early
Storyboarding and Thumbnails: A useful in the process allows annotations to be
method for developing the presentation is placed in relation to the graphics in precise
to create several variations as mock-ups. ways. At the very least, decisions should
These mock-ups gather the information be made with regard to the following label
to be presented and then explore several types in a document: title font, label font,
sequencing strategies. and caption font.
Grid Development
To establish the structure and placement of objects on a presentation board, the designer
must develop a template that provides rules in the form of grids. Grids, set up correctly, can
clarify the distribution of the design elements. If uncertain where to start, interior designers
can draw from the world of the graphic arts, from which the following examples come, to fash-
ion their own grid systems.

04
Single Column Multi-Column Anchored Modular

Emphasizes singular Allows for multiple Content, including More comprehensive
content, such as images and text. images and titles, grid that allows for
a rendered plan or anchors the page. variation in place-
perspective. ment of elements.
Layout Strategies
The following examples illustrate two of the ways

in which a modular grid system can be deployed
in a larger set of design boards.
Presentation and Communication 61

04
SAMPLE BOARDS
Prepared during design development, sample boards function as a representative palette of

the materials that will be used throughout an interior project. Materials should be proportion-
ally represented on each board to give the client a clear understanding of the finishes that will
make up their project.
Boards should include material samples for each of the major elements in a project. Sam-
ple boards can also contain clippings of furniture products—chairs, tables, lamps, and so
on—that are relevant to the design.
Element Material
Floors wood, tile, cork, stone, carpet, etc.
Ceilings acoustic tile, paint, panels, etc.
Walls paint, wall coverings, plaster finishes, etc.
Furniture wood, metals, plastics, etc.
Fabrics drapes, shears, upholstery, etc.
Hardware actual pieces or representative finishes (stainless steel, bronze,

anodized aluminum, etc.)
Sample boards should not only serve as a reflection of the designer’s ideas for the space,
they should also represent the care and attention that will be taken throughout the project.
Strands of hot glue, fabric threads, and general messiness can undermine the effectiveness
of a presentation. In preparing the boards, any items that have been cut from the samples
should be finished in a professional manner: Fabrics should be upholstered onto a hard board;
images should be laminated to cardstock; carpets should be trimmed of extraneous pieces.
When ordering materials for sample boards, interior designers should obtain three copies of
each material that they intend to use: one for the sample board, one for the designer’s library,
and one for the clients, should they request it at any time.
Sample Board Presentation Types
There are many ways in which samples can be presented to reflect the professionalism of the
designer. Looking to trade magazines, books, and other publications to see how manufactur-
ers are displaying their products can be a good way to keep sample boards looking current.

04
Informal Sample Book Volumetric Formal

Allows samples to be Allows for integra- Arranges samples Mixes samples and
evaluated by touch; tion of images of on a hard surface, images in a rigorous,
organization is not so furniture, hardware, such as foam board, gridded system.
important, although textiles, and paint with an overlap of
a tray or box can be colors. materials.
used to give order to
schemes.
1
4 5
Typical Sample Board

1 Sheer fabrics for drapery
2 Upholstery fabrics
3 Paint colors
4 Stone for counters/flooring
5 Carpet
6 Wood for millwork
7 Tiles for restrooms
8 Cork flooring
7 8

04
DIGITAL PRESENTATIONS
Digital presentations differ dramatically from printed ones. The most striking difference stems
from the digital presentation’s greater reliance on a well-developed narrative sequence to tell
the story of the design. A projected presentation is a less interactive medium than boards, as
viewers cannot casually flip back and forth among the material, nor allow their eyes to absorb
information in a slower manner. Because of this, the designer must take care to script the nar-
rative content of what is being communicated.
1 2 1
4
2
3 4 8 5
7 6
5 6 3
7 8 Projection vs. Design Boards

A projected presentation is developed as a linear narra-
tive, in which elements of importance are reiterated to
ensure that the audience comprehends the work. A design
board, on the other hand, has elements that are read at
different times and out of sequence.
With computers becoming ubiquitous in the design professions, more presentations are be-
ing made to potential clients digitally, using a projector and a screen. Typically, this takes the
form of a series of slides that show previous work, ideas for a particular design solution, and
project organization. This type of presentation is as useful to the presenter as it is to the
audience—it keeps the content focused and reminds the speaker of what to address at any
given point.
Many applications are involved in creating a digital presentation. Apple’s Keynote, Adobe’s
InDesign, and Microsoft’s PowerPoint are among those that can facilitate presentations, and
the designer should become familiar with their techniques and strategies.
(SEE THE RESOURCES CHAPTER FOR LINKS TO PRESENTATION AND COMMUNICATION SOURCES.)

04
Constructing an Effective Digital Presentation
The variables in designing for a digital presentation are many:

the size of the screen onto which the work will be projected
may not be known; the light levels in the space in which the
presentation will be made cannot be predicted; the manner in
which people will react to the delivery cannot be anticipated.
The designer can, however, focus the attention of the audi-
ence by following the recommendations below:
Increase the size of your Limit the use of serifs Separate content into
fonts smaller pieces
Fonts used in printed layouts Although useful for reading long Placing as much content on a
may be illegible when projected passages of text, the variety of slide as you would on a large
on a screen. Add a few point thicknesses in a serif font can board will result in too many
sizes to captions and headings. dissolve when projected. images; separate them.
Do not use bulleted lists Avoid clip art Increase the contrast of
your color palette
• bullets simplify Clip art can often call into ques- Projectors have limited control
tion the content of the presenta- over color management. Increas-
• reduce complexity
tion. Rely on your own drawings. ing contrast will ensure your work
• incomplete sentences is legible.
Avoid showing samples Create summary slides at Know your data

and sample boards significant moments
Color accuracy changes from If you have talked about a number Review any significant—or
projector to projector. If you are of ideas, include them all on a insignificant—numbers and facts
going to talk about samples, pros-and-cons summary page. so that you can recite them at
have the real ones with you. any moment.
Pace your delivery Pace your content Pace yourself

Having a timer function in Develop your presentation so The presentation is yours. Relax,
presentation software is a good that all of the elements balance and take the time you need to get
thing, but it can make you rush. out. Don’t spend fi fteen minutes your ideas across.
Practice prior to presenting. on dull content.

04
RENDERING TECHNIQUES FOR PRESENTATIONS
Renderings play an important role in any presentation of an interior project. The ability to
render a simple drawing—that is, to add textures, shadows, and other material qualities to
a drawing—greatly enhances its readability. Moreover, good rendering techniques allow a
drawing to operate as a visual guide to how an interior is organized and how decisions that
have been discussed are being deployed. Typically, designers reserve sketching for process
drawings, not just for internal sessions with the project team, but as a collaborative tool for
communicating ideas quickly at a meeting or presentation with the client, consultants, or
contractor. Today, most presentation renderings are computer generated.
Shadows and Texture
When used in nonperspective drawings such as plans or sections, shadows provide an easy
way to read the elevational heights of various objects, and add depth as well. Computational
rendering packages can make shadow plans a quick and effective way of demonstrating infor-
mation to the client, but care should be taken in determining the angle of a shadow so that
design elements are not obscured.
Material and Shadow Plan
Material plans and sections—onto which the material palette of a project has been collaged—
can demonstrate the location, proportion, and effect of materials within a space. Materials
can also be desaturated, or transparencied down, to allow the space of the plan or section to
remain visible. Material plans are more effective when combined with shadow plans, as the
abstraction of the plan is given a specific sense of space. They are also best presented in
combination with sample boards.

04
PERSPECTIVE RENDERING TECHNIQUES
Hidden Line and Shadows
Like perspective drawings done by hand, hidden line images essentialize the space through
the use of lines. Shadows and textures in a hidden line image can deepen an image, give clar-
ity to certain elements of the design, and express more fully the designer’s intent. As with
plans and sections, shadow position and intensity should be chosen carefully. These drawings
can be produced within a three-dimensional application, but are more easily assembled as
collages within a two-dimensional raster image program.
Line and Color Line, Color, and Shadow

Adding color to a line drawing empha- Adding shadows to a line drawing gives
sizes aspects of the interior environ- greater depth and drama to an image.
ment in a clear and minimal way.
Light
Key to any understanding of space is light. Computers can simulate light within interior space
through a variety of algorithms, including surface renderings and raytrace renderings. The
former do not adequately represent light or materials, however, and the accuracy of the latter
is not as rich as other solutions. Recently, two alternative algorithms have been introduced:
global illumination and physically accurate solutions. Global illumination calculates both direct
and indirect light that enters a space. Color from reflected surfaces is bounced into the scene.
Physically accurate rendering software simulates the precise physics of light in an environment;
it allows for careful evaluation of both natural light entering a space and artificial light within a
space. These calculations are computationally intensive and can take many hours to complete.
Designers should familiarize themselves with the complex factors that influence the efficiency
of any solution.

04
Surface Rendering Raytrace Rendering

Surface renderings are simple representations Raytrace renderings add reflections and traced
of the space. shadows to a scene.
Accurate Lighting Solutions

Computers are now powerful enough to use
complex algorithms, such as global illumination
and physically accurate solutions, to represent how
light interacts with color and space.

04
Three-Dimensional Rendering Software
Until recently, three-dimensional renderings were generated internally through whatever specific
program the model was created in. The emergence of plug-in architectures within applications
has led to the development of advanced systems for generating light-accurate images. The fol-
lowing list represents an overview of the options available at the time of writing and should not
be considered comprehensive.
PLUG-IN SYSTEMS
Application Raytrace GI PA Platform Price

1
Kerkythea × × Windows, Linux free
YafRay2 × × OS X, Windows, free

Linux
Indigo3 × × Windows free
Brazil r/s 4 × × × Windows ***
Maxwell5 × × × OS X, Windows ***
mental ray6 × × OS X, Windows, ***

Linux
finalRender7 × × OS X, Windows ***
INTEGRATED SYSTEMS
Modo × × OS X, Windows ***
LightWave × × OS X, Windows ****
Form•Z × × OS X, Windows ****
1
Standalone renderer; export available for 3ds Max, SketchUp, and Blender.
2
Standalone renderer; reads XML files, but has been integrated into Blender.
3
Standalone renderer; export available for 3ds Max, Cinema 4D, Blender, Maya, and Rhino.
4
Currently available for 3ds Max and VIZ.
5
Maxwell Render provides plug-ins for the major 3-D applications like 3ds Max, Viz, Maya, Light-
Wave, Rhinoceros, SolidWorks, Allplan 200, ArchiCAD, Cinema 4D, Form•Z, Houdini, and SketchUp.
6
Standalone renderer; integrated into Avid 3D, Softimage|XSI, Maya, 3ds Max, VIZ, SolidWorks, and
Catia.
7
Currently available for Maya and Cinema 4D.
(SEE THE RESOURCES CHAPTER FOR FURTHER INFORMATION AND LINKS TO SOFTWARE VENDORS.)

PERSPECTIVES ON FUNDAMENTALS:
DEBORAH BERKE
Deborah Berke, could you describe yourself and your practice?
I’ve been practicing architecture for more than twenty years. The practice has grown
from being a desk in the middle of my studio apartment to a thirty-five-person office
that provides services that include master planning, urban design, traditional archi-
tecture as it’s understood, interior design, and actually even decorating; we offer a
full range of services. Some of our clients elect to take only one and others elect to
take advantage of more.
Who were your mentors in teaching you about design?
Judith Wolin, who was my teacher at the Rhode Island School of Design, was my
literal, most direct mentor. I was at RISD in the 1970s—it was very much an artsy
environment. What Judy made appreciable to me was the idea that your work was
good if you brought an intelligence to it, and if you brought to it the idea of revisiting
and editing and reconsidering; in other words, a rigorous form of self-critique.
I then taught at the Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies. Spending five
years in the company of Peter Eisenman, Anthony Vidler, Kenneth Frampton, Mario
Gandelsonas and Julia Bloomfield—in an environment that valued intelligence and
inquiry—was the next chapter of mentoring. After that, I took a radical departure
from that kind of straightforward education and it became about taking what I had
learned in that environment and applying it to the things that I have always intuitively
cared about, which is the found and not the consciously created. Now I would rather
wander the back part of the city to discover the decrepit oddities. I’m taking the
word “mentoring” and morphing it into inspiration.
At what point in your life did you feel confident about starting your own company?
When I got out of school there wasn’t any work for architects, so my first job was in
the graphic design department of an enormous multinational engineering firm that
had its headquarters in New York. This job was not intellectually challenging, and
I started hanging out at the IAUS, taking courses. Eventually, I got a job as admin-
istrator of the educational programs under Mario Gandelsonas and then became
a teacher there. Augmenting that salary, I taught in two elementary schools; the
NEA in those days put artists and architects into public schools—they paid $100 a
day, which was a lofty sum. The courage to open my own practice came less from a
sense that I finally have a job and I can open the doors, than I finally have enough
other kinds of jobs. I can print up some business cards, put a straightedge on my
coffee table, and say that I’m in practice. That’s how it worked for me.

I think it’s very cyclical, to the extent of depending on the coincidence of when you are ready in
terms of confidence, experience, and opportunity, and when the natural cycles of the economy
give you the sense that you can sustain it—that doing the garage addition for your cousin’s
next-door neighbor is not going to be your one and only chance to design something, that
there will be a job after that. When those two things are in sync, then you are ready.
What phase of a design project do you find to be the most satisfying? The most educational?
The most challenging?
I love the very, very beginning. I love seeing the site for the first time, whatever the site might
be. I love talking to people in the very beginning and I love schematic design. I love study
models. I like sketching. I like thinking. I like falling asleep with forms in my head as I doze off.
I find the well-executed detail or the exquisite piecing together of a large set of documents
interesting, but it’s not my thing. There are terrific people in my office who do that well, and I
can work with them to make sure that I feel there is the kind of wholeness and integrity to the
project that I want it to have. But I do that more as a critic, whereas in the early stages of the
project, I’m the creator. Is it the most educational? Yes, in that it’s the most challenging and
forces me to think.
What is your approach for starting a project?
I don’t arrive at a project with a preconceived notion. I try to educate my clients about the fact
that they should have no preconceived notions either. If somebody comes to you and they
want a house, there’s clearly going to be some place where food is stored and prepared and
some place where people are going to sleep, but beyond that there are many notions you dis-
pense with when you begin to examine the program and the forms that people automatically
associate with the program.
I think that, for me, all design processes are reiterative processes, and for how I work, the
client needs to participate in that process. I’m not the kind of designer who says, “Here it is,
take it or leave it.” What I become in the reiterative process is a salesman, to ensure that
the result I see is the result I can get them to agree to. There’s the candid truth: At a certain
point, you get the client to embrace the idea and form as enthusiastically as you are embrac-
ing it.
What is the role of technology in your practice? Is it a tool for design, or does software allow for
a more creative exploration of the design process?
One of my partners lives in Reykjavik, Iceland. He spends one week of each month in New
York, and the rest of the time he’s on our server from his office there. That has proven to be
71
wonderful, superbly productive. Most of our clients don’t know where he is when he’s talking
to them. The isolation he can achieve there actually allows a kind of productivity that’s very
different from the kind of productivity that I have in the course of a day, when I might sit down
with ten people on six different projects, half an hour checking out the interior elevations of
this, half an hour looking at the window details on something else. He can spend extremely
focused time, whether he’s writing an agreement at one extreme, sifting through an entire set
of construction documents, making sure that every piece is there and that we like it, or devel-
oping a design.
Are you engaged in building information modeling?
We just started a new project, and at the developer’s insistence and to our excitement, we are
going to be embracing BIM on this project. We needed a project on which it made sense and
also to work with somebody from whom we could learn, so that we can take the leadership
role the next time. This first time, we will be the student of somebody else.
How do you program your residential projects? Is it different from programming your institu-
tional projects?
Programming, whether it’s a large institutional building or a residence that’s only an interior—
here are four walls, it’s a blank loft where someone’s going to live—I think involves the same
skill set and the same series of questions and distillations. You need to treat it like data, and
in a sense, assure your client that you are taking their data—whether it’s a house, “I have six
linear feet of hanging,” or an institutional facility, “We need to seat thirty-six children in each
classroom”—and that you are engaging, hearing, and understanding that data. But then you
allow yourself, critically and without preconceptions, to assemble the relationships among
those pieces of data as the design starts to coalesce. You question it as you go.
Do you reveal that questioning process to your client?
Not always, not when it would lead them to think that you didn’t trust them or didn’t believe
them or anything like that. You use that questioning to help yourself both understand the data
and perhaps slice it in ways that the client can’t imagine it being sliced.
There are two different situations. There are projects in which the program is handed to you.
Whether because it’s a big enough or wise enough or institutional enough client, the program-
ming was done separately by another firm, at another time, for a different reason, and really
needs to be questioned. We pull apart those programs, and in their reassembly get vastly bet-
ter results. When the program is handed to you, you have a critical distance from it and look
at it with a different set of eyes and without preconceived notions. It’s really different when
you do the program yourself and then you go ahead and make the space. You have to be so

deeply careful of not reinforcing your own preconceptions. For instance, I ask you a question
about your house and I already know what I want it to look like, so I might phrase the question
in a way that is dishonest. In the long run, I think that is self-defeating. You can get better
results if you are more critical in your own process.
How important is understanding the business of design? In what way did you design your busi-
ness?
My design education did not prepare me at all for my business. I think as the company grows,
you begin to design the business, to the extent that you say yes to certain jobs, and if you
have your wits about you, you say no to other work. People imagine that they’ll never have that
luxury, but that is in part how you are designing your business—by what you agree to do and
at what price you agree to do it.
Could you name two or three contemporary spaces that have recently impressed or affected
you, and say why?
As an object here in New York, I like Norman Foster’s Hearst Tower. Of all the towers going
up, I appreciate the sort of elegance and simplicity and the structural out-front-ness about it.
I was awestruck by Richard Roger’s Madrid Barajas Airport. I thought it was extraordinary. It’s
one of the few truly contemporary spaces I’ve visited recently where I went, Wow. But I ques-
tioned my own “wow”—to ask whether part of the feeling wasn’t just its sheer size, whether
I could have a similar experience walking into something quite small—and to parse from that
what was impressing me.
We recently did a project out in Columbus, Indiana. The last time I was there, we had some
extra time and went to Eliel Saarinen’s church—the first one. You walk into the sanctuary and
you think, Wow, this is truly an extraordinary space. Part of the appeal to me is its asymmetry,
which is subtle and reinforced by certain decorative moves and surface moves. But it’s mas-
terful; it’s a masterful building and a masterful space.
Overleaf Left Gordon Loft. Photos by Catherine Tighe.

Right James Hotel, Chicago. Photo by Eric Laignel.
Perspectives on Fundamentals 73
2.
S PAC E
76
The shaping of space into rooms of specific configurations is the primary
art of the interior designer. Several issues impact the proportion of rooms
and their location in plan, including the intended functions of rooms, the
way furniture and accessories will fill out the space, and the limitations
imposed by accessibility and building codes. The best designers can jug-
gle these myriad issues while developing an overarching concept for the
character of a room. At a more sophisticated level, spaces and rooms can
be knitted together in a sequence of spaces that provoke discovery and
incite delight.
77
05
Chapter 5: Proportions of a Room

In the disciplines of art and design, proportion is concerned with one of the funda-
mental characteristics of shape: the aspect ratio of width to length. Significantly, the
qualification of the proportion of a shape does not concern itself with dimensions.
When designers speak of the proportions of a shape, they are usually discussing the
relative width and length of a rectangle, but they can also address the proportion
of an oval, or even complex and irregular forms such as the proportions of a kidney-
shaped swimming pool. Most typically, proportions are considered when making de-
sign decisions about a series of related elements. For example, the designer should
consider the proportion of the wall space between windows as well as the proportion
of the windows themselves when designing an interior elevation. The relative propor-
tion of the shape of the wall and the shape of the window can be construed as a
more complex proportional relationship. Proportion is considered in two dimensions
in drawing and painting and when composing a plan or an elevation.
SQUARE RECTANGULAR TALL
INFLUENCE OF PROPORTION
Rooms of Different Shapes
For interior design, the proportion of a space or an object is qualified by the relative length of
three variables: width, length, and height. The character and use of a room is strongly influ-
enced by the proportion of the space. A room that is relatively long, narrow, and tall is much
different in character than a room that is square in plan with a low ceiling. The relative propor-
tion of a room qualifies whether a space is primarily meant as a path or a place. Square rooms
are the most geometrically stable, but are difficult to furnish and thus used for ceremonial
functions when large or as threshold spaces when small. Rectangular spaces with proportions
of less than 1:2 are the most common shape of place-rooms since they can accommodate a
variety of furniture arrangements and can be easily aggregated along circulation armatures.
Long, narrow rooms are typically circulation spaces, whether functional corridors or spaces for
processional rituals and ceremonies.

05
The pure geometry of a

square room can demand
a symmetrical arrange-
ment of furnishings.
Photo by Steve Hockstein/HarvardStudio.com.

Hackensack University Medical Center.
A rectangular space can

be broken up into different
zones to accommodate
distinct seating areas.
Tadao Ando, Morimoto, New York.
Photo by David Joseph.
The formality of a tall and

long room is ideal for both
work and entertaining.
Morris Sato Studio, Winterhouse.
Photo by Michael Moran.
79
05
Rooms in a Choreographed Sequence of Spaces
Rooms can be arranged as a proportional related sequence of spaces. The richest sequences
of rooms typically contrast rooms of different but related proportions to create visual variety
and to provoke a sense of discovery. Strategies that consider contrasting proportions of
rooms also seek contrasting qualities of light to enliven the itinerary.
Morris Sato Studio, Winterhouse.

DETERMINING PROPORTION
Proportions are determined and appreciated in one of two ways: either through the informed
intuition of the designer or through a rule system established by the designer. When designers
use a rule-based proportioning system, they typically employ it opportunistically—following the
proportioning system when helpful and ignoring it when other design criteria prove to be more
important.
An Intuition for Proportion
Talented designers have an innate sense of proportion. In fact, this is one of the essential
skills that every artist and designer needs to develop. When proportions are considered intui-
tively, expressions such as “relative weight,” “balance,” and “designing the space in-between”
may capture the synthesis of visual choices during design. Appreciating proportions can also
be an act of connoisseurship. To speak of a “beautifully proportioned façade” suggests a
recognition of an overall balance among the proportions of the windows, the spaces between
the windows, and the proportion of the wall itself. When proportions are designed and appreci-
ated intuitively, the visual tastes of the creator and observer play an important role. Some
designers prefer dynamic compositions with strongly contrasting proportions, while others
may seek stasis and balance. The history of visual styles is partly the history of the changing
tastes for proportional and compositional strategies.

05
Whole-Number Proportions
Rule-based proportioning strategies, by contrast, begin with a geometric system that associ-
ates the various lengths of an object or space with mathematical ratios. The most common of
these systems relates the length, width, and height of a room in simple whole numbers. For
example, a rectangular room can be qualified as a room that is twice as long as wide with a
ceiling as tall as its width. Such a room can be defined as a simple whole-number proportion:
1:2:1.
Andrea Palladio famously used a whole-number proportioning system to design and organize
the rooms for his palace and villa commissions in the sixteenth century. The plans of the
rooms in Palladio’s buildings are typically organized in whole-number ratios of 1:1 (the square)
or rectangles of 1:2, 2:3, and 3:5. Significantly, he avoided other ratios such as 3:4 or 4:5, be-
cause the resulting shapes sit uncomfortably between the stable square and the directionality
of the rectangle.
Plan and section of Villa Capra by Palladio
Proportions of a Room 81
05
The Golden Rectangle
More complex rule-based systems exploit the relationship among a class of rectangles that
can be generated from the geometric properties of the square. The most noteworthy of these
is the golden rectangle (also known as the golden section, the golden mean, and the magic
rectangle). To construct a golden rectangle, a square must first be subdivided into two rectan-
gles, each with 1:2 proportions. If the hypotenuse of one of the rectangles is drawn and then
rotated to follow the radius of a circle with its center at the pivot point, a golden rectangle will
result. The golden rectangle has a proportion of 1:1.618.
This rectangle is golden and magical not just because of how it is generated, but also because
of its inherent geometric properties: It is the only rectangle that comprises a square and
another similar (equally proportioned) rectangle. The logic of this characteristic means that a
golden rectangle can be endlessly subdivided, with each smaller golden rectangle begetting
its own square and smaller golden rectangle.
The golden rectangle can be a helpful proportion in interior design, best used for relating
asymmetrical subdivisions of wall surfaces and/or rooms. Whenever the golden rectangle is
applied to an overall room proportion, the component square of the rectangle should also
be present, whether as the ceiling height or as some stable subset of the larger directional
space. Guiseppe Terragni, an Italian modernist working in the 1920s and 1930s, used the
golden rectangle to organize the plans and elevations of many of his projects, most notably
the Danteum, an unbuilt monument to the poet Dante, designed in 1938.
Photo by Alinari, Art Resource, New York.
Leonardo de Vinci, drawing of ideal proportions

of the human figure, 1492 The Golden Rectangle: Ratio of 1:1.618

05
The Radical Two Rectangle
Another common rectangle in proportioning systems is the radical two rectangle (also known
as the root two rectangle). Its geometric construction is similar to the golden rectangle. In
this case, however, the full hypotenuse of the generating square is drawn and rotated. The
resulting proportion is thus less attenuated than that of the golden rectangle. The ratio of the
radical two rectangle is 1:1.414. Henri Labrouste used the radical two rectangle to organize the
proportions of the plans, sections, and façades of the Bibliothèque Ste. Geneviève in Paris.
Plan of Bibliothèque Ste. Geneviève by Labrouste, 1843
In the 1940s, the French architect Le

Corbusier used the generating logics of
both the golden rectangle and the radical
two rectangles to generate a complex
proportioning and dimensioning system
called the Modular. Le Corbusier used the
system to compose and dimension all of
his subsequent projects until his death in
1963.
Photo by Erich Lessing, Art Resource, New York.
Le Corbusier’s Nautilus Le Modular by Le Corbusier
Proportions of a Room 83
06
Chapter 6: Sequencing Spaces

Although the art of composing a plan would seem to be the province of the archi-
tect, the interior designer must be involved in choreographing the sequence of
spaces, so that a project reflects a single design approach. Acknowledging the nec-
essary collaboration between architects and interior designers, it is important to
understand the two primary vehicles for organizing the relationship between rooms:
the plan and the cross section.
section
plan
COMPOSING A HOUSE IN PLAN
Through-Room and Independent Circulation
Interior design typically begins with the plan. Fundamental to the logic of the plan is the
distinction between rooms that can serve as both places and as routes for through-
circulation—such as the living room, dining room, and kitchen—and rooms that, because
of issues of privacy, require a separate circulation space or network of spaces to access
them—such as bedrooms and bathrooms.

06
Servant Spaces
A third type of space comprises closets, storage rooms, pantries, fireplaces, and powder
rooms. Spaces of this category should be consolidated into systemic “thick-wall” zones to
create acoustical privacy between larger rooms and to generate a logic for the plumbing, ven-
tilation, and mechanical systems and overall structure of the house. When composing a plan,
it is useful to consider these consolidated smaller spaces as solid masses, in opposition to
the open spaces of major rooms. In the late 1950s, American architect Louis Kahn qualified
this as an opposition between “servant” and “served” spaces. In the 1980s, the consolidated
zones of servant spaces came to be called the “poche,” a term borrowed from a drawing
technique used in the nineteenth century at the École des Beaux Arts in Paris (from the French
pocher “to fill in”).
The plan of the Robie House is

composed of two distinct wings
that separate the public from
the private space.
Frank Lloyd Wright, Robie House
Relationships between Rooms
Networks of rooms can be conceived by aggregating rooms, with the gap between each
room functioning as both a thick-wall poche zone and a threshold space. Rooms can also be
created by subdividing a space with thick-wall zones or chunks of poche, as the Farnsworth
House illustrates below.
The plan of the Farnsworth House

is a modern example of poche; the
kitchen, bathroom, and storage
areas are collected into one single
volume in the open plan.
Mies van der Rohe, Farnsworth House
85
06
Plan Types in American Domestic Architecture
The differences among vernacular house types is the result of climatic variations (the need
to conserve heat versus the need to encourage cross ventilation), security concerns, and
the density of development. The American single-family house is generally organized into five
plan types.
Freestanding house organized around a

central fireplace core (the American North-
east and Midwest)
Freestanding house with a through-house

central stair hall with fireplaces on the end
walls (the American South)

06
Freestanding house with rooms orga-

nized along a south-facing double-story
portico (Charleston, South Carolina)
Attached or freestanding central

courtyard (California and the American
Southwest)
Attached row house with a stair and

corridor along one of the common
walls or in the middle of the plan sand-
wiched between exterior-facing rooms
(the American Northeast and Midwest)
Sequencing Spaces 87
06
COMPOSING A HOUSE IN SECTION
If a house is conceived as a series of independent floor levels, then every room on each floor
will share the same ceiling height. Ideally, however, a house should have rooms whose ceil-
ing heights differ in proportion to the overall size of each space. The height of the living room
should be greater than that of the powder room or a coat closet, for example. Opportunities for
such a house of interlocking rooms with different ceiling heights are best explored in section.
The simplest way to organize a mixture of ceiling heights is to make one or several rooms
double-height spaces, with the potential that rooms on the second level can look onto these
taller spaces. Le Corbusier organized houses around double-height living rooms at every stage
of his long career: The Villa Schwab of 1916 and the units in the Unité d’Habitation of 1949
are but two such housing designs.
Another strategy for varying spatial heights in a house is to connect one-and-a-half-story

rooms to adjacent one-story rooms via short stairs. Separating sections of the house by par-
tial-level stairs rather than the full-floor stairs of conventional house designs offers numerous
psychological and functional advantages.
As a variation on this strategy, in the 1920s Adolf Loos designed a series of houses that
organize the rooms of the main living level with a common ceiling plane, but allow the floor
levels to shift, creating rooms with a mix of ceiling heights. As a result, the interiors of Loos’s
houses resemble a terraced landscape. In houses with these complex sectional relationships,
the interconnecting stair needs to be carefully designed to take full advantage of views into
taller spaces and beyond to the exterior.
The section of the Villa Baizeau has interlocking

double-height spaces that become single-height
spaces when joined.
Le Corbusier, Villa Baizeau

06
A series of intimate, terraced spaces along

the sides of a triple-height space, exempli-
fied in the section of the Müller House, is
another strategy for varying spatial heights.
Adolf Loos, Müller House
COMPOSING AN OFFICE SPACE IN PLAN
Since the modern office is designed for a preexisting flat-floor-plate office building, there are
very few opportunities for creativity in the section. Rather, it is the logic of the plan mod-
ule that generates design possibilities. Most modern office buildings have been designed
on a 5-foot (1.5-meter) module that controls both the location of the structural grid and the
mullions on the exterior window wall. This module works with the dimensional module of the
American systems furniture industry, including manufacturers such as Steelcase and Herman
Miller. This 5-foot grid means that perimeter offices are typically 10 or 15 feet (3 or 4.6 meters)
wide—occasionally wider for senior executives. It also governs other rooms located along the
perimeter walls, such as conference rooms and reception areas.
06
Typical Office Layouts
Private Office at Window Wall

This layout is typically organized in three layers of functions; starting with a zone of private
offices at the window wall, followed by a zone of circulation, then a zone of back-to-back par-
tial-height cubicles for assistants, and a second zone of circulation against the building core.
Natural light typically reaches the middle of the plan through clearstory windows in the wall
that separates the private offices from the rest of the office space. This layout results in
a conventional dimension from building core to window wall of approximately 45 feet (13.7
meters), which has become the ideal industry standard for the minimum width of American
office buildings.

06
Open Plan
In an open plan layout, open workstations fill the entire space. Since natural light can pen-
etrate further into the space, buildings that are designed to accommodate an open plan have
deeper floor plates. This is a standard layout for the back-office functions of financial institu-
tions and insurance companies.
Open Workstations at Window Wall, Private Offices in Center

Related to the open plan above, this layout places enclosed offices on the inside of the plan,
typically against the core. Private offices in this plan configuration have mostly glass walls to
benefit from the natural light in the open office area.
07
Chapter 7: Types of Rooms

There are a wide variety of room types in domestic, office, and commercial environ-
ments, each requiring specific design strategies. Interior designers should, at a min-
imum, be familiar with the design issues and potential solutions outlined below. The
best configuration for a room depends on how it will be inhabited and the potential
circulation patterns through its space. Good interior design seeks to balance issues
of character, such as comfort and harmony, with these practical considerations.
KITCHENS
The kitchen is the most difficult space in the house to design because appliances, equipment,
working surfaces, and storage spaces must be carefully organized into a visually coherent and
functional whole. To ensure a smoothly functioning kitchen for more than one occupant, it is
necessary to synthesize a wide range of working and circulation scenarios. Fundamental to
kitchen planning is the placement of three elements: the refrigerator, the sink, and the stove.
These elements define the preparation zone, the washing zone, and the cooking zone. To-
gether, the zones define the three points of the “working triangle.” In addition to mapping out a
safe and efficient working triangle, interior designers must also consider storage requirements
for the countless number of kitchen gadgets, dishes, and other accessories that are found in
the contemporary kitchen.
Working Triangle
The ideal total length of the segments that comprise the working triangle is 12 to 22 feet (3 658
to 6 705 millimeters). The layouts that follow describe how the working triangle might be best
arranged for the size and shape of a particular room.
Preparation Zone
8'
4'
to
38
(1
to
24
4'
21
8'
9–
9–
21
2
43
(1
8)
4' to 8'
(1 219–2 438)
Washing Zone Cooking Zone

07
Kitchen Layouts
Single-Wall Kitchen
The simplest kitchen organization is a single row of appliances and
counter space arranged against a wall. This layout is ideal for long
narrow rooms or one wall of a studio apartment where the kitchen
can either be screened off or made the central focus of the space.
The most practical plan should include counter space on both sides
of each major appliance. The refrigerator should be placed at one end
of the kitchen wall since it only needs counter space to one side—re-
member to specify a refrigerator with doors that open in the direction
of the adjacent counter space.
Galley Kitchen
A galley kitchen has two parallel runs of counters. The sink, dish-
washer, and stove should be located on the same side of the kitchen
(cooking and washing zones) and the refrigerator (the preparation
zone) should be located on the opposite wall. The counters should be
at least 4 feet (1 219 millimeters) apart to provide adequate room for
more than one cook; if the kitchen is designed for only one cook, the
space between counters can be reduced to 3 feet (914 millimeters).
This layout is not recommended if other rooms are accessed through
the kitchen.
L-shaped or U-shaped Kitchens

In these layouts, the counters and appliances are organized around
two or three walls. This arrangement can work in either small or large
spaces; however, in larger rooms the working triangle should be kept
within the optimal range of 12 to 22 feet (3 658 to 6 705 millimeters).
Often in these arrangements, one leg of the L or the U forms a counter,
which is ideal for casual meals. In this scenario, it is best to design a
higher counter to separate the cooking zone from the eating zone.
Island Kitchen
A central workstation provides extra space for performing various culi-
nary tasks. Depending on the preferences of the cook, the island can
be designed for either preparing or cooking a meal. Of all the layouts,
this arrangement encourages the most socializing in the kitchen. It is
best used in large rooms that allow enough space between counters
and island.
93
07
Kitchen Zones
Washing Zone
The washing zone is primarily made up of the sink and dishwasher. Ideally, the sink has two
compartments for washing and rinsing. The dishwasher should be placed immediately adja-
cent to the sink but carefully located so that there is enough room to wash dishes in the sink
while the dishwasher is open. If the kitchen does not have a dishwasher, a drying rack should
be located above the counter so that it does not take up critical counter space.
It is also important to have a waste bin close to the sink for disposing of trash prior to wash-
ing dishes. Trash receptacles are often located behind a cabinet door and underneath the
sink to avoid visual clutter. Layout the cabinet for the trash can so that the cabinet door, when
open, does block the open dishwasher. To avoid this conflict, incorporate the trash cabinet on
the opposite side of the sink from the dishwasher.
Preparation Zone
The preparation zone consists of the refrigerator and an adjacent counter-height workspace
for preparing food. The refrigerator should be placed in close proximity to the pantry so that
perishable and nonperishable foods are both easily accessible from the food preparation
workspace. There are many refrigerator/freezer combinations, each suitable for particular
spaces and types of users. The size of the refrigerator should be directly proportional to the
size of the kitchen.
Different types of tasks are best performed on different types of surfaces: For instance,
marble slabs are best for rolling out pastries, while wood counters are best for chopping.
These surfaces can be incorporated into the countertops or not, depending on the size of
kitchen, the preferences of the cook, and the budget. Other common counter surfaces include
granite, engineered quartz, concrete, stainless steel, wood, tile, acrylic solid surfacing, and
plastic laminate.
STANDARD DIMENSIONS
W D H
Double Sink 28"–54" (711–1 372) 14"–21" (356–533) 7"–8" (178–203)
Sink 14"–32" (356–813) 14"–21" (356–533) 7"–8" (178–203)
Dishwasher 24" (610) 24"–25" (610–635) 33"–35" (838–889)
B. Freezer 29"–36" (787–914) 25"–33" (635–838) 66"–84" (1 676–2 134)
Side-by-Side 30"–36" (762–914) 29"–33" (737–838) 64"–69" (1 626–753)

07
Cooking Zone
The cooking zone consists of the stove or a combination of a cooktop and wall oven. In
smaller kitchens, a stove is the most efficient choice. In larger kitchens, a separate cooktop
and wall oven is more desirable. In either arrangement, there must be sufficient heat-resistant
counter space on both sides of the cooktop. Pots and pans should also be stored immediately
adjacent for easy access while cooking. A minimum aisle clearance of 36 inches (914 millime-
ters) is required in front of the cooktop.
It is important to select the appropriate type of cooktop ventilation system: either a system
that recycles air through a charcoal filter or a system that removes smoke through a duct
vented to an exterior wall. Ventilating exhaust directly to the exterior is preferred but may not
be practical in multifamily residential buildings.
STANDARD DIMENSIONS
W D H
Cooktop 24"–37" (610–940) 21"–27" (533–686) 3"–8" (76–203)
Range 21"–40" (533–1 016) 24"–28" (610–711) 36"–46" (914–1 168)
Wall Oven 22"–30" (559–762) 22"–24" (559–610) 28"–48" (711–1 219)
Vertical Considerations
Standard kitchen appliances are 35 inches (889 millimeters) high and typically have adjust-
able feet to help align them with adjacent countertops. Most appliances have a built-in toe
space that ranges from 2 to 4 inches (51 to 102 millimeters) from the floor to accommodate the
front of the feet when reaching to the back of the appliance. Adjacent cupboards should be
designed with these basic dimensions in mind.
A minimum clear vertical height of 16 inches (406 millimeters) is recommended between the
work surface and bottom of wall cabinets. On upper cabinets, doors should have 180-degree
hinges so that no one bangs their head on the doors when open. Lift-up doors can also solve
this problem.
16" (406) min.
Types of Rooms 95
07
DINING ROOMS
The configuration of the dining room is predicated on the size and shape of the dining table.
Otherwise, the dining room allows for a great deal of design flexibility. Once a formal room
occupied primarily on special occasions, the dining room today lends itself to a wide range of
interpretations and can accommodate a variety of lifestyles. The dining room can be an exten-
sion of the kitchen, a zone within a large living room, or a separate room organized around the
specific rituals of enjoying a meal. Regardless of the configuration, the dining room should be
immediately adjacent to the kitchen work areas for easy delivery and clean-up of meals.
Dimensional Criteria
Place Settings
The dimensions of a dining table relate
directly to the area required for a place
setting. The approximate area of a place
15" (381)
setting is 24 inches (610 millimeters) wide by
15 inches (381 millimeters) deep. Although
the standard dimension for a placemat is 18
inches (457 millimeters) across, additional
area is allocated for serving dishes, wine
bottles, and elbow room. 24" (610)
Dining Tables
The average table manufacture allows 24
inches (610 millimeters) per person; how-
ever, other elements must be considered
when selecting the right table for a specific
number of guests. For instance, a dining
chair with arms increases the amount of
space required for an individual by 4 inches
(102 millimeters) on average. The location of
table legs may also determine the number To determine the size of a round table, multiply
of people that can sit comfortably at a table. number of seats by width of place setting (26"
A variety of table configurations are shown [660] +/-) and divide by 3.14.
here.
A square table for four

can be expanded length-
wise in 24-inch (610-mil-
limeter) increments for
additional seating.

07
Dining Room Layouts
The size and shape of a room can help to determine the best table configuration for a specific
situation. The diagrams that follow look at dining rooms combined with a living room or kitchen
as well as dining rooms of minimal dimensions. In addition to tables and loose furniture, in-
terior designers must consider the ambience of a room by including adjustable lighting above
the table and near the serving area.
Combined Dining and Kitchen

Kitchens with an eat-in dining table
require additional space adjacent to the
work zones.
32" min. 48" min.
(813) (1 219)
Combined Dining and Living Room

When space is at a premium, combining
the dining and living rooms may be
better than isolating them into separate
smaller rooms.
Types of Rooms 97
07
Minimal Dining Room: Rectangular Table
32" (813) min.

The minimum size of a dining room is
based on the size of a rectangular table
with 36 inches (914 millimeters) of clear-
10'-6" (3 200)
32" (813) min.
ance on all four sides.
11'-4" (3 454)
Minimal Dining Room: Round Table

A round table in a square room allows
space for cupboards or built-in cabinets in
the corners.
12'-0" (3 657)
48" (1 219)
Dining Room with Additional Furniture
An ideal dining room allows space for two
additional chairs and a buffet table in the
11'-6" (3 505)
room.
48" (1 219)
11'-4" (3 454)

07
LIVING ROOMS
Of all the rooms in a house, the living room has the fewest constraints since it requires nei-
ther appliances, nor plumbing fixtures, nor storage. As a result, interior designers have a
great deal of freedom in terms of the character and configuration of the space. The living room
should be designed to reflect the particular lifestyle of a family.
Typical Furniture Dimensions

Specific functional requirements and the size and shape of the room will help set the agenda
for selecting and arranging the most appropriate furniture. Below are the dimensions of typical
living room furniture. Be mindful that the dimensions of specific pieces may vary from the typi-
cal sizes. Furniture that diverges widely in dimension from these examples may be uncomfort-
able and impractical, however.
Round Table Square Table Coffee Table Rectangular Coffee Table

18–24" (457–610) 24–30" (610–762) 48" (1 219) dia. 24" (610)
dia. 54" (1 372)
3' (914) 5' (1 524) 6' (1 829) 7'-6" (2 286)

Club Chair Love Seat Sofa Sofa
The distance between chairs and sofas can influence the behavior of the occupants of a
space. Two people sitting across from each other must be within a specific dimensional range
for conversation to be comfortable. The behavior of larger groups of people around and across
a coffee table is also affected by the relative intimacy of the furniture arrangement.
8' –12' (2 438–3 658) max.
Types of Rooms 99
07
Living Room Layouts
A typical living room can

function well when ar-
ranged according to sev-
eral alternative principals.
Symmetrical
Using the natural center of
a room, furniture is placed
around a common axis.
Dual Axis
A cross axis will focus at-
tention toward the center
of a room, while other fea-
tures become a backdrop.
10 0 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

07
Local Symmetry
Separate seating areas can
make a room feel larger.
Using local symmetry can
maintain harmony and
balance within the room.
Asymmetrical
Unrelated groupings of
furniture can result in a
casual atmosphere within
a room.
Types of Rooms 101

07
BEDROOMS
The most important goal in designing a bedroom is to establish a comfortable relationship

between the occupants and their bed and between the bed and the room at large. Because
people spend an average of six to eight hours a day in the bedroom, the space must engender
feelings both of relaxation and security. The design of bedrooms should also accommodate
activities such as reading and functions such as storage for personal belongings.
Furniture
Beds Crib
The bed is the only indispensable piece of furniture

in the bedroom; many other functional require-
ments can be accommodated by built-in furniture.
Examples include built-in window seats and closets.
The standard dimensions for beds below will be
helpful when selecting the right size bed for a
specific room.
Twin Twin XL
STANDARD DIMENSIONS
Type Inches Millimeters
Crib 24 × 54 610 × 1 372
Twin 39 × 75 990 × 1 905

Full Full XL
Twin XL 39 × 75 990 × 2 134
Full 54 × 75 1 372 × 1 905
Full XL 54 × 84 1 372 × 2 134
Queen 60 × 84 1 524 × 2 134
King 76 × 84 1 930 × 2 134

Queen King

07
Additional Furniture
Depending on the size of the room, bedside tables, lounge chairs, side tables, and even
writing desks can be added to a bedroom to promote quiet activities during waking hours. Aug-
menting built-in closets, pieces such as dressers, armoires, and vanities provide other forms
of storage in larger rooms.
24"–36"
Bedroom Layouts (610–914)
Bed Centered in Room

(762–914)
30"–36"
The most typical and practical configura-

tion is to place the bed in the center of the
room against one wall. The dimensions
recommended below provide ample space
for two people to get into and out of bed.
30"–36"
(762–914)
(762–914)
30"–36"
Twin Beds in a Room

A minimum of 30 inches (762 millimeters)
between beds is recommended; this al-
lows for a shared night table and ample
room to get into and out of bed.
Types of Rooms 10 3
07
BATHROOMS
Options for bathroom configurations range from two-fixture powder rooms to five-fixture master
bathroom suites. The diagrams below include the average sizes for bathrooms based on the
number and position of fixtures. For all bathroom layouts, comfort and privacy are top priorities.
Bathroom Layouts
6'-3" (1 905)
5'-0" (1 524)
4'-0" (1 219)
2'-6" (762) 4'-6" (1 372) 7'-0" (2 134)
Powder Rooms Typical Bathroom
8‘-6" (2 591)
7'-0" (2 134)
8'-6" (2 591) 11'-6" (3 505) min.
Four-Fixture Bathroom Five-Fixture Bathroom

6'-0" (1 829)
30" (762) 36" (914) 60" (1 524)
Ideal Two-Person Bathroom

11'-6" (3 505) +/-

07
Design Considerations
Two-Person Use
Placing lavatory, bath, and toilet in a single space is not ideal when the bathroom is shared.
When two people commonly use a bathroom suite at the same time, an enclosed toilet or a
separate toilet room should be considered if space allows.
Wall and Floor Finishes

Numerous options are available for floor and wall finishes for a bathroom, from ceramic tile to
glass tile to stone. Wall finishes need to be water-resistant with a waterproof substrate to 72
inches (1 829 millimeters) above finish floor and floors need to be slip-resistant.
Lighting
Bathrooms should include both general room lighting and task lighting at the mirror and over
the shower. The best mirror lighting is at the sides via wall sconces, which prevents shadows
on the face. Wall sconces should be placed approximately 66 inches (1 676 millimeters) above
the floor and minimally 30 inches (762 millimeters) apart. Avoid using ceiling-mounted fixtures
as the sole source of light. If the bathroom is too small and there is not enough room for side
lighting, consider introducing a light cove above the mirror.
Shower Controls
The many recent advances in shower design can make the selection of shower controls con-
fusing. Here basic elements are defined:
Spray Showerhead: Traditional showerhead that can be used in a shower enclosure or as part
of a tub-shower combination. Mounted to the wall, it comes in a variety of spray patterns.
Supplemental hand-held showers allow for more flexibility.
Shower Diverter: Valve that redirects water from a spout to a showerhead or hand-held shower.
A two-way diverter is for a bathtub and shower combination. These diverters can be as simple
as a pull-tab on the tub spout that redirects the water flow from one function to the other.
A three-way diverter, which redirects the water flow among tub, showerhead, and hand-held
shower, is a separate control value mounted on the wall.
Thermostatic-controlled Valve: Valve that allows the water temperature to be set, while control-
ling the amount of water coming through the system at a precise temperature.
High-flow Valve: Valve that controls custom designed showers with multiple spray heads. At
this end of the spectrum, the various manufacturers offer many features that are unique to
their system.
Types of Rooms 10 5
07
OFFICE ENVIRONMENTS
Dimensional Criteria
A workstation has three basic components: a task surface for writing or spreading materials,
an area for the computer, and filing cabinets for storing office materials and personal belong-
ings. Below are generic dimensions for a workstation that can be modified to fit the needs of
specific users.
(762)
30"
5'-6" (1 676)
5'-6" (1 676)
3)
81
"(
32
8'-0" (2 438) 8'-0" (2 438)
Types of Files
Files are available in two basic types: lateral or pedestal. Lateral files open on the wide end,
and their drawers extend the width of a letter, legal, or ledger file folder. Pedestals files open
from the narrow end and thus need extra room in front of the drawer to allow a full extension
into the open position. When specifying five-drawer files, it is better to choose lateral files for
easier access to materials in the top drawer. The table below is a general guide to file sizes;
note that each manufacturer has specific dimensions for their files.
STANDARD DIMENSIONS
W D H
2-drawer Lateral 30", 36", 42" (762, 914, 1 067) 18" (457) 28" (711)
3-drawer Lateral 30", 36", 42" (762, 914, 1 067) 18" (457) 40" (1 016)
4-drawer Lateral 30", 36", 42" (762, 914, 1 067) 18" (457) 52" (1 321)
5-drawer Lateral 30", 36", 42" (762, 914, 1 067) 18" (457) 66" (1 676)
2-drawer Pedestal 15", 18" (381, 457) 30" (762) 28" (711)
3-drawer Pedestal 15", 18" (381, 457) 30" (762) 40" (1 016)
4-drawer Pedestal 15", 18" (381, 457) 30" (762) 52" (1 321)
5-drawer Pedestal 15", 18" (381, 457) 30" (762) 66" (1 676)

07
Furniture Systems
Whether incorporated into a private office or into an open plan, modular furniture offers flex-
ibility for an office environment. There are three basic types of modular furniture systems:
freestanding, panel-based, or table-based. Each type of design incorporates features needed
at a workstation, such as hinged grommets, cable troughs, adjustable legs, and tackable
surfaces.
Freestanding Furniture
Freestanding furniture does not require
panels or partitions to make different
configurations of workstations
Panel-Based Systems
Panel-based systems define worksta-
tion boundaries with low partitions.
Horizontal surfaces, files, and storage
units are attached to the panels to
complete the workstation.
Table-Based Systems
Table-based systems are suited to
collaborative environments where
interaction with colleagues is required.
Depending on the system design, files
and storage units can be placed under-
neath or alongside the table.
Types of Rooms 107

07
RESTAURANT ENVIRONMENTS
Restaurant types range from utilitarian fast-food purveyors to full-service restaurants with
elaborate themes. Restaurant design encompasses a great number of issues regarding
adjacencies, kitchen layouts, lighting, acoustics, and so forth. The interior designer must be
familiar with each, especially with the dimensional criteria for seating layouts.
Before planning the seating layout, the designer must understand the restaurant concept. The
concept should define the type of dining experience offered, the intended clientele, the hours
of operation, and the menu. If the restaurateur’s idea is to put the workings of the chef on
display, for example, then the seating should be arranged so that the kitchen is visible from
every table. Equally, the spacing between tables can have a substantial impact on the charac-
ter of a restaurant. Tables closely packed will result in a loud and lively space, since patrons
need to compete with their neighbors to be heard. Conversely, tables spaced far apart tend to
separate diners into quieter pockets of conversation.
Types of Seating
Restaurant seating falls into three general categories: loose chairs, built-in seating (for
example, banquettes), and bar seating. Seat height is typically 17 to 18 inches (432 to 57 mil-
limeters) at a table or low counter. Bar seating typically ranges from 30 to 34 inches (762 to 864
millimeters) in height. All seats should be a minimum of 16 square inches (406 square millime-
ters). For the full-service dining experience, consider the use of padded seats and armchairs
for ease of getting in and out of the seat.
Tables and Counters
In the restaurant trade, tables are known as tops. The most common sizes are two tops
(seating two people) and four tops (seating four people). Beyond these sizes, tables are
typically combined or expanded. Some tables have flip-up corners, which convert a square
table seating four to a round table seating six people. Table height is typically 30 inches (762
millimeters). A square table with a minimum dimension of 36 inches (914 millimeters) across
can accommodate four people. A square table with a minimum dimension of 24 inches (610
millimeters) across is acceptable for two; however, 30 inches (762 millimeters) is preferable.
Smaller tables are acceptable when only drink service is provided. Counters range in height
from 28 to 36 inches (711 to 914 millimeters); however, the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) requires that 60 linear inches (1 524 millimeters) of a counter be no more than 34 inches
(864 millimeters) high to accommodate patrons in wheelchairs.

07
MINIMUM TABLE DIMENSIONS
Shape Seats W L
Square 2 24", 30" (610, 762) 24", 30" (610, 762)
Square 4 36" (914) 36 (914)
Round 4 36"–42" (914–1 067) dia.
Round 6 42"–48" (1 067–219) dia.
Round 8–10 66" (1 676) dia.
Rectangular 4 (2 per side) 30" (762) 42"–48" (1 067–219)
Rectangular 6 (3 per side) 30"–36" (762–914) 72"–84" (1 829–2 134)
Rectangular 8 (2 per side) 36" (914) 90"–106" (2 286–692)
24" (610) 28"–38"

(711–965)
(178–229)
(1 067–143)
7"–9"
(1 067–143)
(610–864)
42"–45"
30"–34"
42"–45"
24" (610)
Working Counter
Dining Counter
60"–74" (1 524–880)
24"–30" (610–762)
(914–1 219)
(1 067–143)
36"–48"
42"–45"
18" (457)
30" (610)
(178–229)
7"–9"
Standing Counter Banquette
These sections describe ideal vertical dimensions. Please note that all vertical dimensions
are subject to local building code and accessibility regulations.
Types of Rooms 10 9
07
Typical Restaurant Layout
A Banquette
B Table Setting
C Bar Seating
D Wall Seating
A
(914)
36"
24"–30"
(914)
36"
(610–762)
36" 36" D
(457) (457)
18" 18"
(914) (914)
(762)
30"
(152)
6"
The plan notes minimal dimensions for access aisles, limited-passage,

and no-passage aisles. Wheelchair-accessible aisles are required from the
restaurant’s entry to the accessible seating and restrooms.

07
Design Considerations
Spacing between Tables

As long as the spacing between tables meets the minimum dimensions required for an access
aisle, the spacing is subjective and driven mostly by the restaurant concept. Full-service res-
taurants provide more space between tables for a comfortable dining experience, while fast-
food restaurants maximize the number of seats. The access aisle dimension is determined
by the local building code and by the ADA, which specifies a minimum width of 36 inches (914
millimeters) in the access aisles and also requires that all accessible tables be located adja-
cent to an access aisle.
Interior Finishes
Interior finishes are the most tangible elements that a designer can use to describe the type
and quality of the restaurant. Certainly, materials appropriate for the public areas will differ
from those appropriate for the kitchen; but in both areas, fire-retardant materials must be
utilized. In addition to the quality of the materials specified, it is important to consider their
maintenance standards to ensure their suitability for the type of restaurant.
Lighting
The ambiance of a restaurant will be informed by the lighting design. Low-level mood lighting
is typical of fine dining, while bright lighting offers a more casual dining experience. Over the
course of a day, restaurants can change the lighting to suggest different moods. Most restau-
rant lighting is incandescent because of the warm tones that the lamps provide; however, fluo-
rescent lighting is more energy efficient and may be more appropriate in the kitchen areas.
Acoustics
The acoustics in a restaurant go hand-in-hand with the concept. In some restaurants, for ex-
ample, the reverberation of hard surfaces adds to the desired effect of the dining experience.
There are a number of ways to control the acoustics in an environment, as long as the desired
effect is understood. The simplest way to control acoustics is through sound-absorptive
materials. These can range from carpet on the floor to fabric paneling on the walls to sound-
absorptive tiles in the ceiling. Another strategy worth considering is to compartmentalize the
restaurant into different types of rooms with different noise levels to suit the various patrons.
Types of Rooms 111

08
Chapter 8: Code and Accessibility

Building codes and the Americans with Disabilities Act are the two basic standards
with which the interior designer needs to comply. The building code is specified by
the jurisdiction in which a project will be built. These codes can be defined by a
state, county, township, or city and are typically based on a national model such as
BOCA, IBC, and UBC. The main focus of these codes is to secure the public’s life
safety. Codes are frequently amended, and designers need to know which edition
the jurisdiction is adhering to during the permitting timeframe of a specific project.
ADA was passed in 1990 to secure civil rights protections for people with disabili-
ties. Unlike the building code, ADA includes design guidelines and requirements
based on the principle of equality for people with disabilities. Compliance with the
building code thus does not mean compliance with ADA, and vice versa. ADA is
the national accessibility code, and as with the building code, jurisdictions have
interpretations of the guidelines that are specific to the governing municipality. It is
reasonable to assume that these guidelines are written for public facilities and not
for private use.
The terminology of the building code and accessibility guidelines are not always the
same. While interpreting a code or guideline, it is important to reference the correct
definitions.
KEY TERMS AS DEFINED BY ADA
Access Aisle: Accessible pedestrian space corridors, floors, ramps, elevators, lifts, and
between elements such as parking spaces, clear floor space at fixtures.
seating, or desks that provides appropriate
clearances per the ADA guidelines. Accessible Space: Space that complies with
ADA regulations and can be used by persons
Accessible: Site, building, facility, or portion with disabilities.
thereof that complies with the ADA guide-
lines and that can be approached, entered, Adaptability: Ability of certain buildings,
and used by persons with disabilities. spaces, and elements (e.g., kitchen coun-
ters, sinks, grab bars) to be added to or
Accessible Route: Continuous, unobstructed altered so as to accommodate the needs of
path connecting all accessible elements and persons with or without disabilities or with
spaces within or between buildings or facili- different types of degrees of disability.
ties. Interior accessible routes may include

08
Adaptable: Able to readily be made acces- Dwelling Unit: Unit providing living facilities
sible to, functional for, and safe for use by for one or more persons.
persons with disabilities without structural
change. Egress, Means of: Continuous and unob-
structed path of travel from any point in a
Area of Rescue Assistance: Area with direct building or structure to a public way, consist-
access to an exit, where people who cannot ing of three separate and distinct parts: the
use stairs may remain temporarily in safety exit access, the exit, and the exit discharge.
to await further instructions or assistance A means of egress comprises the vertical
during an emergency evacuation. and horizontal means of travel and should
include intervening room spaces, doorways,
Automatic Door: Door equipped with a hallways, corridors, passageways, balco-
power-operated mechanism and controls nies, ramps, stairs, enclosures, lobbies,
that open and close the door automatically. horizontal exits, courts, and yards.
The switch that begins the automatic cycle
may be a photoelectric device, floor mat, or Entrance: Any access point to a building or
manual switch. portion of a building or facility that is used
for the purpose of entering. An entrance in-
Bathroom: Space or series of interconnected cludes the approach walk, stairs, lifts, ramp,
spaces that contain a toilet, sink, and bath- or other vertical access leading to the en-
tub or shower. trance platform; the entrance platform itself;
vestibules; the entry door(s) or gate(s); and
Change of Use: Varying the use of a building the hardware of the entry door(s) or gate(s).
from a private to a public one.
Ground Floor: Floor of a building closest to
Clear: Unobstructed. the level of the exterior grade and any floor
within 36 inches (914 millimeters) of an ex-
Clear Floor Space: Minimum unobstructed terior grade at some or all of its perimeter.
floor or ground space required to accom- Buildings on sloped sites may have more
modate a single, stationary wheelchair and than one ground floor.
occupant. Unless otherwise stated, the
dimensions of clear floor space shall be 30 Half Bathroom: Space with a toilet and a
by 48 inches (762 by 1 220 millimeters). sink.
Common Use: Refers to those interior and Loft: An intermediate level between the floor
exterior rooms, spaces, or elements that are and ceiling of any story, located within a
made available for the use of a restricted room or rooms of a dwelling.
group of people.
Mezzanine or Mezzanine Floor: Intermediate
Detectable Warning: Standardized surface level between the floor and ceiling of any
feature built into or applied to walking sur- story with an aggregate floor area of not
faces or other elements to give warning of more than 33 percent of the floor area of the
hazards on a circulation path. story in which the level is located.
113
08
Occupiable: Room or enclosed space Space: Definable area; for example, a room,
designed for human occupancy in which toilet room, hall, assembly area, entrance,
individuals congregate for amusement, storage room, alcove, courtyard, or lobby.
education, or similar purposes, or in which
occupants are engaged in labor, and which Story: Portion of a building between the up-
is equipped with means of egress, light, and per surface of a floor and the upper surface
ventilation. of the floor or roof next above. This portion
of the building must include occupiable
Ordinary Repairs: Any maintenance that space to be considered a story. There may
does not affect structure, egress, fire pro- be more than one floor level within a story,
tection systems, fire ratings, energy conser- as in the case of a mezzanine.
vation provisions, plumbing, and sanitary,
gas, electrical, or other utilities. Structural Changes: Major reconstruction of
walls or partitions, or relocation of bearing
Power-assisted Door: Door with a mecha- walls or partitions. Minor alterations, includ-
nism that helps to open the door or that ing the opening of wall sections and/or the
reduces the opening resistance of the door, relocation of equipment or fixtures, are not
on the activation of a switch or a continued considered structural changes.
force applied to the door itself.
Tactile: Describes an object that can be
Ramp: Walking surface that has a running perceived using the sense of touch.
slope greater than 1:20 but no greater than
or equal to 1:12. Tactile Warning: A surface texture applied
to or built into walking surfaces or other ele-
Reasonable Modification: Physical changes ments to warn visually impaired persons of
to multiple dwellings requested by persons hazards in the path of travel.
with disabilities or their agents to enable full
use and enjoyment thereof. Unassisted Access: Condition that enables
a person with a disability to obtain informa-
Remodeling: Modification beyond an interior tion about and to maneuver a path of travel
decoration or involving any structural changes, without the assistance of another person,
or the redecorating of a public building for except at those points and under those con-
which the cost of such refurbishing, updating, ditions in which individuals without disabili-
or redecorating equals or exceeds 5 percent ties would need assistance from another
of the full and fair cash value of the building. person. This definition does not restrict the
right of a person with a disability to request
Repair: Reconstruction or renewal of any and receive assistance.
part of an existing building for the purpose
of its maintenance. Use: Purpose for which a building is de-
signed, used, or intended to be used.
Sleeping Accommodations: Rooms in which
people sleep; for example, dormitory and Walk (Walkway): Interior or exterior pathway
hotel or motel guest rooms or suites. with a prepared surface that is intended for
pedestrian use, including, but not limited to,
general pedestrian areas such as plazas,
courts, and crosswalks.

08
DOORS
Clear Opening
The minimum clear opening width is 32 inches (813 millimeters) measured with the door open
in a 90-degree position. The measurement should be taken from the face of the door to the
stop on the strike jamb. For bifold, accordion, and pocket doors, the clear widths are mea-
sured when the doors are in a fully opened position. No projections are allowed in clear open-
ing space, with the exception of door hardware.
For double doors, one leaf must comply with the minimum clear opening. Shallow closets
that are less than 24 inches (610 millimeters) deep are exempt from the minimum clear width.
Doors that are recessed more than 6 inches (152 millimeters) from the door opening need to
comply with pull- or push-side requirements.
32" (813) 32" (813)
An offset pivot allows a door

to swing clear of the frame. Offset Hinged Door Hinged Door
32" (813) 32" (813)
Pocket Door
32" (813)
Pivot Door
Sliding Door
2
1
Thresholds
The maximum height for a threshold ½" (12.7)
pile
is a half inch with a slope no greater
than 1:2. Half-inch (12.7-millimeter) pile
carpet is the maximum allowed.
Code and Accessibility 115

08
Door Hardware
Handles, pulls, latches, and locks must be easy to grasp with one hand. Door hardware should
be operable with a closed fist or loose grip. All operating devices should be mounted between
34 and 48 inches (864–1 220 millimeters) above finished floor.
Opening Force
The opening force for an interior hinged,
sliding, or folding door should not exceed 5
34"–38" (864–965)
pounds (2.26 kilograms). The opening force
does not consider the force required to oper-
ate a latch or the initial force to open the
door; it is a measure, rather, of the continu-
ous application of force.
Pull-Side Clearance
(1 525)
60"
(1 220)
18" 24" 48"
(457) (610)
Front Approach Latch-Side Approach

(1 370)
(1 525)
54"
60"
42" 36"
(1 065) (914)
Hinge-Side Approach

08
MANEUVERING CLEARANCES AT MANUAL DOORS AND GATES
Approach Direction Door or Gate Perpendicular to Doorway Parallel to Doorway

Side
Front Pull 60" (1 525) 18" (457)
Hinge-side Pull 60" (1 525) 36" (914)
Hinge-side Pull 54" (1 370) 42" (1 065)
Latch-side Pull 48" (1 220) 1
24" (610)
Front Push 48" (1 220) 0" (0) 3
Hinge-side Push 42" (1 065) 2
22" (560) 4
Latch-side Push 42" (1 065)1 24" (610)
1
Add 6" (150) if closer is provided.
2
Add 6" (150) if closer and latch are provided.
3
Add 12" (305) if closer and latch are provided.
4
Beyond hinge side.
48" (1 220)
12" (305)
Push-Side Clearance
closer
Front Approach
48" (1 220)
42" (1 065)
22" 22"
(560) (560)
closer no closer
Hinge-Side Approach
48" (1 220)
42" (1 065)
24" 24"
(610) (610)
closer no closer
Latch-Side Approach

08
VERTICAL CIRCULATION
Stairs
ADA requires that all steps in a flight of stairs have

uniform riser and tread dimensions. The minimum
riser height is 4 inches (102 millimeters) and the maxi-
mum riser height is 6 inches (152 millimeters). The
minimum depth of a tread is 11 inches (280 millime-
ters); however, these dimensions should be verified
with local building codes. ADA does not permit open
risers. 12"
(305)
(864–965)
34"–38"
(2 032)
80"
tread landing
riser
T + 12" (305)
(2 032)
80"
return handrail
to wall
(686)
27"
A rule of thumb for a well-propor-

tioned stair is that the sum of two
18' (5.48 m)
risers plus one tread should equal

12' (3.65 m) max.
between 24 and 25 inches (610–35

landings
between
millimeters). For example: (2) 6" ris-

ers + 13" tread = 25" or (2) 152 mm
risers + 330 mm tread = 482 mm.
1
/2" (13)
radius max.
1 1/2" (38) 1 1/2" (38)
30° max.
slope
Flush Riser Beveled Nosing Curved Nosing

08
min. 44" (1 118) between

handrails, if stairs = area
of evacuation
dimension between
accessible width =
50≤ occupants =
50≥ occupants =
handrails
44" (1 118)
DN
36" (914)
minimum width =
width of stairs
DN
12"
(305)
guardrail
handrail handrail
4" (102)
34"–38" (864–965)
42" (1 067)
4" (102)
Guardrail Handrail
cross section
1 1/2" (38) cross section not
1 1/2" – 2"
to exceed 21/2" (64)
(38–51)
Handrail Cross Sections

08
Ramps
The maximum rise of a ramp cannot exceed 30 inches (762 millimeters) in height without a
landing. Ramps must have landings at both top and bottom. The maximum slope of a ramp
is 1:12. A slope that is 1:20 or less is not considered a ramp and does not require handrails.
Ramp runs that exceed a 6-inch (152-millimeter) vertical drop require handrails on the sides,
as well as vertical edge protection or a 12-inch (305-millimeter) horizontal surface extension
beyond the handrails. The minimum clear width of a ramp is 36 inches (914 millimeters).
clear width
36" (914)
max. slope 1:12
UP
slope of 1:20≤ is not a ramp
60"(1 524) min.
ramp runs 6" (152) ≥

require handrails
landing
ramp
12
1
60" (1 524) min. 60" (1 524) 60" (1 524) min.

36" (914) min.
landing ramp landing ramp

60" (1 524) min.
ramp landing
Straight Run Ramp Change of Direction

08
Elevators
Visible, tactile, and audible displays are

required at and around elevators to allow hall signal
disabled persons to function independently
in elevators. Hall signals at each elevator tactile and
Braille floor
should announce the arrival of an elevator
indicator
audibly and visually. Audible signals sound call button
once for cars traveling up and twice for cars
traveling down; for new elevators, they must
verbally announce each floor at each stop.
60" (1 524)
Tactile designations are required at jambs
and should be mounted 60 inches (1 524
millimeters) above finished floor. Hoistway
key access and elevator call buttons must
be mounted 35 to 48 inches (889 to 1 220 mil-
limeters) high, as should all interior control
buttons unless the building exceeds sixteen
floor levels.
80" (2 032) min. 68" (1 727) min.

51" (1 295) min.
51" (1 295) min.
Centered Door Off-Centered Door
Elevator Cab Control Panel

48” (1 220) max.
35" (889) min.

08
36" (914) 56" (1 422) wall-mtd. toilet 56" (1 422)
12 2
wall-mtd. toilet
59" (1 499) floor-mtd.
toilet 59" (1 499) floor-mtd.
toilet
32" (813)
48" (1 220)
Standard Stall
Toilet Stalls
18"
(457)
BATHROOMS
66" (1 676)
60" (1 524) min.
End-of-Row Stall
60" (1 524) min.
COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

32" (813) 12" (305)
6” (152)
52” (1 321) min.
36" (914)
32" (813)
18"
(457)
48" (1 220)
56" (1 422)
54" (1 372) min. 12" (305)
33"–36" (838–914) latch-side
approach 54" (1 372) min.
17" (432)
Ambulatory Accessible Stall

48" (1 220) min. 66" (1 676) wall-mtd.
other approaches toilet
69" (1 753) floor-mtd. toilet
12" (305)
54" (1 372) min.
12" (305)
Side-Wall Elevation
42" (1 067)
19" (483)
60" (1 524)
56" (1 422)
Mid-Row Stall
32" (813)
18"
48" (1 220) min.
(457)
08
Lavatories
17" (432) min.
40" (1 016) max.

34" (863) max.
27" (686) min.
9" (229) min.
19" (483) max.
6" (152) max. 6" (152) max.
17" (432) min.v
Showers 36" (914)

60" (1 524) min.
30" (762) min.
36" (914)
Bathtubs
15" (381)
seat
seat
seat
30" x 60" (762 x 48" x 60" (1 220 x 30" x 75" (762 x 1 905)
1 524) min. clear 1 524) min. clear min. clear floor space
floor space floor space
12" (305) 24" (610) 12" (305) 48" (1 220)

max. min. max. min.
9" (229)
(838–914)
min.
33"–36"
Code and Accessibility 12 3

08
KITCHENS
When designing a kitchen for a multifamily dwelling, interior designers must determine the
jurisdictional requirements for their specific project because they can vary depending on the
type of project and the number of units. The layout for an accessible kitchen follows the same
principles as that of a standard kitchen, with additional criteria regarding maneuverability. In
general, clear floor space is required at fixtures and appliances, and the shape and size will
depend on whether the approach is parallel or perpendicular.
40" (1 016) min. 60" (1 524) min.
Galley Kitchen U-Shaped Kitchen
36" (914) 60" (1 524) min.
Front Approach

08
51" (1 295) to bottom of cabinet
hood controls
perpendicular
approach
retractable
34" bread board
(864)
clear knee space
Adaptable Kitchen Design
Depending on the specific project, a kitchen

might be designed as “adaptable,” meaning
that certain features can be adapted for per-
sons with or without disabilities. Examples
of adaptable features are removable base
cabinets for clear knee space and adjust-
able counter heights.
Code and Accessibility 12 5

08
SEATING
Minimum aisle widths must connect all occupiable areas, such as seating, bar areas, rest-
rooms, and exits. Accessible seating should be evenly distributed around the dining room and
should be able to accommodate parties of all sizes. Disabled patrons should have access to
all sunken or raised areas of a restaurant; however, certain exceptions may be granted in a
specific jurisdiction.
Typical Layout for

Accessible Seating
60"
(1 524) min.
(483)
19"
36" (914)
42"
(1 067)
18"
(457)
(1 067)
42"
(457)
18"

08
Furniture
19" (483) min.
(711–864)
28"–34"
36"–39" (914–91)
19" (483) min.
27" (686)
min.
Table tops and counters should range between 28 and 34 inches (711–864 millimeters) in
height for accessible patrons. The clear knee space must be 27 inches (686 millimeters) high,
30 inches (762 millimeters) wide, and 19 inches (483 millimeters) deep underneath tables and
counters.
Counters
60" (1 524) min.

34" (864)
(711–864)
above
28"–34"
At dining counters that exceed 34 inches (864 millimeters) in height, at least 60 inches (1 524
millimeters) of the counter length must be 28 to 34 inches in height (711 to 864 millimeters), or
accessible seating must be provided within the same area.

PERSPECTIVES ON SPACE:
MICHAEL GABELLINI
Michael Gabellini, describe yourself and your practice.
My firm is an interdisciplinary design studio specializing in architecture and interior

design. We operate as a kind of high-octane design shop, generating concepts and
assembling teams of designers and artists to cross-pollinate a project. The practice
was founded in 1990, after I returned from living in Italy for a while, which offered a
unique vantage point from which to initiate my own work.
Who were your mentors that taught you about design? At what point in your life did
you feel confident about designing?
My father was an artist and interior designer. Growing up in Pennsylvania, in an area

with rich art and industry traditions, design was a constant undercurrent, a way of
seeing the world. This initiated a fascination with design as something that can
enhance your daily life, from spatial geometry and movement to better lighting or
furnishings.
Until I arrived at RISD, however, I thought I was going to be a sculptor. This sculp-
tural sensibility percolated into my architectural studies and gave me an interesting
counterpoint to work from. The program was very rigorous and conceptually oriented,
which suited me well. It was at this point that different influences and interests con-
verged into the desire to become a designer.
I was also infused with purpose while studying at the Architectural Association in
London during a very intoxicating period with mentors such as Rem Koolhaas,
Bernard Tschumi, and Zaha Hadid.
Who or what do you look at for inspiration?
In terms of pure architecture, I look to the modern masters like Mies, Neutra, and
Barragán. I also love the early modern French designers Paul Dupré-Lafon and Jean-
Michel Franc. But equally important for me is the work of contemporary artists and
specific artistic sensibilities; for example, arte povera, the California light artists,
and American land art, such as Robert Smithson’s landfill projects.
How do you refresh your creativity?
It percolates down through art and travel and those rare moments of solitude. I find
the visual conversations among artists to be quite stimulating, a feast for the senses
and the mind. And there is no substitute for the fresh perspective and insights you

gain from immersing yourself in different cultures and places, each with its own vocabulary of
public and private space.
Many of your projects “dematerialize” the corners of a room by incorporating reveals and light
conditions at the intersections of ceilings, walls, and floors. Does that serve to emphasize
planes rather than volumes? Please describe your intent.
It’s about creating a sense of floating planes that affect and help sculpt the volume in order
to create a seductive interplay between light and space. Also, to convey a sense of weight
and weightlessness to blur the distinctions between indoors and outdoors. Ultimately, I want
to elevate the essential acts of perception and deepen the awareness of space and the body
moving through it.
Lighting seems to be very Important in your work. How do you develop your lighting strategies,
and how does this affect your reading of space? Is there a lighting designer with whom you
collaborate?
We wouldn’t be the first designers to consider light as the prime animator of space, but we
really have to think about the cycle of illumination from daylight to moonlight and how it relates
to the lives of our individual clients. We seek a balance of natural and artificial light to mold
the space, creating a functional and alluring frame to the activities of viewing art, shopping,
lounging, bathing, or whatever the program may be. Over the years, we have collaborated with
a handful of talented lighting designers such as William Armstrong and Ross Muir.
The East Hampton residence that you designed is unlike any of your other projects in that it
places the existing house on a minimalist plinth and creates an exterior room. In the context of
the rest of your work it could be considered a landscape project. What is your opinion about the
differences and similarities among interior design, architecture, and landscape architecture?
The Bellport House was indeed a special project, but actually I have always been very inter-
ested in the spatial crossover from outdoors to indoors. Our first project for Jil Sander, the
Paris flagship, was conceived as an interior “courtyard” within the Beaux-Arts mansion. More
recently, we designed the louvered ceiling and lighting concept of Bergdorf Goodman’s fifth
floor to evoke something of a sun-lit afternoon.
The notion of “exterior rooms” also came into play at the Rockefeller Center observation
decks, where we designed the terraces with optical glass screens to offer the purest possible
viewing experience. Whether we are designing a piece of furniture or an urban square, we con-
sider the discipline of design to be the master mediator of scale and use.
12 9
Your color palette is predominantly white. Other architects like Richard Meier and Philippe
Starck also use a lot of white. How would you say you distinguish the use of “white” in your
work?
The point of distinction might be the depth and number of whites we use. In any one of our
purer environments, regardless of site, there are as many as five to eight shades of white to
highlight or shadow a space, much the way women apply cosmetics to strengthen or diminish
certain natural features.
Ultimo Boutique in San Francisco has a very bold color palette. What inspired your use of color?
Ultimo was conceived as a red chinoiserie box, and as a dramatic performance space for
entering into a sculpted, graphic world in miniature. Like falling through a looking glass—à la
Alice—and discovering a saturated world of bespoke women’s collections with tantalizing ob-
jects shaped by veils of ambient light.
Is there a building or project type that you haven’t done that you wish you could do?
We have honed our obsession with art, and spaces for viewing art, over the years. So it would be
natural for us to design a museum from the ground up. This would help nurture our obsession.
Could you name two or three contemporary spaces that impressed or affected you, and explain
why?
James Turrell’s Roden Crater Project in Arizona. A celestial connection between earth and at-
mosphere, his ultimate perceptual cell.
Walter De Maria’s Lightning Field in New Mexico. A heightened field of perception hovering
above the iron ore beneath, also a place that has a peculiar effect on ants.
Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty in Utah. An enduring gesture that shows it’s possible to do
something man-made that is meaningful.

Overleaf Left Top of the Rock.
Right Ultimo, San Francisco; Jill Sander, Paris. Photos by Paul Warchol.
Perspectives on Space 131

3.
S U R FAC E
13 4
Of all the tools that interior designers use to define space, surfaces are
perhaps the simplest and, at the same time, most provocative. The impact
of the detailed, behind-the-scenes work that allows an interior to function
effectively will be lost unless the finished surfaces are well integrated into
the project.
Theories abound about how surfaces affect mood, atmosphere, comfort,

and the basic ways a space is inhabited. The different ways in which
designers approach these ideas have created some of the most challeng-
ing and thoughtful expressions of what an interior is.
Surface is often discussed in terms of its depth, its relative thinness, and
the appropriateness of a particular surface to function, space, and durabil-
ity. The more the designer understands how color, material, texture, and
pattern have developed, how choices of finish translate into ideas of taste,
and how surface variation can impact a space, the greater, and richer, the
opportunities will be for the design practice.
135
09
Chapter 9: Color
Color remains one of the most challenging and contentious aspects of interior
design. As the painter and color theorist Josef Albers noted, “colors present them-
selves in continuous flux, constantly related to changing neighbors and changing
conditions.”
The application and mixing of color has long been an intense area of study for sci-
entists, artists, and designers. At the same time, color can be an extremely subjec-
tive topic: Everyone has their favorite colors—colors that remind them of a place
or time, or that have specific emotive qualities. The role of color in interior design
resists dissemination into simple rules and ideas, and yet understanding the com-
plexities of using color in a space is fundamental to creating a successful interior.
Thus, interior designers must learn the characteristics of color and how it can act
as a focusing and organizing agent.
FUNDAMENTALS OF COLOR
Color, fundamentally, is the result of the way in which an object absorbs or reflects the visible
light in the color spectrum. An object that the eye perceives as red absorbs every color except
red, which it reflects. White is often described as the reflection of all colors, while black is
described as the absorption of all colors.
Seeing Color infrared

Color is a physical phenomenon,
and the range of colors stretches
far beyond what the human eye
is capable of perceiving. At either
end of the visible spectrum of light
are the imperceptible infrared and
ultraviolet lights. In between is
“human color space.” This model
is best observed when light is
refracted in a prism and the eye
identifies the resultant color wave-
lengths—whose number is consid-
ered to be around 10 million—as
a rainbow.
ultraviolet

09
Additive and Subtractive Color Mixing
To think about color relative to light and its effect leads to a discussion of how color mixes,
either in additive or subtractive systems. Light that is emitted to create color is often referred
to as additive. Combinations of red, green, and blue primary colors produce other colors; all
three combined produces white. Using this color mix are monitors of all kinds, from computer
screens to television sets to flat-panel display systems. Subtractive color mixing exists in
two forms: combinations of cyan, magenta, and yellow and combinations of red, yellow, and
blue. In these systems, the base colors are added to each other on an opaque medium such
as paper, and their mixing changes the way colors are absorbed and reflected. CMY provides
the model for the printing industry, and RYB is the model for both fine art training and color
theory.
Additive Color Subtractive CMY and RYB

Starting from the primary group of In a subtractive system, colors are used to filter out the red, green,
red, green, and blue, an additive and blue from white light. In this model, color is added to paper
color model occurs when colored through the mediums of ink and paint, and colors are produced
lights overlap and mix to produce through the absorption the wavelengths other than what the eye sees.
a visible spectrum. The mixing of The two color models of subtractive systems are defined by their use
the primaries results in the color in the printing industry—which combines cyan, magenta, yellow, and
white. black to create a visible spectrum of color—and the fine arts—where
red, yellow, and blue form the basis for mixing colors.
THEORIES OF COLOR
Many attempts have been made to establish methodologies to evaluate the advantages of
certain color combinations. Very early on, color wheels or color spheres were engaged to visu-
ally communicate the associations and range of colors, and their relationships to each other.
In his Opticks of 1706, Isaac Newton split white light into seven colors—orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet, and red—arranged on a disk in proportionate slices such that the spinning
of the disk would result in the color white. Newton’s objectification of color into a mathemati-
cally understandable system allowed for quantifiable experimentation.
137
09
The German poet Goethe along with the romantic painter Philipp Otto Runge further expanded
color theory (in, respectively, Theory of Color of 1807 and Color Sphere of 1810) to include re-
search into the subjective effects of colors: the contrast of complementary colors, the visual
illusion of afterimages, and the contrasting shadows seen in colored light. They also associ-
ated color with emotion—speaking of certain colors as warm and others as cool.
E Y Orange F
R ed
Ye
llo
w
Z
D
G
Violet
O
Gree
n
C
A
igo
In d
B Blue
Newton’s Hue Circle Itten’s Color Wheel

In his attempt to develop a theory of color, Johannes Itten developed his color wheel based
Newton was the first to understand that colors on primary colors of red, yellow, and blue. From
did not lay on a linear chart, but rather existed this simple starting point, two steps of mix-
in a continuum. The hue circle is represented by ing result in a 12-hue color circle. Itten did not
white at the center (O) and the hues arranged believe in further expanding the wheel to 24 - or
in order around the disk. Each hue is given a 100 -hue wheels, as the dilution of the naming
weight, or proportion, that balances it within the system he established made it difficult to easily
system. Newton closed his system through a identify color distinctions.
mix between red and violet that did not appear
in his natural primary spectrum.
Itten and Albers
In the early twentieth century, two supportive theories of color emerged from the Basic Stud-
ies curriculum at the Weimar Bauhaus that continue to influence the way we comprehend color
today. The first emerged out of the teaching of Johannes Itten, who developed the 12-hue color
wheel. He identified seven rules of contrast that examined, in a scientific way, the subjective
effects of color combination, proportion, and harmony. Itten’s philosophical and mystical be-
liefs influenced his understanding of the use of color and have led some to dismiss the im-
portance of his discoveries. His Art of Color, however, is still in publication. Josef Albers, who
developed his Interaction of Color after he had begun to teach at Yale University, expanded on
the instructional exercises of Itten to further emphasize the notion that color and the interac-
tion of colors were a discipline to be learned.

09
The Munsell Model
In the early 1900s, the American Albert Munsell developed a system of color analysis based
around hue, value, and chroma. These elements form a three-dimensional model: Starting
with a circular relationship of hues, Munsell established a decimal notational system to de-
scribe the transitional relationship as one color is identified from another.
º
%
%
Munsell’s Color Sphere Hue, Saturation, and Brightness

In Munsell’s system, hue is arranged around the In most software applications, color can be
perimeter of a sphere, value as it moves from chosen using the Hue, Saturation, and Bright-
the top pole (light) to the bottom (dark), and ness (HSB) model (also referred to as Hue,
chroma as it moves toward the center. Munsell Saturation, and Value). Hue is measured in
also developed nomenclature that made it easy degrees from 0 to 360 ; saturation determines
to identify any color in his system. R 5/10 would the vibrancy as the color moves toward white;
be red, value 5, chroma 10. and brightness changes the darkness of a color.
Saturation and brightness are measured in
percentages.
Munsell also limited the nomenclature of his color system, referring to orange as red-yellow
to avoid confusion. His second term, value, describes the light or dark qualities of a color, on
a scale from 1 (dark) to 10 (light). His final term, chroma, identifies a color as it moves inward
from the hue band to the value pole. Other color models refer to this as saturation. To account
for the variation in strength of a color (red is considered to be twice as strong in chroma as
blue-green), Munsell developed what he called the color tree.
These systems serve as a starting point in understanding the complex relationships of bal-
ance, proportion, harmony, and effect that combinations of colors can produce. Each has
its merits and applications for an interior design practice. Furthermore, their translation to a
three-dimensional design space needs to be tested in-situ to observe the results. The follow-
ing pages examine how one of these systems—that elaborated by Itten—functions as a model
for developing a deeper understanding of color.
Color 139
09
RELATIVE COLOR
Color Temperature
Color, inherently, has temperature. Color can be described as being warm (reds, oranges,
yellows) or cold (blues, greens). Neutrals (whites, grays) also have ranges of temperatures.
Whites can shift in tone from cool to warm, and the change in temperature can enhance and
tie together a color scheme. Grays, too, have temperature. In the Pantone color system, cool
grays tend toward blue, while warm grays gradate toward brown.
Warm and Cool Colors
Color and Material
The role of color in interior design is further complicated by its association with materials.
Materials have qualities of absorption, reflectance, and luminance that the abstract systems
of color do not take into account. Materials might contain many layers of color, and often vari-
ations of color can occur within a single material sample. The proportional use of material
within a three-dimensional space also affects how color is experienced. Through the complex
interaction of color and material, an interior designer can create atmospheres of intimacy or
freshness, vibrancy or muteness, and even begin to affect other senses such as sight and
hearing.
Color in interior design can, moreover, be divided into two distinct categories: color as an
applied surface and color as integral to a material. Paint, lacquer, specialty finishes, certain
laminates, and other applications of color to the finished surface of an object are efficient
and modifiable strategies for color use. There are many instances where paint and applied
finishes should be avoided, however: Adolf Loos’s aphorism “Do not paint concrete gray, or
wood brown” holds true here. Materials with integral color—which require no finish other than
a sealer—have greater depth of surface, which allows more complex, precise color relation-
ships to be developed.
(OTHER, RELATED ASPECTS OF COLOR WILL BE EXAMINED IN THE CHAPTERS DEDICATED TO MATERIAL, TEXTURE,
PATTERN, AND LIGHT.)

09
Color Schemes
Color schemes are the result of turning color combinations into a set of rules for an interior
palette. Grounded in color theory, the designer can creatively select and organize color in
harmonious combinations. In the abstract—that is, when color is not tied to a material—there
are six “classic” combinations of color: monochromatic, analogous, complementary, split
complementary, triadic, and tetradic. The examples below use a full-saturation color wheel,
but the designer can vary both saturation and brightness.
Monochromatic Analogous Complementary

Uses a single color in a variety of Uses colors directly adjacent to the High-contrast scheme developed
saturations and lightnesses to unify chosen color. The prime color serves as by paring the chosen color with that
a scheme. the dominant color in the scheme. directly opposite on the color wheel.
Split Complementary Triadic Tetradic

Variation on the complementary Uses colors equally spaced around the Uses two complementary color pairs.
scheme that pairs the chosen color color wheel. Produces high-contrast Proportions of colors must be chosen
with two adjacent colors. schemes. carefully to maintain balance.
APPLYING RULES OF CONTRAST TO INTERIOR SPACE
In the seven variations on color contrast that Itten identified,

contrast was considered as a range of differences between the
compared effects of color interaction. The projects that follow
explore the practical application of Itten’s system to an interior
project—whether at the scale of a room or a building. As with
any system, continued exposure to and examination of the ef-
fects of each set of relationships will deepen understanding.
Color 141
09
Contrast of Hue
The simplest of the rules, contrast of hue, func-

tions at the extremes of undiluted colors at the
greatest luminosity. Solutions that use contrast
of hue have a visual vibrancy and playful intensity.
This contrast always requires three colors, and it
is important to note that the effect lessens as the
colors move away from Itten’s three primaries.
For the interior of the SRK Legal Assist-

ance, the Dutch firm eijkingdelouwere use
contrast of hue to great effect. Colors
playfully interact through the space; lime-
yellows, blues, and reds in the felt poppy
figures lift the environment from staid
office to a lively series of colored spaces.
eijkingdelouwere. Photo by Eric Laignel.

09
Light-Dark Contrast
Light-dark contrast exists in the relationship be-

tween black and white—as well as in the range of
grays that exist between them. Itten saw gray as
an essentially achromatic color, shifting in rela-
tionship depending on the colors that surround it.
The key to this contrast is a deeper understand-
ing of shading and its effects.
A showroom for the textile manufacturer

Kvadrat in Stockholm eschews the typical
neutral background for display in favor of
an innovative tile system developed by the
designers Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec.
The move from light to dark symbolizes a
shift in function—from open showrooms
to more intimate meeting spaces and
offices.
Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec. Photo courtesy of Maharam.
Color 143
09
Cold-Warm Contrast
Particular colors can affect the relative comfort

of a room at a specific temperature. In fact, a
perceptual change in physical temperature occurs
in spaces when they are painted in cold versus
warm colors. For Itten, cold-warm contrasts were
highly versatile in their expressive powers.
For a lounge in the André Balazs Hotel QT,

Lindy Roy uses a cold-warm contrast to dis-
tinguish the different zones of the space.
The bar is surfaced in a cool blue that acts
as a functional highlight against the warm,
intimate spaces that surround it.
Roy Design. Photo courtesy of Hotel QT.

09
Complementary Contrast
Complements occur when two hues are mixed

and the result is a neutral gray-black. (In addi-
tive color systems, the result will be white.) Every
color within a color system has its complement;
finding a complementary color is a simple matter
of selecting opposite colors on Itten’s wheel. In
complementary contrasts, colors balance each
other.
At Toronto’s Pearson International Airport,

the Maple Leaf lounge, designed by Kuwa-
bara Payne McKenna Blumberg in associa-
tion with II BY IV Design, uses complemen-
tary contrast in a relatively muted palette
to draw attention to specific moments
within the spatial sequence.
Kuwabara Payne McKenna Blumberg Architects in association with
II BY IV Design Associates. Photo by David Wittaker.
Color 14 5
09
Simultaneous Contrast
Simultaneous contrast occurs as an optical il-

lusion: The complementary color of an applied
color is not itself objectively present, but appears
to be visible. Simultaneous contrast requires an
adjacent neutral color, or any other color that is
not complementary. The longer a background is
viewed, especially with more luminous colors, the
greater the intensity of the simultaneous effects.
Simultaneous contrasts are difficult to

capture photographically. In the Mon-
tréal Convention Centre, Saia Barbarese
Topouzanov playfully uses light against
painted color to suggest additional colors.
As the sun changes position and color
over the course of a day, new combina-
tions appear.
Saia Barbarese Topouzanov Architectes; Tétreault Parent Languedoc et Associés;

and Hal Ingberg. Photo by Marc Cramer.

09
Contrast of Saturation
Color can be diluted via four methods to obtain dif-

ferent results: Adding white makes a color cooler;
adding black reduces the overall vitality of a color
and renders it more subdued and, in the absence
of light, quite dark; adding gray reduces the inten-
sity of a color and tends to neutralize it; adding the
complementary color produces various effects, de-
pending on the intensity of the colors being mixed,
their relative temperature, and their hue.
A library at the Rhode Island School

of Design by Office dA uses a natural
palette that lends itself to a contrast of
saturation. Various shades of browns
and yellows allow this intervention to fit
nicely within the classical architecture it
occupies. Accents of cooler colors in the
existing architecture also contribute to the
scheme’s success.
Office dA. Photo by John Horner.
Color 147
09
Contrast of Extension
Contrast of extension refers to the relative force

that a color exerts in relation to the other colors
in a system. Depending on the hue and value of
a color, careful consideration must be taken to
balance the addition of another color. The result
is a ratio that harmonizes the colors in play. Of
all the contrast rules, this is perhaps the most
subjective.
Balance is the fundamental principle behind

the contrast of extension. In this New York
townhouse, D’Aquino Monaco uses color
balance effectively—mixing paint, materials,
and accessories in a complex sequence
that achieves a sense of equilibrium.
D’Aquino Monaco. Photo by Eric Laignel.

09
COLOR TERMINOLOGY
Although it is difficult to talk about specific color through the use of nomenclature, it is impor-
tant to develop a vocabulary that can objectively evaluate the specific ways a color or set of
colors is being used. When discussing the effects of color, the following terms can serve as
the start of a common vocabulary.
Color Space: Refers to the final output of a

color. RGB is typically used for illuminated
color, while CMY is used for absorptive
colors.
Color Temperature: Temperature of a light

source, measured in Kelvins. Lower tem-
peratures are considered warmer (adding a
yellow cast to objects), while higher tempera-
tures are considered cooler (adding a blue
cast to objects).
1800K 5000K 16000K Hue: Gradation of color within a visible

Color Temperature spectrum.
Pantone: A color management system that is

used to specify consistent color for prints,
textiles, and paints.
Hue Primary Colors: Group of colors that, when

mixed, can produce all other colors. Primary
colors cannot be made by other colors.
Secondary Colors: Colors that result from a

50 percent mixing of any two primary colors.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Saturation
Saturation: Intensity of a color, expressed as
the degree to which it differs from white.
Schemes: Method of organizing color in

harmonious combinations.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Shades
Shades: Result of adding more black to an
existing color.
Tints: Result of adding more white to an

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 existing color.
Tints
Tones: Result of mixing a color with its com-
plement. An equal mix will result in a gray.
Color 14 9
09
COLOR AND SPACE
The process by which color is chosen and utilized in a design has a profound effect on interior
space. The designer’s decisions can drastically change the spatial understanding of a project
and also influence how it is navigated. When used with knowledge and intent, color can add
perceived weight to surfaces, alter the basic proportions of a room, and variously be a calm-
ing or exciting factor. As the designer begins to explore and understand the surface effects of
color, it will become the basis of a rich visual and material palette.
Volumetric Approaches to Color
Painting all aspects of a room the same color has the effect
of volumizing the space. This method of using color can be
particularly effective in making small spaces appear larger
or more intimate depending on the color choices. Volumetric
approaches work best in situations where they can be refer- Elements such as furni-
enced in sequence, such as an enfilade, or series of rooms ture can emphasize the
connected through doors. volumetric reading of a
room. Here, the chairs,
matched with the red
walls, draw attention to
the room’s dimensions.

09
Planar Approaches to Color
Color can be used to emphasize the planes in a given sequence of

rooms or the vertical connection of spaces, as in a double-height
room or loft. Painting a length of wall regardless of interruption can
lead the eye though the spaces of a design and highlight elements at
the end of the wall—be it a light fixture, art, or furniture piece. Planar
color can also make surfaces that are perpendicular to the occupant
appear closer or further away.
Painting a continuous
length of a space with a
single color emphasizes
the planar elements
within an environment.
Adding color to a se-

quence of parallel walls
also reinforces the planar
elements in a space.
Color 151
09
Emphasizing Design Elements
Emphasizing the small-scale elements of a design—door and window

trim, reveals at the ceiling, or the connection of materials—can draw
the viewer’s attention to subtle aspects of the design that might be
missed on initial inspection. Painting elements such as reveals in
the ceiling a darker color than adjacent objects can make the objects
appear to float. Emphasizing the color of a door in a wall can cue the
viewer to its importance. A red door in a white wall will seem more
present in the room than a door within a wall of the same color.
Color can be employed

to make certain aspects
of a design stand out.
For instance, elements
such as trim, moldings,
and furniture take on
more significance when
they are colored in stark
contrast with their sur-
roundings.
Transitions between
spaces can be high-
lighted by using very bold,
bright hues, or made to
recede when matched to
the color of an adjacent
surface.

09
Changing the Proportions of a Room
Color can change how the proportions of a room are perceived.

Adding color to a certain datum, altering paint sheen, or darkening
a room’s upper portions are some of the strategies by which the
designer might play with spatial perception. Through the careful ap-
plication of color, spaces can be made to appear smaller or larger, or
an eccentric volume can be proportionally controlled. Using color in
geometric and abstract patterns can further enhance a space.
Adding color to the lower

half of a space can pro-
vide a demarcation line
for elements such as
furniture and art.
Adding color to the upper

regions of a space can
reduce the perceived
height of a room.
Color 153
10
Chapter 10: Material

Materials are the essence of the interior designer’s palette. They immediately signal
the designer’s vision and inform almost every decision in the process of developing
an interior. Materials have a direct bearing on issues of color, light, texture, and pat-
tern that the designer will need to address with every project. To make these deci-
sions well, designers must learn the myriad qualities inherent in materials, from the
purely functional to the aesthetic.
Needless to say, the range of materials available to interior designers is expansive.

Only those materials essential to an understanding of how to treat the basic com-
ponents of a room can be considered here. This book’s space limitations mean that
many other important materials are not covered—from the varieties of glass and
metal to solid surfacing and engineered plastics—although the resources section
provides references for further research. Indeed, a designer’s ability to choose the
best materials for a particular interior space must be founded on an ongoing proc-
ess of research. Equally important is to build a library—of both materials and litera-
ture—to keep current on the latest developments in material and product design.
WALL TREATMENTS
Walls define the space of a room or the sequence of movement through an interior. Because
they are, in many ways, the primary spatial tool of the designer, their finish is of great impor-
tance. The variety of finishes available for wall surfaces ranges from simple paints to more
complicated paneling and stone veneers.
PAINTS
Paints are used to add color, durability, and decoration to many elements in an interior, but
they are especially appropriate for walls, as they offer a lot of impact for relatively little ex-
pense. All paints are composed of four main ingredients: pigment, binder, drier, and solvent.
Pigment forms the color of the paint. The binder, typically a resin, surrounds the pigment and,
when dry, creates the paint film. The drier speeds up the drying time of the binder. Lastly, the
solvent allows the paint to flow from the brush or roller onto the surface, where it evaporates,
leaving only the dried pigment and binder. Coverage—the area that a paint can conceal—is
defined by the amount of solvent in the mix: the less solvent, the better. Other additives to
the paint can also aid in the durability of the product.

10
Paint Type Description

Primer Paints With all finish paints, the success of the final surface depends on the
preparation of the wall or object being painted. It is common practice to
prime a wall prior to painting; adding a few drops of the paint color into
the primer allows for better concealment and coverage. Primers are also
often necessary when changing from one sheen to another. Primers should
be used for the following conditions: all uncoated surfaces, wallpaper,
patched/repaired areas, paneling, stained areas, existing oil-based paint,
and dramatic changes in color.
Latex Paints Latex paints are made with a synthetic polyvinyl material that is water solu-
ble, allowing for easy clean up. Latex paints dry more quickly than oil-based
paints and release less off-gassing odor as they dry. Their fast-drying prop-
erties permit quicker recoating. Latex paints are also more elastic than
oil-based paints and, as such, are less prone to substrate cracking.
Alkyd Paints Oil paints tend to be more durable and resistant to wear and tear. Made
with an alkyd base, they dry much more slowly than latex paints. Conse-
quently, they produce smoother finishes since brush strokes and other
discrepancies tend to disappear as the paint layer levels itself.
Enamel Paints Enamel paints dry to an extremely hard and durable finish. This finish is
usually made by adding varnishes and other hardeners to a base paint.
Enamels are used on walls, but also on appliances, signage, and other
items that need a waterproof coating.
Stains and Stains, an alternative to paint, are color finishes that absorb into the ma-
Varnishes terial they are being applied to—usually wood. Stains come in a range of
transparencies, controlling how much of the substrate remains visible once
the stain is applied. Stains are unsuitable as finishes alone and need to be
varnished to create a durable surface. Varnishes are transparent films and
are available in several sheens.
155
10
Paint Sheen
The finished surface of paint is often referred to in relation to its sheen—the level of gloss
the paint has when dry. The choice of a paint sheen for a particular application will affect how
it performs, its durability, and the extent to which it can be cleaned and maintained. Sheens
also affect the way light and color are reflected from a painted surface, and they can serve to
highlight various aspects of a room.
Paint Sheen Description

Flat not reflective; hides surface imperfections, but makes it difficult to
remove stains; good for low-traffic areas
Eggshell more reflective than a flat paint; hides surface imperfections and
stains can be scrubbed out; ideal for medium-traffic areas
Satin minimal gloss, but more reflective than eggshell; provides a durable fin-
ish that is easier to clean than flat or eggshell; good for most spaces
Semigloss slightly glossy appearance; highly durable and easily cleaned, also
moisture-retardant; good for wet areas
Gloss very reflective; good for highlighting detail such as trim and moldings;
ideal for doors and cabinets
Ceiling Flats spatter-resistant; designed especially for painting ceilings
Paint Sheen Locations
Bedrooms: Flat, eggshell, or satin

finishes are desirable; in certain
cases, gloss can be used for
effect.
Halls and corridors: Eggshell and

higher sheen paints are best.
Kitchens, bathrooms, and other

wet areas: Durable semigloss or
gloss finishes are preferred.
Living rooms: Eggshell and higher

sheen paints are desirable. Flats
are best for ceilings and gloss for
elements such as window, door,
and baseboard trim.
+x

10
WALLPAPERS AND VINYLS
Whether paper or vinyl, wall coverings—by their simplest definition—are composed of a

printed face adhered to a backing. The front face is treated as a decorative surface that is
then applied to a wall in vertical sections. Papers and vinyls offer the interior designer many
advantages, from their durability to their ability to hide surface imperfections to their pure
aesthetic appeal.
Compared to commercial papers, residential wall coverings are designed for significantly less
wear. They do, however, offer a wide range of patterns and ideas that can add significantly to
the atmosphere of the room in which they are placed. They typically come in two varieties:
Wallpapers Wall Vinyls

Residential wallpapers come in widths be- Wall vinyls are similar to papers, but receive
tween 20 1/2 inches (typically found in the a plastic coating that makes them more du-
metric equivalent of 520 millimeters) and 27 rable and easily cleaned. They are typically
inches (685 millimeters). Often sold in dou- recommended for the wet areas of a house,
ble rolls, which can have a length of 9 yards but are also suitable for other high-traffic
(8 230 millimeters), wallpapers are rarely zones.
durable enough for commercial applications.
Surface Preparation
Regardless of where papers are being applied, the surface they are covering will require as
much preparation as with a painted wall. There are several ways to prepare a surface for wall
coverings:
Surface Prep Description

Primers As with paint preparation, a primer coat provides a clean surface for the
application of the covering.
Sealers If the subsurface has been water damaged, an oil- or water-based sealer
should be applied to the wall. Sealers also allow for easier removal of the
covering.
Wall Liners In some cases, such as where cracking and other surface imperfections
appear, a wall liner may be applied prior to installing the covering.
Material 157
10
Types of Patterns
Random Match
Random matches are the most efficient of the wallpaper or vinyl types. There is no pattern
match horizontally, therefore the covering can be cut wherever necessary.
Straight Match
Straight matches repeat at regular intervals across papers. On installation, the pattern is cut
at the same height from the ceiling line to assure alignment.

10
Drop Match
Drop matches have the most potential for waste, as the pattern does not match at the same
distance from the ceiling, but rather at regular diagonal intervals.
Flocked
Flocking is a process through which small fibers are adhered to the surface of the paper or vinyl.
Originally created to imitate cut-velvet hangings, flocked papers are typically very ornate, and
their soft textural qualities can enhance the intimacy of other materials in a room.
Material 159
10
Other Types of Wall Coverings
The technical advancements and new expressiveness in wall coverings have changed the way
that interior designers approach them. These coverings experiment with graphics and play
with scale, dimension, and material.
180 Walls. Photo courtesy of Designtex.

Commercial-Grade Wall Coverings
Commercial-grade wall coverings can no longer be easily categorized. The types of materi-
als that they comprise, including their mixing of different materials on the same surface,
have produced a range of papers that are technologically sophisticated, while increasing
their sensual and aesthetic qualities.
H3, New York Academy of Sciences.

Photo by Mark La Rosa.
Surface Imaging
Surface imaging is a printing technology that allows large-scale graphics to be printed directly
on vinyl or other materials for wall application. Images can be printed on either opaque or
translucent paper, or on films applied to glazing. Images printed on film can be backlit for illu-
minated installation, which is useful with signage and other wayfinding graphics.

10
Photo courtesy of Timorous Beasties.
Hand-Printed Papers
As more papers are being mass-produced, a culture of limited-run, hand-printed papers is en-
joying a renaissance. While expensive, these products can be a welcome addition to a project.
Available in a variety of types, hand-printed papers allow designers to customize repeats or to
eliminate repeats all together.
Green Wear. Photo courtesy of Designtex.
Textile Wallcoverings
Textile coverings are a special class of fabrics that have been engineered for surface installa-
tion. Textiles are adhered to a backing paper to provide the dimensional stability required dur-
ing installation and to prevent glue absorption. Textile coverings provide acoustic benefits, as
their porous surfaces have absorptive qualities not found in papers or vinyls.
Material 161
10
FLOORING
Flooring is as integral to an interior project as any wall treatment. The many ways in which a
floor can be constructed or covered provide the designer with a template that influences color,
acoustics, and reflectance. Floor finishes can be continuous or designed with a combination
of hard and soft surfaces. In addition to integral floors, area rugs and carpet tiles allow for a
carefully strategized design.
Radiant Floor Systems
Whenever a floor is being installed in an interior, the designer has the opportunity to include
a radiant floor system to aid in the environmental heating of the space. Radiant floors offer
multiple advantages: They operate silently, eliminate visible sources of heat (such as vents
and louvers) that need to be coordinated with the design, are energy efficient and thus reduce
overall heating costs, and generate none of the dust and other particles spread by forced-air
systems. Additionally, radiant floor systems provide an even distribution of heat throughout a
space, not just at localized points. This even heat feels more comfortable and can reduce the
overall temperature settings.
It should be noted that radiant systems—which are typically provided with concrete floors—
also exist for other floor types, such as wood and other plank systems, as well as carpet and
vinyl finishes. Keep in mind that naturally insulating materials can reduce the efficiency of a
radiant system. Wood systems, moreover, should be engineered, as heat through solid wood
flooring can cause the floor to shrink and crack.
concrete floor wood floor sheet floor tile floor
POURED FLOORING SYSTEMS
Many types of floors are poured-in-place installations. These floors are then ground and pol-
ished to produce a continuous, monolithic surface. Poured floors, which are installed over a
well-prepared substrate, are quick curing, easily maintained, and have a high resistance to
bacteria and damage due to chemicals and wear.

10
Concrete Floors
Exposed concrete can be an efficient finish for high-impact areas. It is also welcome where
the aesthetic of the space requires a raw, industrial look. Concrete finishes are durable and
economical; they are, as well, very reflective of sound and occasionally of light. In addition,
concrete floors can act as natural conditioning surfaces—if the slab is on grade, the earth’s
temperature can heat or cool the spaces directly above the floor.
A concrete finish can be added to an existing floor system. Skim coats and lightweight self-
leveling toppings can be installed over a well-prepared subfloor to provide a finish similar to
polished concrete. These finishes are thin and quick drying.
Stains
Chemical stains react with concrete’s lime content to etch color into the surface of the slab.
Acid penetrates the top layers of the concrete and allows the stain to take. Because staining
is a surface process, however, the evenness and depth of color cannot be predicted. More-
over, damage to the concrete can expose areas where the color has not reached.
Stains are applied in a variety of ways: with brushes and mops, by spray, or even using natural
materials such as leaves and branches to create depth in the surface. In addition, patterns
can be stamped and cut into the surface, allowing for different colors and variations in finish
within the same field.
Integral Color
Another coloring process is to add a liquid or powder pigment to the concrete mix. Unlike
chemical staining, this method produces a far more consistent color. As a result, there is little
need for repair due to scratching and chipping.
Sealers and Waxes
Sealers and waxes are clear coatings that give greater durability to a concrete finish. They
also enhance the natural look of a floor or bring out the depth of a stained finish. Waxes must
be evaluated prior to installation for proper slip coefficient—a measurement that determines
how safe a floor finish is considered to be (0.5 or above is desired).
Epoxy and Resin Floors
Epoxy and resin floors are mixed on site and then trowel-installed over a monolithic slab. This
finish is thin, extremely durable, and resistant to chemicals and other hazardous materials.
The finish is continuous and can be tinted a variety of colors. Many mixes also contain mate-
rial that helps to reduce slip coefficient. It is an ideal solution for commercial, institutional,
and laboratory spaces.
Material 16 3
10
Terrazzo
Terrazzo floors are random mosaic floors made by suspending marble chips in a matrix of
cement or epoxy. The resulting mixture is poured and ground to a smooth finish that is then
polished and sealed. Terrazzo can be precast in slabs and tiles, but more often is installed
in-situ for larger spaces. The random patterns created by the chips and epoxy provide a
beautiful floor finish.
The marble that comprises the flecks within the terrazzo is quarried, crushed, and passed
through a screen to determine the kind of finish in which it can be used. Sizes of the marble
mosaic are graded according to the following chart:
Size Number Passes Screen Retained on Screen

1 1
#0 /8" (3.2) /16" (1.6)
1 1
#1 /4" (6.4) /8" (3.2)
3 1
#2 /8" (9.5) /4" (6.4)
1 3
#3 /2" (12.7) /8" (9.5)
5 1
#4 /8" (15.9) /2" (12.7)
3 5
#5 /4" (19.0) /8" (15.9)
7 3
#6 /8" (22.2) /4" (19.0)
7
#7 1" (25.4) /8" (22.2)
#8 1 1/8" (28.6) 1" (25.4)
Divider strips—typically made of zinc, aluminum, brass, or plastic—control shrinkage in the

terrazzo, where changes of color occur or where joints occur in a concrete substrate. Aluminum
strips are used with epoxy systems only. Divider strips can be shaped to develop complex patterns.
L Angle Heavytop Standard Extruded Heavytop T Standard

L Angle Heavytop L Angle Strip

10
TERRAZZO FINISHES
Description Thickness Divider Spacing Advantages

Sand-Cushioned 3" (76) (including 4' (1 219) ≤ on interior floor use on lower
1
/2" (13) terrazzo center levels of structure; separated
topping) from substrate by an isolation
membrane; good for patterns
and colors
Bonded 1 3/4"–2 1/4" (45–57) 6'–8' (1 829–2 438) wherever thickness needs to be
(including 1/2" (13) on center minimized, but a cementitious
terrazzo topping) matrix is desired; good for walls
and other vertical surfaces
Monolithic 1
/2" (13) 20' × 20' (6 096 × set directly on a level concrete
6 096) spans and substrate; economical and
all locations of ideal for large areas
concrete substrate
joints
Thinset 1
/4" (6) or 3/8" (9.5) 20' × 20' (6 096 × set directly on a level concrete
6 096) spans and substrate; ideal for multilevel
(#2 chips only for all locations of installations; wide range of
3
/8" [9.5]) concrete substrate colors available; resistant to
joints chemical spills
1 3/4" (45)
3 1/2" (90)
Sand-Cushioned Bonded
/4" (6)
/2" (13)
1
1
3" (76 mm)

3" (76)
Monolithic Thinset
Material 16 5
10
STONE FLOORING
Stone floors bring to an interior both beauty and durability. Found in an array of colors, finishes,
sizes, and patterns, stone is one of the most versatile materials available to the designer and
is suitable for walls and counters as well as flooring. The qualities of stone vary from soft to
hard, and from porous to impermeable. It is best to confirm with the manufacturer that the
product is correct for its intended use. In flooring applications, stone comes in two configura-
tions: dimension stone and dimension stone tiles.
Dimension Stone
Dimension stone floors are assembled from natural quarried stone that has been cut to a
specified shape, size, and thickness. Dimension stone has one or more mechanically dressed
surfaces—for example, flamed or honed—and is set in a thick mortar bed.
Flamed or Thermal Honed Polished

This rough finish is achieved This smooth satin finish is This highly reflective, glossy
by heating the stone to a high achieved by stopping the pol- finish is achieved through
temperature and then rapidly ishing process early. It pro- successive polishing with
cooling it. Its slip-resistant vides a softer looking surface increasingly fine materials.
surface is ideal for bath- that is less prone to showing It brings depth and color to
rooms and other wet areas damage. a stone, but is also prone to
where stone may be used for slipping unless appropriately
flooring. sealed.

10
Dimension Stone Tiles
Dimension stone tiles are quarried to standard sizes and thicknesses, usually less than 3/4
inch (19 millimeters). Typical sizes range from 6 square inches (3 870 square millimeters) to 36
square inches (23 226 square millimeters), though the larger the tile, the more prone it is to
cracking. Tiles are typically installed with a thin layer of mortar, thus the subfloor should be
even and not prone to warping.
Stone Type Formation Description Best Use

Limestone sedimentary1 varies in hardness and is flooring, countertops,
quite suitable as dimen- interior cladding
sion stone; soft lime-
stones should be used in
low-traffic situations
Travertine sedimentary variety of limestone flooring, interior cladding
that is more compact
and often banded in
appearance
Marble metamorphic2 varies in hardness and flooring, interior cladding,
comes in a wide range of vanity and tabletops,
colors and types hearths, sills
Granite igneous 3 hard and dense; flooring, countertops,
extremely resistant to tabletops
scratching and etching;
very difficult to stain but
available in many colors,
though most commonly
black
Slate metamorphic easily cleaved into thin flooring, hearths, counter-
slabs; thermally stable tops, tabletops, laboratory
and chemically inert; tables
when sealed, is stain
resistant and durable
Sandstone sedimentary made from quartz and sil- flooring, interior cladding,
ica; available in a variety countertops
of colors, but most com-
monly the warm browns,
yellows, and reds associ-
ated with sand
1
Stone formed from sediment deposited by water or air.
2
Stone formed by heat, pressure, or other natural agencies.
3
Stone having solidified from lava or magma.
Material 167
10
WOOD FLOORING
Solid Wood Flooring
Solid wood flooring, as its name suggests, is prepared from wood that is one piece from top
to bottom. It takes stains and other finishes well and can be easily refinished. Because it is
prone to damage from water and moisture, this flooring should be used on the ground floor
and above only. It comes in several cuts.
Plainsawn: This most common cut of lumber provides the maximum yield. Plainsawn boards
have a great variation in grain, as the direction of the cut makes growth rings more obvious.
They add a unique texture to a wood floor.
Quartersawn: Cut at a 60- to 90-degree angle to center of the lumber, it yields less footage
than plainsawn. Quartersawn boards have more parallel grain. They hold stains and other
painted finishes well and create a homogenous wood floor.
Riftsawn: Cut at a 30- to 60-degree angle to center of the lumber, it is otherwise similar to
quartersawn.
plainsawn
quartersawn
Solid
Plainsawn Quartersawn

10
Other Wood Flooring
Engineered Acrylic-Impregnated
Engineered Flooring: Made of built-up layers with the wood grain running in opposite direc-
tions, engineered flooring is available in three-, five- and ten-ply. It is more dimensionally
stable than solid wood and, as such, is better suited for highly trafficked areas. It can also be
installed directly over a concrete subfloor. Engineered flooring is found in basements, kitch-
ens, bathrooms, and utility rooms.
Acrylic-Impregnated Flooring: Acrylic injected into the wood creates an extremely durable and
hard finish. It is used in restaurants and malls, and sometimes in residential projects.
End Grain Flooring: Made of wood cut perpendicular to the grain and sized to specific dimen-
sions, end grain flooring is very resistant to damage and can be used in high-impact condi-
tions. The exposed grain provides a unique design element, but it is also easily stained to a
variety of colors. End grain is suitable to all applications, from residential to warehousing.
End Grain
Material 16 9
10
Patterns
Wood flooring is dimensioned for installation. Options abound for patterns, but first floors are
categorized into three main types: strip—linear flooring that is 11/2, 21/4, or 31/4 inches (38, 57, or
83 millimeters) wide; plank—linear flooring with widths of 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches (76, 102, 127, and
152 millimeters); and parquet—small pieces of wood aggregated to created a geometric pattern.
Parquet Patterns
Finishes
Oil-modified Urethane: Easy to apply, this finish also has a long drying time and VOC (volatile
organic compound) content. It tends to turn amber with age.
Moisture-cured Urethane: Solvent-based, this finish is difficult to apply and has a very long
drying time. It is more durable and moisture resistant than oil-based finishes, however, and
can be transparent.
Water-based Urethane: Requiring more coats than oil-based finishes, it has a lower VOC con-
tent. Multiple layers make it a more expensive finish. It is clear and nonyellowing.
Penetrating Stains and Waxes: Stains penetrate into the wood to provide a deep seal. Waxes
provide protection and a low-gloss sheen to floors, but must be reapplied at regular intervals.
Installation
Wood flooring can be installed in many ways, and designers should consider the location
before deciding on the type of flooring. A natural material, wood expands and contracts with
changes in climate and moisture. Allowing for ventilation under the floor and expansion at the
perimeters is essential.

10
Wood Flooring Locations
Solid, engineered, and floating

installations are acceptable
for above-grade installations of
wood flooring.
On grade, the same list is

applicable.
Below grade, solid wood

installations are inadvisable
due to moisture penetration.
Engineered floors are best.
Typical Installation
wall
baseboard
wood board
face nail
blind nail
plywood substrate
slab or structure below
Material 171
10
RESILIENT FLOORING
Resilient floors are typically made of high-density materials that provide a durable, nonabsor-
bent finish. They also are more comfortable than other hard finishes, as they have a certain
amount of elasticity. Resilient floors can be a cost-effective solution to a variety of residential
and commercial applications. Moreover, their ease of maintenance and relative chemical sta-
bility render them ideal for institutional applications. Resilient flooring is manufactured in both
rolls and tiles.
Vinyl and Rubber Tiles
Whether vinyl or rubber, resilient flooring tiles are attractive for high-impact areas. Tiles are
easily installed both above and below grade and provide excellent resistance to moisture and
other damage. Compared to resilient flooring in rolls, tiles do require higher maintenance, as
their seams can accumulate dirt and allow moisture penetration; any standing liquid must be
removed immediately. Tiles come in a variety of constructions. Vinyl tiles can be composite or
solid. All are finished with a protective layer.
Vinyl Composite Tile

These tiles combine a backing layer, a printed design,
a wear layer, and a protective film. Typically, they are
12 square inches (7 742 square millimeters) but do
come in both larger and smaller sizes. Composite tiles
are very easy to install on a well-prepared substrate
and, when damaged, are easy to replace—though it Vinyl Composite Tile
is good practice to order extra during installation as
colors can change from batch to batch.
Solid Vinyl Tiles

These solid tiles generally have no backing layer. Solid
vinyl has a higher ratio of vinyl resin compared to com-
posite, which makes it more resistant to damage due
to wear; solid tiles are typically thicker as well, further
increasing durability.
Solid Vinyl Tile
Rubber Tiles
Dimensionally stable rubber tiles resist spills from
chemicals and other corrosive materials and provide
support for activities that require long hours of stand-
ing. Textures applied to their finish offer protection
from slips. Rubber tiles are available in two varieties:
homogenous, where pigment is added to the rubber
mix to create color throughout; and laminated, where
the top layer is patterned with different colors. Rubber Tile

10
NATURAL RESILIENT FLOORING
Linoleum
Linoleum is a natural composite that emerged as a floor-

ing material in the nineteenth century. Linseed oil, cork,
ground limestone, and resin are combined, then mixed
with pigment. This mixture is oven-cured slowly for two
to three weeks, providing dimensional stability and ease
of adherence during installation. Next, the linoleum layer
is calendared onto a jute backing and a protective finish
is applied on top. The final rolls are cut to widths of 79
inches (2 007 millimeters) for installation. Durable and
antibacterial, linoleum is suitable for both residential and
commercial projects. Off-gassing of the oils, however,
might be an issue to consider during specification. Lino-
leum comes in an array of colors.
Linoleum
Installing linoleum is difficult, though it can easily be cut
into patterns and heat-welded at the seams. Linoleum
also requires an additional wax polish to prevent staining
and discoloration.
Cork
Cork is another natural flooring material that provides

a resilient surface for both residential and commercial
applications. Its natural cellular structure creates a
beautiful surface that is an economical alternative to
wood floors. It is also cushioned, much like a cut-pile
carpet. In addition, cork is a renewable and sustainable
resource.
Cork floors are manufactured in a composite process

that presses the cork to each side of a medium- or high-
density fiberboard. This stabilization layer allows for
ease of installation, as well as for a tongue-and-groove
interlock. A top layer of varnish seals the cork and estab-
lishes a resistant surface.
As a natural product, cork is susceptible to discoloration,

mainly through exposure to natural light. Cork is also
extremely absorptive, so any cleaning should be done
with a minimum of water.
Material 17 3
10
CARPET
Of the materials used for flooring, carpet may be the most difficult to qualify. Carpets cover 70
percent of floors in residential and commercial environments in the United States alone. Given
the enormous variety of types and styles, from mass-produced to custom-designed, it is diffi-
cult to condense the choices, applications, and installation methods for different types of inte-
riors. Carpets, however, offer many advantages: Texturally, they lend both visual and sensual
qualities to a room; acoustically, they excel at absorbing and dampening sound; they are very
easy to clean; they are naturally insulating; and their range of color and pattern is limitless.
Residential versus Commercial
Many carpet companies divide their product lines into residential and commercial applica-
tions. This distinction may seem obvious at first, but the material properties and qualities of
carpets for each differ in their requirements for installation and maintenance.
Photos courtesy of InterfaceFLOR.

Residential Carpet Commercial Carpet
In choosing carpets for residential projects, Commercial carpets need to withstand the
designers should consider the following: the use of several times the number of people
amount of traffic on the floor, the adjacency as in a residential application. Additionally,
of the floor to natural light, and the transi- they may need to perform under the stress
tion from the carpet to hard or resilient floor- loads of equipment such as luggage, wheel-
ing. Carpets in residential applications must chairs, and other transport devices; low-cut
also take into account the specific users of pile with a dense construction is the correct
a space; for example, a carpet might need choice for these areas. Cut piles, especially
to be child- or pet-friendly. Residential instal- high density, are well suited to concealing
lations do not have to be wall-to-wall; area traffic lines and the dirt that can accumulate
rugs, when used in tandem with another in areas of high activity. They are also rec-
floor surface, can provide a focus for spe- ommended for offices, reception areas, and
cific furniture elements. boardrooms in a work environment.

10
Carpet Construction
There are many ways to construct carpets. They can be tufted, woven, or fusion-bonded; or fol-
lowing more specialized processes, they can be hand-tufted, knitted, or needle-punched. Carpets
are made of fibers woven to a backing material. Natural materials such as wool or sisal and
other plant fibers have traditionally been used to manufacture carpet. Technological advances,
however, have increased the amount of carpet made from synthetic fiber. Though wool remains
more common in residential applications, over 90 percent of carpet is now constructed from
materials such as nylon and polypropylene, which tend to be durable and resilient and take well
to color.
Tufted: Tufted carpets account for 90 per-

cent of the total manufactured carpet. On
a machine containing hundreds of needles,
fiber is stitched into a primary backing mate-
rial—typically, a synthetic latex that allows
for flexibility. Another backing is added to
the carpet to provide dimensional stability
and ease of installation.
Woven: Woven carpets account for approxi-

mately two percent of carpet production.
They are created on a loom that weaves to-
gether the carpet fiber and backing material.
This process is more dimensionally stable
than tufting, although a latex back-coating
is applied after the weave to ensure even
greater stability and durability. Woven car-
pets are typically more expensive than either
tufted or fusion-bonded.
Fusion-bonded: The fusion-bonding process

sandwiches fibers in an adhesive backing,
locking them in place. All fusion-bonded car-
pets are cut piles, as the sandwich is sliced
apart with a cutter.
Modular Tile: The most common variety of

fusion-bonded carpets are carpet tiles. Tiles
offer the great advantage of easy replace-
ment if damaged. Typically high-performance
solutions for educational, work, and public
environments, modular tile carpets are in-
creasingly being used in residences.
Material 175
10
Cuts and Loops
Regardless of manufacturing processes, carpets are woven in specific ways that give them
texture and depth and that can add complexity to their colors and patterns.
Loop and Multiloop Pile: A result of the initial Cut Pile: Cut piles are constructed in the
weaving process, loop carpets are durable, same manner as loops, but they have been
high impact, and hide traffic patterns well. split open to create a smooth, monolithic
Loop carpets can also be woven at different surface. Cut pile can be very dense, or
heights to create random or specific pat- longer for a more casual appearance. Also
terns. These are also known as Berber. known as velvet or plush.
Cut and Loop: A blend Tip Shear: In this Frieze and Shag: Fibers are twisted and
of cut and loop piles multiloop construc- tightly wound to create variation in the sur-
creates texture, tion, higher loops are face. The varying lengths of the yarns help
depth, and variation sheared to create to conceal dirt, traffic patterns, and vacuum
to the surface. Loops a subtle, relaxed marks. Their depth and characteristic ap-
can contain linear, appearance. pearance add softness to a room.
geometric, or organic
patterns.

10
Finishing
Once the carpet has been woven, tufted, or fusion-bonded, it is then finished and prepared
for installation. Finishing consists of several processes. Depending on the end product, color
is added either before or after the weaving process. In production, however, most carpet is
postdyed to meet market demands. Carpet can be dyed in a number of ways:
Predyeing: Color is added to the yarn prior to the construction process. The color can be
added either to the fiber itself or as it is spun into yarn.
Postdyeing: Color is added after the construction process. Carpets are immersed in dye
before the final backing sheet is applied.
Silk-screening: Patterns are applied to the finished carpet. Printed patterns can be a cost-ef-
fective way to simulate the appearance of woven carpet.
Whatever the finishing process, the carpet is given a secondary backing, a foam cushion is
attached for installation, and the assembly is sheared to dimension.
Carpet Terms
Backing: Vinyl or polypropylene material Gauge: Number of needles per inch used in
found on the back of a carpet. the construction of a carpet.
Binding: Strip sewn to the edge of a carpet Pattern Match: Alignment of pattern in a
to provide strength and protection. carpet that determines cut.
Broadloom: Carpet woven in widths of 6 feet Pile Height: Dimension used to determine
(1.8 meters) or greater. carpet density, measured from primary back-
ing to top of yarn.
Cushion: Padding used to reduce impact.
Repeat: Measurement of the distance be-
Density: Amount of pile yarn per area of tween instances in a pattern.
carpet. Also refers to the distance between
tufts. Serging: Heavy yarn close-stitched to the
edge of area rugs as a finished edge.
Direct Glue-Down: Method of installation
where carpet is glued directly to the floor. Stitch Rate: Number of tufts along the length
of a carpet, measured in stitches per inch.
Foot Traffic: Number of times per day a car-
pet is walked on by a single occupant. Light Yarn Ply: Number of yarns in a twisted, heat-
is less than 50, moderate is between 50 and set yarn.
200, heavy is over 200.
Material 17 7
10
LAMINATES
Laminates were developed in the early twentieth century as an alternative to the commonly
used mica for electrical insulation. The product, a substitute “for mica,” gave its name to a
new company and a now familiar brand. The Formica company’s process eventually led to
the development of very durable surfaces suitable for a wide range of interior applications.
Laminate technology has improved dramatically as new methods for surface variation, repli-
cation of natural materials and metals, and two-sided applications have become available.
Many companies now manufacture laminate, and the breadth of colors, textures, and styles
is vast.
Laminates are thermally adhered to a core material—usually chipboard or medium-density

fiberboard—that is engineered for dimensional consistency, and is therefore recommended
over plywoods and other materials. The type of adhesive used is based on both the core
material and the intended application of the product.
GRADES OF LAMINATES
Name Thickness Use

General Purpose HGS 0.048" (1.2) Recommended for commercial and
residential work surfaces, furniture,
cabinets, and doors; can be applied to
radii no smaller than 6" (152)
Horizontal Postforming 0.039" (1.0) recommended for applications that re-
HGP quire radial bends, such as countertops;
can bend to radii as small as 0.5" (12.5);
such applications eliminate edges and
seams
Vertical Postforming VGP 0.028" (0.7) recommended for vertical use only; ideal
for commercial cabinetry and furniture;
a slightly thinner laminate that can be
formed to radii of 0.375" (9.5)
Cabinet Liner CLS 0.020" (0.5) recommended for the interior of cabi-
nets; a nondecorative, light-duty lami-
nate not designed for heavy use
Backing Sheet BGF or rated, 0.048" (1.2); recommended for surfaces that are
BKL unrated, 0.020" (0.5) hidden from view and as a stabiliz-
ing surface to prevent warping due to
moisture; comes in both fire-rated and
unrated versions

10
Low-Pressure Laminates
Low-pressure laminates consist of four layers of material. A backer sheet is attached to a thin
particleboard substrate, which is then faced with a decorative surface made of paper and a
melamine resin. The resultant assembly is thermoset, or thermally fused, and ready for use.
Low-pressure laminates serve mainly to protect the interior surfaces in items such as shelv-
ing, cupboards, and panels. They are not especially durable and are therefore not specified for
situations where high-impact use is expected.
overlay
decorative sheet
substrate
backer sheet
High-Pressure Laminates
High-pressure laminates consist of many layers of phenolic resin-impregnated kraft paper

faced with a melamine-impregnated decorative layer. The high temperatures and pressure at
which they are set form a durable and homogenous material that is ideal for doors, cabinets,
counters, and many other interior surfaces that receive extensive use. They are not impervi-
ous to staining, however, and cannot withstand extreme heat.
The classification of plastic laminates, their fabrication, and grading are outlined by the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
phenolic kraft papers
decorative sheet
overlay
Material 17 9
10
Laminate Locations
HGS general purpose
CLS cabinet liner
BKL backing sheet
VGP Vertical
postforming
HGP Horizontal
postforming
CLS Cabinet liner
BKL backing sheet

10
VENEERS
Veneers are very thin slices of wood that are glued to a backing material for use in millwork
and other elements in an interior. Veneer can be sourced from a number of wood species, and
irregularities such as diseases in the wood can lead to beautiful figuring in the final product.
Veneers are available in various grades, which affect price and application.
Veneer is manufactured in a semiautomated process. A log is debarked, then readied for

cutting. Very thin layers are sliced off the log. Different cuts and techniques produce a wide
range of patterning and texture. Once the cuts have been made, the resulting fitches are dried
and bundled, clipped and joined, to make dimensioned sheets.
VENEER CUTTING METHODS
Cut Description
Rotary Cut The log is centered on a rotating lathe and turned against a
blade. This process can produce single-sheet (one piece) faces.
Plain Slicing The log is sliced parallel to its center. The result is an elongated
cathedral pattern from the exposure of the innermost growth
rings.
Half-round Slicing The log is sliced as close to parallel to its center as possible.
The resultant cathedrals are wider and flatter than in plain slic-
ing, producing a veneer called flat cut.
Quarter Slicing The log is cut perpendicular to its center. The resultant grain is
straight in appearance.
Rift Cut The log is sliced at a slight angle to produce a more even grain.
Rift cuts occur only in oak logs, due to irregularities in the wood.
Lengthwise Slicing Planed and flatsawn lumber is passed over a stationary knife to
produce a variegated figure.
Rotary Cut Plain Slicing Half-round Quarter Slicing Rift Cut
Material 181
10
Veneer Assembly
Book Match: Consecutive veneers are Slip Match: Flitches are lined up in the
flipped as they are assembled, as though order they are taken from the log. The
in a book. The result is a series of mir- straighter the grain, the less obvious the
rored grains. seams.
Random Match: Undesired repetitions—

such as knots—are spread evenly across
the sheet. This type of veneer is chosen
subjectively.
Reverse Slip Match: Every other leaf is

rotated 180 degrees to invert the cathe-
dral patterns.
Pleasing Match: Flitches are arranged by

color consistency, rather than grain match.

10
Irregular Veneers
Veneers are also made from parts of the tree that may not be easily sliced, or from parts of
wood that have diseases and other malignant growths. The resultant veneers contain some
of the more beautiful patterns due to this irregularity. These veneers are known variously as
bird’s-eye, burled, and flamed.
Rotary Cut Tamo Redwood Burl Quartersawn Zebrawood
Quartersawn Lacewood Maple Burl Bird’s-eye Maple
Veneer Backing
Veneers must be reinforced with a backing material to be applied to a substrate. Each back-
ing offers different properties, most notably their bend radius.
Backing Description Bend Radius

Paper A single sheet of 10-mil or 20-mil paper is 1
/2" (13) radius
applied evenly to the back of the veneer to
provide an adhesive surface.
Wood 2-ply: A lesser grade wood veneer is applied 3
/4" (19) radius
to the back of the veneer. 3-ply: A face ve-
neer is backed with paper and then a lesser
grade wood is applied to the paper.
Phenolic Phenolic resin paper is applied to the back 1 1/2" (38)
of the veneer. Typically used when the radius min.
substrate has irregularities, this backing
increases stability and durability.
Material 18 3
10
TEXTILES
Textiles serve a vast range of interior applications, from wall and ceiling panels to panels for
systems furniture, from carpeting to drapes, from home furnishings to bed linens. Thus it is
essential that the interior designer understand the structure, properties, performance, finish-
ing, dyeing, and printing techniques associated with different fabrics. A textile or fabric refers
to a material that is made of interlocking fibers that are woven, knitted, or felted. Textiles can
be classified either by their constituent fibers, such as silk, cotton, rayon, or nylon, or by their
weave, such as satin, leno, or twill. Weaves should not be confused with types of fabric; for
example, jacquard is a weave that can be made of various kinds of fibers.
Fibers
Fibers can be categorized as natural, man-made, or chemical. Natural fibers are further
grouped according to whether they come from animal (wool, mohair, cashmere, alpaca, silk,
feathers), plant (cotton, linen, ramie, hemp, jute), or mineral (asbestos, glass fibers, alumi-
num) resources.
NATURAL FIBERS
Wool Taken from a variety of animal coats that range from coarse to
very soft in texture. Wool fibers are crimped and wavy and, when
woven, create pockets that give depth to the fabric. The unique
scaled texture of the outer surface of the fibers, similar to the
scales of a fish, allows them to stick together and create felt.
Alpaca, mohair, camel, and cashmere are wool specialty fibers.
Silk Taken from the cocoon of a silkworm. A natural protein, a single

silk fiber has more strength than a steel filament of the same
thickness. It absorbs well and can be dyed in many colors. Or-
ganza, silk satin, and charmeuse are woven silk fabrics.
Cotton Made from the seed pod of the cotton plant. Fibers are hollow in
the center and twisted like a ribbon. Cotton can handle high tem-
peratures, absorbs dye well, and stands up to abrasions. Muslin,
sateen, terry cloth, and velveteen are woven cotton fabrics.
Linen Made from the bast that surrounds the stem of the flax plant.
It is the strongest of the plant fibers. The plant’s wax content
imparts a sheen to the fiber, whose natural color ranges from
creamy white to tan. It can also be dyed.

10
Ramie Made from the bast of a plant in the nettle family. It is often mis-
taken for linen. Like silk, it has a high luster. A very strong fiber,
ramie resists bacteria, mold, and abrasion and is often blended
with other fibers. It is also extremely absorbent.
Jute Made from the stack and stem of the jute plant. This glossy fiber
serves mostly as a backing material for carpet and flooring.
MAN-MADE AND CHEMICAL FIBERS
Rayon Manufactured from wood pulp. Rayon was the first man-made
fiber. Like cotton, it is very absorbent and strong.
Acetate Manufactured from plant cellulose. It can be extruded in fibers

of various diameters that can be woven to look like silk. Unlike
silk, it is a weak fiber and sensitive to heat.
Nylon Produced solely from petrochemicals. It is commonly used for

carpet fibers and is very sensitive to heat.
Polyester Produced from alcohol and carboxyl acid. It is resistant to crease

and nonabsorbent. It is best blended with other fibers like cotton.
Performance Attributes
Abrasion Resistance: Durability of a fabric. Standard tests measure the performance of a fab-
ric as it endures a repeated number of cycles or rubs; however, the results may not predict its
suitability for a particular application.
Absorbency: Ability of a fabric to absorb moisture. Fibers may alter in strength when wet. Thus
the appropriate cleaning methods must be determined to prevent a fabric from changing prop-
erties afterward. Hydrophilic fibers absorb moisture easily, while hydrophobic fibers do not.
Acoustical Transparency: Measurement of sound transmission through a fabric. An open-

weave fabric is typically less obstructive than a tight-weave fabric.
Fire Resistance: Degree of a fabric’s resistance to heat and flame. The finish on a fabric plays
an important role in its overall performance.
Material 18 5
10
Common Weaves
Weaves are interlocking fibers that make a textile. Weaves are often confused for types of
fabric. For example, jacquard is a weave and not a type of fabric and can be made of various
types of fibers. The most common types of weaves are outlined below:
Plain Weave: In this most Basket Weave: A variation of Twill Weave: A strong weave,
common weave, one warp the plain weave, it is typically it produces a distinct diago-
yarn crosses over one weft woven with two colors of nal pattern by slightly shift-
yarn in an alternating pattern, yarn crossing in an alternating the yarns over at each
which creates an even sur- ing pattern that resembles successive row. This weave
face and texture. It is durable a basket. Common fabrics creates a houndstooth, her-
and inexpensive to produce. are oxford and monk’s cloth; ringbone, or chevron pat-
Common fabrics are cotton, common uses are bed linens tern. Common fabrics are
percale, voile, chiffon, or- and pillows. gabardine, tweed, serge, and
ganza, and taffeta; common denim; common uses are
uses are draperies, uphol- upholstery and pillows.
stery, and bed linens.
Satin Weave: Formed by each Jacquard Weave: Woven on Leno Weave: An open mesh,
yarn floating over four yarns, a special jacquard loom that it is created by a pair of warp
the weave creates a smooth, controls individual yarns, threads passing over and un-
lustrous surface. Satin weave the weave allows for more der the yarn in a figure eight
drapes very well but is sub- complex design. It is used to or hourglass twist. Common
ject to snag due to exposed produce patterned fabrics. fabrics are gauze and mar-
yarns. When woven in shorter Common fabrics are brocade, quisette; common uses are
or staple yarns like cotton, damask, and tapestry; com- draperies and blankets.
it is called sateen. Common mon uses are upholstery and
fabrics are satin and sateen; wall hangings.
common uses are draperies
and pillows.

10
Fabric Treatments
Fabric Finishing
Water Resistance: Silicone or fluorochemical finish applied to a fabric to help it resist the ab-
sorption of moisture.
Stain Resistance: Finish applied to a fabric to help it resist water- and oil-based stains. It is
typically sprayed on and can be combined with other fabric finishes.
Flame Resistance: Finish applied to a fabric so that it complies with building and fire code
regulations. There are two types of flame-resistant treatments, polymers and salines, and
their use is determined by fabric type.
Antistatic Treatment: Finish applied to a fabric to remove static buildup. Fabric softeners are
effective because they coat the fibers, thereby reducing electrostatic conductivity.
Bacteriostatic and Antimicrobial Treatment: Finish applied to a fabric that is prone to mold,
mildew, and rot when exposed to moisture. The finish can be applied to the fabric or to the
fibers during manufacturing.
Dyeing Methods
Fiber Dyeing: Dye is applied to the natural fibers in their raw state or to the polymer or fiber
solution. This process ensures colorfastness and excellent color penetration.
Yarn Dyeing: Dye is applied to the fibers after they are spun into yarn.
Piece Dyeing: Dye is applied to a woven material. If all the fibers are the same, it is very easy
to achieve a uniform color.
Polychromatic Dyeing: Dyes are applied to a woven material at different speeds and in various
directions through jets and rollers, which allows for random patterning. Computer technology
is expanding options for this method of applying color.
Printing Methods
Direct Printing: Colors are applied to a fabric by a roller or cylinder imprint. A different roller is
assigned for each color, and the background is typically white. There are two types of direct
printing: block printing and flat-bed printing.
Screen Printing: Colors are applied to a fabric through a stencil. A different stencil is used for
each color. There are two types of screen printing: flat-bed printing and rotary screen printing.
For larger quantities, a rotary screen process is more efficient.
Discharge Printing: Color is lifted from a fabric in a controlled pattern with bleach or chemical
dye removers. This reverse process is used for simple patterns like stripes and polka dots. It
can be combined with other printing techniques for a more complex pattern.
Material 18 7
10
CEILINGS
Ceilings are as important as any other surface in a room. Interior designers can use a number
of materials to finish a ceiling, though, in some cases, they may wish to leave it exposed.
Many ceilings are rated according to their acoustic qualities. The main unit of measure for
acoustics is the noise reduction coefficient (NRC), a number expressed as a percentage of
how much sound is absorbed (an NRC of 0.8 will absorb 80 percent of the sound that is di-
rected at the material).
Dropped Ceilings
Dropped ceilings are also referred to as

suspended ceilings. Their main function is to
conceal items such as ductwork, piping, and
wiring. The area between the dropped ceiling
Exposed T Recessed T
and the underside of the construction above
is known as the plenum. Runners and T-
splines are hung from a wire attached to the
underside of the construction. This forms a
basic grid into which tiles of various types
are laid. Grids can be concealed within the
system for a more continuous ceiling plane. Stepped T Concealed T
CEILING PANELS
Type Description
Metal Panels Metal-faced panels available in a variety of finishes and perfora-
tions. Absorptive material behind, combined with perforations in
the panels, provides various levels of acoustic dampening.
Acoustic Tiles Mineral fiber or fiberglass panels available in a variety of edge
details and embossed patterns. They provide the maximum
acoustic absorption.
Wood Panels Fire-retardant panels faced with a wood veneer. Their acoustic
qualities are low, but the wood can be perforated to improve
acoustic performance. They add warmth and sophistication to
a space.
Metal Baffle Linear metal strips hung perpendicular to a cross tee. They can
conceal both systems and light fixtures. Available in many depths
and colors, they offer a unique appearance.
Fabric Panels Mineral fiber panels covered with woven fabric. They have a high
acoustic absorption. Able to conceal both systems and light fix-
tures, they add warmth to a room and can coordinate with other
fabrics.

10
Hard Ceilings
For many residential and hospitality projects, designers may prefer a hard surface ceiling that
can be painted or finished. These ceilings are installed under a wood or metal framing system
and provide acoustic benefits through insulation in the ceiling plenum. Gypsum panels are the
most commonly used, though it is not uncommon to find a layer of plaster installed over lath
and wire mesh. The most important aspect of a ceiling is the level of finish and smoothness
of the installation. Panels are hung, taped, covered with joint compound, and sanded smooth.
Occasionally, a skim coat of plaster will be applied to create an even surface for the final ap-
plication of paint. The six levels of finish are outlined below:
Level 0: Used in temporary construction, or in situations where the finish has not yet been
determined. Joints are not taped and the surface is not sanded.
Level 1: Used in areas where the connections between panels are concealed; e.g., ceiling
plenums or fire shafts. All joints are taped with joint compound.
Level 2: Used for water resistant applications, such as in bathrooms and kitchens, especially
where the board will receive a tile or stone surface finish.
Level 3: Used for heavy-grade finishes, such as textured sprays and commercial wall cover-
ings. Two coats of joint compound are applied smoothly, and the surface is finished with a
drywall primer.
Level 4: Used in residential and light-use construction for flat paint or other light textures. Two
coats of compound are applied at joints and corners; all fasteners receive an additional layer.
The surface is finished with a drywall primer.
Level 5: Used where gloss and other reflective finishes can telegraph imperfections, or where
fasteners might be visible. Compound layers are similar to level 4, with a final skim coat ap-
plied over the entire surface. The surface is finished with a drywall primer.
Material 18 9
11
Chapter 11: Texture

Incorporating a range and balance of textures in a space can be as character-
defining as a sophisticated color scheme. It is difficult to think of texture in isolation.
More effective is to consider it combined with color as part of an integrated concept
for the design of a room’s primary surfaces. To work with texture, the designer must
understand the effects of shadow and reflection caused by the surface configuration
of materials, including fabrics, metal, stone, wood, glass, and painted plaster. Since
all of these effects are concerned with how a surface catches light, the integration of
texture into the design concept further requires the synthesis of material selection
and lighting design.
TEXTURE IN MATERIALS
There are two basic types of textures: visual and tactile. Examples of materials with visual
texture are wood and stone, their texture defined mostly by the natural graining and veining
of the material. Tactile textures include hand- or machine-crafted fabrics and carpets. These
textures are used most effectively when they are positioned adjacent to a contrasting texture.
A rough texture next to a smooth texture, an opaque material next to a translucent material,
or a matte surface next to a reflective surface are all strategies that designers should employ
when thinking about finishes.
Paper 1 Metallic vinyl

2 Bark and aluminum
3 Woven veneer
1 4 Textured vinyl
3 4

11
Wood 1 Wood, solid stock

2 Wood veneer
3 Pressed board
4 Cork
5 Cork, modeled
1
6 Cork, thin strip
7 Cork, wide strip
2
4 5 6 7
Glass 1 Glass tile

2 Colored glass
3 Textured glass
1
4 Laminated glass
5 Textured/laminated
glass
5
3 4
191
11
Clay
1 Textured ceramic tile
2 Terra-cotta tile
3 Glazed and unglazed tile
1 4 Porcelain tile
5 Metallic tile
Stone
1 Composite stone tile
2 Marble mosaic
3 Marble
2 4 Limestone
5 Cast stone
6 Granite
1
3
4
5
6

11
Metal
1 Aluminum sheet
1 2 Perforated sheet
3 Flexible weave
4 Stamped sheet
5 Woven wire
2 3
4 5
Composite
1 Quartz solid surface
3 Epoxy coating
4 Solid surface
5 Epoxy coating
1 2
6
5
Texture 19 3
11
TEXTURE AND COLOR
The interactions of color, material, and texture, in turn reacting to light, all contribute to the
character of an interior environment. More specifically, color value has a direct effect on how
a material translates its visual or tactile qualities. Three general families of palettes have
different implications for the role of texture within the overarching design concept: the white,
neutral, and dark palettes.
White Palettes
With white color palettes, the shadows created by differences in material textures are more
pronounced; as a result, this palette strategy often foregrounds texture as the primary design
concept. A white palette is most successful with an abundance of natural light to highlight
the contrast in surfaces and textures. For instance, the shadows of window shutters can cast
strong patterns on surfaces that add to the richness of the finishes. This palette can also
benefit materials with natural textures such as linens and sisal carpets. When paired with
dark contrasting elements such as an ebonized floor or lacquered surface, a white palette can
be refreshing and bold, but it demands meticulous maintenance and may not be practical for
many clients.
Tow Studios Architecture, Village Duplex, New York.

Photo by Bjorg Magnea.

11
1, 2
1 Paint 5 10
2 Paint
3 Fabric, woven texture
4 Fabric, pattern
5 Fabric, pattern
6 Cork
7 Sisal carpet
9 Marble mosaic tile
10 Leather, woven
Texture 19 5
11
Neutral Palettes
Neutral palettes are the least risky from a design standpoint, the easiest to get approved by
a client, and the most difficult to transform into a sophisticated scheme. A neutral palette
has fewer associations with a particular era and is therefore unlikely to become dated. On
the other hand, this approach runs the danger of being banal if a rich range of textures and
materials is not achieved. Neutral palettes can easily incorporate many natural materials such
as wood, cork, and stone to balance tactile textures with visual textures. When accent colors
are injected into a neutral palette, they need only be applied in very small areas to create an
overall compositional balance.
Deborah Berke, James Hotel. Photo by Eric Laignel.
Neutral palettes cover a large spectrum of color, from creamy to cool gray tones. This range
needs to be carefully matched with the appropriate natural materials, including wood, stone,
and metal.
Creamy tones work well with medium-toned woods such as oak and anigre, warm stones such
as limestone and travertine, and warm metals such as bronze and copper. Cool gray tones
work well with dark woods such as walnut and ebony, lighter stones such as arabescato clas-
sico or thassos marbles, and cool metals such as stainless steel and chrome.

11
1, 2
8
10
5
6 10
1 Paint
2 Paint
3 Grasscloth wall covering
4 Leather, woven
5 Cork
6 Fabric, pattern
8 Fabric
9 Fabric, chenille
10 Leather, pearlescent
Texture 197
11
Dark Palettes
In general, darker palettes require more textural contrast than lighter palettes, because shad-
ows are not as legible. As a result, dark palettes may rely more on reflection than material
relief for textural contrast. Some reflective materials to consider are polished stone such as
absolute black granite and black lacquered furnishings. Dark material palettes should include
lighter contrasting wall surfaces so that the room does not become oppressive or gloomy.
Textures and Lighting

Both artificial and natural lighting affect the visual quality of textures. Shadows penetrating a
room can provide visual interest, while reflected surfaces add depth to the overall composition.
Ali Tayar, The OMNIA, Switzerland. Photo by Bruno Augsburger.

11
1, 2
10
4 11
1 Paint
2 Paint 6 7 8
3 Cork
4 Polished granite
5 Quartz solid surface 9
12
6 Fabric, woven
7 Fabric, pattern
8 Fabric
9 Cowhide
10 Fabric, pattern
11 Leather
12 Wood, solid stock
Texture 19 9
12
Chapter 12: Pattern

A pattern is a repetition of elements, typically laid in a grid. Patterns give visual
interest to the surfaces of a room, whether in a textile, wall covering, or flooring.
Although they are commonly associated with textiles, patterns can also be found
in such textural elements as a brick wall. The repetitive elements create balance
and order across surfaces, pleasing the eye, and a skilled interior designer can use
patterns to establish a desired mood. Patterns can be employed in small quantities
to highlight special features in a room or can cover every surface to blend all the
elements together. Although there are no set rules for applying patterns, it is impor-
tant to understand the effects of patterned surfaces on an interior.
EFFECTS OF PATTERNS
Patterned surfaces can alter the proportional readings of a space. Large-scale repeats with
complex patterns and contrasting colors can be appealing in a large room but can overwhelm
a small one. Complex patterns are best left for fabrics or floor surfaces and should be care-
fully considered for wall coverings.

12
Patterns with vertical lines can add height to a room with low ceilings. Curtains with vertical
lines that extend from floor to ceiling will make a room look taller. Conversely, patterns with
horizontal lines can make a room or a piece of furniture look wider.
Pattern has an effect on the mood of a space. A floral pattern on a surface will create a much
different feeling than a geometric pattern on the same surface. Patterns are expressive of
style and sensibility and immediately set the tone for an interior environment.
2 01
12
Pattern can make a surface or piece of furniture more pronounced. Pattern can be used strate-
gically to drawn the eye to a particular focal point.
The scale of a pattern determines how complex or busy it will look on a surface. For instance,
a pattern with a small repeat may appear as a solid color from across the room and only be
discernible at a closer viewing.

12
Color plays a large role in pattern. The more contrasting colors in a pattern, the more dynamic
the pattern. If a pattern is made up of different tones of the same color, it may be quite
subtle.
Texture, too, plays a role in pattern making.

A weave on a monochromatic textile can
create a pattern that adds interest to an
otherwise plain fabric.
Pattern 203
12
CHARACTERISTICS OF PATTERN
The endless variations on patterns are impossible to quantify; however, most patterns share
certain characteristics. Patterns are made up of repeats, which is the element repeated
across the surface. At its simplest, the repeat is uniformly laid in a grid. To give variety to the
pattern, it can also be rotated or mirrored along an invisible axis.
Uniform Repeat Rotated Repeat
Patterns can also be categorized by the depth of the design. The repeat will be either a two-
dimensional figure that plays up the surface of the material or a three-dimensional figure that
gives it depth. Three-dimensional patterns are most effective across a flat surface, such as a
floor or wall surface; they have less impact on a billowing or draped fabric.
Two-Dimensional Pattern Three-Dimensional Pattern

12
Custom Patterns
The designer can incorporate pat-

terns into the design of a space
in one of two ways: The most
obvious is to select and specify
a pre-made pattern such as a
textile, wallpaper, carpet, and
so forth. The other is to custom-
design a surface by laying out a
pattern that is implemented in
Machado and Silvetti Associates, The Getty Villa.
the installation of the material.

Photo courtesy of the architects.
Pattern on a Floor
Michael Gabellini, Top of the Rock. Photo by Peter Murdock.
Pattern on a Wall
Pattern 205
PERSPECTIVES ON SURFACE:
ANNABELLE SELLDORF
Annabelle Selldorf, describe yourself and your practice.
Selldorf Architects is an architecture and interior design firm with a reputation for
projects exhibiting sensitivity and restraint. The success of our work relies on a
clear and deliberate aesthetic and a commitment to engaging the client in a collabo-
rative process that fosters specificity and a bespoke quality in the project. Our work
is characterized by elegantly proportioned spaces, integrity of structure, clarity of
distribution and function, and a deliberate rendering of light; this approach calls for
exacting detail toward nuanced design.
The portfolio of our work includes a wide range of new construction and renovations,
including high-end corporate, institutional, retail, and residential work. Selldorf
Architects has completed, among others, numerous prestigious art-related projects:
museums, galleries, and art foundations, as well as exhibition spaces and artists’
studios.
You come from a family of architects. Were they your mentors? Do you have any
other design mentors?
My father is an architect and a designer and has always had a great influence on my
work. His work can be described as classically European modern, and certainly Sell-
dorf Architects’ aesthetic is also deeply rooted in the modern tradition. That being
said, it’s merely a starting point; I have my own distinct strategies and instincts.
Two other people who were part of my architecture education and had a great influ-
ence on me are Raimund Abraham, my thesis professor at Pratt Institute, and Colin
Rowe, with whom I studied in Florence while pursuing my master’s degree in archi-
tecture from Syracuse University.
To whom or what do you look to for inspiration?
In the case of interior architecture and interior design, I always start by looking to
the space itself for inspiration. Each existing building has its own intrinsic quality,
which I believe is useful to work with—not necessarily by assimilating, but as a
statement of original character. For new construction projects, it is the real and the
perceived context, the quality of the environment, the client’s disposition, and the
program that create the foundation for inspiration.

In your renovation work, how do you reconcile your aesthetic agenda with the preexisting pat-
terns and ornamentation?
If the aesthetic is a given bias in terms of taste and style, then the reconciliation happens in
a strategic fashion through critical analysis of the existing individual elements that make the
context what it is. The result may be either a juxtaposition of opposing elements or an isola-
tion of individual parts, but always within a greater whole.
The Hauser & Wirth Gallery in London and the Neue Galerie in New York are unusual places
in which to display art because of the historic detailing; specifically, the wood paneling of the
walls. How do you regard the display of art in these spaces?
My attitude regarding the display of art in these spaces is self-evident in the buildings and
their layout.
Your use of color in the Palacio Canet in Mallorca, Spain, is effective and efficient. With a few
bold colors in the furnishings, you captured both a Spanish palette and a modern sensibility.
How do you approach color in your projects?
We tend to use color and texture more with fabrics and furniture than in architectural spaces,
where we generally prefer white or neutral colors. In certain circumstances, however, color
may be an appropriate response to context. In some ways, color is the most intuitive response
to space.
You have designed residential projects for both individual clients and prospective buyers, as in
the Urban Glass House project. Is your design approach different?
The design approach is the same in either case. When designing a space in the absence of an
individual client, the program is somewhat speculative and the degree of specificity is gener-
ated by Selldorf Architects rather than the client; but the approach itself remains unchanged.
In addition, of course, our designs take into consideration the experience.
Typically, we collaborate closely with an individual; but in the case of the Urban Glass House,
we collaborated with a developer and a marketing consultant in an effort to better understand
the needs of the prospective buyers.
What is your methodology for selecting a materials palette?
While we have certain likes and dislikes or a bias for certain juxtapositions of materials, we
have no set strategy, per se, for selecting a materials palette. The choices we make are a
2 07
reflection of the client’s tastes and of considerations of feasibility with regard to practicality
and cost; but more than anything, it’s based on taste.
With your interior projects, do you have to rationalize your design decisions or do your clients
trust your taste? Is it different with your architectural projects?
Having a client trust your taste is critical to the success of any project. It is equally important
that you listen to your clients. You must develop and earn their trust, and on some level this
has to do not only with listening carefully, but with guiding and directing and explaining your
rationale to them. This is true with both interior projects and architectural projects.
You have your own line of furnishings, called Vica. Can you describe it and how it came about?
I grew up over a furniture factory founded by my grandmother. My father also designed furni-
ture, and some of the pieces in the Vica line are reeditions of his original designs. Vica is an
interior furnishings collection that offers profoundly functional, high-quality handcrafted pieces
that are refined in scale and classically modern.
Is there a building or project type that you haven’t done that you wish you could do?
I would like to do everything I haven’t yet done, including schools and public spaces, so that
people can more easily live.
Could you name some spaces that have really impressed or affected you?
I’m impressed by the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey, due to its sheer space. Another favorite
building is Erik Gunnar Asplund’s Stockholm Library in Sweden, because of its combination of
beautifully proportioned space, influx of daylight, and amazing quality of detail.

Overleaf Left Ackerman Residence. Photo by Simon Upton.
Right Palacio Canet. Photo by Selldorf Architects.
Perspectives on Surface 209

4.
ENVIRONMENTS
212
The intangible comforts of a room, often assessed intuitively, are just as
important as the visual character of a space. To make a room feel cozy on
a cold winter day has as much to do with the light quality, temperature, hu-
midity level, and lack of air movement as it does any element that can be
seen. As light, whether natural or artificial, impacts almost every aspect of
an interior environment, both functionally and emotionally, designers must
understand how to integrate it into their concept.
Interior designers do not design or specify heating, cooling, electrical, and

plumbing systems, but rely on other professionals to achieve their vision.
To this end, designers function like film directors, by orchestrating the
larger concept of the environment. In addition to defining these intended
qualities, the interior designer must be deft at integrating and disguising
the vents, radiators, and control systems that provide comfort within.
213
13
Chapter 13: Natural Light

Too often in interior practice, the quality of natural light is generally considered, but
not fully integrated into the design concept. Yet to control, channel, and filter natu-
ral light as it enters a space can be one of the most effective of design strategies.
Light can be a powerful component of an environment, given our innate tendency
to react to qualities of light in emotional and intuitive ways: Designers know that
orchestrating a sequence of spaces to end in a sun-filled room is sure to brighten
the mood of the occupants. Moreover, in practical terms, studies have shown that
natural lighting promotes productivity in the workplace and in academic environ-
ments. Beyond the poetic and functional benefits of working with natural light, a
successful outcome requires its careful manipulation to avoid uncomfortable levels
of brightness, glare, and heat gain.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
To design effectively with natural light, the designer needs to understand the solar orientation
of each room and the configuration and characteristics of the exterior environment adjacent to
each space. For example, a room whose windows face south may benefit from a well-placed
tree that filters sunlight—especially a deciduous tree whose filtering properties change with
the season. At the same time, a north-facing room may benefit from a wall or landscape
element that receives strong light from the south that then enters the interior as beautiful
bounced light.
SOL AR ORIENTATION AND FUNCTION
Anticipated activities in a space will determine how natural light should be controlled. South-
facing rooms have the best orientation for most functions since they admit the most consis-
tent sunlight throughout the day. By contrast, a room with north-facing windows allows only
diffused light to enter, making it an ideal location for an artist’s studio. For the same reason,
a north-facing room is also best for computers since it minimizes the potential for glare on the
monitor screens. If a computer room needs to face south, the designer will have to consider
window treatments as a central part of the design concept.
Window openings that face west receive late afternoon sun at a very low angle, an ideal condi-
tion for a dining room and/or living room, but window treatments will be required to cut down
on the glare caused by direct sunlight deeply penetrating the space. East-facing windows allow
early morning sun to enter, which is ideal for a breakfast nook or the coffee station in an of-
fice environment. The orientation of openings in a bedroom should influence the selection of
window treatments, especially for windows that look east.

13
North: diffuse light

West: late afternoon sun
East: early morning sun
South: most consistent light
E
N
S
W
Seasonal Light
The altitude of the sun’s path is constantly changing and is at its lowest angle in winter and
its highest in summer. When the sun is low in the sky in winter, it allows more daylight and
heat to penetrate a space, while the opposite is true in summer. Ideally, a designer should
observe the changing daylight conditions of a space over the course of a year, paying close
attention to the amount of light and shade in the morning, at noon, and in the afternoon, as
the sun changes position in the sky from winter to summer. In lieu of direct observation, the
effect of natural light based on the sun’s movement can be predicted for any location and time
of year.
The angle of the sun is always 21 June

changing. Its highest angle is AM
reached on 21 June and its low-
est angle on 21 December.
21 December
PM
215
13
CONFIGURING OPENINGS
The dimension and configuration of openings in the walls and ceiling will also determine the
character of natural light in a space. Windows are the most conventional way to channel
sunlight into a space. Their size and configuration can be shaped to create a desired effect.
In addition to the light passing directly through the glass, bounced light from window sills
and jambs contribute to the overall level and quality of light in a room. The contrast between
window apertures and their surrounding surfaces must be carefully considered. For instance,
a south-facing room with a few punched windows in a large expanse of wall will produce an
unacceptable contrast; the same space with a large expanse of glass, on the other hand, will
have more evenly distributed light.
Skylights are another way to channel natural light into a space. It is important to configure the
ceiling plane and soffits to control the amount of direct sunlight that can penetrate a room,
since it can lead to unwanted heat gain and can fade rugs, upholstery, and artwork. The best
top-lit spaces are those that rely on light bouncing from soffits and ceiling coves rather than
those that allow a direct view of the sky.
Neues Museum, Berlin.
Natural light bounces around

the curvature of the cove to
create a luminous effect,
accentuated by the metallic
gold trim.

13
CONTROLLING LIGHT
Natural light can be controlled in three ways: through additive treatments such as blinds,
curtains, and shades; by the specification of the glass; and through the configuration of the
opening itself. New glass technologies such as fritting allow the glazing itself to function as a
light-filtering system. Coatings for glass can also be specified that filter light entering a space
and reduce ultraviolet rays in particular. The location and the design of the window aperture
can dramatically affect light quality. Windows that meet the ceiling plane or the wall of the
room will allow natural light to illuminate an entire surface, enhancing light levels and reducing
contrast. The depth of the wall can also be manipulated by creating deep jambs and sills; an
outside wall, for example, can be lined with bookcases. Often, the jambs of windows in this
configuration are canted toward the interior, to maximize the amount of light that reflects deep
into the room.
Window treatments are not the only

solutions for controlling light. When
views cannot be compromised with
a window treatment, various glass
types may be used to filter harmful
ultraviolet rays.
Shelton Mindel Associates, Mindel Loft. Photo by Michael Moran.
SYNTHESIZING DESIGN ELEMENTS
Designing with natural light requires a careful synthesis with other design elements. Rooms
that are prone to contrasts of light levels due to orientation and existing window apertures, for
example, will need to be carefully balanced with artificial light. Color palettes should also be
coordinated with the quality of natural light in a room. For rooms that benefit from direct and
changing natural light, a more neutral palette may be more appropriate. Rooms that receive
only northern or diffuse light may warrant more color. Vernacular architecture indicates such
an approach: traditional Scandinavian architecture is richly colored, while the traditional
houses of Greece and Spain are painted white.
Natural Light 217

14
Chapter 14: Artiﬁcial Light

Consider a strongly evocative interior space, one where the mood is immediately
striking, and chances are high that lighting played a central role in its design. In a
restaurant that is both cozy and contemporary, for instance, artificial lighting will
inform the design features and the character of the space. Simple surfaces and
colors will have been selected to take best advantage of the light: Walls might be
a warm, buttery yellow, and mirrors and other reflective surfaces used to throw the
focal glow of candles and soft light around the room.
Lighting design that creates a mood is based on an approach that is at odds with
lighting design that seeks evenly distributed and specific lighting levels. This kind
of “perfect” all-over task lighting may be appropriate for flexible office space, but it
fails to produce an imaginative setting for most other human activities. By under-
standing the specific tasks intended for a space, however, the designer can readily
determine the appropriate lighting strategies that will integrate function and inspira-
tion into a design.
Arai Jackson Ellison Murakami, Veil Resaurant, Seattle; Studio Lumen, lighting design.
Photo by Richard Spry.

14
TYPES OF LIGHTING
Artificial lighting is best examined according to the function it performs, typically described
as ambient, accent, focal, or task lighting. Ambient lighting is the general-purpose light in a
space. Ideally, the ambient light source comes from different fixtures that can be individually
controlled and dimmed depending on the time of day or amount of natural light available.
Accent lighting acts as a spotlight to illuminate a specific artwork, architectural detail, or piece
of furniture. Accent lights are typically low-voltage fixtures that can be manually adjusted to
focus on a particular object. To avoid glare, the light source should be at a 30-degree angle to
the object.
Unlike ambient or accent lighting sources, chandeliers, wall scones, and lamps draw the eye
to themselves. These glowing objects serve as focal points in a room and, in fact, are often
referred to as focal glow. Most successful lighting design solutions balance ambient light with
focal glow.
Task lighting provides light for a specific activity. In a typical office space, the light levels are
evenly distributed by a grid of fluorescent fixtures, but are usually supplemented with a task
light over each desktop. Different tasks require different lighting levels, for which there are
general recommendations. Lighting levels can be described in foot-candles, which measure
how much light a lit candle would throw on a surface that is a foot away. The metric equivalent
is the lux.
RECOMMENDED LIGHT LEVELS
Task Area Foot-candles Lux

Kitchen 20 215
Reading or Writing 25 270
Classroom 50 540
Demonstration Lab 100 1076
Computer Lab 30 323
Auditorium 10 108
Conference Room 30–50 323–540
Enclosed Office 50 540
Office Landscape 75 807
Corridor and Stairway 10 108
219
14
LIGHTING BASICS
Lighting is measured by the amount of luminous flux on a surface, called illuminance. It is

expressed either in foot-candles (illuminance in a square foot) or in lux (illuminance in a
square meter). An artificial light source is referred to as a lamp. Although lamps are commonly
identified by their wattage, this does not describe the output of light. A watt is the measure-
ment of energy consumption from a particular light source. So an incandescent lamp and a
fluorescent lamp can have the same light output of foot-candles or lux, while ranging dramati-
cally in wattage. As an example, a 60-watt incandescent lamp has the same light output of a
15-watt fluorescent lamp.
Light coming from a single point source can, like direct sunlight, create dark areas of shadow
around the pool of light it provides. A point source calls attention to the surface it is illuminat-
ing and highlights its inherent characteristics. Diffuse light, like that on a cloudy day, distrib-
utes light evenly and is not strong enough to create shadows. While this even distribution of
light may be good in a working environment because it is easy on the eyes, it can seem a bit
dull and lifeless over time.
An unshaded lamp or poorly positioned fixture with an exposed lamp can cause extreme
brightness from a light source called glare. While not measurable, glare is easily recognizable.
It can impair vision and induce discomfort as the eye usually squints to reduce the impact of
its harshness. Veiling reflection is another type of glare that is caused by the brightness of
a light source reflecting off a shiny surface such as glass. A familiar example might be the
reflection of a bright window on a computer screen. The well-thought-out distribution and loca-
tion of light fixtures can reduce glare significantly.
TYPES OF LAMPS
Many types of lamps are available, each with specific characteristics for color rendition, size,
energy consumption, and lamp life. Juggling all the variables can be complex. To specify
lamps correctly, designers should know their efficacy rating (1 = low/poor, 5 = high/excellent)
as well as their correlated color temperature and color rendering index.
Correlated Color Temperature
warm neutral cool
1900–3450K 3500–3800K 4000–6500K
Color Rendering Index

poor good excellent
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

14
2600–3100K
Efficacy: 1 100
Lamp Life: 750–1,000 hours
Ballast/Transformer: no
Incandescent Start-to-Full Output: instant
3000K
Efficacy: 2 95
Lamp Life: 2,000–3,000 hours
Ballast/Transformer: no
Tungsten Halogen Start-to-Full Output: instant
3000K
Efficacy: 2 95

Ballast/Transformer: yes
Low-Voltage Halogen Start-to-Full Output: instant
3000–6000K
75–85
Efficacy: 5
Fluorescent Tube Start-to-Full Output: nearly instant
3000–5000K
Efficacy: 5 75–85
Compact Fluorescent Start-to-Full Output: nearly instant
6000K
65
Efficacy: 5
Metal Halide Start-to-Full Output: 5–10 minutes
2100K
65
Efficacy: 5
Lamp Life: 24,000 hours
High-Pressure Sodium Start-to-Full Output: 3–5 minutes
Artificial Light 2 21
14
NEW LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES
Although fiber-optic and LED lighting technologies have been around for a while, they are now
becoming more readily available to designers. Both lighting types are more energy efficient
than fluorescent lighting, but also much more cost prohibitive. As the market continues to
focus on energy efficiency, however, designers will see these technologies advance further
and become more affordable.
Fiber-Optic Lighting
This technology relies on strands of acrylic cables to transmit light from the light source,
called the illuminator, to the ends of the cables. The illuminator is simply a box with either a
tungsten halogen lamp or a metal halide lamp of varying wattages. Tungsten halogen lamps
are more common, while metal halide lamps are typically used for large installations. The
ends of the acrylic cable are gathered in a bundle and placed in an aperture directly in front
of the lamp. The illuminators should be conveniently located for easy access to relamp the
fixtures. It is also important to note that the illuminators need ventilation to release the heat
that is generated by the lamp.
Depending on the lighting design, there can be less than a handful of acrylic cables or hun-
dreds of cables. The length of the cables can vary per installation, but as a general rule they
should not exceed 50 feet (15 meters) or light transmission will be compromised. The advan-
tage of this system is that multiple lights can be located in difficult-to-access places, con-
trolled by a single lamp inside the illuminator.
LED Lighting
Although light-emitting diodes (LEDs) use a fraction of the electricity and last up to ten times
as long as fluorescent lamps, they are too costly for use in general lighting. LEDs are available
in high intensities of red, green, and blue light, and the combination of all three colored lights
Comparative Correlated Color Temperature
Incandescent Tungsten Halogen Low-Voltage Halogen Fluorescent Tube–cool

14
yields white light. Varying combinations of the three colors can produce a full spectrum of
color options. LEDs have the additional advantage of producing no heat. Currently, LEDs are
used in interior design to create desired effects such as accenting a reveal or washing a wall
with colored light. As the technology advances, it will become more affordable and eventually
be applied to general purpose lighting.
LIGHTING TERMINOLOGY
Ballast: Small device that controls the flow of current by providing the required starting voltage
and then reducing the current during operation.
Correlated Color Temperature (CCT): Spectral characteristic of a light source, measured in

Kelvins (K). The lower the temperature, the warmer the (yellow/red) tones; the higher the
temperature, the cooler the (blue) tones. Sunlight at dawn has a color temperature of 1900K
while a uniform overcast sky is 6527K.
Color Rendering Index (CRI): Scale from 1 to 100 that describes the affect of a light source on
an object or surface. The higher the index, the more natural and vibrant the object appears.
Dimming Ballast: Device used with fluorescent lamps to vary the output of light by the use of a
dimmer control.
Efficacy, or Luminous Efficacy: Efficiency in which electrical power is converted to light. Efficacy
measures the number of lumens emitted per watts consumed (lm/W).
Low-voltage Lamp: Incandescent lamp that operates with low voltage, ranging from 6 to 12 volts.
Luminance: Amount of light reflected or transmitted by an object.
Transformer: Device designed to raise or lower electric voltage.
Fluorescent Tube–warm Compact Fluorescent Metal Halide High-Pressure Sodium
Artificial Light 223

15
Chapter 15: Invisible Systems
The intangible comforts of a room, including temperature, air quality, and humid-
ity, are taken for granted if successfully designed, but become the source of many
complaints if they prove inadequate or off-kilter. In addition, the paraphernalia of
comfort—diffusers, grilles, thermostats, lights, receptacles—can easily obtrude on
a space with their ubiquitous off-the-shelf character. Given these challenges, it is
important for designers to select the best mechanical and electrical engineers and
to begin coordination early in the design process.
Central to a successful interior design project is a full accounting of all the accou-
trements of control for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems. Designers
must incorporate light switches, receptacles, and vents in the earliest interior el-
evations. Once accounted for and drawn, it will be far easier to find smart solutions
for making these everyday elements less obtrusive. The mechanical diffuser, for
instance, can provoke an entire ceiling design concept, with linear diffusers hidden
away in the offset between two ceiling planes, and thus define the character of the
space.
THE BASICS OF BUILDING SYSTEMS
Basic building systems include heating, cooling, and ventilation (HVAC); electrical; and
plumbing systems. Other systems like fire protection and security are not discussed here,
but should also be considered when designing a room. Engineers are responsible for design-
ing the building systems, while architects and designers coordinate the integration of the
systems. Consequently, designers need to have a conceptual understanding of the full range
of building systems. For example, the light fixtures, supply and return diffusers, life-safety
devices, and such are located on a reflected ceiling plan and coordinated with the engineering
drawings by the designer.
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Thermal comfort can be provided by air, water, or electricity, each option having advantages
or disadvantages for a particular situation. Ducted-air systems can provide both heating and
cooling. Hydronic systems are economical for heating, but are not ideal for cooling. Electrical
systems are very expensive to operate, but do not entail a lot of equipment.

15
Ducted-Air Systems
Various types of air systems are used to provide heat in buildings, the most common of which
are described below.
Single Zone System This system treats the entire building as a single zone, controlled by
one thermostat and one air-handling unit. It is common in residential
and small buildings. A slightly more complex system includes multiple
subzones that incorporate thermostatic controls inside the ducts that
feed different zones. While the temperature can be controlled within
the various areas, all of the zones have to be on the same mode of
either heating or cooling.
Multizone System This system produces both hot and cold air from a central controller.
The air is then distributed by ducts to different zones that are thermo-
statically controlled. Unlike the single zone systems, this system can
produce hot and cold temperature simultaneously. The disadvantage
of this amount of flexibility is that it drives up energy consumption.
Single-Duct Reheat This system forces very cold air into a single duct that feeds the
System entire building. Reheat coils at the ends of the duct run adjust the air
to the desired temperature. This system is best used where constant
climate control is preferred. Because it cools the air and then reheats
it at each zone, the system is not energy efficient.
Variable Air Volume This system controls the temperature by varying the amount of air
(VAV) System flow in a zone through adjustable dampers in the ductwork. As the
temperature lowers, the dampers close to reduce the amount of air
flow; as the temperature rises, the dampers open to release more air.
This system is very common for medium to large buildings because of
its high energy efficiency. The disadvantage is that the system either
heats or cools, and cannot do both at once.
Locating Diffusers
Air systems require diffusers, registers, or grilles at the ends of duct runs. Depending on the
design of the space, the ducts can be exposed or concealed above a dropped ceiling. None-
theless, diffusers should be positioned evenly and close to the perimeter wall where either
heat gain or loss is of most concern. Since warm air rises, the supply air is typically mounted
in the ceiling or high on a wall. Return air draws warm and stale air from a room and should be
located away from the supply air. Return-air diffusers, registers, and grilles can be positioned
on ceilings, walls, or floors.
225
15
Hydronic Systems
Hydronic systems adjust the temperature of water to provide heating or cooling in a space.
Boilers heat the water for heating systems, while chillers cool the water for cooling systems.
The systems described below are the most widely used.
Fin-Tube Fin-tube radiators are made of copper pipes with many copper fins that
Radiators radiate heat from the hot water in the pipes. Cold air is drawn from the
bottom of the fin tube and then heated. The warm air then rises and
heats the room. Fin-tube radiators typically are located along the base-
board of an exterior wall and are designed to provide heat alone.
Fan-Coil Fan-coil units provide heating and/or cooling to individual spaces. The
Units fan-coil is made up of a fan with one or two coils that contain hot or cool
water. The variable settings are controlled by changing the speed of the
fan, adjusting the flow of water, or turning the electric coils on or off. Fan-
coil units are typically located on an exterior wall and are rather bulky;
however, recessed units and low-profile units take up less space.
Radiant Radiant heating systems are a mesh of flexible tubes filled with hot water
Heating that radiate heat through the surface. They are typically mounted in the
Systems floor or ceiling and provide warmth and comfort to a space. They are most
commonly used in residential applications such as bathrooms. Various
types of systems are specifically made for new construction or renovation
projects.
Steel Panel Steel panel radiators operate similarly to the old cast iron radiator, but
Radiators they are sleeker and more space efficient than their former counterparts.
Water circulates in the panel via a water-supply branch and a return
branch, heating the room by radiation and convection.
Electric Heating Systems
The main advantage of electric heating systems is that they do not require additional equip-
ment. They are also easy to install and relatively small in size. The disadvantage is that they
are very expensive to operate and consume a lot of energy. Perhaps the best use of an elec-
tric heating system is as a supplemental heat source in combination with a forced-air system.
Natural convection units heat cool air as it flows across them. The warm air then rises and
warms the space. Theses units are typically mounted along a baseboard or floor, usually along
an exterior wall.
Electric furnaces do not rely on natural convection to distribute air, but rather, deliver heat by
blowing warm air into a room with a fan. They come in various shapes and sizes, depending on
the required capacity.

15
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electricity is distributed from a local utility company via high-voltage currents to a transformer.
The transformer then steps down the currents to single-phase currents. There currents are
then tied into a meter that records the amount of electricity being used. The currents then
journey to electrical panels, which distribute the separate circuits that serve different rooms.
Insulated wires in rigid metal conduits carry the electricity to its final destination.
With guidance from an electrical engineer, an interior designer may be responsible for locat-
ing switches, receptacles, dimmers, electric panels, and the like. Designers should be able
to read a wiring diagram to ensure that the controls for lighting and equipment work with the
design intent. Some of the standard electrical devices are described below.
120-Volt Also referred to as convenience outlets, 120-volt outlets are the most com-
Receptacles mon for everyday needs. Their spacing is regulated by code for different
applications; ADA also provides guidelines for their appropriate mounting
heights.
220- and 240- Higher voltage outlets such as 220 and 240 are wired separately to serve
Volt Receptacles specialty equipment such as stoves and refrigerators.
277-Volt Some applications of fluorescent lighting may require 277-volt circuits.

Circuits Their efficiency is increased by reducing the size of copper wires and allow-
ing more fixtures on a circuit.
Ground-Fault Ground-fault interrupters are specified for receptacles that are near or
Interrupter exposed to water, typically in bathrooms and kitchens. When exposed to
dampness, the device cuts off power to eliminate the possibility of fire or
shock.
Data Data receptacles are low-voltage electrical systems that allow communica-
Receptacles tion via the telephone or computer. Where data receptacles are difficult to
retrofit, wireless systems are becoming increasingly popular.
Emergency Emergency lighting is required by code in commercial and larger residen-

Lights tial buildings. During a power outage, the emergency lighting should be
sufficient to allow occupants to exit the building safely. Emergency lights
operate on a separate power source such as battery packs or, for larger
applications, on an emergency generator.
Invisible Systems 2 27
15
LIGHTING CONTROLS
To complement the careful consideration and planning of the lighting scheme, designers need
to have a basic understanding of all the options for lighting controls. They range from wallbox
dimmers common in most domestic settings to complex lighting management systems appro-
priate for large buildings that monitor energy consumption. Lighting controls serve two basic
purposes: to create a mood/setting and to conserve energy. Finding the appropriate system
that works for a specific function and budget may require consideration of one or a combina-
tion of the following systems.
Wallbox Dimmers Wallbox dimmers are the most common form of light control. They are
wall-mounted dimmers that let occupants control the amount of light in
a room. They come in a variety of designs with slide, rotary, or touch-
plate control.
Preset Dimming Preset dimming controls are used to create specific lighting scenarios
Controls for a particular space. A conference room, for example, may have set-
tings for a daytime meeting (adjusts for daylight), an evening meeting
(accounts for no daylight), a projected presentation (enough light for
note-taking), and off-hours/maintenance. The presets are programmed
and adjusted by touching a control panel that is mounted in the wall
like a standard switch plate. These presets can be combined with time-
controlled systems to change the scenes at specific times of the day.
Time-Controlled Time-controlled systems use clocks to adjust the lighting systems by

Systems programming a schedule for the presets to change or turn on and off.
The range and scale of options are broad. They can control a single
room with an individual clock or an entire building with an electronic
management system.
Occupancy Occupancy sensors control the light by detecting occupants in a room.

Sensors Passive infrared or ultrasound sensors are mounted to walls or ceilings,
depending on the size of the room. Small rooms such as a bathroom will
typically use a wallbox sensor with a combined on/off switch or dimmer.
For large spaces, multiple overhead sensors work best. Most sensors
can be adjusted for sensitivity to accommodate a particular space.
Daylight Sensors Daylight sensors detect the amount of light entering a room and adjust
the artificial lights when there is sufficient natural light. This can be
significant for rooms that face south and receive a consistent amount
of light throughout the day.
Lumen- Lumen-maintenance controls maintain the lux level in a space by adjust-

Maintenance ing the brightness of a new lamp and the dullness of an old lamp and
Controls balancing them against the desired level through photoelectric sensors.
These systems require dimming ballasts in all fixtures and a control
system to adjust the output of lamps. Only recently have lumen-mainte-
nance controls become affordable solutions for general use.

15
PLUMBING SYSTEMS
Plumbing systems deliver water to and extract wastewater and sewage from a building. These
systems are designed by engineers, but must be understood by designers to know when locat-
ing or moving a fixture is reasonable or not.
Water is supplied by pressure through vertical pipes, called risers, to bathrooms and kitchens
or wherever water is needed. These pipes are small in diameter and can go unnoticed within
the thickness of a standard stud wall. The riser connects to a horizontal pipe that then con-
nects to a fixture.
The more challenging counterpart is the drain, which uses gravity to mobilize waste down to
the sewer connection. Drainpipes always travel downhill at a slope that is regulated by the
building code for different fixtures. The vertical drain that carries wastewater from sinks and
baths is referred to as the waste stack; its diameter is small enough to fit within a typical stud
wall. The drain that connects to toilets is called a soil stack; it is twice as large in diameter
and does not fit within a standard wall construction. Both the waste and soil stack must rise
vertically through a building to the roof for proper ventilation.
Each plumbing fixture has an S-shaped pipe, called a trap, that prevents the water from drain-
ing or rising. The trap also prevents odors in the drainpipe from entering the room. Since every
drainpipe must travel up and down, it is difficult to change the location of a plumbing fixture
without affecting the spaces below and above.
vent to roof
soil stack
trap
to sewer
Invisible Systems 229

PERSPECTIVES ON ENVIRONMENTS:
YABU PUSHELBERG
George Yabu and Glenn Pushelberg, describe Yabu Pushelberg and what you do.
We are an interior design practice specializing in two areas: retail shops and hotels.
We have offices in Toronto and New York. We’re looking to work with clients that are
at the top of their game. We are not interested in the middle or the mass market,
but if there is a client that’s looking to achieve something as a vision, we work with
them to achieve that vision.
We are always striving to become better at what we do. We have meetings with all
of our team design leaders to decide what our goals are: How do we become better
designers? How do we train our junior designers better? How do we find better cli-
ents? These are all aspirational goals—not to become bigger, but to become better.
That is more important to us. We are also interested and curious always to try new
things, to work in new areas of the world, to hone what we do but not have a singular
style. Our process is about experimentation and moving our ideas around.
Your work ranges from furniture to hospitality to corporate interior spaces. Is there an
underlying methodology that you bring to every project?
You look for your inspiration or your starting point. That could be meeting a new cli-
ent, going to a new place, understanding a new program, understanding the context
of where you are working or the vision of your client or the architecture that you are
working within.
These are the points where you start your research and begin to develop a concep-
tual program. For instance, we are working on the new Mandarin Oriental Hotel in
Mumbai. We’re obviously inspired by the depth and breadth of Indian cultures, we’re
inspired by the notion of the craft and art of India. We’re also motivated by the vi-
sion of a young entrepreneur who wants to become the best hotelier in Mumbai and
wants to attract both the Bollywood crowd—that established wealthy Indian crowd—
and an international clientele. Within that, what does it mean to take an old luxury
company like Mandarin Oriental and move it forward into something that’s new but
still appropriate?
We sift through all that information, distill it, and start to develop a visual language
that is new and appropriate for a particular project. It’s not a singular straight-
forward methodology, but one based on gathering mental and visual information,
distilling it, and then twisting it so that it’s new again. It is important that the work
doesn’t become stylistic, which is a really easy trap that designs can fall into. We
aren’t interested in that. We’re not interested in being followers.

This section of the book focuses on aspects of interior design that appear at first to be second-
ary to the making of space, but actually are integral to understanding and experiencing design.
How do you approach these issues in your practice?
We think that aspects of sound, light, and movement are extremely interesting. In the Amore-
Pacific spa we did in Soho, we used behavioral software together with projected imagery that
is keyed by movement. We project a scene of cherry blossoms falling in the wind, and as you
come closer the cherry blossoms follow you, or images appear on the screen as you get closer
to it. So using one’s senses and using technology in soft ways, done effectively, creates a
more emotionally dynamic interior.
In designing restaurants, bars, or hotels, for us, the success of the interior comes not from
one bombastic idea, but from a collection of parts that creates an emotional response: how
you use light in a more painterly way; how you use technology in a soft way; what you hear
in a space, the acoustics of a space, all of these things reinforce this notion. Sound is a bit
trickier, but in some cases, it can also be used effectively.
How has this idea of soft technology changed the way you practice interior design, from when
you started till now?
Right now we’re using art in many of our installations because it automatically gives us a start-
ing point in our interiors. We’re commissioning art pieces, such as kinetic and video art, that
use technology to customize a response to the person who is occupying the space. The actual
viewing of art in interiors is the first stage, the next stage is experiencing the art.
We’re also really starting to use technology as a tool for designing. We’ve recently used more
graphic-oriented processes to create more complex patterns, not only for things like carpets,
but also for building façades. We’re doing a project for a grand hotel–you think of a traditional
grand lobby with a big, high ceiling space, but with computers you can conceive of more inter-
esting volumes that are less expected.
It’s a double-edged sword. There are times when you need to use technology to create things,
there’s a quality to it that is very modern and works well in some situations. But in other situ-
ations, we are against this process. We have a project where we wanted solid stone tubs,
so we found stone carvers in India to handmake the tubs—there’s a quality that comes from
cutting the stone by hand. Whether we are doing a jewelry store for David Yurman, which is
kind like of walking into a big sculpture, or a green hotel in Seattle, our work is moving toward
creating a space that is more artistic and more sculptural in nature, and a little less rational,
but that still solves the pragmatic issues. So, with technology, it really is a back-and-forth
process.
2 31
How has lighting technology changed the way you present interiors? Is there more theatricality,
or has the technology allowed for more subtle installations?
There is also more energy conservation today, and it does have an impact on how we light
our spaces. We choose to light our surfaces more judiciously and we try to avoid stray light
as much as possible. The resulting effect is actually quite interesting. It’s more like that Old
World painting technique, chiaroscuro, where you have very intense areas of light and you
contrast it with very little or no light. Your eye adjusts to it, so you believe that there is a
higher level of intensity. In fact, you’ve dramatically reduced your energy consumption without
a sense that your lighting has been compromised.
The toughest constraint on energy consumption and lighting is in retail, of course. But
technology is moving so quickly. Light-emitting diode (LED) technology is really a savior in our
industry, especially when you can have such a strong range of color temperature now. There
are interesting things happening in lighting that we are in some ways forced to do, but in the
end, they are really good for design.
How do you approach issues of design that may not be visual ones? When you are designing an
interior, do you think about ambiance?
First you start with the proportions of the space: How does that make you feel? Is it some-
thing that is high and soaring? Or narrow? That makes you feel one way. Or are you coming
from a space that is dark and moody and then you enter into light? Or do you have the sound
of water around your feet? Certainly, there is this notion of the sensuality of the space. How
you respond emotionally to the space is actually dealing with the temperature. How you feel
about the space is visual. You use all these devices—whether the height or proportion of the
space, the tactile nature of the materials, how the space is lit, and how you transition from
space to space—all of these parts make the whole.
Do you design with music in your mind? Do you have a soundtrack to the spaces that you create?
It’s less about music and more about the acoustic quality of the space. We are cognizant of
acoustics a lot, especially in hospitality and public spaces. Can you have a decent conversa-
tion? It’s also having all of your senses working together. You can influence the way people
respond to a space by the space itself. When you walk down a corridor in a good hotel, if the
lighting is right and the materials are softer, your voice drops lower. If it’s something that is
high and grand and hollow, your voice gets bigger and the noise in your walk gets bigger. That
is like music, as you move through different spaces and change them. There are rhythms in
how they change, but it’s not really connected, it’s isolated.

Can you think of two or three recent projects that have inspired or impressed you?
There’s a lovely hotel in São Paulo called Fasano. The restaurant is very grand, very formal,
minimal, but very beautiful in its simplicity. You think the room has been there for a long time,
it almost feels like it’s from the 1960s, but it doesn’t reference the decade in a direct way. All
of the parts work to create the whole again. We’re much more interested in that than in all this
bombastic throwaway design that exists today.
The new Apple Store in New York, the entrance on Fifth Avenue. The glass box of the entrance
on General Motors Plaza is so rigorous and rational. You can appreciate how it’s very finely
detailed in its simplicity.
A third project would be Tawaraya in Kyoto, the ultimate classic Japanese inn. We first went
there twenty years ago. Every room has a view of a private garden. There’s an order based
on the proportion and number of tatami mats in relation to the garden, and the room con-
verts from a bedroom to a dining room to a sitting room—it magically changes. The bath tub
is crafted out of wood and it’s always full of hot water for soaking. When you step over the
threshold from the street into the hotel itself, there is this beautiful long rock, two meters
wide, and it announces that you are stepping into another world, backward in time. It’s a
beautiful experience.
Overleaf Left and Top Right St. Regis Hotel, San Francisco. Photos by Joe Fletcher.
Bottom Right Amore Pacific, New York. Photo by David Joseph.
Perspectives on Environments 2 33
5.
ELEMENTS
236
The components of an interior environment fall into two categories: fixed
elements—such as walls, moldings, light fixtures, and built-in cabinetry—
and moveable elements—such as furniture, artwork, and the knickknacks
and ephemera that are evidence of everyday life. Significantly, the selec-
tion of moveable objects requires a close collaboration between the inte-
rior designer and client. Small items play a disproportionately large role in
suggesting the interests and tastes of their owners. Artwork and souvenirs
can also have very personal associations. As a result, interior designers
often serve as teachers, by contextualizing both the taste of their clients
and the objects they own into a larger vision for an interior. A good interior
designer will empower clients to make their own smart curatorial decisions
long after the project is finished.
2 37
16
Chapter 16: Details

Key to the successful combination of materials, colors, textures, and patterns is
how the elements of an interior are detailed. While detailing will vary from project to
project, there are typical details with which every designer should be familiar.
WALLS
Fire-Rated Wall Assemblies *standard metric equivalence
plan plan plan
section section section
1-Hour-Rated Assembly 2-Hour-Rated Assembly 3-Hour-Rated Assembly

5
1 layer / 8" (16) gypsum wall 2 layers /8" (16) GWB each side
5 3 layers 5/ 8" (16) GWB each side
board (GWB) on each side of of 2" × 4" (38 × 99) studs @ 16" of 2" × 4" (38 × 99) studs @ 16"
2" × 4" (38 × 99)* studs @ 16" (400) OC. Acoustic sealant top (400) OC. Acoustic sealant top
(400)* on center (OC). Acoustic and bottom. and bottom.
sealant top and bottom.
STC-Rated Partitions
plan plan plan
section section section
STC 40–47 STC 50–54 STC 56–61

2 layers 5/ 8" (16) GWB each side 2 layers 5/ 8" (16) GWB each side 1 layer 5/ 8" (16) GWB each side
of 2" × 4" (38 × 99) studs @ 16" of 2" × 4" (38 × 99) studs @ 16" of 2—2" × 4" (38 × 99) studs @
(400) OC. Furring channel one (400) OC. Studs staggered to 16" (400) OC. Studs nominally
side. Acoustic sealant top and create air pocket. Acoustic separated. Acoustic sealant
bottom. sealant top and bottom. top and bottom.

16
Partitions over Existing Walls
Corner Bead
J-Mold
Direct to Structure Structure with Mechanical

Furring channel @ 16" (400). 1 layer 5/ 8" (16) GWB one side
1 layer 5/ 8" (16) GWB. of 2" × 4" (38 × 99) studs @ 16"
(400) OC. Tie back to wall with
metal clips.
Shadowline J-Mold
Corner Conditions
Control Joint
Inside Corner with Reveal Typical Outside Corner

One Side Reveal Mold
Base Conditions
Low- and High-Profile Recessed Recessed Direct Direct

Reveals Poured Base Wood Base Applied Applied
Vinyl Wood
2 39
16
CABINETS
Typical Base and Upper Cabinet Typical Counter Edges
upper cabinets
adjustable shelves on Square or Standard Edge

30" (762)
recessed standards
cabinet pulls
blocking
Beveled Edge
integrated backsplash
(dimensions vary)
18" (457)
laminated bullnose
countertop
Demibullnose or
lower drawer on Half-Round Edge
metal glides
door with pulls
Full Bullnose Edge

adjustable shelves on
36" (914)
recessed standards
blocking
base
Built-Up Bullnose Edge

16
Joinery Types
Butt Joint Locked Miter Blind Mortise Dovetail End Lap Blind Dado
Typical Desk with Transaction Top
stone transaction top

11–12" (279–305)
end support
wood panel
desk
removable panel
29–30" (737–62)
file cabinet beyond
end gable
base
Details 241
16
CEILINGS
Ceiling Assemblies
hung ceiling with furring wall assembly with steel stud

channel soffi t
stud attached directly to hung ceiling with furring

channel channel
control joint taped and sanded
furring channel either side

acoustic membrane
corner tape
Wall to Underside of Ceiling Return-Air Slot Control Joint
hung ceiling with furring suspended ceiling assembly

channel
shadow mold
shadow mold
return GWB at ceiling end
steel stud framed corner
GWB Soffit GWB to Suspended Ceiling

16
Lights at Ceilings
Compact Recessed Fixture Fluorescent Fixture
Recessed Track Lighting Surface Track Lighting
Cove Uplighting Cove Accent Lighting
Details 243
16
DOORS AND HARDWARE
Door Types
Flush Panel 5-Panel Louver Bi-Fold
Full Glass All Glass French Narrow Sliding

Lite
Door Handing
LH RH LHR RHR
Exterior
Exterior
Left-Hand and Right-Hand Left-Hand Reverse and
Right-Hand Reverse

16
Butt Hinges
A plain bearing butt hinge This hinge negotiates vary-

is the most common hinge ing floor levels by allowing
used to hang a door. the door to lift.
Butt Hinge Self-Rising Hinge
This hinge should be speci- This specialty hinge

fied for heavy doors, doors is invisible when the
with closers, or doors in high- door is closed and can
traffic areas. open 180 degrees.
Ball-Bearing Hinge
Invisible Hinge
Pivot Hinges
This hinge offsets the

pivot point away from
the door jamb and al-
lows the door to swing
180 degrees.
Offset Pivot Hinge
This hinge is centered

on the pivot point and,
in the absence of a
door stop, allows the
door to swing in two
directions.
Center Pivot Hinge
Details 24 5
16
FLOORING PATTERNS AND TRANSITIONS
Patterns
Running Bond Offset Running Bond
Stacked Mixed Running Bond
Basketweave Herringbone
STANDARD DIMENSIONS FOR FLOORING MATERIAL

Flooring Thickness Standard Sizes
Stone Tile 3
/ 8", 5/ 8" (9.5,15.8) 12" × 12", 16" × 16", 18" × 18" (305 × 305, 406 × 406, 457 × 457)
Stone 3
/4", 11/4" (19, 31.7) 24" × 24" (609 × 609), custom
Porcelain Tile 3
/ 8" (9.5) 12" × 12", 12" × 24", 18" × 18", 24" × 24" (305 × 305, 305 × 609, 457 × 457, 609 × 609)
Ceramic Tile 5 3
/16", / 8" (8, 9.5) 1" × 1", 2"× 2", 4"× 4", 6"× 6", 12"× 12" (25 × 25, 50 × 50, 101 × 101, 305 × 305)
Solid Wood 5
/16", 1/2", 3/4" (8, 12.7, 19) 2 1/4", 3", 4" (57, 76, 101) board width
Engineered Wood 1
/2" (12.7) 3", 4 1/2" (76, 114) board width
Cork 3
/16", 3/ 8" (5, 9.5) 12"× 12", 12"× 24", 24"× 24" (305 × 305, 305 × 609, 609 × 609)
Vinyl Composite Tile 1

/ 8" (3) 12"× 12" (305 × 305)

16
Transitions
metal strip carpet on stone

stone tile cushion
vct setting bed
Metal
Thin Set Stone to Carpet VCT to Stone

Vinyl
vinyl
transition
carpet VCT stone tile tile
Vinyl
Vinyl Carpet to VCT Thin Set Stone to Tile
stone threshold
Rubber stone
carpet tile carpet
setting bed
Rubber
Carpet to Stone Tile to Carpet
wood threshold stone threshold

Wood carpet wood wood
tile
Stone Carpet to Wood Tile to Wood
Details 247
16
UPHOLSTERY SEAMS AND WINDOW TREATMENTS
Upholstery Seams
Plain Seam: Simplest way to sew two pieces of fabric together.
Topstitch: Additional line of stitching that goes through three

layers of fabric. The strongest seam.
French Seam: Two additional lines of stitching on either side

of a plain seam. Often considered the most beautiful seam.
Welt: Round piping edge detail that hides the plain seam.
Topstitched Welt: Additional line of stitching adjacent to a welt.

16
Shades
Roller Flat Roman Double Roman Austrian
Drapes
French Pleat Barrel Pleat Box Pleat
Grommet Tab Jabot & Swag
Details 24 9
17
Chapter 17: Furniture

Knowledge of furniture and the role it has played historically in the development of
the interior design profession is an integral part of the designer’s toolkit. While the
following pages illustrate canonic furniture that is decidedly modernist, they offer a
good foundation for further research and exploration.
Charles Rennie
Mackintosh
Tea Room Chair
1897
Thonet
Model 14 Chair
1859
Josef Hoffmann
Fledermaus Chair
1897
Eileen Gray
Screen
1925
Side Table
1929
17
Alvar Aalto
Chair
1933
Stool
1932
Marcel Breuer Jacob Jacobsen

Wassily Chair Luxo Lamp
1927 1937
Le Corbusier
Chaise Lounge
1928
Gerrit Thomas
Rietveld
ZigZag Chair
1934
Mies van der Rohe

BRNO Chair
1930
Barcelona Chair
1931
17
Charles and
Ray Eames
LCW Chair
1946
Eero Saarinen
Womb Chair
1948
Arne Jacobsen
Series 7
1955
Jean Prouvé
Antony Chair
1950
Raymond Loewy Isamu Noguchi

Pencil Sharpener AKARI Lamp
1953 1951
17
Poul Kjærholm
PK22
1955
Verner Panton Poul Henningsen

Chair PH Artichoke
1959 1957
George Nelson Hans Wegner

Coconut Chair CH 07
1955 1963
Arne Jacobsen
Swan Chair
1958
Charles and
Ray Eames
Lounge Chair
& Ottoman
1956
17
Achille Castiglioni
ARCO Lamp
1962
Alexander Girard
Checker Split
1965
Florence Knoll
Credenza
1961
Harry Bertoia Michele De Lucchi

Diamond Lounge Side Table
1955 1983
17
Jasper Morrison
Low Pad
1999
Droog Design
85 Lamp Chandelier Ron Arad
1993 Tom Vac Chair
1997
Joe Colombo
Boby Trolley Bill Stumpf
1970 Aeron Chair
1992
George Nelson
Action Office
1964
Patricia Urquiola
Antibodi
2006
18
Chapter 18: Elements and Display

Accessories are items smaller than furniture that make up the visual field of an
interior. Categories of accessories include functional items, such as wall clocks,
umbrella stands, and magazine racks; items that have personal sentimental value,
such as souvenirs and family photographs; and objects with specific aesthetic
merit, such as collections and artwork. Fundamental to the idea of accessories in
an interior is that they are worthy of display rather than being stored in a closed
cabinet, drawer, or closet.
Accessories play two important roles in interior design: First, they introduce a
smaller scale of elements within a comprehensive design strategy. Second, they
personalize a space, since accessories can convey individual interests, sentimental
attachments, or a specific aesthetic taste.
William Frawley, Frawley Apartment.

Collections that are grouped

produce a visually pleasing com-
position. The significance of an
individual object is less important
than the density of many objects.

18
FUNCTIONAL ACCESSORIES
Functional accessories comprise items that serve a need of the occupant of the space, and
range from bathroom towels to wastepaper baskets to television sets. Functional acces-
sories can have aesthetic value, which a good designer can incorporate into the design of
an interior. Kitchen pots and pans, for instance, can be transformed into accessories if they
are displayed on an overhead rack or on custom-designed shelves. The designer has made a
conscious decision to treat the pots as objects worthy of contributing to the overall composi-
tion. This choice could be inspired by the clients’ desire to communicate their love of cooking
as much as the wish to add character to the kitchen through small-scale objects. Books are
another example of an everyday object that can be elevated to the role of an accessory, either
collected on open shelves lining a library or as a single volume displayed among objects on a
coffee table.
DECORATIVE ACCESSORIES
Decorative accessories include collections of objects, memorabilia, family photographs, cut flow-
ers, and plants. Accessories of this type can serve a purely aesthetic role or can function as a
personal expression of the owners’ interests and passions. This category of accessories is best
grouped and composed with an eye to larger compositional issues of scale and balance.
A collage of different types of objects can be

equally effective as a collection of similar ob-
jects. More important is the contrast between
surfaces where collections are displayed and
surfaces that remain unadorned.
Machado and Silvetti, Boston Townhouse. Photo by Stephen Lee.
2 57
18
ARTWORK
Larger works of art with high value, aesthetic merit, and/or deep personal meaning are typically
displayed as focal points in a room and sometimes might drive other aspects of the design.
Lesser artwork is typically displayed in compositions—whether as a still-life arrangement on a
table or in a mosaic of pictures on a wall. In this case, the artfulness of the combination can
create its own aesthetic pleasure. Pictures can be hung directly on a wall with a picture hook; or,
to allow for a changing display, a picture rail or shallow ledge can be incorporated in the room’s
design. Tackable wall surfaces might also be considered for displaying more informal graphic
ephemera and children’s art. Similar in spirit are chalkboard or dry-erase whiteboard surfaces to
encourage spontaneous self-expression.
Frawley Apartment. Photo by Michael Moran.
A composition of
drawings and paintings
on a wall provides visual
interest and takes the
pressure off an individual
work of art.
PLACES FOR DISPLAY
Since accessories and most works of art are relatively small elements within an environment,
they tend to be grounded in larger arrangements of objects and in specific places. An assem-
blage of objects or pictures can create its own visual identity by virtue of the cohesion resulting
from the close adjacency and similarities or differences among objects. There are two common
strategies of arrangement. Collections are displays of like objects, such as antique mechani-
cal toys, arrowheads, or prints of natural history phenomena. Still lifes are displays organized
purely for aesthetic effect, typically through the juxtaposition of disparate objects that share
one or several attributes. For example, a still life might combine green objects, but with a range
of textures from rough to shiny and a range of proportions from tall to low and horizontal.

18
Both collections and still lifes require a setting for display. Cabinets with open shelves,
floating shelves on walls, fireplace mantles, and built-in niches are all examples of surfaces
specifically designed for the display of decorative objects. Side tables and coffee tables also
accommodate displays, along with drinks and hors d’oeuvres or the daily newspaper.
MINIMAL VERSUS CLUTTERED
Tastes for the appropriate amount of accessories in a room can vary dramatically. Design aes-
thetics range from the starkly minimal, with a few carefully selected accessories, to the highly
cluttered interiors of the Victorian era—as well as the Eames House in Southern California.
The relative density of accessories can also create character across a sequence of spaces;
for example, moving from austerity in formal spaces to coziness in more private rooms. In
general, the most successful interiors avoid the conventionality of the middle ground, but aim
rather toward a carefully edited minimalism or the excess of a thoughtful curator.
Photo by Eames Office LLC, courtesy of Tim Street-Porter.
Collections are never complete,

they simply evolve, as seen in
Charles and Ray Eames’s home in
Pacific Palisades.
Elements and Display 2 59

PERSPECTIVES ON ELEMENTS:
CALVIN TSAO
Calvin Tsao, describe yourself and your practice.
As architects, we have an interest in bridging different design disciplines. We have

a profound interest in approaching our work comprehensively, “total design” if you
will; our work as interior designers should be understood in this context. We are
interested in mapping out human behavior for different social conditions. We look at
the world from a larger perspective while advancing an aesthetic; you simply cannot
do one without the other.
Do you have a particular approach to placing furniture in a space?
Ultimately, we look at furniture anthropomorphically and therefore functionally be-

cause furniture is conducive to varying activities. However, I like looking at interior
environments less as a collection of things in a room than as an intersection. Why
draw the line between built-in furniture, loose furniture, and architecture? Some
furniture is already placed because it is built-in and loose furniture is simply an ex-
tension of the whole reality. The envelope creates the space, and the surface can
be altered to make niches, cantilevers, extensions, etc.; sometimes the surface
becomes a table or a four-poster bed. I prefer to blur the boundaries of architecture,
built-in furniture, and loose furniture.
What is your favorite type of space to design/furnish?
I love small, tiny spaces. As a child, I liked to make tents out of my sheets in bed
and under the stairs. It’s a very basic impulse and the next line of defense beyond
clothing.
Small spaces lack the bravura of large spaces, and therefore spaciousness isn’t
the primary character. Modest space must be carefully orchestrated and tactility is
an essential quality. Because the distance between the eye and an object is differ-
ent in smaller spaces, you look closer, you touch more. I like the involvement of the
senses when surfaces are closer.
Does your work have a particular style that you can define?
Style? An approach more than a style, really. It depends how you want to define the
word style. One can have a developed taste, but style can be limiting.
Who are the most influential furniture designers of the nineteenth, twentieth, and
twenty-first centuries?

In the nineteenth century, the Viennese designers, most notably Biedermeier, were
addressing the social preoccupations of the rising middle class, who attempted to
emulate the nobility. In contrast, Christopher Dresser, who foreshadowed modern-
ism, was designing objects with a simple modern aesthetic that had a different,
almost Asian, cultural sensibility. His designs open the way for people like Mackin-
tosh. Simultaneously, the Herter Brothers were producing exquisitely crafted interior
furnishings. Their work influenced the nuances of the language through craft. What
is most notable about the nineteenth century is the parallel development of cultural
assimilations and the forging of an aesthetic movement.
The twentieth century is complex in that you have Mackintosh and Fortuny advancing
aesthetics through symbolism that partly explored psychosexual qualities in furnish-
ings. On the flip side were Le Corbusier, Perriand, and Loos defining a new aesthetic
via their romance with the machine age. Then Henry Dreyfus and Raymond Loewy,
taking cues from the Corbusian romance with industry and incorporating that aes-
thetic into their designs. Simultaneously, Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann and Jean-Michel
Franc were designing simple forms veneered in exotic finishes and patterns. Also
George Nelson, George Nakashima, and Vladimir Kagan were inspired by history but
took it to a different place. Noguchi transcended the idea of pure craft and created
functional art objects. Of course, one has to include Wright and the Eames.
The twenty-first century continues with designers like Marc Newson and Ronan and
Erwan Bouroullec. Marcel Wanders and other Dutch conceptual designers who make
up the Droog Collective. There is also the Spanish designer Patricia Urquiola, who
burst on the scene about five years ago. Ultimately, what I find most interesting
about furniture design is that it remains an everyday design problem with a populist
tradition serving a multitude of worlds and realities. The field continues to be di-
verse and exciting by being geographically specific in its influences.
Of these designers, who inspires you the most?
All of them. It is the multitude that gives you the confidence that you have to find
your own vision. We embrace a nonegocentric approach, but believing in the self as
it serves the world in a way that you desire to participate. We are like shaman; aes-
thetic chanellers of how people like to live.
What else (or who else) do you look at for inspiration?
In the end, nature is amazing: A hermit crab or the patterns of a leaf, there is noth-
ing unnecessary in natural phenomena. Whether it is camouflage color or color to
attract for procreation, it’s all necessary.
2 61
I am also greatly inspired by movement and dance. My early training as a dancer and in the
theater has influenced my awareness of movement. Dance has helped me understand the
human interaction with a physical environment. I am deeply interested in mapping those im-
pulses as part of daily life, even beyond walking and running. I am sensitive to left-handed
and right-handed impulses. It is important to consider how one should open a door—should it
swing out or in?
I am particularly fascinated with the eighteenth century. They created furniture based on the
idea of movement, from straddling a chair to sitting low in front of a boudoir. The clothing of
the time informed the furniture, the furniture informed the architecture, and the architecture
informed the social politics of a situation—imagine the drama of a suite of enfilade rooms.
Lastly, I am influenced by art and artists. Since artists are the most advanced prophets, I look
to them not to copy but because they show the way.
When do think it is appropriate to use custom-designed furniture?
Custom furniture should not be revolutionary, but rather custom fit for a particular space. It
should not be about inventing something new for the sake of novelty. I prefer to make the
analogy to Savile Row; make a perfect suit to custom fit a person. When we design custom
furniture, we aim to make the perfect chair to fit the space perfectly.
Who do you think is making well-designed mass-produced furniture?
Ikea is pretty damn good. They work with young talented designers and there is a clear agenda
to promote affordable good design. In contrast, Target is mining well-known designers that
they convert to brand names to promote more sales.
What are your top three resources for purchasing “one-of-a-kind” pieces of furniture?
1stdibs.com—A lot of dealers use this website for selling their treasures. It is essentially a
web-catalogue, not unlike Ebay but for designers. If you’re a dealer, you have to go to shows
and it is costly. Some or all of the inventory on the website leads to a specific seller’s website,
making it a great way to connect to dealers as well as objects. However, I still feel weird about
buying things without seeing and touching them. There’s something about the human eye and
body interaction that gives you a better sense of whether it is going to be the right piece.
Flea Markets—I still believe that everyone should travel and get up to speed on where the
local flea markets are held. Some of my favorites are the first Sunday of the month in Arezzo,
Italy; Portobello Road in London; Marche Paul Bert and Marche Serpette, both in Paris; in
Brimfield, Massachusetts; and Pan Jia Yuan in Beijing. What I like most is that they are not
edited. You don’t know what you’re going to find, but sometimes you can find unique items.
Once I found a fabulous big chunk of wood—something I certainly wasn’t shopping for. Only
flea markets provide these wonderful kinds of revelations.

R 20th Century—Lastly, when looking for modern furniture, R 20th Century in New York is a
great source. The owners are constantly looking. Right now they are focusing on the Brazil-
ians. Whether I buy or not, I always go there to see what they’re looking at; it’s a great place
to train the eye. Good furniture dealers are almost like tutors, with their great eye they pick up
new things. What’s both fascinating and difficult about this market is that dealers are forced
to move onto the next area of exploration as they price themselves out of the current trends.
As a result, it is a constantly evolving market.
Does your design or project approach differ for a residential client versus a corporate or
institutional client?
Yes and no. Because so much time is spent in the workplace, it is important to navigate with
ease even though the concerns are totally different from those of a residence. The goal of
office design is also to enhance living. I often ask, how residential can I make a corporate
environment?
With corporate or institutional clients, I try to draw out the humanity. You can’t serve anyone
if you stay on the surface. If you treat them as entities, it’s difficult to serve them. The human
dynamic can be a pain or it can be wonderful; but in the end, if you can appeal to the human
condition, better design is achievable.
How do you integrate an existing piece of furniture that a client may have and that you do not
particularly like?
With each client, I try not to be static in my approach to design or to the design process itself.
Because they have engaged me as an architect and designer, I assume that our clients want
to evolve—that they want new space, furniture, art, accessories, etc. At the same time, if they
have had a piece for a long time and are happy with it and not ready to let go of it, who am I
to tell them that they must? That approach is right out of those marvelous Jacques Tati films,
where the government authority adopts modern design as law and dictates that its citizens
have to change the way they live in order to conform. It’s brilliant satire, but I prefer not to play
politics in that way, and I believe that to command clients or to try to persuade them on purely
theoretical or intellectual grounds is fundamentally not good practice.
My role is to serve our clients as individuals, so my first task is to inquire about and under-
stand how they live. Then I continue by informing them about the furnishings and objects they
already have, and whether I like or dislike them shouldn’t really factor into the discussion.
Finally, the most important and helpful thing I can do is to inspire them and to advise them
as to what can be. Fully informed and aware—not just of the realities of the past but also
of the possibilities of the future—clients might then realize, perhaps even to their surprise,
that they are ready to discard existing design and to embrace new design. In this approach,
everyone learns, everyone grows, and everyone is pleased with the design outcome. I evolve
as a designer by gaining a deeper understanding of the spirit of each individual client. And our
clients evolve, too, by gaining the experience and confidence they need to make informed and
thoughtful decisions.
Overleaf Upper East Side Townhouse. Photos by Jen Fong.
Perspectives on Elements 263

6.
R ES O U R C ES
266
Every interior designer needs to build a library of publications that cover
in greater detail the range of topics addressed in this volume. Included
here are resources that would be indispensable additions to any col-
lection. Of course, with the Internet and search engines, the number of
resources available to interior designers has increased exponentially.
Like any other subject, however, the quality of digital information is only
as good as the content-provider for the website. The web links recom-
mended here span the gamut from professional and nonprofi t organiza-
tions to software companies and product manufacturers to the best and
most provocative design magazines and blogs. Each, in turn, will provide
their own interesting leads.
The ethical responsibility of the designer underlies all recommendations

in this book. Foremost is the imperative to design for a more equitable
and sustainable future. Beyond happily shopping for products and serv-
ices, it is up to the design industry to generate the resources and ideas
that make each project an opportunity to consider the impact of design
choices on society and the environment.
2 67
19
Chapter 19: Sustainability Guidelines

Sustainable design is a holistic approach that combines the thoughtful selection
of renewable and recycled materials and energy-conserving building systems and
appliances with design choices that result in the healthiest possible environment
for the occupants. Not only does such an approach allow the designer to reduce
environmental impacts, it can also lower operating costs and create interiors that
foster higher productivity and overall well-being.
Given the myriad issues that fall under the green agenda, benchmarking systems
and checklists are often used to identify potential strategies and to track them
during the design process. The most popular benchmarking system in the United
States is LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), developed by the
U.S. Green Building Council, a nonprofit organization dedicated to the promotion of
sustainable building. The LEED point system is organized into five content catego-
ries, four of which are of particular relevance to interior designers: water efficiency,
energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, and indoor environmental quality.
WATER ENERGY MATERIALS INDOOR AIR QUALITY
RESOURCE CONSERVATION
One way that sustainable design is mindful of the environment is by designing and furnishing
buildings to reduce water and energy consumption. Low-flow toilets and low-pressure shower
heads can be specified to reduce water demand. Tankless water heaters that instantly supply
hot water eliminate the need to store heated water or to run the water until the desired tempera-
ture is achieved.
Electric demand can be reduced with the use of dimmers, occupancy sensors, and fluorescent
and low-voltage lighting. Lights in small spaces like closets and pantries should turn off auto-
matically when the door is closed. Electric loads can be further minimized if the lighting is zoned
and designed to be task-specific; for instance, lighting the surface over a kitchen work counter
is more efficient than illuminating the entire room. In addition, designers should always specify
Energy Star–rated appliances or those with equivalent high performance standards.

19
PRACTICAL IDEAS FOR REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Use multilamp or electronic fluorescent ballasts whenever possible.
Separate switches to allow flexibility of artificial light during daylight and nondaylight hours.
Include dimmers in rooms greater than 100 square feet (9.3 square meters).
Incorporate occupancy sensors so that lights turn off automatically when a room is not occupied.
Incorporate daylight sensors with spaces that have skylights or clerestories.
Reduce overall room illumination while concentrating on task lighting.
Limit the use of incandescent and halogen lights to where good color rendering is essential.
INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Indoor air quality can be greatly improved by reducing or eliminating volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs), the toxic chemicals emitted from common building and home furnishing
products in a process known as off-gassing. The biggest offenders are formaldehyde-based
products. Common sources of VOCs include paint, adhesives, sealants, solvents, urethane
(used as a wood floor finish), particleboard (used for furniture and cabinets), and carpet. Many
of these products come in low-VOC versions, or designers can specify alternative products
from an increasingly wide range of companies. Houseplants, too, can help mitigate the effect
of VOCs in the environment: A single spider plant or philodendron will absorb VOCs within a
5-foot (1 520 millimeter) radius. The careful management of natural daylight in a space can do
more than reduce the need for artificial lighting. Well-lit spaces with a combination of diffuse
and direct natural light have been shown to improve the health and productivity of their occu-
pants. Other strategies that can contribute to indoor environmental quality include monitoring
carbon dioxide, increasing ventilation, and providing thermal comfort.
RENEWABLE, RECYCLED, AND RECLAIMED PRODUCTS
A green design agenda must also consider the use of renewable, recycled, and reclaimed
resources. Renewable sources include fast-growing and responsibly harvested woods that
have been certified by the Forest Stewardship Council as neither endangered nor genetically
modified nor originating from tree farms that have replaced forest land. Recycled materials
can be found in numerous products on the market today that use postconsumer waste as part
of the manufacturing process, from recycled plastic carpets and carpet backings to crushed-
glass or cement-based solid surfacing. (Of course, designers should also promote recycling by
providing ample, convenient space for recycling bins in the home or office.) Reclaimed goods
are available from many companies that handle and make it easy to purchase and reinstall
salvaged materials. In all cases, designers must be cognizant of local economies of labor and
supplies.
269
20
Chapter 20: Manual Resources
This book scratches the surface of what the interior design process encompasses.
Beyond the present volume, there are a number of publications with which the de-
signer should be familiar. The start of any designer’s education is a good resource
library. The list that follows is by no means exhaustive, but all these texts—some
of which have served as references for this book—expand on the themes ad-
dressed here and form the basis of a strong reference library.
GENERAL REFERENCE
Interior Design, 3rd ed.

John F. Pile; Prentice Hall, 2003
Interior Design and Decoration, 5th ed.

Stanley Abercrombie and Sherrill Whiton; Prentice Hall, 2006
Interior Graphic and Design Standards

S. C. Reznikoff; Whitney Library of Design, 1979
Interior Graphic Standards

Maryrose McGowan and Kelsey Kruse, eds.; John Wiley & Sons, 2003
(also available on CD-ROM; John Wiley & Sons, 2004)
Time-Saver Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning, 2nd ed.
Joseph DeChiara, Julius Panero, and Martin Zelnik; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001
FUNDAMENTALS
Architectural Graphics, 4th ed.

Francis D. K. Ching; John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Construction Drawings and Details for Interiors: Basic Skills

W. Otie Kilmer and Rosemary Kilmer; John Wiley & Sons, 2003
The Designer and the Grid

Lucienne Roberts and Julia Thrift; Rotovision, 2005
Digital Lighting and Rendering, 2nd ed.

Jeremy Birn; New Riders Press, 2006

20
Envisioning Information
Edward R. Tufte; Graphics Press, 1990
Interior Design Illustrated, 2nd ed.

Francis D. K. Ching and Corky Binggeli; John Wiley & Sons, 2004
Thinking with Type: A Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Editors, & Students
Ellen Lupton; Princeton Architectural Press, 2004
What Every Practitioner Should Know

Interiors 06: The AISD Conference on Design, 2006
SPACE
American National Standards: Accessible and Useable Buildings and Facilities

International Code Council, 2004
Anatomy for Interior Designers, 3rd ed.

Julius Panero; Whitney Library of Design, 1962
Archetypes in Architecture
Thomas Thiis-Evensen; Norwegian University Press, 1987
Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th ed.

Charles George Ramsey, Harold Reeve Sleeper, and John Ray Jr. Hoke;
John Wiley & Sons, 2000
Art and Visual Perception

Rudolf Arnheim; University of California Press, reprint ed., 1974
Bathrooms: Simply Add Water

Terence Conran; Conran, 2006
The Codes Guidebook for Interiors, 3rd ed.

Sharon Koomen Harmon and Katherine E. Kennon, eds.; John Wiley & Sons, 2005
Early American Architecture

Hugh Morrison; Dover Publications, 1987
Key Houses of the Twentieth Century: Plans, Sections and Elevations

Colin Davies; Laurence King Publishing, 2006
The Place of Houses

Charles Moore, Gerald Allen, and Donlyn Lyndon;
University of California Press, 2000
271
20
On the Job: Design and the American Office

Donald Albrecht and Chrysanthe B. Broikos, eds.;
Princeton Architectural Press, 2000
Terence Conran Kitchens: The Hub of the Home

Terence Conran; Clarkson Potter, 2002
Ultimate House Book

Terence Conran; Conran Octopus, 2003
SURFACE
The Art of Color: The Subjective Experience and Objective Rationale of Color, rev. ed.
Johannes Itten; John Wiley & Sons, 1997
Color Design Workbook

Sean Adams, Noreen Morioka, and Terry Stone;
Rockport Publishers, 2006
Color in Interior Design

John Pile; McGraw-Hill Professional, 1997
Constructing Architecture: Materials, Processes, Structures

Andrea Deplazes; Birkhauser, 2005
Designer’s Color Manual: The Complete Guide to Color Theory and Application
Tom Fraser and Adam Banks; Chronicle Books, 2004
Detail Practice: Translucent Material: Glass, Synthetic Materials, Metal

Frank Kaltenbach; Birkhauser, 2004
Interaction of Color, rev. ed.

Josef Albers; Yale University Press, 2006
Kelly Hoppen Style: The Golden Rules of Design

Kelly Hoppen; Bulfinch Press, 2004
Mary Gilliatt’s Interior Design Course

Mary Gilliatt; Watson-Guptill Publications, 2001
The Surface Texture Bible

Cat Martin; Stewart, Tabori and Chang, 2005
Transmaterial: A Catalog of Materials That Redefine Our Physical Environment

Blaine Brownell; Princeton Architectural Press, 2005

20
ENVIRONMENTS
The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment

Reyner Banham; Architectural Press, 1985
Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods

Edward Allen; John Wiley & Sons, 2003
Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Design Methods for Architects

Norbert Lechner; John Wiley & Sons, 2000
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 10th ed.

Benjamin Stein , John S. Reynolds , Walter T. Grondzik , and Alison G. Kwok;
John Wiley & Sons, 2005
ELEMENTS
Classic Herman Miller

Leslie A. Pina; Schiffer Publishing, 1998
Design Since 1945

Peter Dormer; Thames & Hudson, 1993
Design of the 20th Century

Charlotte and Peter Fiell; Taschen, 2005
Interior Design of the 20th Century

Anne Massey; Thames & Hudson, 2001
Sourcebook of Modern Furniture

Jerryll Habegger and Joseph H. Osman; W. W. Norton, 2005
RESOURCES
Sustainable Commercial Interiors

Penny Bonda and Katie Sosnowchik; John Wiley & Sons, 2006
27 3
21
Chapter 21: Digital Resources
PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
American Society of Interior Designers www.asid.org

Interior Designers Canada www.interiordesigncanada.org
Green Building Council www.usgbc.org
MAGAZINES AND JOURNALS
Abitare (Italy) abitare.corriere.it

Architect (USA) www.architectmagazine.com
Architectural Record (USA) www.architecturemag.com
Azure (Canada) www.azuremagazine.com
Domus (Italy) www.domusweb.it
Dwell (USA) www.dwell.com
Elle Decor (USA) www.elledecor.com
I.D. Magazine (USA) www.idonline.com
Interior Design (USA) www.interiordesign.net
Metropolis (USA) www.metropolismag.com
wallpaper* (UK) www.wallpaper.com
WEBSITES AND BLOGS
architechnophilia architechnophilia.blogspot.com/index.html
BLDGBLOG bldgblog.blogspot.com/index.html
bleep bloop dodeckahedron.blogspot.com/index.html
BrandAvenue brandavenue.typepad.com
Coolhunting www.coolhunting.com
Design Observer www.designobserver.com
design*sponge designsponge.blogspot.com/index.html
Designspotter www.designspotter.com
Dexigner www.dexigner.com
eyecandy eyecandy-webcandy.blogspot.com/index.html
FunFurde funfurde.blogspot.com/index.html
HATCH blog.designpublic.com
IKEAHacker ikeahacker.blogspot.com/index.html
Land+Living www.landliving.com
MagCulture magculture.com/blog
Mighty Goods www.mightygoods.com
MoCo LoCo mocoloco.com

21
Presentation Zen www.presentationzen.com

Print and Pattern printpattern.blogspot.com/index.html
Pruned pruned.blogspot.com/index.html
Reluct www.reluct.com/home/index.html
Treehugger www.treehugger.com
SOF TWARE
ArchiCAD www.archicad.com
AutoCAD www.autodesk.com
Blender www.blender.org
Brazil r/s www.splutterfish.com
Cheetah www.cheetah3d.com
finalRender www.finalrender.com
Form•Z www.formz.com
Indigo www2.indigorenderer.com
Kerkythea www.kerkythea.net/joomla
LightWave www.newtek.com
Maxwell www.maxwellrender.com
mental ray www.mentalimages.com
MicroStation www.bentley.com
Modo www.luxology.com
VectorWorks www.nemetschek.net
YafRay www.yafray.org
MANUFACTURERS AND ORGANIZATIONS
Americans with Disabilities Act www.ada.gov

Architectural Woodwork Association www.awinet.org
Building Stone Institute www.buildingstoneinstitute.org
Carpet and Rug Institute www.carpet-rug.org
Design at the Design Museum www.designmuseum.org/design
Design within Reach www.dwr.com
Designing with Light www.designingwithlight.com
Designtex www.dtex.com
Fabrics.net www.fabrics.net
Hardwood, Plywood and Veneer Association www.hpva.org
Herman Miller www.hermanmiller.com
InterfaceFLOR www.interfaceflor.com/
Knoll www.knoll.com
National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers www.naamm.org
National Cad Standard www.nationalcadstandard.org
National Glass Association www.glass.org
National Wood Flooring Association www.woodfloors.org
National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association www.ntma.com
National Textile Association www.nationaltextile.org
Oakwood Veneer Company www.oakwoodveneer.com
Solid Surface Product Resource www.solidsurface.org
Vitra www.vitra.com
275
PERSPECTIVES ON RESOURCES:
SHASHI CAAN
Shashi Caan, describe yourself and your practice.
I am curious and optimistic. I enjoy understanding the intrinsic nature of people,

things, and processes. The what, why, and how are important questions, and the
underpinnings of human rituals intrigue me. Change is also a curious phenomenon
to me and one that requires exploring edges and redefinitions.
That my life to date has been spent, in almost equal parts, in Asia, Europe, and
the North Americas has helped me to question and understand the similarities and
uniqueness of major cultures. This, coupled with formal education and degrees in
interior design, industrial design, and architecture—all concerned with the human
condition and our habitable world—has provided me with a depth of literacy, while
helping to shape who I have become.
I am passionate about designing habitable interiors for optimal spatial and func-
tional fulfillment. I am especially interested in helping to envision and shape an
improved collective future.
The Collective, my practice, focuses on creativity as an essential ingredient for a

design business. We ourselves practice what we preach to our clients by way of find-
ing a creative solution for the shortcomings of today’s time-poor work culture. My
practice is unique in that it takes its business structure from the underpinnings of
the film industry. We hire full-time expertise that is carefully aligned to the needs of
a specific client and their project and for the full duration of the project. Our teams
work only on one project at a time. We have total flexibility in the structure of the
work day, and individuals determine their own schedule. A happy and well-balanced
design expert who can intelligently support the client is a priority. We require project
schedules and budgets to be maintained with the most innovative and creative de-
sign solutions. The quality of all our lives (staff, client, consultant) is fundamentally
important for us. Our office culture is relaxed, with lots of play, wit, and respect for
everyone concerned. We focus obsessively on research and study, both broad and
specific, which informs the basis of all our work, and we have a lot of fun doing it.
Who were the mentors that taught you design and design methodologies?
Three individuals in New York continue to help shape my thinking:
Dr. Haresh Lalvani explores dimensional space and is an architect and scientist
interested in empirical research. He has computationally explored the sixteenth
dimension. By example, he has instilled in me the value of deeply understanding
the nature of literal and perceived space and truly innovating by connecting cross-
disciplinary dots.

William Catavalos is funny, irreverent, and has one of the most agile minds I know. He consist-
ently reminds me to be alert, aware, and globally knowledgeable. Through him, I have learned
that conceptualization has rational and smart underpinnings rooted in the common, everyday
conditions of our lives, which require continued questioning and rethinking.
Dr Theodore Prudon, my business partner, is a genius. From him, I have learned to deeply ap-
preciate logical inquiry and history as a vital reference point. He has taught me to appreciate
the meaning that life makes of the ordinary and the extraordinary and everything in between.
He is broad-minded and nonjudgmental, which I believe are very important attributes for
designers.
I have been most inspired and have learned a lot from historical figures such as William
Fogler (the art of creating beautiful and harmonious spatial objects), Rowena Reed (the art of
manipulating the void and planer relationships), Anaïs Nin (who was courageous and dared to
experience and committedly express herself in black and white), and Coco Chanel (who was a
creative and business maverick).
The Collective ranges from built work to strong research and conceptual projects that ques-
tion interiors and how they function—is there a common method to how you approach these
projects?
Simplistically, I aspire to bridge the academy (research, inquiry, history, and theory) with de-
sign practice (the actualizing of ideas, building, and business). The two are intrinsically code-
pendent and essential for a healthy public. We must foster a close cooperation and closer
communication within these worlds. I also aspire to bridge art and science. I believe that for a
holistic understanding of our universe, we need the creative, conceptual comprehension of the
artist as well as the intellectual rigor and methodological process of the scientist. Central to
all of this is the human being—one person at a time.
I believe that no matter what I am doing at any given time, I am being a designer. My common
method is rationalized in the need for a broad cross-fertilization of disciplines and processes
and a need to break down prescribed boundaries. There is great opportunity in crossing cultural
and intellectual divides. For example, classic color theory (Albers, Itten, and Goethe) explores
phenomena that is relevant and helps with visual stimulation and the understanding of our world
in our daily experiences. But beyond the learning of the theory itself, designers and architects
very rarely fully explore the theoretical phenomena of color. It is not easy to lift theoretical ideas
and transplant them in design concepts. A great deal of research, interpretation, and play is
required. Everyday life pressures and our cultural dictates hinder our making these connections
that lead to innovation. At the Collective, it’s my job to continue to try, no matter how difficult. I
believe that deeper inquiry and research is critical from within the making and it’s my business
to find ways to manifest these beliefs. I think this is the single binding element to my work, re-
gardless of the scale of the project or whether it is two- or three-dimensional.
27 7
Many practices often dedicate time and money to building a reference library. What kinds of
material do you look to for inspiration, or to challenge your understanding of how you work?
While we do have some dedicated space for product binders and materials, our biggest space
is our extensive book library on very diverse topics (history, art, philosophies, ideologies, sci-
ence), both classics and new works. We use the Internet, college and public libraries, and a
myriad of periodicals (including daily newspapers) for inspiration. I believe that we can best
understand people and the human condition through the world of thought and what is being
expressed by many and also by the actions that people are taking at any given time. Often
words are not in sync with actions. And herein sits an enormous opportunity for observation
and critical analysis, leading to fresher and more appropriate solutions. Since all aspects
of politics, world finance, technology, and commerce affect our lives, in practicing interior
design, it is very important for us to keep a finger on the pulse of the world at large. I am as
much intrigued by the latest wedding culture as by the significant scientific findings that could
dramatically change our future. Through this very broad net of inquiry, at the Collective, we
make it our business to keep the focus on interpretation and application within the built work.
Presentation is a major element in the transmission of design ideas to an audience—be it a

client, student, or the general public. How do you present the results of your research?
This is a very important question for us in the practice. We believe in finding the most direct
and simple communication—one that is succinct and articulate. We use multimedia and will
explore new means of representation as long as the end result is clearly understood by all and
within seconds at the outset. Since we are not interested in advocating a particular signature
or style, we are constantly exploring and often layering and collaging presentations. One com-
mon feature of our work is that all research is shared back visually with an effort to engage
as many of the senses as we can. We do not rely only on images or scale models. We try to
capture movement and intentional change, which is a recurring theme in our work, and we
avoid depending on an individual’s imagination to interpret our work. Rather, we show and tell
as explicitly as possible.
You have been chair of a major design school. What were your methodological aims in defining
an educational program for young designers?
In my opinion, all good education aspires to imbue individuals with an ability not only to think
but simultaneously to know and understand oneself in a lifelong quest. Using one’s intel-
ligence and creativity in a sound and just manner is critical to society. Design education is
special in that it requires equally a focus on self-knowledge and access to one’s creativity,
while using it for the betterment of all. To achieve this, one must develop one’s own process.
Essentially, three components must be methodically honed:
First, the process of an objective inquiry and analysis toward solving societal concerns, prob-
lems, and issues—a process of thinking.

Second, the cultivation and learning of a broad skill set that allows one to select the most
appropriate skills and tools for one’s unique expression toward accurate and easy communica-
tion. A deep and sound knowledge of interior design: what it is, what it does, its significance
and importance, how to do it, where it originates from and where one needs to take it for im-
proved results toward shaping a better society.
Third, since interior design is a young formalized profession, we have to continue to more
deeply and holistically define and evolve the discipline.
Do you think that the push toward professional licensure in interior design is necessary or ben-
eficial? How will it change how the public perceives interior designers?
I believe that interior design as a discipline shapes human behavior and has a responsibility
for well being. I also believe that interior design is to the built world what psychology is to the
world of medicine or what physics is to the world of science. To this end, I think it is essen-
tial for the discipline to be better defined and publicly recognized as a legitimate profession.
Today, we know exactly when to go to the psychologist versus the doctor. This level of profes-
sional clarity is required for interior design. Governmental ratification demands a clarity of
professional responsibility, which translates into a clarity of the public’s understanding. The
public needs to be protected from unqualified interior designers who can do a lot of damage.
Licensure helps to protect the public.
How do you see the emergence of sustainability affecting the ways in which we build interiors?
Environmental consciousness is not an emergence for us at the Collective. It is a responsible

way of life and way of being. The thoughtful interior designer is intrinsically practicing it. It is
not a stylistic choice or a marketing differentiator. Good interior design must lead the way.
Many place the origins of the interior design profession at the turn of the twentieth century. You
locate the start of our understanding of interiors to a much earlier date. How do we begin to
trace interiors through a macro history?
We start at the earliest beginning possible. The interior is a necessity. When we seek shelter,
we don’t think about a building typology and we don’t think “architecture,” we think “inside.”
The first-ever shelter was not built, it was found. It was an inside and it predated architecture.
This is where interior design begins. We need to take it from there.
Overleaf Durkan Patterned. Renderings by Shashi Caan Collective.
Perspectives on Resources 27 9
Index
Abraham, Raimund, 206 Caan, Shashi, 276
accessibility cabinets, 240–41
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 108, 111, calculators, construction, 27
112, 118 carpets
bathrooms, 122–23 construction of, 175–77
counters, 127 residential vs. commercial, 174
doors, 115–17 terminology, 177
elevators, 121 Catavalos, William, 277
furniture, height of, 127 ceilings
kitchens, 124–25 acoustic qualities of, 188
ramps, 120 assemblies, 242
restaurant seating, 126 dropped, 188
stairs, 118–19 hard, 189
terminology, 112–14 height of, 88
accessories, 256–59 lights at, 243
acoustic sealant, 238 panels, types of, 188
acoustics, 85, 108, 111, 188, 232 reflected ceiling plans, 35
Albers, Josef, 136, 138, 277 Chanel, Coco, 277
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 108, 111, 112, 118 clients, fulfilling needs of, 10–11, 72–73, 208, 263
Architectural Association, 128 Collective, The, 276
Armstrong, William, 129 color
Art of Color, The (Itten), 138 analysis of, 139
Asplund, Erik Gunnar, 208 and material, 140
axonometric drawings, 44–45 and patterns, 203
and space, 150–53
Barragán, Luis, 128 and texture, 194–99
bathrooms fundamentals of, 136–37
floor finishes, 105 in computer software, 139
layouts, 104 rules of contrast, 141–48
lighting, 105 schemes, 141
shower controls, 105 temperature of, 140
wall finishes, 105 terminology, 149
bedrooms theories of, 137–38
furniture, standard dimensions of, 102 Color Sphere (Runge), 138
layouts, 103 computer software
Berke, Deborah, 70 building information modelers (BIMs),
Bézier, Pierre, 51 56–57, 72
Biedermeier, 261 computer-aided design (CAD), 50–53
Bloomfield, Julia, 70 Hue, Saturation, and Brightness (HSB)
Bouroullec, Ronan and Erwan, 261 model, 139
budget imaging, 48–51
construction costs, index of, 16–17 portable document format (PDF), 51
contingencies, types of, 14 raster images, 49, 51
formats, 16–17 resources for, 275
importance of, 14 sharing information, facilitation of, 53
terminology, 15 software, comparison of, 57
building codes, 112 three-dimensional applications, 54–57, 69

translation from one program to another, 57 paper for, 29, 43
two-dimensional applications, 52–53 purpose of, 58
vector images, 50–51 See also drawings, types of
conceptual design, defined, 22 drawings, presentation of
concrete flooring, 163 design boards, 59–63
conservation of resources, 232, 268–69 digital presentations, 64–69
construction importance of, 58
administration, 23 drawings, types of
documents, 23 detail, 38–39
manager, 15 digital, 48–51
Construction Specification Institute (CSI), 16–17 floor finish plans, 36–37
consultants, employment of, 20–21 floor plans, 34, 84–87, 89–91
contracts, 18–19 furniture location plans, 36
conversions interior elevations, 38–39
formulas, 24 paraline, 44–45
inch-to-millimeter, table of, 26 perspective, 46–47
linear, table of, 25 sections, 88–89
cooling systems, 224–26 Dresser, Christopher, 261
counters, types of, 94, 240 Dreyfus, Henry, 261
Droog Collective, 261
D’Aquino Monaco, 148 Dupré-Lafon, Paul, 128
De Maria, Walter, 130
design boards Eames, Charles and Ray, 259
principles of, 59–61 Eisenman, Peter, 70
samples of, 62–63 electrical devices, standard, 227
design development, definition of, 22–23 epoxy flooring, 163
design fees, 19–20
design phases, 22–23 fiber-optic lighting, 222
design, conceptual, 22 fire-rated wall assemblies, 238
details, drawings of, 38–39 floor finish plans, 36–37
digital presentations floor plans, 34, 84–87, 89–91
design boards, comparison to, 64 flooring
recommendations for, 65 carpet, 174–77
rendering techniques, 66–68 concrete, 162–63
software, three-dimensional rendering, 69 epoxy, 163
dining rooms patterns, 246
furniture, typical dimensions of, 96 radiant systems, 162
layouts, 97–98 resilient, 172–73
disputes, resolution of, 15 resin, 163
documentation, necessity for, 11 standard dimensions for, 246
doors, 244–45 stone, 166–67
drafting terrazzo, 164–65
lines, 30–31 transitions, 247
paper, 29, 43 See also wood flooring
symbols, 32–33 Fogler, William, 277
tools, manual, 28–29 Forest Stewardship Council, 239
drawings Fortuny y Madrazo, Mariano, 261
navigation of, 40–41 Frampton, Kenneth, 70
order of, 42 Franc, Jean-Michel, 128, 261
283
furniture glare, reduction of, 220
bedroom, 102–3 lamps, types of, 220–21
custom-designed, 262 light levels, recommended, 219
designers of, 261 measurement of, 220
in dining rooms, 96–98 terminology, 223
in offices, 107 types of, 219, 222–23
location plans for, 36 light, natural
mass-produced, 262 and color, 217
placement of, 260 and design elements, 217
resources for purchasing, 262–63 control of, 217
styles of, 250–55 openings, configuration of, 216
Vica, 208 solar orientation, 214–15
lighting
Gabellini, Michael, 128–31 in bathrooms, 105
Gandelsonas, Mario, 70 in dining rooms, 97
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 138, 277 in restaurants, 111
influence of, 80, 129, 218
Hadid, Zaha, 128 line types and weights, 30–31
heating, 162, 225–26 living rooms, layouts for, 100–1
Herter Brothers, 261 Loewy, Raymond, 261
Hue, Saturation, and Brightness (HSB) model, 139 Loos, Adolf, 88, 89, 140, 261
II By IV Design, 145 Mackintosh, Charles Renne, 261

Ikea, 262 measurement
Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies, 70 conversion formulas, 24
Interaction of Color (Albers), 138 inch-to-millimeter conversions, table of, 26
interior elevations, drawings of, 38–39 International System of Units (SI), 24
Itten, Johannes, 138, 139, 143, 277 linear conversions, table of, 25
mechanical systems
Kagan, Vladimir, 261 diffusers, location of, 225
Kahn, Louis, 85 ducted-air, 225
kitchens electric heating, 226
equipment, standard dimensions of, 94, 95 electrical, 227
layouts, 93 hydronic, 226
zones in, 94–95 lighting controls, 228
Koolhaas, Rem, 128 plumbing, 229
Kuwabara Payne McKenna Blumberg, 145 Meier, Richard, 130
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 85, 128
Labrouste, Henri, 83 modeling software, 54–57
Lalvani, Haresh, 276 Muir, Ross, 129
laminates, 178–80 Munsell, Albert, 139
Le Corbusier, 83, 88, 261
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Nakashima, George, 261
(LEED), 268 Nelson, George, 261
licensure in interior design, 279 Neutra, Richard, 128
light, artificial Newson, Marc, 261
and creation of mood, 218 Newton, Isaac, 137, 138
at ceilings, 243 Nin, Anaïs, 277
controls for, 228 Noguchi, Isamu, 261
electricity, conservation of, 232, 268

Office dA, 147 proportion
offices and color, 153
files, standard dimensions of, 106 determination of, 80–83
furniture systems, 107 golden rectangle, 82, 83
layouts, 89–91 influence of, 78–80
workstations, dimensions of, 106 radical two rectangle, 83
Opticks (Newton), 137 whole-number, 81
Prudon, Theodore, 277
paints, 154–56 Pushelberg, Glenn, 230
Palladio, Andrea, 81
paper, 29, 43 quantity surveyor, 15
paraline drawings, 44–45
partitions radiant floor systems, 162
over existing walls, 239 Reed, Rowena, 277
STC-rated, 238 reflected ceiling plans, 35
patterns resilient flooring, 172–73
and color, 203 resin flooring, 163
and texture, 203 resource publications
characteristics of, 204 about building environments, 273
custom, 205 about design fundamentals, 270
effects of, 200–2 about elements of design, 273
Perriand, Charlotte, 261 about space, 271–72
perspective drawings, 46–47 about surfaces, 272
plans about sustainable interiors, 273
American domestic, 86–87 general reference, 270
detail, 38 resources, digital
floor, 34, 84–87, 89–91 magazines and journals, 274
floor finish, 36–37 manufacturers and organizations, 275
furniture location, 36 professional organizations, 274
house, 84–87 software, 275
interior elevation, 38 websites and blogs, 274
office, 89–91 restaurants
reflected ceiling, 35 access aisles, dimensions for, 110, 111
section, 88–89 acoustics, 111
wall finish, 36–37 finishes, interior, 111
plumbing systems layout, typical, 110
and water conservation, 268 lighting, 111
components of, 229 seating, types of, 108
poche, 85 tables and counters, dimensions for,
Pratt Institute, 206 108–109
presentations Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), 70, 128,
design boards, 59–63 147
development of, 58 rooms
digital, 64–69 color, effect of, 150–53
multimedia, 278 proportions of, 78–83, 153
programming, 10–11, 22, 72 Rowe, Colin, 206
project management, 18–23 Roy, Lindy, 144
project site, analysis of, 10 Ruhlmann, Emile-Jacques, 261
Runge, Philipp Otto, 138
Index 285
Saia Barbarese Topouzanov Architectes, 146 wall finish plans, 36–37
Sander, Jil, 129 wall treatments
schedule, project, 12–13 paints, 154–56
section, composing a house in, 88–89 wall coverings
Selldorf Architects, 206 patterns, 158–59
Selldorf, Annabelle, 206 surface preparation, 157
servant spaces, 85 types of, 157, 160–61
Smithson, Robert, 128 walls
software. See computer software base conditions, 239
space and color, 150 corner conditions, 239
spaces, sequencing of fire-rated assemblies, 238
plans, 84–87, 89–91 partitions over existing walls, 239
sections, 88–89 STC-rated partitions, 238
stone flooring, 166–67 Wanders, Marcel, 261
sustainability Weimar Bauhaus, 138
and design, 279 window treatments, 249
conservation of resources, 268–69 Wolin, Judith, 70
indoor air quality, 269 wood flooring
renewable, recycled, and reclaimed finishes, 170
products, 269 installation of, 170
symbols, drawing, 32–33 locations for, 171
Syracuse University, 206 lumber, cuts of, 168
patterns of, 170
Target, 262 types of, 169
terrazzo, 164–65 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 85
finishes, 165
marble mosaic, sizes of, 164 Yabu Pushelberg, 230
textiles Yabu, George, 230
fabric treatments, 187 Yurman, David, 231
fibers, types of, 184–85
performance of, 185
uses for, 184
weaves, 186
texture
and color, 194–99
in materials, 190–93
Theory of Color (Goethe), 138
three-dimensional drawings, 44–47, 66–69
tiles, stone, 166–67
Tsao, Calvin, 260
Tschumi, Bernard, 128
Turrell, James, 130
U.S. Green Building Council, 268

upholstery seams, 248
Urquiola, Patricia, 261
veneers, 181–83
Vidler, Anthony, 70

Acknowledgments
Special thanks to Kelly Harris Smith and Tim Love—we could not have done it without their time
and effort—and to Alicia Kennedy for her insight and encouragement throughout the process.
For additional assistance: Ann Theresa Karash, Shae Morley, Balasz Bognar, Christine Nassir,
Paula Read, Tina Luk, Ian Kenney and Chris Minor.
For her invaluable assistance, Betsy Gammons at Rockport Publishers.
For their generosity in sharing their perceptions of the discipline, the designers interviewed
here.
Deborah Berke www.dberke.com

Shashi Caan www.sccollective.com
Michael Gabellini www.gabellinisheppard.com
Annabelle Selldorf www.selldorf.com
Calvin Tsao www.tsao-mckown.com
George Yabu and Glenn Pushelberg www.yabupushelberg.com
CREDITS
Photographic sources are cited alongside the images; uncredited photographs and all
renderings and drawings are by the authors.
Every attempt has been made to cite all sources; if a reference has been omitted, please
contact the publisher for correction in subsequent editions.
287
About the Authors
Chris Grimley was born in London, England. He received a Bachelor of Interior Design from
Ryerson Polytechnic University in Toronto, Ontario, and a Master of Architecture from the
University of British Columbia. He worked at Machado and Silvetti Associates from 2000 to
2006, initially as a senior designer on the renovation of the J. Paul Getty Museum of Antiqui-
ties, followed by a number of museum studies, including the Museum of Natural History in Los
Angeles and the Motown Center in Detroit. He was lead designer on urban proposals for Bue-
nos Aires, New York, Vancouver, and Seoul. He is currently a principal of over,under—an inter-
disciplinary design studio based in Boston. He has helped to develop the program in digital
communication at Northeastern University and has been a critic at several schools, including
the Rhode Island School of Design and the University of British Columbia.
Mimi Love was born in Laredo, Texas. She received a professional degree in architecture from
the University of Texas, Austin, in 1989. She then worked in the New York, at Perkins & Will
and later at Kohn, Pedersen & Fox, on various building types that ranged from new construc-
tion to renovation projects. From 1994 to 2005 she worked at Machado & Silvetti Associates
and was the lead designer for the renovation of the J. Paul Getty Museum of Antiquities in Pa-
cific Palisades, California. She was also the project coordinator for the renovation and expan-
sion of the Bowdoin College Museum of Art. She is currently a principal at Utile, Inc., focusing
on interior renovation projects.
© 2007 by Rockport Publishers, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copy-
right owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists
concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright
or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits
accurately comply with information supplied.
First published in the United States of America by

Rockport Publishers, a member of
Quayside Publishing Group
100 Cummings Center
Suite 406-L
Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101
Telephone: (978) 282-9590
Fax: (978) 283-2742
www.rockpub.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Grimley, Chris.
Color, space, and style : all the details interior designers need to know but can never find /
Chris Grimley, Mimi Love.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 1-59253-227-6
1. Interior decoration--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Love, Mimi. II. Title.
NK2115.G75 2007
747--dc22
2007015924
ISBN-13: 978-1-59253-227-8
ISBN-10: 1-59253-227-6
The content of this book is for general information purposes only and has been obtained from many sources,
including professional organizations, manufacturers’ literature, and national codes and guidelines. The authors
and publisher have made every reasonable effort to assure that this work is accurate and current, but do not
warrant, and assume no liability for, the accuracy or completeness of the text or illustrations, or their fitness for
any particular purpose. It is the responsibility of the users of this book to apply their professional knowledge to
the content, to consult sources referenced, when appropriate, and to consult a professional interior designer
for expert advice if necessary.
Editor and Art Director: Alicia Kennedy
Cover and Graphic Design: Chris Grimley for over,under
Printed in China

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COLOR,

Chapter 5 Proportions of a Room 78

Chapter 9 Color 136

Chapter 13 Natural Light 214

Chapter 19 Sustainability Guidelines 268

The book has been organized thematically into six sections:

Section 1, “Fundamentals,” provides a step-by-step examination of an interior

Section 4, “Environments,” looks at aspects of interior design that help to create a

Section 5, “Elements,” identifies useful details for a range of interior applications.

Section 6, “Resources,” provides a wealth of useful information, from a summary of

Chapter 1: Starting an Interior Project

SITE PROGRAMMING SCHEDULE BUDGET

10 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

Gathering Information Analyzing Information Documenting Information

• Collect floor plans. • Analyze interview notes. • Document client’s mission

Presentation of Design Concepts

Approval of Design Concept

Conceptual Price Estimate

Review and Approval of Budget Estimate

Review and Approval / Design Sign-Off

Bids and Negotiations

12 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

Starting an Interior Project 13

Construction Money reserved for unknown conditions due to the renovation

14 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

Change Order Document submitted by the contractor indicating a change in

Guaranteed Maximum Price Cost for construction, guaranteed by a construction manager

Invitation to Bid Request for prequalified contractors to bid on a project based

Value Engineering (VE) Effort to reduce project costs by eliminating or downgrading

Starting an Interior Project 15

Index No. Divisions Subdivisions

02000 Site Work

05000 Metals 05010 Metal Materials

06000 Woods & Plastics 06200 Finish Carpentry

07000 Thermal & Moisture

08000 Doors & Windows 08100 Metal Doors & Frames

16 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

09000 Finishes 09100 Metal Support Systems

12000 Furnishings 12050 Fabrics

Starting an Interior Project 17

Chapter 2: Project Management

SCOPE QUALIFICATIONS ASSUMPTIONS EXCLUSIONS DURATION TERMS

18 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

Terms of Agreement to Include in Every Contract

Code interpretations and ADA compliance

Insurance and indemnification

Common Mistakes to Avoid When Establishing a Contract

Not defining a detailed scope of work

Starting before the contract is signed

Not defining a method of compensation

Not red-flagging additional services as they arise

Not listing reimbursable items

Not halting work when payments are overdue

Cost Plus Fee based on the designer purchasing materials, furnish-

Percentage of Construction Fee structured on the overall cost of construction.

20 COLOR, SPACE, AND STYLE

Acoustic Engineer Design, detail, and specify construction

Art Consultant Recommend and install artworks.

Fire Protection Engineer Design fire sprinkler system and provide

Furniture Consultant Recommend, select, and specify furniture,