Training Course On Energy Efficiency

1.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND AUDIT
Syllabus
Energy Management & Audit: Definition, Energy audit- need, Types of energy audit,
Energy management (audit) approach-understanding energy costs, Bench marking, Energy
performance, Matching energy use to requirement, Maximizing system efficiencies,
Optimizing the input energy requirements, Fuel and energy substitution, Energy audit
instruments
1.1 Definition & Objectives of Energy Management

The fundamental goal of energy management is to produce goods and provide services with the
least cost and least environmental effect.
The term energy management means many things to many people. One definition of energy
management is:
"The judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize

costs) and enhance competitive positions"
(Cape Hart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management Fairmont press inc. 1997)
Another comprehensive definition is
"The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to
reduce energy requirements per unit of output while holding constant or reducing total
costs of producing the output from these systems"
The objective of Energy Management is to achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement
and utilisation, throughout the organization and:
• To minimise energy costs / waste without affecting production & quality

• To minimise environmental effects.
1.2 Energy Audit: Types And Methodology

Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision-making in the area of energy man-
agement. It attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use, and serves to identify all
the energy streams in a facility. It quantifies energy usage according to its discrete functions.
Industrial energy audit is an effective tool in defining and pursuing comprehensive energy man-
agement programme.
As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as "the verification, mon-
1
1. Energy Management and Audit
itoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing
recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to
reduce energy consumption".
1.2.1 Need for Energy Audit

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be energy (both electrical
and thermal), labour and materials. If one were to relate to the manageability of the cost or
potential cost savings in each of the above components, energy would invariably emerge as a
top ranker, and thus energy management function constitutes a strategic area for cost reduction.
Energy Audit will help to understand more about the ways energy and fuel are used in any
industry, and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur and where scope for
improvement exists.
The Energy Audit would give a positive orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive
maintenance and quality control programmes which are vital for production and utility activities.
Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on variations which occur in the energy costs,
availability and reliability of supply of energy, decide on appropriate energy mix, identify
energy conservation technologies, retrofit for energy conservation equipment etc.
In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities, by lending
technically feasible solutions with economic and other organizational considerations within a
specified time frame.
The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy consumption per
unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit provides a " bench-mark"
(Reference point) for managing energy in the organization and also provides the basis for planning
a more effective use of energy throughout the organization.
1.2.2 Type of Energy Audit

The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on:
- Function and type of industry
- Depth to which final audit is needed, and
- Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired
Thus Energy Audit can be classified into the following two types.
i) Preliminary Audit
ii) Detailed Audit
1.2.3 Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology
Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise to:
• Establish energy consumption in the organization
• Estimate the scope for saving
• Identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for attention
• Identify immediate (especially no-/low-cost) improvements/ savings
• Set a 'reference point'
• Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement
• Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily obtained data
2
1.2.4 Detailed Energy Audit Methodology

A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project implementation plan for a facility,
since it evaluates all major energy using systems.
This type of audit offers the most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It considers the
interactive effects of all projects, accounts for the energy use of all major equipment, and
includes detailed energy cost saving calculations and project cost.
In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elements is the energy balance. This is based on an
inventory of energy using systems, assumptions of current operating conditions and calculations of
energy use. This estimated use is then compared to utility bill charges.
Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three phases: Phase I, II and III.
Phase I - Pre Audit Phase

Phase II - Audit Phase
Phase III - Post Audit Phase
A Guide for Conducting Energy Audit at a Glance
Industry-to-industry, the methodology of Energy Audits needs to be flexible.
A comprehensive ten-step methodology for conduct of Energy Audit at field level is
presented below. Energy Manager and Energy Auditor may follow these steps to start with and
add/change as per their needs and industry types.
3
Ten Steps Methodology for Detailed Energy Audit
4
5
Phase I -Pre Audit Phase Activities

A structured methodology to carry out an energy audit is necessary for efficient working. An
initial study of the site should always be carried out, as the planning of the procedures necessary
for an audit is most important.
Initial Site Visit and Preparation Required for Detailed Auditing

An initial site visit may take one day and gives the Energy Auditor/Engineer an opportunity to
meet the personnel concerned, to familiarize him with the site and to assess the procedures
necessary to carry out the energy audit.
During the initial site visit the Energy Auditor/Engineer should carry out the following
actions: -
• Discuss with the site's senior management the aims of the energy audit.
• Discuss economic guidelines associated with the recommendations of the audit.
• Analyse the major energy consumption data with the relevant personnel.
• Obtain site drawings where available - building layout, steam distribution, compressed air
distribution, electricity distribution etc.
• Tour the site accompanied by engineering/production
The main aims of this visit are: -

• To finalise Energy Audit team
• To identify the main energy consuming areas/plant items to be surveyed during the audit.
• To identify any existing instrumentation/ additional metering required.
• To decide whether any meters will have to be installed prior to the audit eg. kWh, steam,
oil or gas meters.
• To identify the instrumentation required for carrying out the audit.
• To plan with time frame
• To collect macro data on plant energy resources, major energy consuming centers
• To create awareness through meetings/ programme
Phase II- Detailed Energy Audit Activities
Depending on the nature and complexity of the site, a comprehensive audit can take from sev-
eral weeks to several months to complete. Detailed studies to establish, and investigate, energy
and material balances for specific plant departments or items of process equipment are carried
out. Whenever possible, checks of plant operations are carried out over extended periods of
time, at nights and at weekends as well as during normal daytime working hours, to ensure that
nothing is overlooked.
The audit report will include a description of energy inputs and product outputs by major
department or by major processing function, and will evaluate the efficiency of each step of the
manufacturing process. Means of improving these efficiencies will be listed, and at least a pre-
liminary assessment of the cost of the improvements will be made to indicate the expected pay-
back on any capital investment needed. The audit report should conclude with specific recom -
mendations for detailed engineering studies and feasibility analyses, which must then be per-
formed to justify the implementation of those conservation measures that require investments.
6
The information to be collected during the detailed audit includes: -

1. Energy consumption by type of energy, by department, by major items of process equip
ment, by end-use
2. Material balance data (raw materials, intermediate and final products, recycled
materials, use of scrap or waste products, production of by-products for re-use in other
industries, etc.)
3. Energy cost and tariff data
4. Process and material flow diagrams
5. Generation and distribution of site services (eg.compressed air, steam).
6. Sources of energy supply (e.g. electricity from the grid or self-generation)
7. Potential for fuel substitution, process modifications, and the use of co-generation
systems (combined heat and power generation).
8. Energy Management procedures and energy awareness training programs within the
establishment.
Existing baseline information and reports are useful to get consumption pattern, production cost
and productivity levels in terms of product per raw material inputs. The audit team should collect
the following baseline data:
- Technology, processes used and equipment details
- Capacity utilisation
- Amount & type of input materials used
- Water consumption
- Fuel Consumption
- Electrical energy consumption
- Steam consumption
- Other inputs such as compressed air, cooling water etc
- Quantity & type of wastes generated
- Percentage rejection / reprocessing
- Efficiencies / yield
DATA COLLECTION HINTS

It is important to plan additional data gathering carefully. Here are some basic tips to avoid wasting time
and effort:
• measurement systems should be easy to use and provide the information to the accuracy that is
needed, not the accuracy that is technically possible
• measurement equipment can be inexpensive (flow rates using a bucket and stopwatch)
• the quality of the data must be such that the correct conclusions are drawn (what grade of prod
uct is on, is the production normal etc)
• define how frequent data collection should be to account for process variations.
• measurement exercises over abnormal workload periods (such as startup and shutdowns)
• design values can be taken where measurements are difficult (cooling water through heat exchang
er)
DO NOT ESTIMATE WHEN YOU CAN CALCULATE
DO NOT CALCULATE WHEN YOU CAN MEASURE
7
Draw process flow diagram and list process steps; identify waste streams and obvious
energy wastage
An overview of unit operations, important process steps, areas of material and energy use and
sources of waste generation should be gathered and should be represented in a flowchart as
shown in the figure below. Existing drawings, records and shop floor walk through will help in
making this flow chart. Simultaneously the team should identify the various inputs & output
streams at each process step.
Example: A flowchart of Penicillin-G manufacturing is given in the figure1.1 below. Note

that waste stream (Mycelium) and obvious energy wastes such as condensate drained and steam
leakages have been identified in this flow chart
The audit focus area depends on several issues like consumption of input resources, energy
efficiency potential, impact of process step on entire process or intensity of waste generation /
energy consumption. In the above process, the unit operations such as germinator, pre-fermen-
tor, fermentor, and extraction are the major conservation potential areas identified.
Figure 1.1
8
Identification of Energy Conservation Opportunities

Fuel substitution: Identifying the appropriate fuel for efficient energy conversion
Energy generation :Identifying Efficiency opportunities in energy conversion equipment/util-
ity such as captive power generation, steam generation in boilers, thermic fluid heating, optimal
loading of DG sets, minimum excess air combustion with boilers/thermic fluid heating,
optimising existing efficiencies, efficient energy conversion equipment, biomass gasifiers,
Cogeneration, high efficiency DG sets, etc.
Energy distribution: Identifying Efficiency opportunities network such as transformers,
cables, switchgears and power factor improvement in electrical systems and chilled water, cooling
water, hot water, compressed air, Etc.
Energy usage by processes: This is where the major opportunity for improvement and many of
them are hidden. Process analysis is useful tool for process integration measures.
Technical and Economic feasibility

The technical feasibility should address the following issues
• Technology availability, space, skilled manpower, reliability, service etc

• The impact of energy efficiency measure on safety, quality, production or process.
• The maintenance requirements and spares availability
The Economic viability often becomes the key parameter for the management acceptance. The
economic analysis can be conducted by using a variety of methods. Example: Pay back method,
Internal Rate of Return method, Net Present Value method etc. For low investment short dura-
tion measures, which have attractive economic viability, simplest of the methods, payback is
usually sufficient. A sample worksheet for assessing economic feasibility is provided below:
Classification of Energy Conservation Measures

Based on energy audit and analyses of the plant, a number of potential energy saving projects
may be identified. These may be classified into three categories:
9
1. Low cost - high return;

2. Medium cost - medium return;
3. High cost - high return
Normally the low cost - high return projects receive priority. Other projects have to be analyzed,
engineered and budgeted for implementation in a phased manner. Projects relating to energy
cascading and process changes almost always involve high costs coupled with high returns, and
may require careful scrutiny before funds can be committed. These projects are generally com-
plex and may require long lead times before they can be implemented. Refer Table 3.1 for pro -
ject priority guidelines.
1.3 Energy Audit Reporting Format

After successfully carried out energy audit energy manager/energy auditor should report to the
top management for effective communication and implementation. A typical energy audit
reporting contents and format are given below. The following format is applicable for most of the
industries. However the format can be suitably modified for specific requirement applicable for a
particular type of industry.
10
11
12
The following Worksheets (refer Table 1.2 & Table 1.3) can be used as guidance for energy
audit assessment and reporting.
TABLE 1.2 SUMMARY OF ENERGY SAVING RECOMMENDATIONS
S.No. Energy Saving Annual Energy Annual Capital Simple

Recommendations (Fuel & Electricity) Savings Investment Payback
Savings (kWh/MT Rs.Lakhs (Rs.Lakhs) period
or kl/MT)
1
2
3
4
Total
TABLE 1.3 TYPES AND PRIORITY OF ENERGY SAVING MEASURES
Type of Energy Annual Annual

Saving Options Electricity Savings Priority
/Fuel savings
KWh/MT or kl/MT (Rs Lakhs)
A No Investment
(Immediate)
- Operational
Improvement
- Housekeeping
B Low Investment
(Short to Medium Term)
- Controls
- Equipment Modification
- Process change
C High Investment
(Long Term)
- Energy efficient Devices
- Product modification
- Technology Change
13
14
1.4 Understanding Energy Costs

Understanding energy cost is vital factor for awareness creation and saving calculation. In
many industries sufficient meters may not be available to measure all the energy used. In such
cases, invoices for fuels and electricity will be useful. The annual company balance sheet is the
other sources where fuel cost and power are given with production related information.
Energy invoices can be used for the following purposes:
• They provide a record of energy purchased in a given year, which gives a base-line for
future reference
• Energy invoices may indicate the potential for savings when related to production
requirements or to air conditioning requirements/space heating etc.
• When electricity is purchased on the basis of maximum demand tariff
• They can suggest where savings are most likely to be made.
• In later years invoices can be used to quantify the energy and cost savings made through
energy conservation measures
Fuel Costs
A wide variety of fuels are available for
thermal energy supply. Few are listed
below:
• Fuel oil
• Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS)
• Light Diesel Oil (LDO)
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• COAL
• LIGNITE
• WOOD ETC.
Understanding fuel cost is fairly simple

and it is purchased in Tons or Kiloliters.
Availability, cost and quality are the main
three factors that should be considered Figure 1.2 Annual Energy Bill
while purchasing. The following factors should be taken into account during procurement of
fuels for energy efficiency and economics.
• Price at source, transport charge, type of transport

• Quality of fuel (contaminations, moisture etc)
• Energy content (calorific value)
Power Costs
Electricity price in India not only varies from State to State, but also city to city and consumer to
consumer though it does the same work everywhere. Many factors are involved in deciding final
cost of purchased electricity such as:
• Maximum demand charges, kVA
(i.e. How fast the electricity is used? )
15
• Energy Charges, kWh

(i.e., How much electricity is consumed? )
• TOD Charges, Peak/Non-peak period
(i.e. When electricity is utilized ?)
• Power factor Charge, P.F
(i.e., Real power use versus Apparent power use factor )
• Other incentives and penalties applied from time to time
• High tension tariff and low tension tariff rate changes
• Slab rate cost and its variation
• Type of tariff clause and rate for various categories such as commercial, residential,
industrial, Government, agricultural, etc.
• Tariff rate for developed and underdeveloped area/States
• Tax holiday for new projects
Example: Purchased energy Bill

A typical summary of energy purchased in an industry based on the invoices
TABLE 1.4
Type of energy Original units Unit Cost Monthly Bill Rs.

Electricity 5,00,000 kWh Rs.4.00/kWh 20,00,000
Fuel oil 200 kL Rs.10,000/ kL 20,00,000
Coal 1000 tons Rs.2,000/ton 20,00,000
Total 60,00,000
Unfortunately the different forms of energy are sold in different units e.g. kWh of electricity,
liters of fuel oil, tonne of coal. To allow comparison of energy quantities these must be
converted to a common unit of energy such as kWh, Giga joules, kCals etc.
Electricity (1 kWh) = 860 kCal/kWh (0.0036 GJ)

Heavy fuel oil (Gross calorific value, GCV) =10000 kCal/litre ( 0.0411 GJ/litre)
Coal (Gross calorific value, GCV) =4000 kCal/kg ( 28 GJ/ton)
1.5 Benchmarking and Energy Performance

Benchmarking of energy consumption internally (historical / trend analysis) and externally
(across similar industries) are two powerful tools for performance assessment and logical
evolution of avenues for improvement. Historical data well documented helps to bring out energy
consumption and cost trends month-wise / day-wise. Trend analysis of energy consumption,
cost, relevant production features, specific energy consumption, help to understand effects of
capacity utilization on energy use efficiency and costs on a broader scale.
External benchmarking relates to inter-unit comparison across a group of similar units.
However, it would be important to ascertain similarities, as otherwise findings can be grossly
16
misleading. Few comparative factors, which need to be looked into while benchmarking exter-
nally are:
• Scale of operation
• Vintage of technology
• Raw material specifications and quality
• Product specifications and quality
Benchmarking energy performance permits
• Quantification of fixed and variable energy consumption trends vis-à-vis production
levels
• Comparison of the industry energy performance with respect to various production
levels (capacity utilization)
• Identification of best practices (based on the external benchmarking data)
• Scope and margin available for energy consumption and cost reduction
• Basis for monitoring and target setting exercises.
The benchmark parameters can be:
• Gross production related
e.g. kWh/MT clinker or cement produced (cement plant)
e.g. kWh/kg yarn produced (Textile unit)
e.g. kWh/MT, kCal/kg, paper produced (Paper plant)
e.g. kCal/kWh Power produced (Heat rate of a power plant)
e.g. Million kilocals/MT Urea or Ammonia (Fertilizer plant)
e.g. kWh/MT of liquid metal output (in a foundry)
• Equipment / utility related

e.g. kW/ton of refrigeration (on Air conditioning plant)
e.g. % thermal efficiency of a boiler plant
e.g. % cooling tower effectiveness in a cooling tower
e.g. kWh/NM3 of compressed air generated
e.g. kWh /litre in a diesel power generation plant.
While such benchmarks are referred to, related crucial process parameters need mentioning for
meaningful comparison among peers. For instance, in the above case:
• For a cement plant - type of cement, blaine number (fineness) i.e. Portland and process
used (wet/dry) are to be reported alongside kWh/MT figure.
• For a textile unit - average count, type of yarn i.e. polyester/cotton, is to be reported
along side kWh/square meter.
• For a paper plant - paper type, raw material (recycling extent), GSM quality is some
important factors to be reported along with kWh/MT, kCal/Kg figures.
• For a power plant / cogeneration plant - plant % loading, condenser vacuum, inlet cool
ing water temperature, would be important factors to be mentioned alongside heat rate
(kCal/kWh).
• For a fertilizer plant - capacity utilization(%) and on-stream factor are two inputs worth
comparing while mentioning specific energy consumption
• For a foundry unit - melt output, furnace type, composition (mild steel, high carbon
steel/cast iron etc.) raw material mix, number or power trips could be some useful oper
17
ating parameters to be reported while mentioning specific energy consumption data.

• For an Air conditioning (A/c) plant - Chilled water temperature level and refrigeration
load (TR) are crucial for comparing kW/TR.
• For a boiler plant - fuel quality, type, steam pressure, temperature, flow, are useful com
parators alongside thermal efficiency and more importantly, whether thermal efficiency
is on gross calorific value basis or net calorific value basis or whether the computation
is by direct method or indirect heat loss method, may mean a lot in benchmarking exer
cise for meaningful comparison.
• Cooling tower effectiveness - ambient air wet/dry bulb temperature, relative humidity,
air and circulating water flows are required to be reported to make meaningful sense.
• Compressed air specific power consumption - is to be compared at similar inlet air tem
perature and pressure of generation.
• Diesel power plant performance - is to be compared at similar loading %, steady run
condition etc.
Plant Energy Performance

Plant energy performance (PEP) is the measure of whether a plant is now using more or less
energy to manufacture its products than it did in the past: a measure of how well the energy
management programme is doing. It compares the change in energy consumption from one
year to the other considering production output. Plant energy performance monitoring compares
plant energy use at a reference year with the subsequent years to determine the improvement
that has been made.
However, a plant production output may vary from year to year and the output has a sig-
nificant bearing on plant energy use. For a meaningful comparison, it is necessary to determine
the energy that would have been required to produce this year production output, if the plant
had operated in the same way as it did during the reference year. This calculated value can then
be compared with the actual value to determine the improvement or deterioration that has taken
place since the reference year.
Production factor
Production factor is used to determine the energy that would have been required to produce this
year's production output if the plant had operated in the same way as it did in the reference year. It
is the ratio of production in the current year to that in the reference year.
Current year's production
Production factor =
Reference year's production
Reference Year Equivalent Energy Use

The reference year's energy use that would have been used to produce the current year's
production output may be called the "reference year energy use equivalent" or "reference year
equivalent" for short. The reference year equivalent is obtained by multiplying the reference
year energy use by the production factor (obtained above)
Reference year equivalent = Reference year energy use x Production factor
The improvement or deterioration from the reference year is called "energy performance" and
18
is a measure of the plant's energy management progress. It is the reduction or increase in the
current year's energy use over the reference, and is calculated by subtracting the current year's
energy use from the reference years equivalent. The result is divided by the reference year
equivalent and multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage.
Reference year equivalent - Current year's energy

Plant energy performance = x 100
Reference year equivalent
The energy performance is the percentage of energy saved at the current rate of use compared
to the reference year rate of use. The greater the improvement, the higher the number will be.
Monthly Energy Performance

Experience however, has shown that once a plant has started measuring yearly energy perfor-
mance, management wants more frequent performance information in order to monitor and
control energy use on an on-going basis. PEP can just as easily be used for monthly reporting
as yearly reporting.
1.6 Matching Energy Usage to Requirement

Mismatch between equipment capacity and user requirement often leads to inefficiencies due to
part load operations, wastages etc. Worst case design, is a designer's characteristic, while opti-
mization is the energy manager's mandate and many situations present themselves towards an
exercise involving graceful matching of energy equipment capacity to end-use needs. Some
examples being:
• Eliminate throttling of a pump by impeller trimming, resizing pump, installing variable
speed drives
• Eliminate damper operations in fans by impeller trimming, installing variable speed dri
ves, pulley diameter modification for belt drives, fan resizing for better efficiency.
• Moderation of chilled water temperature for process chilling needs
• Recovery of energy lost in control valve pressure drops by back pressure/turbine adop
tion
• Adoption of task lighting in place of less effective area lighting
1.7 Maximising System Efficiency

Once the energy usage and sources are matched properly, the next step is to operate the
equipment efficiently through best practices in operation and maintenance as well as judicious
technology adoption. Some illustrations in this context are:
• Eliminate steam leakages by trap improvements
• Maximise condensate recovery
• Adopt combustion controls for maximizing combustion efficiency
• Replace pumps, fans, air compressors, refrigeration compressors, boilers, furnaces,
heaters and other energy consuming equipment, wherever significant energy efficiency
margins exist.
19
Optimising the Input Energy Requirements

Consequent upon fine-tuning the energy use practices, attention is accorded to considerations for
minimizing energy input requirements. The range of measures could include:
• Shuffling of compressors to match needs.

• Periodic review of insulation thickness
• Identify potential for heat exchanger networking and process integration.
• Optimisation of transformer operation with respect to load.
1.8 Fuel and Energy Substitution

Fuel substitution: Substituting existing fossil fuel with more efficient and less cost/less
polluting fuel such as natural gas, biogas and locally available agro-residues.
Energy is an important input in the production. There are two ways to reduce energy
depen-dency; energy conservation and substitution.
Fuel substitution has taken place in all the major sectors of the Indian economy. Kerosene and
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) have substituted soft coke in residential use.
Few examples of fuel substitution
• Natural gas is increasingly the fuel of choice as fuel and feedstock in the fertilizer, petro
chemicals, power and sponge iron industries.
• Replacement of coal by coconut shells, rice husk etc.
• Replacement of LDO by LSHS
Few examples of energy substitution
Replacement of electric heaters by steam heaters
Replacement of steam based hotwater by solar systems
Case Study : Example on Fuel Substitution

A textile process industry replaced old fuel oil fired thermic fluid heater with agro fuel fired
heater. The economics of the project are given below:
A: Title of Recommendation : Use of Agro Fuel (coconut chips) in place of Furnace
oil in a Boiler
B: Description of Existing System
and its operation : A thermic fluid heater with furnace oil currently.
In the same plant a coconut chip fired boiler is
operating continuously with good performance.
C: Description of Proposed system
and its operation : It was suggested to replace the oil fired thermic
fluid heater with coconut chip fired boiler as the
company has the facilities for handling coconut
chip fired system.
20
D: Energy Saving Calculations

Old System
Type of fuel Firing : Furnace Oil fired heater
GCV : 10,200 kCal/kg
Avg. Thermal Efficiency : 82%
Heat Duty : 15 lakh kCal / hour
Operating Hours : 25 days x 12 month x 24 hours = 7,200 hrs.
Annual Fuel Cost : Rs.130 lakh (7200 x 1800 Rs./hr.)
Modified System
Type of fuel saving = Coconut chips fired Heater
GCV = 4200 kCal/kg
Average Thermal Efficiency = 72 %
Heat Duty = 15 lakh kCal / hour
Annual Operating Cost = 7200 x 700 Rs./hr = 50 lakh
Annual Savings = 130 - 50 = Rs.80 lakh .
Additional Auxiliary Power +
Manpower Cost = Rs. 10 lakh
Net Annual Saving = Rs. 70 lakh
Investment for New Coconut Fired heater = Rs. 35 lakh
Simple pay back period = 6 months
1.9 Energy Audit Instruments
The requirement for an energy audit such as identification and quantification of energy
necessitates measurements; these measurements require the use of instruments. These
instruments must be portable, durable, easy to operate and relatively inexpensive. The parameters
generally monitored during energy audit may include the following:
Basic Electrical Parameters in AC &DC systems - Voltage (V), Current (I), Power factor, Active
power (kW), apparent power (demand) (kVA), Reactive power (kVAr), Energy consumption
(kWh), Frequency (Hz), Harmonics, etc.
Parameters of importance other than electrical such as temperature & heat flow, radiation, air
and gas flow, liquid flow, revolutions per minute (RPM), air velocity, noise and vibration, dust
concentration, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), pH, moisture content, relative humidity, flue gas
analysis - CO2, O2, CO, SOx, NOx, combustion efficiency etc.
Key instruments for energy audit are listed below.
The operating instructions for all instruments must be understood and staff should familiarize
themselves with the instruments and their operation prior to actual audit use.
21
Electrical Measuring Instruments:

These are instruments for measuring major
electrical parameters such as kVA, kW, PF,
Hertz, kVAr, Amps and Volts. In addition
some of these instruments also measure
harmonics.
These instruments are applied on-line i.e

on running motors without any need to
stop the motor. Instant measurements can
be taken with hand-held meters, while
more advanced ones facilitates cumulative
readings with print outs at specified
intervals.
Combustion analyzer:
This instrument has in-built chemical cells
which measure various gases such as O2, CO,
NOX and SOX.
Fuel Efficiency Monitor:

This measures oxygen and temperature of the
flue gas. Calorific values of common fuels
are fed into the microprocessor which
calculates the combustion efficiency.
Fyrite:
A hand bellow pump draws the flue gas
sample into the solution inside the fyrite. A
chemical reaction changes the liquid volume
revealing the amount of gas. A separate fyrite
can be used for O2 and CO2 measurement.
22
Contact thermometer:
These are thermocouples which measures for
example flue gas, hot air, hot water tempera-
tures by insertion of probe into the stream.
For surface temperature, a leaf type probe is

used with the same instrument.
Infrared Thermometer:
This is a non-contact type measurement
which when directed at a heat source directly
gives the temperature read out. This instru-
ment is useful for measuring hot spots in
furnaces, surface temperatures etc.
Pitot Tube and manometer:

Air velocity in ducts can be measured using
a pitot tube and inclined manometer for
further calculation of flows.
Water flow meter:

This non-contact flow measuring device
using Doppler effect / Ultra sonic principle.
There is a transmitter and receiver which are
positioned on opposite sides of the pipe. The
meter directly gives the flow. Water and other
fluid flows can be easily measured with this
meter.
23
Speed Measurements:
In any audit exercise speed measurements are
critical as thay may change with frequency,
belt slip and loading.
A simple tachometer is a contact type instru-

ment which can be used where direct access
is possible.
More sophisticated and safer ones are non

contact instruments such as stroboscopes.
Tachometer Stroboscope
Leak Detectors:
Ultrasonic instruments are available which
can be used to detect leaks of compressed air
and other gases which are normally not pos-
sible to detect with human abilities.
Lux meters:
Illumination levels are measured with a lux
meter. It consists of a photo cell which sens-
es the light output, converts to electrical
impulses which are calibrated as lux.
24
2. ELECTRIC MOTORS
Syllabus
Electric motors: Types, Losses in induction motors, Motor efficiency, Factors affecting
motor performance, Rewinding and motor replacement issues, Energy saving opportunities
with energy efficient motors.
2.1 Introduction
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the interaction between the
magnetic fields set up in the stator and rotor windings. Industrial electric motors can be broadly
classified as induction motors, direct current motors or synchronous motors. All motor types have
the same four operating components: stator (stationary windings), rotor (rotating windings),
bearings, and frame (enclosure).
2.2 Motor Types

Induction Motors
Induction motors are the most commonly used prime mover for
various equipments in industrial applications. In induction
motors, the induced magnetic field of the stator winding induces a
current in the rotor. This induced rotor current produces a second
magnetic field, which tries to oppose the stator magnetic field,
and this causes the rotor to rotate.
The 3-phase squirrel cage motor is the workhorse of industry;
it is rugged and reliable, and is by far the most common motor
type used in industry. These motors drive pumps, blowers and
fans, compressors, conveyers and production lines. The 3-phase
induction motor has three windings each connected to a separate phase of the power supply.
Direct-Current Motors
Direct-Current motors, as the name implies, use direct-unidirectional, current. Direct current
motors are used in special applications- where high torque starting or where smooth acceleration
over a broad speed range is required.
Synchronous Motors
AC power is fed to the stator of the synchronous motor. The rotor is fed by DC from a separate
source. The rotor magnetic field locks onto the stator rotating magnetic field and rotates at the same
speed. The speed of the rotor is a function of the supply frequency and the number of magnetic poles
in the stator. While induction motors rotate with a slip, i.e., rpm is less than the synchronous speed,
the synchronous motor rotate with no slip, i.e., the RPM is same as the synchronous speed governed
by supply frequency and number of poles. The slip energy is provided by the D.C. excitation power
25
2. Electric Motors
2.3 Motor Characteristics

Motor Speed
The speed of a motor is the number of revolutions in a given time frame, typically revolutions per
minute (RPM). The speed of an AC motor depends on the frequency of the input power and the
number of poles for which the motor is wound. The synchronous speed in RPM is given by the
following equation, where the frequency is in hertz or cycles per second:
120 × Frequency
Synchronous Speed (RPM) =
No. of Poles
Indian motors have synchronous speeds like 3000 / 1500 / 1000 / 750 / 600 / 500 / 375 RPM
corresponding to no. of poles being 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 (always even) and given the mains
frequency of 50 cycles / sec.
The actual speed, with which the motor operates, will be less than the synchronous speed.
The difference between synchronous and full load speed is called slip and is measured in percent.
It is calculated using this equation:
Synchronous Speed - Full Load Rated Speed ×
Slip (%) = 100
Synchronous Speed
As per relation stated above, the speed of an AC motor is determined by the number of
motor poles and by the input frequency. It can also be seen that theoretically speed of an AC
motor can be varied infinitely by changing the frequency. Manufacturer's guidelines should be
referred for practical limits to speed variation. With the addition of a Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD), the speed of the motor can be decreased as well as increased.
Power Factor
kW
The power factor of the motor is given as: Power Factor = Cos φ = kVA
As the load on the motor comes down, the magnitude of the active current reduces.
However, there is no corresponding reduction in the magnetizing current, which is
proportional to supply voltage with the result that the motor power factor reduces, with a
reduction in applied load. Induction motors, especially those operating below their rated
capacity, are the main reason for low power factor in electric systems.
2.4 Motor Efficiency

Two important attributes relating to efficiency of electricity use by A.C. Induction motors are
efficiency (η), defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy delivered at the rotating shaft to
the electrical energy input at its terminals, and power factor (PF). Motors, like other inductive
loads, are characterized by power factors less than one. As a result, the total current draw need-
ed to deliver the same real power is higher than for a load characterized by a higher PF. An
important effect of operating with a PF less than one is that resistance losses in wiring upstream
of the motor will be higher, since these are proportional to the square of the current. Thus, both
a high value for η and a PF close to unity are desired for efficient overall operation in a plant.
Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors, and higher-speed
motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors. Efficiency is also a function of
26
2. Electric Motors
motor temperature. Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient than screen
protected, drip-proof (SPDP) motors. Also, as with most equipment, motor efficiency increases
with the rated capacity.
The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that can be reduced only by
changes in motor design. Intrinsic losses are of two types: fixed losses - independent of motor
load, and variable losses - dependent on load.
Fixed losses consist of magnetic core losses and friction and windage losses. Magnetic core
losses (sometimes called iron losses) consist of eddy current and hysteresis losses in the stator.
They vary with the core material and geometry and with input voltage.
Friction and windage losses are caused by friction in the bearings of the motor and
aerodynamic losses associated with the ventilation fan and other rotating parts.
Variable losses consist of resistance losses in the stator and in the rotor and miscellaneous
stray losses. Resistance to current flow in the stator and rotor result in heat generation that is
proportional to the resistance of the material and the square of the current (I 2R). Stray losses
arise from a variety of sources and are difficult to either measure directly or to calculate, but are
generally proportional to the square of the rotor current.
Part-load performance characteristics of a motor also depend on its design. Both η and PF fall
to very low levels at low loads. The Figures 2.1 shows the effect of load on power factor and
efficiency. It can be seen that power factor drops sharply at part loads. The Figure 2.2 shows the
effect of speed on power factor.
Field Tests for Determining Efficiency

No Load Test: The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft load. Input
power, current, frequency and voltage are noted. The no load P.F. is quite low and hence low
PF wattmeters are required. From the input power, stator I2R losses under no load are subtract-
ed to give the sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core losses. To separate core and F &
Figure 2.1 % Load vs. Power factor, Efficiency Figure 2.2 Speed vs. Power factor
27
2. Electric Motors
W losses, test is repeated at variable voltages. It is useful to plot no-load input kW versus
Voltage; the intercept is Friction & Windage kW loss component.
F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) - (No load current)2 × Stator resistance
Stator and Rotor I2R Losses: The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge
or volt amp method. The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature. For mod-
ern motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of 100°C to 120°C and nec-
essary correction should be made. Correction to 75°C may be inaccurate. The correction fac-
tor is given as follows :
R2 35 + t
=2 2 , where, t 1 = ambient temperature, °C & t 2 = operating temperature, °C.
R1 235 +t1
The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced frequency, but rotor
2
I R losses are measured from measurement of rotor slip.
Rotor I2R losses = Slip × (Stator Input - Stator I2R Losses - Core Loss)
Accurate measurement of slip is possible by stroboscope or non-contact type tachometer.
Slip also must be corrected to operating temperature.
Stray Load Losses: These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard
112 gives a complicated method, which is rarely used on shop floor. IS and IEC standards take a
fixed value as 0.5 % of input. The actual value of stray losses is likely to be more. IEEE -
112 specifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 % (see Table 2.1.)
TABLE 2.1 MOTOR RATING VS. STRAY

LOSSES - IEEE
Motor Rating Stray Losses

1 - 125 HP 1.8 %
125 - 500 HP 1.5 %
501 - 2499 HP 1.2 %
2500 and above 0.9 %
Pointers for Users:

It must be clear that accurate determination of efficiency is very difficult. The same motor tested
by different methods and by same methods by different manufacturers can give a difference of 2
%. In view of this, for selecting high efficiency motors, the following can be done:
a) When purchasing large number of small motors or a large motor, ask for a detailed test cer -
tificate. If possible, try to remain present during the tests; This will add cost.
b) See that efficiency values are specified without any tolerance
c) Check the actual input current and kW, if replacement is done
d) For new motors, keep a record of no load input power and current
e) Use values of efficiency for comparison and for confirming; rely on measured inputs for all
calculations.
28
2. Electric Motors
Estimation of efficiency in the field can be done as follows:

a) Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current value ,
I2R losses are calculated.
b) From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated
c) From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss
The method is illustrated by the following example:

Example :
Motor Specifications
Rated power = 34 kW/45 HP
Voltage = 415 Volt
Current = 57 Amps
Speed = 1475 rpm
Insulation class = F
Frame = LD 200 L
Connection = Delta
No load test Data

Voltage, V = 415 Volts
Current, I = 16.1 Amps
Frequency, F = 50 Hz
Stator phase resistance at 30°C = 0.264 Ohms
No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts
29
2. Electric Motors
30
2. Electric Motors
2.5 Motor Selection

The primary technical consideration defining the motor choice for any particular application is the
torque required by the load, especially the relationship between the maximum torque generated
by the motor (break-down torque) and the torque requirements for start-up (locked rotor torque)
and during acceleration periods.
The duty / load cycle determines the thermal loading on the motor. One consideration with
totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motors is that the cooling may be insufficient when the
motor is operated at speeds below its rated value.
Ambient operating conditions affect motor choice; special motor designs are available for
corrosive or dusty atmospheres, high temperatures, restricted physical space, etc.
An estimate of the switching frequency (usually dictated by the process), whether automat-ic
or manually controlled, can help in selecting the appropriate motor for the duty cycle.
The demand a motor will place on the balance of the plant electrical system is another
con-sideration - if the load variations are large, for example as a result of frequent starts and
stops of large components like compressors, the resulting large voltage drops could be detrimental
to other equipment.
31
2. Electric Motors
Reliability is of prime importance - in many cases, however, designers and process

engineers seeking reliability will grossly oversize equipment, leading to sub-optimal energy
performance. Good knowledge of process parameters and a better understanding of the plant
power system can aid in reducing oversizing with no loss of reliability.
Inventory is another consideration - Many large industries use standard equipment, which
can be easily serviced or replaced, thereby reducing the stock of spare parts that must be
maintained and minimizing shut-down time. This practice affects the choice of motors that
might provide better energy performance in specific applications. Shorter lead times for
securing individual motors from suppliers would help reduce the need for this practice.
Price is another issue - Many users are first-cost sensitive, leading to the purchase of less
expensive motors that may be more costly on a lifecycle basis because of lower efficiency. For
example, energy efficient motors or other specially designed motors typically save within a few
years an amount of money equal to several times the incremental cost for an energy efficient
motor, over a standard-efficiency motor. Few of salient selection issues are given below:
• In the selection process, the power drawn at 75 % of loading can be a meaningful indicator of
energy efficiency.
• Reactive power drawn (kVAR) by the motor.
• Indian Standard 325 for standard motors allows 15 % tolerance on efficiency for motors up to
50 kW rating and 10 % for motors over 50 kW rating.
• The Indian Standard IS 8789 addresses technical performance of Standard Motors while IS
12615 addresses the efficiency criteria of High Efficiency Motors. Both follow IEC 34-2
test methodology wherein, stray losses are assumed as 0.5 % of input power. By the IEC
test method, the losses are understated and if one goes by IEEE test methodology, the motor
efficiency values would be further lowered.
• It would be prudent for buyers to procure motors based on test certificates rather than
labeled values.
• The energy savings by motor replacement can be worked out by the simple relation : kW
savings = kW output × [ 1/ηold - 1/ ηnew ] where ηold and ηnew are the existing and proposed
motor efficiency values.
• The cost benefits can be worked out on the basis of premium required for high efficiency vs.
worth of annual savings.
2.6 Energy-Efficient Motors

Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are incorporated
specifically to increase operating efficiency over motors of standard design (see Figure 2.3).
Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses. Improvements include the use of
lower-loss silicon steel, a longer core (to increase active material), thicker wires (to reduce
resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of
aluminium bars in the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.
Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with efficiencies that are typically
3 to 4 percentage points higher than standard motors. In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS,
energy-efficient motors are designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75 %
and 100 % of rated capacity. This may result in major benefits in varying load applications. The
power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard motors. Furthermore, energy-
32
2. Electric Motors
Figure 2.3 Standard vs High Efficiency Motors
efficient motors have lower operating temperatures and noise levels, greater ability to accelerate
higher-inertia loads, and are less affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
Measures adopted for energy efficiency address each loss specifically as under:
Stator and Rotor I2R Losses

These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the total losses. I 2R loss-
es are heating losses resulting from current passing through stator and rotor conductors. I 2R
losses are the function of a conductor resistance, the square of current. Resistance of conductor
is a function of conductor material, length and cross sectional area. The suitable selection of
copper conductor size will reduce the resistance. Reducing the motor current is most readily
accomplished by decreasing the magnetizing component of current. This involves lowering the
operating flux density and possible shortening of air gap. Rotor I 2R losses are a function of the
rotor conductors (usually aluminium) and the rotor slip. Utilisation of copper conductors will
reduce the winding resistance. Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce
rotor I2R losses.
Core Losses
Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to hysterisis effect and
eddy current effect during 50 Hz magnetization of the core material. These losses are independent
of load and account for 20 - 25 % of the total losses.
The hysterisis losses which are a function of flux density, are be reduced by utilizing low-
loss grade of silicon steel laminations. The reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable
increase in the core length of stator and rotor. Eddy current losses are generated by circulating
current within the core steel laminations. These are reduced by using thinner laminations.
Friction and Windage Losses

Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction, windage and circulating air through
the motor and account for 8 - 12 % of total losses. These losses are independent of load. The
33
2. Electric Motors
reduction in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permit the use of smaller fan. The windage
losses also reduce with the diameter of fan leading to reduction in windage losses.
Stray Load-Losses
These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by leakage flux
induced by load currents in the laminations and account for 4 to 5 % of total losses. These losses
are reduced by careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot geometry and air gap.
Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load efficiencies are
higher by 3 to 7 %. The mounting dimensions are also maintained as per IS1231 to enable
easy replacement.
As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the costs of energy-efficient motors are
higher than those of standard motors. The higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved oper-
ating costs, particularly in new applications or end-of-life motor replacements. In cases where exist-
ing motors have not reached the end of their useful life, the economics will be less clearly positive.
Because the favourable economics of energy-efficient motors are based on savings in oper-
ating costs, there may be certain cases which are generally economically ill-suited to energy-
efficient motors. These include highly intermittent duty or special torque applications such as
hoists and cranes, traction drives, punch presses, machine tools, and centrifuges. In addition,
energy, efficient designs of multi-speed motors are generally not available. Furthermore, ener-
gy-efficient motors are not yet available for many special applications, e.g. for flame-proof
operation in oil-field or fire pumps or for very low speed applications (below 750 rpm). Also,
most energy-efficient motors produced today are designed only for continuous duty cycle oper-
ation.
Given the tendency of over sizing on the one hand and ground realities like ; voltage,
frequency variations, efficacy of rewinding in case of a burnout, on the other hand, benefits of
EEM's can be achieved only by careful selection, implementation, operation and maintenance
efforts of energy managers.
A summary of energy efficiency improvements in EEMs is given in the Table 2.2:
TABLE 2.2 ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS
Power Loss Area Efficiency Improvement

1. Iron Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current losses. Longer
core adds more steel to the design, which reduces losses due to lower operating
flux densities.
2. Stator I2R Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross sectional area of stator
windings. This lowers resistance (R) of the windings and reduces losses due to
current flow (I).
3. Rotor I2R Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section, lowering con-
ductor resistance (R) and losses due to current flow (I).
4. Friction & Windage Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement.
5. Stray Load Loss Use of optimized design and strict quality control procedures minimizes stray
load losses.
34
2. Electric Motors
2.7 Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimising Motor Losses in

Operation
Power Supply Quality
Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input power, that is the actual volts
and frequency available at motor terminals vis-à-vis rated values as well as voltage and
frequency variations and voltage unbalance across the three phases. Motors in India must comply
with standards set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input
power quality. The BIS standards specify that a motor should be capable of delivering its rated
output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and frequency variation of +/- 3 %. Fluctuations much
larger than these are quite common in utility-supplied electricity in India. Voltage fluctuations
can have detrimental impacts on motor performance. The general effects of voltage and
frequency variation on motor performance are presented in Table 2.3:
Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three phases are not equal, can be
still more detrimental to motor performance and motor life. Unbalance typically occurs as a result
of supplying single-phase loads disproportionately from one of the phases. It can also result
from the use of different sizes of cables in the distribution system. An example of the effect of
voltage unbalance on motor performance is shown in Table 2.4.
35
TABLE 2.3 GENERAL EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY VARIATION ON INDUCTION MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
36
2. Electric Motors
2. Electric Motors
TABLE 2.4 EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECT OF VOLTAGE UNBALANCE ON

MOTOR PERFORMANCE
Percent unbalance in voltage*

Parameter
0.30 2.30 5.40
Unbalance in current (%) .................. 0.4 17.7 40.0
Increased temperature rise (°C) ................... 0 30 40
* Percent unbalance in voltage is defined as 100 (V max - Vavg) / Vavg, Where V max and Vavg are the largest and
the average of the three phase voltages, respectively.
The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance include:

i) Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases
ii) Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance and feed them from a sep-
arate line / transformer
Motor Loading
Measuring Load
% Loading of the motor can be estimated by the following relation:
% loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100
(Name plate full load kW rating / name plate full load motor efficiency)
or
% loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100
√3 x kV x I CosØ
• Never assume power factor
• Loading should not be estimated as the ratio of currents.
Reducing Under-loading
Probably the most common practice contributing to sub-optimal motor efficiency is that of
under-loading. Under-loading results in lower efficiency and power factor, and higher-than-nec-
essary first cost for the motor and related control equipment. Under-loading is common for sev-
eral reasons. Original equipment manufacturers tend to use a large safety factor in motors they
select. Under-loading of the motor may also occur from under-utilisation of the equipment. For
example, machine tool equipment manufacturers provide for a motor rated for the full capacity
load of the equipment ex. depth of cut in a lathe machine. The user may need this full capacity
rarely, resulting in under-loaded operation most of the time. Another common reason for under-
loading is selection of a larger motor to enable the output to be maintained at the desired level
even when input voltages are abnormally low. Finally, under-loading also results from select-
ing a large motor for an application requiring high starting torque where a special motor,
designed for high torque, would have been suitable.
A careful evaluation of the load would determine the capacity of the motor that should be select-
ed. Another aspect to consider is the incremental gain in efficiency achievable by changing the
motor. Larger motors have inherently higher rated efficiencies than smaller motors. Therefore, the
replacement of motors operating at 60 - 70 % of capacity or higher is generally not recommended.
However, there are no rigid rules governing motor selection; the savings potential needs to be eval-
uated on a case-to-case basis. When downsizing, it may be preferable to select an energy-efficient
motor, the efficiency of which may be higher than that of a standard motor of higher capacity.
37
2. Electric Motors
For motors, which consistently operate at loads below 40 % of rated capacity, an inexpen-
sive and effective measure might be to operate in star mode. A change from the standard delta
operation to star operation involves re-configuring the wiring of the three phases of power input
at the terminal box.
Operating in the star mode leads to a voltage reduction by a factor of '√3'. Motor is electri-
cally downsized by star mode operation, but performance characteristics as a function of load
remain unchanged. Thus, full-load operation in star mode gives higher efficiency and power fac-
tor than partial load operation in the delta mode. However, motor operation in the star mode is
possible only for applications where the torque-to-speed requirement is lower at reduced load.
As speed of the motor reduces in star mode this option may be avoided in case the motor is
connected to a production facility whose output is related to the motor speed. For applications
with high initial torque and low running torque needs, Del-Star starters are also available in
market, which help in load following de-rating of electric motors after initial start-up.
Sizing to Variable Load
Industrial motors frequently operate under varying load conditions due to process requirements.
A common practice in cases where such variable-loads are found is to select a motor based on the
highest anticipated load. In many instances, an alternative approach is typically less costly, more
efficient, and provides equally satisfactory operation. With this approach, the optimum rating for
the motor is selected on the basis of the load duration curve for the particular application. Thus,
rather than selecting a motor of high rating that would operate at full capacity for only a short peri-
od, a motor would be selected with a rating slightly lower than the peak anticipated load and
would operate at overload for a short period of time. Since operating within the thermal capacity
of the motor insulation is of greatest concern in a motor operating at higher than its rated load, the
motor rating is selected as that which would result in the same temperature rise under continuous
full-load operation as the weighted average temperature rise over the actual operating cycle.
Under extreme load changes, e.g. frequent starts / stops, or high inertial loads, this method of cal-
culating the motor rating is unsuitable since it would underestimate the heating that would occur.
Where loads vary substantially with time, in addition to proper motor sizing, the control
strategy employed can have a significant impact on motor electricity use. Traditionally,
mechanical means (e.g. throttle valves in piping systems) have been used when lower output is
required. More efficient speed control mechanisms include multi-speed motors, eddy-current
couplings, fluid couplings, and solid-state electronic variable speed drives.
Power Factor Correction
As noted earlier, induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to
lower overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost) associated with a plant's electrical
system. Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically used to improve
the power factor. The impacts of PF correction include reduced kVA demand (and hence
reduced utility demand charges), reduced I2R losses in cables upstream of the capacitor (and
hence reduced energy charges), reduced voltage drop in the cables (leading to improved volt-
age regulation), and an increase in the overall efficiency of the plant electrical system.
It should be noted that PF capacitor improves power factor from the point of installation back
to the generating side. It means that, if a PF capacitor is installed at the starter terminals of the
motor, it won't improve the operating PF of the motor, but the PF from starter terminals to the
power generating side will improve, i.e., the benefits of PF would be only on upstream side.
38
2. Electric Motors
The size of capacitor required for a particular motor depends upon the no-load reactive kVA
(kVAR) drawn by the motor, which can be determined only from no-load testing of the motor. In
general, the capacitor is then selected to not exceed 90 % of the no-load kVAR of the motor.
(Higher capacitors could result in over-voltages and motor burn-outs). Alternatively, typical
power factors of standard motors can provide the basis for conservative estimates of capacitor
ratings to use for different size motors. The capacitor rating for power connection by direct
connection to induction motors is shown in Table 2.5.
From the above table, it may be noted that required capacitive kVAr increases with decrease in
speed of the motor, as the magnetizing current requirement of a low speed motor is more in com-
TABLE 2.5 CAPACITOR RATINGS FOR POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

BY DIRECT CONNECTION TO INDUCTION MOTORS
Capacitor rating (kVAr) for Motor Speed

Motor Rating (HP)
3000 1500 1000 750 600 500
5 2 2 2 3 3 3
7.5 2 2 3 3 4 4
10 3 3 4 5 5 6
15 3 4 5 7 7 7
20 5 6 7 8 9 10
25 6 7 8 9 9 12
30 7 8 9 10 10 15
40 9 10 12 15 16 20
50 10 12 15 18 20 22
60 12 14 15 20 22 25
75 15 16 20 22 25 30
100 20 22 25 26 32 35
125 25 26 30 32 35 40
150 30 32 35 40 45 50
200 40 45 45 50 55 60
250 45 50 50 60 65 70
parison to the high speed motor for the same HP of the motor. Since a reduction in line current, and
associated energy efficiency gains, are reflected backwards from the point of application of the
capacitor, the maximum improvement in overall system efficiency is achieved when the capacitor
is connected across the motor terminals, as compared to somewhere further upstream in the plant's
electrical system. However, economies of scale associated with the cost of capacitors and the labor
required to install them will place an economic limit on the lowest desirable capacitor size.
Maintenance
Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses and lead to unreliable
operation. For example, improper lubrication can cause increased friction in both the motor and
39
2. Electric Motors
associated drive transmission equipment. Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with tem-
perature, would increase. Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts
clean can help dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses. The life of the insulation in the moto r
would also be longer : for every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature over the
recommended peak, the time before rewinding would be needed is estimated to be halved
A checklist of good maintenance practices to help insure proper motor operation would include:
• Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce frictional losses)
and for dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
• Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded. A change in
motor load from the last test indicates a change in the driven load, the cause of which should
be understood.
• Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations for how and when
to lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as noted above. Over-
lubrication can also create problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter
the motor and saturate the motor insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire risk.
• Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven equipment.
Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to both
the motor and the driven equipment.
• Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed. Inspect
regularly the connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.
Age
Most motor cores in India are manufactured from silicon steel or de-carbonized cold-rolled steel,
the electrical properties of which do not change measurably with age. However, poor maintenance
(inadequate lubrication of bearings, insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.) can cause a
deterioration in motor efficiency over time. Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect
on motor performance. For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust loading, corrosive
atmosphere, and humidity can impair insulation properties; mechanical stresses due to load cycling
can lead to misalignment. However, with adequate care, motor performance can be maintained.
2.8 Rewinding Effects on Energy Efficiency

It is common practice in industry to rewind burnt-out motors. The population of rewound
motors in some industries exceed 50 % of the total population. Careful rewinding can
sometimes maintain motor efficiency at previous levels, but in most cases, losses in efficiency
result. Rewinding can affect a number of factors that contribute to deteriorated motor efficiency :
winding and slot design, winding material, insulation performance, and operating temperature.
For example, a common problem occurs when heat is applied to strip old windings : the
insulation between laminations can be damaged, thereby increasing eddy current losses. A
change in the air gap may affect power factor and output torque.
However, if proper measures are taken, motor efficiency can be maintained, and in some
cases increased, after rewinding. Efficiency can be improved by changing the winding design,
though the power factor could be affected in the process. Using wires of greater cross section, slot
size permitting, would reduce stator losses thereby increasing efficiency. However, it is
generally recommended that the original design of the motor be preserved during the rewind,
unless there are specific, load-related reasons for redesign.
40
2. Electric Motors
The impact of rewinding on motor efficiency and power factor can be easily assessed if the
no-load losses of a motor are known before and after rewinding. Maintaining documentation of
no-load losses and no-load speed from the time of purchase of each motor can facilitate
assessing this impact.
For example, comparison of no load current and stator resistance per phase of a rewound
motor with the original no-load current and stator resistance at the same voltage can be one of the
indicators to assess the efficacy of rewinding.
2.9 Speed Control of AC Induction Motors

Traditionally, DC motors have been employed when variable speed capability was desired. By
controlling the armature (rotor) voltage and field current of a separately excited DC motor, a
wide range of output speeds can be obtained. DC motors are available in a wide range of sizes,
but their use is generally restricted to a few low speed, low-to-medium power applications like
machine tools and rolling mills because of problems with mechanical commutation at large
sizes. Also, they are restricted for use only in clean, non-hazardous areas because of the risk of
sparking at the brushes. DC motors are also expensive relative to AC motors.
Because of the limitations of DC systems, AC motors are increasingly the focus for variable
speed applications. Both AC synchronous and induction motors are suitable for variable speed
control. Induction motors are generally more popular, however, because of their ruggedness and
lower maintenance requirements. AC induction motors are inexpensive (half or less of the cost
of a DC motor) and also provide a high power to weight ratio (about twice that of a DC motor).
An induction motor is an asynchronous motor, the speed of which can be varied by chang -
ing the supply frequency. The control strategy to be adopted in any particular case will depend
on a number of factors including investment cost, load reliability and any special control require-
ments. Thus, for any particular application, a detailed review of the load characteristics, histori-
cal data on process flows, the features required of the speed control system, the electricity tariffs
and the investment costs would be a prerequisite to the selection of a speed control system.
The characteristics of the load are particularly important. Load refers essentially to the
torque output and corresponding speed required. Loads can be broadly classified as either con-
stant power or Constant torque. Constant torque loads are those for which the output power
requirement may vary with the speed of operation but the torque does not vary. Conveyors,
rotary kilns, and constant-displacement pumps are typical examples of constant torque loads.
Variable torque loads are those for which the torque required varies with the speed of operation.
Centrifugal pumps and fans are typical examples of variable torque loads (torque varies as the
square of the speed). Constant power loads are those for which the torque requirements typi-
cally change inversely with speed. Machine tools are a typical example of a constant power
load.
The largest potential for electricity savings with variable speed drives is generally in vari-
able torque applications, for example centrifugal pumps and fans, where the power requirement
changes as the cube of speed. Constant torque loads are also suitable for VSD application.
Motor Speed Control Systems

Multi-speed motors
Motors can be wound such that two speeds, in the ratio of 2:1, can be obtained. Motors can also
41
2. Electric Motors
be wound with two separate windings, each giving 2 operating speeds, for a total of four speeds.
Multi-speed motors can be designed for applications involving constant torque, variable torque,
or for constant output power. Multi-speed motors are suitable for applications, which require lim-
ited speed control (two or four fixed speeds instead of continuously variable speed), in which
cases they tend to be very economical. They have lower efficiency than single-speed motors
Adjustable Frequency AC Drives

Adjustable frequency drives are also commonly called inverters. They are available in a range of
kW rating from fractional to 750 kW. They are designed to operate standard induction motors.
This allows them to be easily added to an existing system. The inverters are often sold separately
because the motor may already be in place. If necessary, a motor can be included with the drive
or supplied separately.
The basic drive consists of the inverter itself which coverts the 50 Hz incoming power to a
variable frequency and variable voltage. The variable frequency is the actual requirement,
which will control the motor speed.
There are three major types of inverters designs available today. These are known as
Current Source Inverters (CSI), Variable Voltage Inverters (VVI), and Pulse Width Modulated
Inverters (PWM).
Direct Current Drives (DC)

The DC drive technology is the oldest form of electrical speed control. The drive system consists
of a DC motor and a controller. The motor is constructed with armature and field windings.
Both of these windings require a DC excitation for motor operation. Usually the field winding is
excited with a constant level voltage from the controller.
Then, applying a DC voltage from the controller to the armature of the motor will operate the
motor. The armature connections are made through a brush and commutator assembly. The speed
of the motor is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
The controller is a phase controlled bridge rectifier with logic circuits to control the DC
voltage delivered to the motor armature. Speed control is achieved by regulating the armature
voltage to the motor. Often a tacho generator is included to achieve good speed regulation. The
tacho would be mounted on the motor and produces a speed feedback signal that is used with -
in the controller.
Wound Rotor AC Motor Drives (Slip Ring Induction Motors)

Wound rotor motor drives use a specially constructed motor to accomplish speed control. The
motor rotor is constructed with windings which are brought out of the motor through slip rings
on the motor shaft. These windings are connected to a controller which places variable resis-
tors in series with the windings. The torque performance of the motor can be controlled using
these variable resistors. Wound rotor motors are most common in the range of 300 HP and
above.
2.10 Motor Load Survey: Methodology

Large industries have a massive population of LT motors. Load survey of LT motors can be
42
2. Electric Motors
taken-up methodically to identify improvement options as illustrated in following case study.
i) Sampling Criteria
Towards the objective of selecting representative LT motor drives among the motor population,
for analysis, the criteria considered are:
- Utilization factor i.e., hours of operation with preference given to continuously operated
drive motors.
- Sample representative basis, where one drive motor analysis can be reasoned as representative
for the population. Ex : Cooling Tower Fans, Air Washer Units, etc.
- Conservation potential basis, where drive motors with inefficient capacity controls on the
machine side, fluctuating load drive systems, etc., are looked into.
ii) Measurements
Studies on selected LT motors involve measurement of electrical load parameters namely volts,
amperes, power factor, kW drawn.
Observations on machine side parameters such as speed, load, pressure, temperature, etc.,
(as relevant) are also taken. Availability of online instruments for routine measurements, avail-
ability of tail-end capacitors for PF correction, energy meters for monitoring is also looked into
for each case.
iii) Analysis
Analysis of observations on representative LT motors and connected drives is carried out
towards following outputs:
- Motor load on kW basis and estimated energy consumption.
- Scope for improving monitoring systems to enable sustenance of a regular in-house Energy
Audit function.
- Scope areas for energy conservation with related cost benefits and source information.
The observations are to indicate:
% loading on kW, % voltage unbalance if any, voltage, current, frequency, power factor,
machine side conditions like load / unload condition, pressure, flow, temperature, damper /
throttle operation, whether it is a rewound motor, idle operations, metering provisions, etc.
The findings / recommendations may include:
• Identified motors with less than 50 % loading, 50 - 75 % loading, 75 - 100 % loading, over 100
% loading.
• Identified motors with low voltage / power factor / voltage imbalance for needed improvement
measures.
• Identified motors with machine side losses / inefficiencies like idle operations, throttling /
damper operations for avenues like automatic controls / interlocks, variable speed drives,
etc.
Motor load survey is aimed not only as a measure to identify motor efficiency areas but
equally importantly, as a means to check combined efficiency of the motor, driven machine
and controller if any. The margins in motor efficiency may be less than 10 % of consumption
often, but the load survey would help to bring out savings in driven machines / systems, which
can give 30 - 40 % energy savings.
43
3. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
Syllabus
Compressed air system: Types of air compressors, Compressor efficiency, Efficient
compressor operation, Compressed air system components, Capacity assessment, Leakage
test, Factors affecting the performance and efficiency
3.1 Introduction
Air compressors account for significant amount of electricity used in Indian industries. Air
compressors are used in a variety of industries to supply process requirements, to operate
pneumatic tools and equipment, and to meet instrumentation needs. Only 10 - 30% of energy
reaches the point of end-use, and balance 70 - 90% of energy of the power of the prime mover
being converted to unusable heat energy and to a lesser extent lost in form of friction, misuse and
noise.
3.2 Compressor Types

Compressors are broadly classified as: Positive displacement compressor and Dynamic
compressor.
Positive displacement compressors increase the pressure of the gas by reducing the vol -
ume. Positive displacement compressors are further classified as reciprocating and rotary
compressors.
Dynamic compressors increase the air velocity, which is then converted to increased pressure
at the outlet. Dynamic compressors are basically centrifugal compressors and are further
classified as radial and axial flow types.
44
3. Compressed Air System
The flow and pressure requirements of a given application determine the suitability of a
particulars type of compressor.
Positive Displacement Compressors

Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors are the most
widely used type for air compression.
They are characterized by a flow output
that remains nearly constant over a range
of discharge pressures. Also, the com-
pressor capacity is directly proportional
to the speed. The output, however, is a
pulsating one.
Reciprocating compressors are
available in many configurations, the
four most widely used of which are
horizontal, vertical, horizontal bal-
ance-opposed and tandem. Vertical
type reciprocating compressors are
used in the capacity range of 50 - 150
cfm. Horizontal balance opposed compressors are used in the capacity range of 200 - 5000 cfm in
multi-stage design and upto 10,000 cfm in single stage designs.
Reciprocating compressors are also available in variety of types:
• Lubricated and non-lubricated
• Single or multiple cylinder
45
• Water or air-cooled.
• Single or multi stage
In the case of lubricated machines, oil has to be separated from the discharge air. Non-lubri-
cated compressors are especially useful for providing air for instrumentation and for processes
which require oil free discharge. However non-lubricated machines have higher specific power
consumption (kW/cfm) as compared to lubricated types.
Single cylinder machines are generally air-cooled, while multi-cylinder machines are
generally water cooled, although multi-stage air-cooled types are available for machines up to 100
kW. Water-cooled systems are more energy efficient than air-cooled systems.
Two stage machines are used for high pressures and are characterized by lower discharge temper-
ature (140 to 160°C) compared to single-stage machines (205 to 240°C). In some cases, multi-stage
machines may have a lower specific power consumption compared to single stage machines operating
over the same total pressure differential. Multi-stage machines generally have higher investment costs,
particularly for applications with high discharge pressure (above 7 bar) and low capacities (less than 25
cfm). Multi staging has other benefits, such as reduced pressure differential across cylinders, which
reduces the load and stress on compressor components such as valves and piston rings.
Rotary Compressors
Rotary compressors have rotors in place of pistons and give a continuous, pulsation free discharge air.
They are directly coupled to the prime mover and require lower starting torque as compared to
reciprocating machine. They operate at high speed and generally provide higher throughput than
reciprocating compressors. Also they require smaller foundations,
vibrate less, and have a lower number of parts - which means less
failure rate.
Among rotary compressor, the Roots blower (also
called as lobe compressor) and screw compressors are
among the most widely used. The roots blower is essen-
tially a low-pressure blower and is limited to a discharge
pressure of 1 bar in single-stage design and up to 2.2 bar
in two stage design.
The most common rotary air compressor is the single
stage helical or spiral lube oil flooded screw air compressor.
These compressors consist of two rotors, within a casing
where the rotors compress the air internally. There are no
valves. These units are basically oil cooled (with air cooled
or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the internal clearances. Since the cooling takes
place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme operating tem-
peratures. The oil has to be separated from discharge air. Because of the simple design and few
wearing parts, rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain, to operate and install.
The oil free rotary screw air compressor uses specially designed air ends to compress air without
oil in the compression chamber producing true oil free air. These compressors are available as air-
cooled or water cooled types and provide the same flexibility as oil flooded rotary compressors.
There is a wide range of availability in configuration and in pressure and capacity. Dry types
deliver oil-free air and are available in sizes up to 20,000 cfm and pressure upto 15 bar. Lubricated
types are available in sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 cfm, with discharge pressure up to 10 bar.
46
Dynamic Compressors
Dynamic compressors are mainly centrifugal
compressors and operate on similar principles
to centrifugal pump. These compressors have
appreciably different characteristics as com-
pared to reciprocating machines. A small
change in compression ratio produces a
marked change in compressor output and
efficiency. Centrifugal machines are better
suited for applications requiring very high
capacities, typically above 12,000 cfm.
The centrifugal air compressor depends on
transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to
the air. The rotor accomplishes this by chang-
ing the momentum and pressure of the air. This Figure 3.5 Axial Compressor
momentum is converted to useful pressure by
slowing the air down in a stationary diffuser.
The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by design. The oil-lubricated running
gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents. The centrifugal is a
continuous duty compressor, with few moving parts, and is particularly suited to high volume
applications, especially where oil free air is required.
A single-stage centrifugal machine can provide the same capacity as a multi-stage
reciprocating compressor. Machines with either axial or radial flow impellers are available.
Axial flow compressors are suitable for higher compression ratios and are generally more
efficient than radial compressors. Axial compressors typically are multi-stage machines, while
radial machines are usually single-stage designs.
The general selection criteria for compressor is given in the Table 3.1
TABLE 3.1 GENERAL SELECTION CRITERIA FOR

COMPRESSORS
Type of Compressor Capacity (m3/h) Pressure (bar)
From To From To
Roots blower compressor
single stage 100 30000 0.1 1
Reciprocating
- Single / Two stage 100 12000 0.8 12
– Multi stage 100 12000 12.0 700
Screw
- Single stage 100 2400 0.8 13
– Two stage 100 2200 0.8 24
Centrifugal 600 300000 0.1 450
47
3.3 Compressor Performance

Capacity of a Compressor
Capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas compressed and delivered at
conditions of total temperature, total pressure, and composition prevailing at the compressor
inlet. It sometimes means actual flow rate, rather than rated volume of flow. This also termed as
Free Air Delivery (FAD) i.e. air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location. Because the
altitude, barometer, and temperature may vary at different localities and at different times, it
follows that this term does not mean air under identical or standard conditions.
Compressor Efficiency Definitions

Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used: volumetric efficiency,
adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic power
divided by the actual power consumption. The figure obtained indicates the overall efficiency of
compressor and drive motor.
Isothermal Efficiency
Isothermal power(kW) = P1 x Q1 x loger/36.7

P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm 2 =
P2 Absolute delivery pressure kg/ cm 2 =
Q1 Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to overcome friction
and generally gives an efficiency that is lower than adiabatic efficiency. The reported value of
efficiency is normally the isothermal efficiency. This is an important consideration when selecting
compressors based on reported values of efficiency.
( )
x 100
( )
Volumetric Efficiency
Compressor Displacement = Π x D2 x L x S x χ x n
4
D = Cylinder bore, metre
L = Cylinder stroke, metre
S = Compressor speed rpm
χ = 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor efficiencies is the
specific power consumption ie kW/volume flow rate , for different compressors that would
provide identical duty.
48
3.4 Compressed Air System Components

Compressed air systems consist of following major components: Intake air filters, inter-stage
coolers, after coolers, air dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regulators
and lubricators (see Figure 3.6).
• Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering compressor; Dust causes sticking valves,
scoured cylinders, excessive wear etc.
• Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to
reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency. They are normally water-
cooled.
• After Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the temperature
in a water-cooled heat exchanger.
• Air-dryers: The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using air dryers,
as air for instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture. The
moisture is removed by using adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or refrigerant dryers,
or heat of compression dryers.
• Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the
compressed air. These traps resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used are manual drain
cocks, timer based / automatic drain valves etc.
• Receivers: Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air output -
reducing pressure variations from the compressor
49
3.5 Efficient Operation of Compressed Air Systems

Location of Compressors
The location of air compressors and the quality of air drawn by the compressors will have a
significant influence on the amount of energy consumed. Compressor performance as a breathing
machine improves with cool, clean, dry air at intake.
Cool air intake

As a thumb rule, "Every 4°C rise in inlet air temperature results in a higher energy consumption
by 1 % to achieve equivalent output". Hence, cool air intake leads to a more efficient compression
(see Table 3.2).
TABLE 3.2 EFFECT OF INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE ON POWER

CONSUMPTION
Inlet Temperature (°C) Relative Air Delivery (%) Power Saved (%)
10.0 102.0 + 1.4
15.5 100.0 Nil
21.1 98.1 - 1.3
26.6 96.3 - 2.5
32.2 94.1 - 4.0
37.7 92.8 - 5.0
43.3 91.2 - 5.8
It is preferable to draw cool ambient air from outside, as the temperature of air inside the
compressor room will be a few degrees higher than the ambient temperature. While extending
air intake to the outside of building, care should be taken to minimize excess pressure drop in
the suction line, by selecting a bigger diameter duct with minimum number of bends.
Dust Free Air Intake

Dust in the suction air causes excessive wear of moving parts and results in malfunctioning of
the valves due to abrasion. Suitable air filters should be provided at the suction side. Air filters
should have high dust separation capacity, low-pressure drops and robust design to avoid fre-
quent cleaning and replacement. See Table 3.3 for effect of pressure drop across air filter on
power consumption.
Air filters should be selected based on the compressor type and installed as close to the
compressor as possible. As a thumb rule "For every 250 mm WC pressure drop increase across at
the suction path due to choked filters etc, the compressor power consumption increases by
about 2 percent for the same output"
Hence, it is advisable to clean inlet air filters at regular intervals to minimize pressure drops.
Manometers or differential pressure gauges across filters may be provided for monitoring pressure
drops so as to plan filter-cleaning schedules.
50
TABLE 3.3 EFFECT OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS AIR INLET

FILTER ON POWER CONSUMPTION
Pressure Drop Across air Increase in Power

filter (mm WC) Consumption (%)
0 0
200 1.6
400 3.2
600 4.7
800 7.0
Dry Air Intake

Atmospheric air always contains some amount of water vapour, depending on the relative
humidity, being high in wet weather. The moisture level will also be high if air is drawn from a
damp area - for example locating compressor close to cooling tower, or dryer exhaust is to be
avoided (see Table 3.4)
TABLE 3.4 MOISTURE IN AMBIENT AIR AT VARIOUS HUMIDITY

LEVELS
% Relative Kg of water vapour per hour for every 1000

Humidity m3/min. of air at 30°C
50 27.60
80 45.00
100 68.22
The moisture-carrying capacity of air increases with a rise in temperature and decreases with
increase in pressure.
Elevation
The altitude of a place has a direct impact on the volumetric efficiency of the compressor. The
effect of altitude on volumetric efficiency is given in the Table 3.5.
It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power to achieve a
particular delivery pressure than those at sea level, as the compression ratio is higher.
Cooling Water Circuit

Most of the industrial compressors are water-cooled, wherein the heat of compression is
removed by circulating cold water to cylinder heads, inter-coolers and after-coolers. The resulting
warm water is cooled in a cooling tower and circulated back to compressors. The compressed air
system performance depends upon the effectiveness of inter-coolers, after coolers, which in turn
are dependent on cooling water flow and temperature.
Further, inadequate cooling water treatment can lead to increase, for example, in total
dissolved solids (TDS), which in turn can lead to scale formation in heat exchangers. The scales,
not only act as insulators reducing the heat transfer, but also increases the pressure drop in the
cooling water pumping system.
51
TA B L E EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON VOLUMETRIC

3.5 EFFICIENCY
Altitude Meters Barometric Percentage Relative Volumetric

Pressure milli bar* Efficiency Compared with Sea Level
At 4 bar At 7 bar
Sea level 1013 100.0 100.0
500 945 98.7 97.7
1000 894 97.0 95.2
1500 840 95.5 92.7
2000 789 93.9 90.0
2500 737 92.1 87.0
-3 2
* 1 milli bar = 1.01972 x 10 kg/cm
Use of treated water or purging a portion of cooling water (blow down) periodically can
maintain TDS levels within acceptable limits. It is better to maintain the water pH by addition of
chemicals, and avoid microbial growth by addition of fungicides and algaecides.
Efficacy of Inter and After Coolers

Efficacy is an indicator of heat exchange performance- how well intercoolers and after coolers are
performing.
Inter-coolers are provided between successive stages of a multi-stage compressor to reduce
the work of compression (power requirements) - by reducing the specific volume through
cooling the air - apart from moisture separation.
Ideally, the temperature of the inlet air at each stage of a multi-stage machine should be the
same as it was at the first stage. This is referred to as "perfect cooling" or isothermal com-
pression. The cooling may be imperfect due to reasons described in earlier sections. Hence in
actual practice, the inlet air temperatures at subsequent stages are higher than the normal levels
resulting in higher power consumption, as a larger volume is handled for the same duty (See
Table 3.6).
TABLE 3.6 EFFECT OF INTER-STAGE COOLING ON SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION OF A

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR -ILLUSTRATION
Details Imperfect Perfect Chilled Water

Cooling Cooling (Base Value) Cooling
First Stage inlet temperature °C 21.1 21.1 21.1
Second Stage inlet temperature °C 26.6 21.1 15.5
3
Capacity (Nm /min) 15.5 15.6 15.7
Shaft Power (kW) 76.3 75.3 74.2
Specific energy consumption 4.9 4.8 4.7
(kW/Nm3/min)
Percent Change + 2.1 Reference - 2.1
52
It can be seen from the Table 3.6 that an increase of 5.5°C in the inlet air temperature to
the second stage results in a 2 % increase in the specific energy consumption . Use of water at
lower temperature reduces specific power consumption. However, very low cooling water
temperature could result in condensation of moisture in the air, which if not removed would
lead to cylinder damage.
Similarly, inadequate cooling in after-coolers (due to fouling, scaling etc.), allow warm,
humid air into the receiver, which causes more condensation in air receivers and distribution
lines, which in consequence, leads to increased corrosion, pressure drops and leakages in piping
and end-use equipment. Periodic cleaning and ensuring adequate flow at proper temperature of
both inter coolers and after coolers are therefore necessary for sustaining desired performance.
Typical cooling water requirement is given in Table 3.7.
TABLE 3.7 TYPICAL COOLING WATER REQUIREMENTS
Compressor Type Minimum quantity of Cooling Water

required (in litres per minute) for 2.85 m3/min.
FAD at 7 bar
Single-stage 3.8
Two-stage 7.6
Single-stage with after-cooler 15.1
Two-stage with after-cooler 18.9
Pressure Settings
Compressor operates between pressure ranges called as loading (cut-in) and unloading (cut-out)
pressures. For example, a compressor operating between pressure setting of 6 - 7 kg/cm2
means that the compressor unloads at 7 kg/cm2 and loads at 6 kg/cm2. Loading and unloading is
done using a pressure switch.
For the same capacity, a compressor consumes more power at higher pressures. They should
not be operated above their optimum operating pressures as this not only wastes energy, but also
leads to excessive wear, leading to further energy wastage The volumetric efficiency of a
compressor is also less at higher delivery pressures.
TABLE 3.8 TYPICAL POWER SAVINGS THROUGH PRESSURE REDUCTION
Pressure Reduction Power Savings (%)

From To Single-stage Two-stage Two-stage
(bar) (bar) Water-cooled Water-cooled Air-cooled
6.8 6.1 4 4 2.6

6.8 5.5 9 11 6.5
53
Reducing Delivery Pressure:

The possibility of lowering (optimising) the delivery pressure settings should be explored by
careful study of pressure requirements of various equipment, and the pressure drop in the line
between the compressed air generation and utilization points. Typical power savings through
pressure reduction is shown in Table 3.8.
The pressure switches must be adjusted such that the compressor cuts-in and cuts-out at
optimum levels.
A reduction in the delivery pressure by 1 bar in a compressor would reduce the power
consumption by 6 - 10 %.
Compressor modulation by Optimum Pressure Settings:

Very often in an industry, different types, capacities and makes of compressors are connected to a
common distribution network. In such situations, proper selection of a right combination of
compressors and optimal modulation of different compressors can conserve energy.
Where more than one compressor feeds a common header, compressors have to be operated
in such a way that the cost of compressed air generation is minimal.
• If all compressors are similar, the pressure setting can be adjusted such that only one
compressor handles the load variation, whereas the others operate more or less at full load.
• If compressors are of different sizes, the pressure switch should be set such that only the
smallest compressor is allowed to modulate (vary in flow rate).
• If different types of compressors are operated together, unload power consumptions are
significant. The compressor with lowest no load power must be modulated.
• In general, the compressor with lower part load power consumption should be modulated.
• Compressors can be graded according to their specific energy consumption, at different
pressures and energy efficient ones must be made to meet most of the demand (see Table
3.9).
TABLE 3.9 TYPICAL SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION OF RECIPROCATING

COMPRESSORS (BASED ON MOTOR INPUT)
Pressure bar No. of Stages Specific Power kW/170

m3/hour (kW / 100 cfm)
1 1 6.29
2 1 9.64
3 1 13.04
4 2 14.57
7 2 18.34
8 2 19.16
10 2 21.74
15 2 26.22
54
EXAMPLE
Compressor modulation
Assessing compressed air system study for a plant section gave following results. Comment on
the results?
• Compressors on line A, B, C, D, E (all reciprocating type)
• Trial observation Summary
Compressor Measured Capacity 'On' Load 'Unload' kW Load Time Unload Time
Reference CMM (@ 7 kg/ cm2) kW Min. Min.
A 13.17 115.30 42.3 Full time* Nil
B 12.32 117.20 51.8 Full time* Nil
C 13.14 108.30 43.3 Full time* Nil
D 12.75 104.30 29.8 Full time* Nil
E 13.65 109.30 39.3 5.88 min. 39.12 min.
* Compressors running in load conditions and not getting unloaded during normal operations.
Comments:
• For a cycle time of 45 minutes (39.12 + 5.88)
i) Compressed air generated in m 3
= 45 (13.17) + 45 (12.32) + 45 (13.14) + 45 (12.75) + 5.88 (13.65) =
2392.36 m3
ii) Power consumption kWh
= 45/60 (115.3) + 45/60 (117.20) + 45 / 60 (108.3) + 45/60 (104.3) + 5.88/60 (109.30)
+ (39.12) / 60 ) 39.3
= 370.21 kWh / 45 Minutes
iii) Compressed air generation actual capacity on line in m 3
= 45 [ 13.17 + 12.32 + 13.14 + 12.75 + 13.65 ] = 2926.35 m 3
a) The consumption rate of the section connected
= 2392.36 / 45 = 53.16 m3/minute
b) Compressor air drawal as a % of capacity on line is
= [2392.36 / 2926.35 ] × 100 = 81.75 %
c) Specific power consumption = 370.21 / 2392.36 = 0.155 kW/m 3
d) Idle power consumption due to unload operation = 25.62 kWh in every 45 minutes
cycle i.e., 34.16 kWh every hour.
e) It would be favorable in short term and energy efficient to keep the compressor 'D' in
cycling mode on account of lower un-load losses and hence capacity. Speed of the
compressor can also be reduced by reducing motor pulley size.
f) A suitable smaller capacity compressor can be planned to replace the compressor with
highest unload losses.
g) An investigation is called for, as to why such a large variation of unload power drawn,
exists although all compressors have almost the same rated capacity.
55
Segregating low and high pressure air requirements

If the low-pressure air requirement is considerable, it is advisable to generate low pressure and
high-pressure air separately, and feed to the respective sections instead of reducing the pressure
through pressure reducing valves, which invariably waste energy.
Minimum pressure drop in air lines

Excess pressure drop due to inadequate pipe sizing, choked filter elements, improperly sized
couplings and hoses represent energy wastage. The Table 3.10 illustrates the energy wastage, if
the pipes are of smaller diameter.
Typical acceptable pressure drop in industrial practice is 0.3 bar in mains header at the
farthest point and 0.5 bar in distribution system.
TABLE 3.10 TYPICAL ENERGY WASTAGE DUE TO SMALLER PIPE

DIAMETER FOR 170 m3/h (100 CFM) FLOW
Pipe Nominal Bore (mm) Pressure drop (bar) per Equivalent power losses
100 meters (kW)
40 1.80 9.5
50 0.65 3.4
65 0.22 1.2
80 0.04 0.2
100 0.02 0.1
Equivalent lengths of fittings

Not only piping, but also fitting are a source of pressure losses. Typical pressure losses for various
fitting are given in Table 3.11.
TABLE 3.11 RESISTANCE OF PIPE FITTINGS IN EQUIVALENT LENGTHS (IN METRES)
Type of Fitting Nominal Pipe Size in mm

15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125
Gate Valve 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.27 0.32 0.40 0.49 0.64 0.91 1.20
Tee 90° long bend 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.38 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.20 1.52
Elbow 0.26 0.37 0.49 0.67 0.76 1.07 1.37 1.83 2.44 3.20
Return bend 0.46 0.61 0.76 1.07 1.20 1.68 1.98 2.60 3.66 4.88
Outlet of tee 0.76 1.07 1.37 1.98 2.44 3.36 3.96 5.18 7.32 9.45
globe valve
56
Blowers in place of Compressed Air System

Since the compressed air system is already available, plant engineer may be tempted to use
compressed air to provide air for low-pressure applications such as agitation, pneumatic
conveying or combustion air. Using a blower that is designed for lower pressure operation will cost
only a fraction of compressed air generation energy and cost.
Capacity Control of Compressors

In many installations, the use of air is intermittent. Therefore, some means of controlling the
output flow from the compressor is necessary. The type of capacity control chosen has a direct
impact on the compressor power consumption. Some control schemes commonly used are dis-
cussed below:
Automatic On / Off Control:

Automatic On /Off control, as its name implies, starts or stops the compressor by means of a
pressure activated switch as the air demand varies. This is a very efficient method of control-
ling the capacity of compressor, where the motor idle-running losses are eliminated, as it com-
pletely switches off the motor when the set pressure is reached. This control is suitable for
small compressors.
Load and Unload:

This is a two-step control where compressor is loaded when there is air demand and unloaded
when there is no air demand. During unloading, a positive displacement compressor may
consume up to 30 % of the full load power, depending upon the type, configuration, operation and
maintenance practices.
Multi-step Control:
Large capacity reciprocating compressors are usually equipped with a multi-step control. In this
type of control, unloading is accomplished in a series of steps, (0%, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % & 100 %)
varying from full load down to no-load (see Table 3.12).
TABLE 3.12 POWER CONSUMPTION OF A TYPICAL

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR AT VARIOUS LOADS
Load % Power Consumption as % of full load Power

100 100
75 76 - 77
50 52 - 53
25 27 - 29
0 10 - 12
Throttling Control:
The capacity of centrifugal compressors can be controlled using variable inlet guide vanes.
However, another efficient way to match compressor output to meet varying load requirements is
by speed control (see Table 3.13).
57
TABLE 3.13 TYPICAL PART LOAD GAS COMPRESSION :POWER INPUT FOR
SPEED AND VANE CONTROL OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
System Volume, % Power Input (%) Power Input (%)

Speed Control Vane Control
111 120 -
100 100 100
80 76 81
60 59 64
40 55 50
20 51 46
0 47 43
At low volumetric flow (below 40 %), vane control may result in lower power input com-
pared to speed control due to low efficiency of the speed control system. For loads more than
40 %, speed control is recommended.
Avoiding Misuse of Compressed Air:

Misuse of compressed air for purposes like body cleaning, liquid agitation, floor cleaning, drying,
equipment cooling and other similar uses must be discouraged. Wherever possible, lowpressure
air from a blower should be substituted for compressed air, for example secondary air for
combustion in a boiler / furnace.
The following Table 3.14 gives an idea of savings by stopping use of compressed air by
choosing alternative methods to perform the same task.
• Electric motors can serve more efficiently than air-driven rotary devices, wherever applicable.
The Table gives the comparison of pneumatic grinders and electrical grinders.
TABLE 3.14 TYPICAL POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR PNEUMATIC AND

ELECTRICAL TOOLS
Tool Wheel dia mm Speed rpm Air Cons. m3/h Power kW

Pneumatic angle grinder 150 6000 102 m3/h at 6 bar 10.2
Electric angle grinder 150 5700 - 8600 N.A. 1.95 - 2.90
Pneumatic jet grinder 35 30000 32.3 m3/h at 6 bar 3.59
Electric straight grinder 25 22900 - 30500 N.A. 0.18
It may be noted that in some areas use of electric tools are not permitted due to safety
constraints, especially places where inflammable vapours are present in the environment. It
should always be remembered that safety consideration always override energy conservation.
58
• In place of pneumatic hoists, electric hoists

can be used.
• Material conveying applications by blower
systems can be replaced preferably by a
combination of belt / screw conveyers and
bucket elevators. In a paper manufacturing
facility, compressed air was used for con-
veying wood chips. The equivalent power
consumption was 77 kW. This method of
conveying was replaced by blower system
consuming only 7 kW, a saving of 70 kW.
This has also been widely applied in
cement industry where pneumatic convey-
ing has been replaced by bucket and screw
conveyor resulting in significant energy
reduction.
• When moving air really is required for an
application, often sources other than com-
pressed air can do the job. For applications
like blowing of components, use of compressed air amplifiers (see Figure), blowers or grav-
ity-based systems may be possible. Brushes can sweep away debris from work in progress
as effectively as high-pressure air. Blowers can be also used for this purpose. Many appli-
cations do not require clean, dry, high-pressure and expensive 6 bar or 7 bar compressed air
rather, only moving air is needed to blow away debris, provide cooling, or other functions.
In these cases, local air fans or blowers may satisfy the need for moving air much econom-
ically. If a ¼" hose pipe is kept open at a 7 bar compressed air line for cleaning for at least
1000 hours / annum, it can cost about Rs. 1.0 lakhs / annum. If absolutely necessary,
compressed air should be used only with blow guns to keep the air pressure below 2 bar.
• For applications, where compressed air is indispensable for cleaning internal crevices of
machines etc., installation of a separate cleaning air header with a main isolation valve may
be considered. The main valve should be opened only for a few, well-defined time periods
during the whole day; no connections for cleaning should be provided from process or
equipment air lines.
• Replacement of pneumatically operated air cylinders by hydraulic power packs can be con-
sidered.
• Vacuum systems are much more efficient than expensive venturi methods, which use
expensive compressed air rushing past an orifice to create a vacuum.
• Mechanical stirrers, conveyers, and low-pressure air will mix materials far more
economically than high-pressure compressed air.
Avoiding Air Leaks and Energy Wastage:

The major opportunity to save energy is in the prevention of leaks in the compressed air system.
Leaks frequently occur at air receivers, relief valves, pipe and hose joints, shut off valves, quick
release couplings, tools and equipment. In most cases, they are due to poor maintenance and
sometimes, improper installations etc.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency 59

Air leakages through Different Size Orifices

The Table 3.15 gives the amount of free air wasted for different nozzles sizes and pressure.
TABLE 3.15 DISCHARGE OF AIR (m3/MINUTE) THROUGH ORIFICE

(ORIFICE CONSTANT Cd - 1.0)
Gauge Pressure
Bar 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm 12.5 mm
0.5 0.06 0.22 0.92 2.1 5.7 22.8 35.5
1.0 0.08 0.33 1.33 3.0 8.4 33.6 52.5
2.5 0.14 0.58 2.33 5.5 14.6 58.6 91.4
5.0 0.25 0.97 3.92 8.8 24.4 97.5 152.0
7.0 0.33 1.31 5.19 11.6 32.5 129.0 202.0
Cost of Compressed Air Leakage:

It may be seen from Table 3.16 that any expenditure on stopping leaks would be paid back
through energy saving.
TABLE 3.16 COST OF AIR LEAKAGE
Orifice Size mm kW Wasted * Cost of air leakage (Rs/Year)

0.8 0.2 8000
1.6 0.8 32000
3.1 3.0 120000
6.4 12.0 480000
* based on Rs. 5 / kWh; 8000 operating hours; air at 7.0 bar
Steps in simple shop-floor method for leak quantification

• Shut off compressed air operated equipments (or conduct test when no equipment is using
compressed air).
• Run the compressor to charge the system to set pressure of operation
• Note the sub-sequent time taken for 'load' and 'unload' cycles of the compressors. For accu-
racy, take ON & OFF times for 8 - 10 cycles continuously. Then calculate total 'ON' Time
(T) and Total 'OFF' time (t).
• The system leakage is calculated as:
T = Time on load in minutes

t = Time on unload in minutes
60
EXAMPLE
In the leakage test in a process industry, following results were observed
Compressor capacity (m3/minute) = 35
Cut in pressure, kg/cm2(g) = 6.8
2
Cut out pressure, kg/cm (g) = 7.5
Load kW drawn = 188 kW
Unload kW drawn = 54 kW
Average 'Load' time, T = 1.5 minutes
Average 'Unload' time, t = 10.5 minutes
Comment on leakage quantity and avoidable loss of power due to air leakages.
,q
4.375 m3/min
Leakage quantity
4.375 x 24 x 60 = 6300 m3/day
188 kW /(35 x 60)m3/hr
0.0895 x 6300 = 564 kWh
Leakage Detection by Ultrasonic Leak Detector:

Leakage tests are conducted by a Leak Detector having a sensing probe, which senses when
there are leakage in compressed air systems at high temperatures-beneath insulated coverings,
pipelines, manifolds etc.
The leak is detected by ultrasonic vibration. Leak testing is done by observing and locating
sources of ultrasonic vibrations created by turbulent flow of gases passing through leaks in
pressurized or evacuated systems.
Line Moisture Separator and Traps

Although, in an ideal system, all cooling and condensing of air should be carried out before the air
leaves the receiver, this is not very often achieved in practice. The amount of condensation, which
takes place in the lines, depends on the efficiency of moisture extraction before the air leaves the
receiver and the temperature in the mains itself. In general, the air main should be given a fall of
not less than 1 m in 100 m in the direction of air flow, and the distance between drainage points
should not exceed 30m.
Drainage points should be provided using equal tees, as it assists in the separation of water.
Whenever a branch line is taken off from the mains it should leave at the top so that any water in
the main does not fall straight into the plant equipment. Further, the bottom of the falling pipe
should also be drained.
Compressed Air Filter

Although, some water, oil and dirt are removed by the separators and traps in the mains, still
some are always left, which are carried over along with compressed air. Moreover, pipe systems
61
accumulate scale and other foreign matters, such as small pieces of gasket material, jointing
compounds etc. Burnt compressor oil may also be carried over in pipe work, and this, with other
contaminants, forms a gummy substance. To remove these, all of which are liable to have harm-
ful effects on pneumatic equipment, the air should be filtered as near as possible to the point of
use. Water and oil collected in the filter sump must be drained off; because if the level is
allowed to build up, it is forced through the filter element into the very system it is designed to
protect.
Regulators
In many instances, pneumatic operations are to be carried out at a lower pressure than that of
the main supply. For these applications, pressure regulators are required to reduce the pressure
to the required value and also to ensure that it remains reasonably constant at the usage point.
Lubricators
Where air is used to drive prime movers, cylinders and valves, they should be fitted with a
lubricator. Essentially, a lubricator is a reservoir of oil and has been designed so that when air is
flowing, a metered amount of oil is fed in mist form into the air stream. This oil is carried with the
motive air, to the point of use to lubricate all moving parts. All lubricators require a certain
minimum rate of airflow to induce oil into their stream. It is advisable to install filters, regulators
and lubricators as close as possible to the equipment being served.
Air Dryers
There are certain applications where air must be free from moisture and have a lower dew point.
Dew point is the temperature at which moisture condenses. This calls for more sophisticated
and expensive methods to lower the dew point of compressed air. Three common types of air
dryers used are heat-less (absorption), adsorption and refrigerated dryers. They produce dry air
with -10°C to -40°C dew point, depending on the type of dryers. Refer Table 3.17 for moisture
content in air and Table 3.18 for typical pressure dew point and power consumption data for
dryers.
TABLE 3.17 MOISTURE CONTENT IN AIR
Dew point at Atmospheric Pressure °C Moisture Content, ppm

0 3800
–5 2500
–10 1600
–20 685
–30 234
–40 80
–60 6.5
62
TABLE 3.18 TYPICAL PRESSURE DEW POINT AND POWER

CONSUMPTION DATA FOR DRYERS
Type of Dryer Atmospheric First Cost Operating Power Cons.

Dew Point °C Cost For 1000 m3/hr
Refrigeration -20 Low Low 2.9 kW
Desiccant regenerative (by
compressed air purging) -20 Low High 20.7 kW
Desiccant regenerative (external
or internal heating with electrical or
steam heater, reduced or
no compressed air purging) -40 Medium Medium 18.0 kW
Desiccant regenerative (using
heated low pressure air, no
compressed air loss) -40 High Low 12.0 kW
Desiccant regenerative (by
recovery of heat of compression
from compressed air) -40 High Very low 0.8 kW
Air Receivers
The air receiver dampens pulsations entering the discharge line from the compressor; serves as
a reservoir for sudden or unusually heavy demands in excess of compressor capacity; prevents
too frequent loading and unloading (short cycling) of the compressor; and separates moisture
and oil vapour, allowing the moisture carried over from the after coolers to precipitate.
The air receiver should be generously sized to give a large cooling surface and even out the
pulsation in delivered air pressure from reciprocating compressor. Simple formulae often quot -
ed for air receiver size is to take a value equal to one minute's continuous output of the com-
pressor. However, this should be considered indicative of the minimum size of receiver.
Another approximation can be to size the receiver volume to be 5% of the rated hourly free air
output. Providing an air receiver near the load end, where there is sudden high demand lasting for a
short period, would avoid the need to provide extra capacity.
Loss of air pressure due to friction

The loss of pressure in piping is caused by resistance in pipe fittings and valves, which dissi-
pates energy by producing turbulence. The piping system will be designed for a maximum
allowable pressure drop of 5 percent from the compressor to the most distant point of use.
Piping layout
Where possible the piping system should be arranged as a closed loop or "ring main" to allow
for more uniform air distribution to consumption points and to equalize pressure in the piping.
Separate services requiring heavy air consumption and at long distances from the compressor
unit should be supplied by separate main airlines. Pipes are to be installed parallel with the lines
of the building, with main and branch headers sloping down toward a dead end. Traps will be
installed in airlines at all low points and dead ends to remove condensed moisture. Automatic
moisture traps used for this purpose are effective only when the air has been cooled and the
63
moisture has precipitated. Branch headers from compressed air mains will be taken off at the top
to avoid picking up moisture.
Capacity Utilisation
In many installations, the use of air is intermittent. This means the compressor will be operated
on low load or no load condition, which increases the specific power consumption per unit of air
generated. Hence, for optimum energy consumption, a proper compressor capacity control
should be selected. The nature of the control device depends on the function to be regulated. One
of the objectives of a good compressed air management system would be to minimize unloading to
the least as unloading consumes up to 30% of full load power.
One way of doing this is to use a smaller compressor.
Decentralized compressors, as against centralized compressors often serve this purpose better
by having the option to switch off when air is not need in a particular section/equipment.
If a compressor is oversized and operates at unloading mode for long periods, an economi-cal
way will be to suitably change the pulley size of the motor or compressor and reduce the RPM
to de-rate the compressor to a lower capacity.
With decreasing cost of variable speed drives, it has become a viable option to maintain
constant pressure in the system and to avoid unloading operations by varying the speed of the
compressor. However, caution should be taken for operations at very low speeds, since it will
affect the lubricating system. This can be overcome by providing a separate lube oil system
independent of the compressor.
3.6 Compressor Capacity Assessment

Due to ageing of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies in the internal components, the
free air delivered may be less than the design value, despite good maintenance practices.
Sometimes, other factors such as poor maintenance, fouled heat exchanger and effects of
altitude also tend to reduce free air delivery. In order to meet the air demand, the inefficient
compressor may have to run for more time, thus consuming more power than actually
required.
The power wastage depends on the percentage deviation of FAD capacity. For example, a worn
out compressor valve can reduce the compressor capacity by as much as 20 percent. A periodic
assessment of the FAD capacity of each compressor has to be carried out to check its actual capac-
ity. If the deviations are more than 10 %, corrective measures should be taken to rectify the same.
The ideal method of compressor capacity assessment is through a nozzle test wherein a
calibrated nozzle is used as a load, to vent out the generated compressed air. Flow is assessed,
based on the air temperature, stabilization pressure, orifice constant. etc.
Simple method of Capacity Assessment in Shop floor

Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main com -
pressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing the receiv-
er outlet.
Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipe line.
Make sure that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test. Start the compressor and
activate the stopwatch. Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P 2 (in the
receiver) from initial pressure P1.
64
Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below :

Actual Free air discharge
Where
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm 2a) after bleeding
P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm 2 a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver,
after cooler, and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P 2 in minutes
The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is same as the ambient
air temperature, i.e., perfect isothermal compression. In case the actual compressed air temperature
at discharge, say t20C is higher than ambient air temperature say t10C (as is usual case), the FAD is
to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).
EXAMPLE
An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final
compressed air temperature is same as the ambient temperature) - Comment?
7.79 + 0.4974 = 8.287m3
Time taken to build up pressure : 4.021 minutes
8.287
= 13.12 m3/minute
Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.75 m 3/minute rating is 1.63 m 3/minute i.e., 11.05%,
which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further.
3.7 Checklist for Energy Efficiency in Compressed Air System

• Ensure air intake to compressor is not warm and humid by locating compressors in well -
ventilated area or by drawing cold air from outside. Every 4°C rise in air inlet temperature
will increase power consumption by 1 percent.
65
• Clean air-inlet filters regularly. Compressor efficiency will be reduced by 2 percent for
every 250 mm WC pressure drop across the filter.
• Keep compressor valves in good condition by removing and inspecting once every six
months. Worn-out valves can reduce compressor efficiency by as much as 50 percent.
• Install manometers across the filter and monitor the pressure drop as a guide to replacement
of element.
• Minimize low-load compressor operation; if air demand is less than 50 percent of compres-
sor capacity, consider change over to a smaller compressor or reduce compressor speed
appropriately (by reducing motor pulley size) in case of belt driven compressors.
• Consider the use of regenerative air dryers, which uses the heat of compressed air to remove
moisture.
• Fouled inter-coolers reduce compressor efficiency and cause more water condensation in air
receivers and distribution lines resulting in increased corrosion. Periodic cleaning of
intercoolers must be ensured.
• Compressor free air delivery test (FAD) must be done periodically to check the present
operating capacity against its design capacity and corrective steps must be taken if required.
• If more than one compressor is feeding to a common header, compressors must be operated in
such a way that only one small compressor should handle the load variations whereas other
compressors will operate at full load.
• The possibility of heat recovery from hot compressed air to generate hot air or water for
process application must be economically analyzed in case of large compressors.
• Consideration should be given to two-stage or multistage compressor as it consumes less
power for the same air output than a single stage compressor.
• If pressure requirements for processes are widely different (e.g. 3 bar to 7 bar), it is
advisable to have two separate compressed air systems.
• Reduce compressor delivery pressure, wherever possible, to save energy.
• Provide extra air receivers at points of high cyclic-air demand which permits operation
without extra compressor capacity.
• Retrofit with variable speed drives in big compressors, say over 100 kW, to eliminate the
`unloaded' running condition altogether.
• Keep the minimum possible range between load and unload pressure settings.
• Automatic timer controlled drain traps wastes compressed air every time the valve opens.
So frequency of drainage should be optimized.
• Check air compressor logs regularly for abnormal readings, especially motor current cooling
water flow and temperature, inter-stage and discharge pressures and temperatures and
compressor load-cycle.
• Compressed air leakage of 40 - 50 percent is not uncommon. Carry out periodic leak tests
to estimate the quantity of leakage.
• Install equipment interlocked solenoid cut-off valves in the air system so that air supply to a
machine can be switched off when not in use.
• Present energy prices justify liberal designs of pipeline sizes to reduce pressure drops.
• Compressed air piping layout should be made preferably as a ring main to provide desired
pressures for all users.
• A smaller dedicated compressor can be installed at load point, located far off from the
central compressor house, instead of supplying air through lengthy pipelines.
66
• All pneumatic equipment should be properly lubricated, which will reduce friction, prevent
wear of seals and other rubber parts thus preventing energy wastage due to excessive air
consumption or leakage.
• Misuse of compressed air such as for body cleaning, agitation, general floor cleaning, and
other similar applications must be discouraged in order to save compressed air and energy.
• Pneumatic equipment should not be operated above the recommended operating pressure as
this not only wastes energy bus can also lead to excessive wear of equipment's components
which leads to further energy wastage.
• Pneumatic transport can be replaced by mechanical system as the former consumed about 8
times more energy. Highest possibility of energy savings is by reducing compressed air use.
• Pneumatic tools such as drill and grinders consume about 20 times more energy than mo tor
driven tools. Hence they have to be used efficiently. Wherever possible, they should be
replaced with electrically operated tools.
• Where possible welding is a good practice and should be preferred over threaded connec-
tions.
• On account of high pressure drop, ball or plug or gate valves are preferable over globe
valves in compressed air lines.
67
4. HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Syllabus
HVAC and Refrigeration System: Vapor compression refrigeration cycle, Refrigerants,
Coefficient of performance, Capacity, Factors affecting Refrigeration and Air conditioning
system performance and savings opportunities.
Vapor absorption refrigeration system: Working principle, Types and comparison with
vapor compression system, Saving potential
4.1 Introduction
The Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and refrigeration system transfers the
heat energy from or to the products, or building environment. Energy in form of electricity or
heat is used to power mechanical equipment designed to transfer heat from a colder, low -ener-
gy level to a warmer, high-energy level.
Refrigeration deals with the transfer of heat from a low temperature level at the heat
source to a high temperature level at the heat sink by using a low boiling refrigerant.
There are several heat transfer loops in refrigeration system as described below:
Figure 4.1 Heat Transfer Loops In Refrigeration System
In the Figure 4.1, thermal energy moves from left to right as it is extracted from the space and
expelled into the outdoors through five loops of heat transfer:
- Indoor air loop. In the leftmost loop, indoor air is driven by the supply air fan through a cool-
ing coil, where it transfers its heat to chilled water. The cool air then cools the building space.
- Chilled water loop. Driven by the chilled water pump, water returns from the cooling coil
to the chiller’s evaporator to be re-cooled.
- Refrigerant loop. Using a phase-change refrigerant, the chiller’s compressor pumps heat
from the chilled water to the condenser water.
- Condenser water loop. Water absorbs heat from the chiller’s condenser, and the con-
denser water pump sends it to the cooling tower.
- Cooling tower loop. The cooling tower’s fan drives air across an open flow of the hot
condenser water, transferring the heat to the outdoors.
68
4. HVAC and Refrigeration System
Air-Conditioning Systems
Depending on applications, there are several options / combinations, which are available for use as
given below:
Air Conditioning (for comfort / machine)
Split air conditioners
Fan coil units in a larger system
Air handling units in a larger system
Refrigeration Systems (for processes)
Small capacity modular units of direct expansion type similar to domestic refrigerators,
small capacity refrigeration units.
Centralized chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary coolant for temperature
range over 5°C typically. They can also be used for ice bank formation.
Brine plants, which use brines as lower temperature, secondary coolant, for typically sub
zero temperature applications, which come as modular unit capacities as well as large cen-
tralized plant capacities.
The plant capacities upto 50 TR are usually considered as small capacity, 50 - 250 TR as
medium capacity and over 250 TR as large capacity units.
A large industry may have a bank of such units, often with common chilled water pumps,
condenser water pumps, cooling towers, as an off site utility.
The same industry may also have two or three levels of refrigeration & air conditioning such as:
Comfort air conditioning (20° - 25° C)
Chilled water system (8° - 10° C)
Brine system (sub-zero applications)
Two principle types of refrigeration plants found in industrial use are: Vapour Compression
Refrigeration (VCR) and Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR). VCR uses mechanical ener-
gy as the driving force for refrigeration, while VAR uses thermal energy as the driving force for
refrigeration.
4.2 Types of Refrigeration System

Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Heat flows naturally from a hot to a colder body. In refrigeration system the opposite must occur
i.e. heat flows from a cold to a hotter body. This is achieved by using a substance called a refrig-
erant, which absorbs heat and hence boils or evaporates at a low pressure to form a gas. This
gas is then compressed to a higher pressure, such that it transfers the heat it has gained to ambi-
ent air or water and turns back (condenses) into a liquid. In this way heat is absorbed, or
removed, from a low temperature source and transferred to a higher temperature source.
The refrigeration cycle can be broken down into the following stages (see Figure 4.2):
1 - 2 Low pressure liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs heat from its surroundings,
usually air, water or some other process liquid. During this process it changes its state from a
liquid to a gas, and at the evaporator exit is slightly superheated.
69
2 - 3 The superheated vapour enters the compressor where its pressure is raised. There will
also be a big increase in temperature, because a proportion of the energy input into the
compression process is transferred to the refrigerant.
3 - 4 The high pressure superheated gas passes from the compressor into the condenser. The
initial part of the cooling process (3 - 3a) desuperheats the gas before it is then turned back into
liquid (3a - 3b). The cooling for this process is usually achieved by using air or water. A further
reduction in temperature happens in the pipe work and liquid receiver (3b - 4), so that the
refrigerant liquid is sub-cooled as it enters the expansion device.
4 - 1 The high-pressure sub-cooled liquid passes through the expansion device, which both
reduces its pressure and controls the flow into the evaporator.
Figure 4.2: Schematic of a Basic Vapor Compression Refrigeration System
It can be seen that the condenser has to be capable of rejecting the combined heat inputs of the
evaporator and the compressor; i.e. (1 - 2) + (2 - 3) has to be the same as (3 - 4). There is no heat
loss or gain through the expansion device.
Alternative Refrigerants for Vapour Compression Systems

The use of CFCs is now beginning to be phased out due to their damaging impact on the pro-
tective tropospheric ozone layer around the earth. The Montreal Protocol of 1987 and the
subsequent Copenhagen agreement of 1992 mandate a reduction in the production of ozone
depleting Chlorinated Fluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants in a phased manner, with an eventu-
al stop to all production by the year 1996. In response, the refrigeration industry has devel -
oped two alternative refrigerants; one based on Hydrochloro Fluorocarbon (HCFC), and
another based on Hydro Fluorocarbon (HFC). The HCFCs have a 2 to 10% ozone depleting
potential as compared to CFCs and also, they have an atmospheric lifetime between 2 to 25
years as compared to 100 or more years for CFCs (Brandt, 1992). However, even HCFCs
70
are mandated to be phased out by 2005, and only the chlorine free (zero ozone depletion)
HFCs would be acceptable.
Until now, only one HFC based refrigerant, HFC 134a, has been developed. HCFCs are
comparatively simpler to produce and the three refrigerants 22, 123, and 124 have been
developed. The use of HFCs and HCFCs results in slightly lower efficiencies as compared to
CFCs, but this may change with increasing efforts being made to replace CFCs.
Absorption Refrigeration
The absorption chiller is a machine, which produces chilled water by using heat such as steam, hot
water, gas, oil etc. Chilled water is produced by the principle that liquid (refrigerant), which
evaporates at low temperature, absorbs heat from surrounding when it evaporates. Pure water is
used as refrigerant and lithium bromide solution is used as absorbent
Heat for the vapour absorption refrigeration system can be provided by waste heat extracted
from process, diesel generator sets etc. Absorption systems require electricity to run pumps only.
Depending on the temperature required and the power cost, it may even be economical to generate
heat / steam to operate the absorption system.
Description of the absorption refrigeration concept is given below:
The refrigerant (water) evaporates at

around 4°C under the high vacuum con-
dition of 754mmHg in the evaporator.
When the refrigerant (water) evaporates,
the latent heat of vaporization takes the
heat from incoming chilled water.
This latent heat of vaporization can cool
the chilled water which runs into the heat
exchanger tubes in the evaporator by
transfer of heat to the refrigerant (water).
In order to keep evaporating, the

refrigerant vapor must be discharged
from the evaporator and refrigerant
(water) must be supplied. The refriger-
ant vapor is absorbed into lithium bro-
mide solution which is convenient to
absorb the refrigerant vapor in the
absorber. The heat generated in the
absorption process is led out of system
by cooling water continually. The
absorption also maintains the vacuum
inside the evaporator.
71
As lithium bromide solution is diluted,

the effect to absorb the refrigerant
vapor reduces. In order to keep
absorption process, the diluted lithium
bromide solution must be made
concentrated lithium bromide.
Absorption chiller is provided with the
solution concentrating system by the
heating media such as steam, hot
water, gas, oil, which performs such
function is called generator.
The concentrated solution flows into
the absorber and absorbs the refrigerant
vapor again.
In order to carryout above works con-

tinually and to make complete cycle,
the following two functions are
required.
(1) To concentrate and liquefy the
evaporated refrigerant vapor,
which is generated in the high
pressure generator.
(2) To supply the condensed water to
the evaporator as refrigerant
(water) For this function,
condenser is installed.
A typical schematic of the absorption refrigeration system is given in the Figure 4.3.
Li-Br-water absorption refrigeration systems have a Coefficient of Performance (COP) in
the range of 0.65 - 0.70 and can provide chilled water at 6.7 °C with a cooling water
temperature of 30°C. Systems capable of providing chilled water at 3 °C are also available.
Ammonia based systems operate at above atmospheric pressures and are capable of low
temperature operation (below 0°C). Absorption machines of capacities in the range of 10 -1500
tons are available. Although the initial cost of absorption system is higher than compression
system, operational cost is much lower-if waste heat is used.
72
Figure 4.3 Schematic of Absorption Refrigeration System
Evaporative Cooling
There are occasions where air conditioning, which stipulates control of humidity up to 50 % for
human comfort or for process, can be replaced by a much cheaper and less energy intensive
evaporative cooling.
The concept is very simple and is the same as that used in a cooling tower. Air is brought in
close contact with water to cool it to a temperature close to the wet bulb temperature. The cool
air can be used for comfort or process cooling. The disadvantage is that the air is rich in
moisture. Nevertheless, it is an extremely efficient means of cooling at very low cost. Large
commercial systems employ cellulose filled pads over which water is sprayed. The temperature
can be controlled by controlling the airflow and the water circulation rate. The possibility of
evaporative cooling is especially attractive for comfort cooling in dry regions. This principle is
practiced in textile industries for certain processes.
4.3 Common Refrigerants and Properties

A variety of refrigerants are used in vapor compression systems. The choice of fluid is
determined largely by the cooling temperature required. Commonly used refrigerants are in the
family of chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs, also called Freons): R-11, R-12, R-21, R-22 and R-
502. The properties of these refrigerants are summarized in Table 4.1 and the performance of
these refrigerants is given in Table 4.2.
73
TABLE 4.1 PROPERTIES OF COMMONLY USED REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerant Boiling Freezing Vapor Vapor Enthalpy *

Point ** Point (°C) Pressure * Volume * Liquid Vapor
(°C) (kPa) (m3 / kg) (kJ / kg) (kJ / kg)
R - 11 -23.82 -111.0 25.73 0.61170 191.40 385.43
R - 12 -29.79 -158.0 219.28 0.07702 190.72 347.96
R - 22 -40.76 -160.0 354.74 0.06513 188.55 400.83
R - 502 -45.40 --- 414.30 0.04234 188.87 342.31
R-7 -33.30 -77.7 289.93 0.41949 808.71 487.76
(Ammonia)
* At -10°C
** At Standard Atmospheric Pressure (101.325 kPa)
TABLE 4.2 PERFORMANCE OF COMMONLY USED REFRIGERANTS*
Refrigerant Evaporating Condensing Pressure Vapor COP**carnot

Press (kPa) Press (kPa) Ratio Enthalpy
(kJ / kg)
R - 11 20.4 125.5 6.15 155.4 5.03
R - 12 182.7 744.6 4.08 116.3 4.70
R - 22 295.8 1192.1 4.03 162.8 4.66
R - 502 349.6 1308.6 3.74 106.2 4.37
R - 717 236.5 1166.5 4.93 103.4 4.78
* At -15°C Evaporator Temperature, and 30°C Condenser Temperature
** COPcarnot = Coefficient of Performance = Temp.Evap. / (Temp.Cond. -TempEvap. )
The choice of refrigerant and the required cooling temperature and load determine the choice of
compressor, as well as the design of the condenser, evaporator, and other auxiliaries.
Additional factors such as ease of maintenance, physical space requirements and availability of
utilities for auxiliaries (water, power, etc.) also influence component selection.
4.4 Compressor Types and Application

For industrial use, open type systems (compressor and motor as separate units) are normally
used, though hermetic systems (motor and compressor in a sealed unit) also find service in
some low capacity applications. Hermetic systems are used in refrigerators, air conditioners,
and other low capacity applications. Industrial applications largely employ reciprocating,
centrifugal and, more recently, screw compressors, and scroll compressors. Water-cooled
systems are more efficient than air-cooled alternatives because the temperatures produced by
refrigerant condensation are lower with water than with air.
74
Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors are the most efficient type (see
Figure 4.4) when they are operating near full load. Their
efficiency advantage is greatest in large sizes, and they
offer considerable economy of scale, so they dominate the
market for large chillers. They are able to use a wide range
of refrigerants efficiently, so they will probably continue to
be the dominant type in large sizes.
Centrifugal compressors have a single major moving
part - an impeller that compresses the refrigerant gas by Figure 4.4 Centrifugal Compressor
centrifugal force. The gas is given kinetic energy as it flows
through the impeller. This kinetic energy is not useful in itself, so it must be converted to pressure
energy. This is done by allowing the gas to slow down smoothly in a stationary diffuser
surrounding the impeller.
To minimize efficiency loss at reduced loads, centrifugal compressors typically throttle output
with inlet guide vanes located at the inlet to the impeller(s). This method is efficient down to
about 50% load, but the efficiency of this method decreases rapidly below 50% load.
Older centrifugal machines are not able to reduce load much below 50%. This is because of
“surge” in the impeller. As the flow through the impeller is choked off, the gas does not acquire
enough energy to overcome the discharge pressure. Flow drops abruptly at this point, and an
oscillation begins as the gas flutters back and forth in the impeller. Efficiency drops abruptly,
and the resulting vibration can damage the machine. Many older centrifugal machines deal with
low loads by creating a false load on the system, such as by using hot gas bypass. This wastes the
portion of the cooling output that is not required.
Another approach is to use variable-speed drives in combination with inlet guide vanes.
This may allow the compressor to throttle down to about 20% of full load, or less, without false
loading. Changing the impeller speed causes a departure from optimum performance, so effi-
ciency still declines badly at low loads. A compressor that uses a variable-speed drive reduces
its output in the range between full load and approximately half load by slowing the impeller
speed. At lower loads, the impeller cannot be slowed further, because the discharge pressure
would become too low to condense the refrigerant. Below the minimum load provided by the
variable-speed drive, inlet guide vanes are used to provide further capacity reduction.
Reciprocating Compressors
The maximum efficiency of reciprocating com-
pressors (see Figure 4.5) is lower than that of cen-
trifugal and screw compressors. Efficiency is
reduced by clearance volume (the compressed gas
volume that is left at the top of the piston stroke),
throttling losses at the intake and discharge
valves, abrupt changes in gas flow, and friction.
Lower efficiency also results from the smaller
sizes of reciprocating units, because motor losses
and friction account for a larger fraction of energy
input in smaller systems. Figure 4.5 Reciprocating Compressor
75
Reciprocating compressors suffer less efficiency loss at partial loads than other types, and they
may actually have a higher absolute efficiency at low loads than the other types. Smaller
reciprocating compressors control output by turning on and off. This eliminates all part-load losses,
except for a short period of inefficient operation when the machine starts.
Larger multi-cylinder reciprocating compressors commonly reduce output by disabling
(“unloading”) individual cylinders. When the load falls to the point that even one cylinder provides
too much capacity, the machine turns off. Several methods of cylinder unloading are used, and they
differ in efficiency. The most common is holding open the intake valves of the unloaded cylinders.
This eliminates most of the work of compression, but a small amount of power is still wasted in
pumping refrigerant gas to-and-fro through the unloaded cylinders. Another method is blocking gas
flow to the unloaded cylinders, which is called “suction cutoff.”
Variable-speed drives can be used with reciprocating compressors, eliminating the
complications of cylinder unloading. This method is gaining popularity with the drastic reduction in
costs of variable speed drives.
Screw Compressors
Screw compressors, sometimes called “helical rotary” compres-
sors, compress refrigerant by trapping it in the “threads” of a rotat-
ing screw-shaped rotor (see Figure 4.6). Screw compressors have
increasingly taken over from reciprocating compressors of medium
sizes and large sizes, and they have even entered the size domain of
Figure 4.6 Screw Compressor
centrifugal machines. Screw compressors are applicable to refrig-
erants that have higher condensing pressures, such as HCFC-22
and ammonia. They are especially compact. A variety of methods are used to control the output of
screw compressors. There are major efficiency differences among the different methods. The most
common is a slide valve that forms a portion of the housing that surrounds the screws.
Using a variable-speed drive is another method of capacity control. It is limited to oil-injected
compressors, because slowing the speed of a dry compressor would allow excessive internal leakage.
There are other methods of reducing capacity, such as suction throttling that are inherently less
efficient than the previous two.
Scroll Compressors
The scroll compressor is an old invention that has finally come
to the market. The gas is compressed between two scroll-shaped
vanes. One of the vanes is fixed, and the other moves within it.
The moving vane does not rotate, but its center revolves with
respect to the center of the fixed vane, as shown in Figure 4.7.
This motion squeezes the refrigerant gas along a spiral path,
from the outside of the vanes toward the center, where the dis-
charge port is located. The compressor has only two moving
parts, the moving vane and a shaft with an off-center crank to
drive the moving vane. Scroll compressors have only recently
become practical, because close machining tolerances are need-
ed to prevent leakage between the vanes, and between the vanes
and the casing. Figure 4.7 Scroll Compressor
The features of various refrigeration compressors and application criteria are given in the Table 4.3.
76
TABLE 4.3 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFRIGERATION PLANTS
77
78
79
4.5 Selection of a Suitable Refrigeration System

A clear understanding of the cooling load to be met is the first and most important part of design-
ing / selecting the components of a refrigeration system. Important factors to be considered in quan-
tifying the load are the actual cooling need, heat (cool) leaks, and internal heat sources (from all
heat generating equipment). Consideration should also be given to process changes and / or
changes in ambient conditions that might affect the load in the future. Reducing the load, e.g.
through better insulation, maintaining as high a cooling temperature as practical, etc. is the first step
toward minimizing electrical power required to meet refrigeration needs. With a quantitative
understanding of the required temperatures and the maximum, minimum, and average expected
cooling demands, selection of appropriate refrigeration system (single-stage / multi-stage, econo-
mized compression, compound / cascade operation, direct cooling / secondary coolants) and equip-
ment (type of refrigerant, compressor, evaporator, condenser, etc.) can be undertaken.
4.6 Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants

● The cooling effect produced is quantified as tons of refrigeration.(TR).
1 TR of refrigeration = 3024 kCal/hr heat rejected.
● The refrigeration TR is assessed as TR = Q x C p x (Ti - To) / 3024
Where Q is mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr
Cp is coolant specific heat in kCal /kg deg C
Ti is inlet, temperature of coolant to evaporator (chiller) in °C
To is outlet temperature of coolant from evaporator (chiller) in °C.
The above TR is also called as chiller tonnage.
● The specific power consumption kW/TR is a useful indicator of the performance of
refrigeration system. By measuring refrigeration duty performed in TR and the
kiloWatt inputs, kW/TR is used as a reference energy performance indicator.
● In a centralized chilled water system, apart from the compressor unit, power is also
consumed by the chilled water (secondary) coolant pump as well condenser water
(for heat rejection to cooling tower) pump and cooling tower fan in the cooling tower.
Effectively, the overall energy consumption would be towards:
- Compressor kW
- Chilled water pump kW
- Condenser water pump kW
- Cooling tower fan kW, for induced / forced draft towers
● The specific power consumption for certain TR output would therefore have to include:
Compressor kW/TR
Chilled water pump kW/TR
Condenser water pump kW/TR
Cooling tower fan kW/TR
The overall kW/TR is the sum of the above.
80
The theoretical Coefficient of Performance (Carnot), COP Carnot - a standard measure of

refrigeration efficiency of an ideal refrigeration system- depends on two key system tempera-
tures, namely, evaporator temperature Te and condenser temperature Tc with COP being given
as:
COPCarnot = Te / (Tc - Te)
This expression also indicates that higher COP Carnot is achieved with higher evaporator
temperature and lower condenser temperature.
But COPCarnot is only a ratio of temperatures, and hence does not take into account the type of
compressor. Hence the COP normally used in the industry is given by
Cooling effect (kW)

COP =
Power input to compressor (kW)
where the cooling effect is the difference in enthalpy across the evaporator and expressed as
kW. The effect of evaporating and condensing temperatures are given in the Figure 4.8 and
Figure 4.9 below:
Figure 4.8 Effect Of Evaporator Figure 4.9 Effect of Condensing

Temperature On Chiller COP Temperature On Chiller COP
In the field performance assessment, accurate instruments for inlet and outlet chilled water
temperature and condenser water temperature measurement are required, preferably with a least
count of 0.1°C. Flow measurements of chilled water can be made by an ultrasonic flow meter
directly or inferred from pump duty parameters. Adequacy check of chilled water is needed
often and most units are designed for a typical 0.68 m 3/hr per TR (3 gpm/TR) chilled water
flow. Condenser water flow measurement can also be made by a non-contact flow meter direct-
ly or inferred from pump duty parameters. Adequacy check of condenser water is also needed
often, and most units are designed for a typical 0.91 m 3/hr per TR (4 gpm / TR) condenser water
flow.
In case of air conditioning units, the airflow at the Fan Coil Units (FCU) or the Air Handling
Units (AHU) can be measured with an anemometer. Dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are
81
measured at the inlet and outlet of AHU or the FCU and the refrigeration load in TR is assessed
as ;
Q × ρ × (hin - hout)
TR =
3024
Where, Q is the air flow in m3/h

ρ is density of air kg/m3
hin is enthalpy of inlet air kCal/kg
hout is enthalpy of outlet air kCal/kg
Use of psychometric charts can help to calculate h in and hout from dry bulb, wet bulb
temperature values which are, in-turn measured, during trials, by a whirling psychrometer.
Power measurements at, compressor, pumps, AHU fans, cooling tower fans can be
accom-plished by a portable load analyzer.
Estimation of air conditioning load is also possible by calculating various heat loads, sensible
and latent based on inlet and outlet air parameters, air ingress factors, air flow, no. of people and
type of materials stored.
An indicative TR load profile for air conditioning is presented as follows:
Small office cabins = 0.1 TR /m2
Medium size office i.e., = 0.06 TR/ m2
10 - 30 people occupancy
with central A/C
Large multistoried office = 0.04 TR/ m2
complexes with central A/C
Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)
Although the kW/ TR can serve as an initial reference, it should not be taken as an absolute
since this value is derived from 100% of the equipment's capacity level and is based on
design conditions that are considered the most critical. These conditions occur may be, for
example, during only 1% of the total time the equipment is in operation throughout the year.
Consequently, it is essential to have data that reflects how the equipment operates with par-
tial loads or in conditions that demand less than 100% of its capacity. To overcome this, an
average of kW/TR with partial loads ie Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) have to be
formulated.
The IPLV is the most appropriate reference, although not considered the best, because it
only captures four points within the operational cycle: 100%, 75%, 50% and 25%.
Furthermore, it assigns the same weight to each value, and most equipment usually operates at
between 50 % and 75% of its capacity. This is why it is so important to prepare specific analysis
for each case that addresses the four points already mentioned, as well as developing a profile of
the heat exchanger's operations during the year.
82
4.7 Factors Affecting Performance & Energy Efficiency of Refrigeration

Plants
Design of Process Heat Exchangers

There is a tendency of the process group to operate with high safety margins which influences
the compressor suction pressure / evaporator set point. For instance, a process cooling require-
ment of 15°C would need chilled water at a lower temperature, but the range can vary from 6°C
to say 10°C. At 10°C chilled water temperature, the refrigerant side temperature has to be
lower, say -5°C to +5°C. The refrigerant temperature, again sets the corresponding suction
pressure of refrigerant which decides the inlet duty conditions for work of compression of the
refrigerant compressor. Having the optimum / minimum driving force (temperature difference)
can, thus, help to achieve highest possible suction pressure at the compressor, thereby leading
to less energy requirement. This requires proper sizing of heat transfer areas of process heat
exchangers and evaporators as well as rationalizing the temperature requirement to highest pos-
sible value. A 1°C raise in evaporator temperature can help to save almost 3 % on power con-
sumption. The TR capacity of the same machine will also increase with the evaporator temper-
ature, as given in Table 4.4.
TABLE 4.4 EFFECT OF VARIATION IN EVAPORATOR TEMPERATURE

ON COMPRESSOR POWER CONSUMPTION
Evaporator Refrigeration Specific Power Increase in

Temperature (°C) Capacity* Consumption kW/ton (%)
(tons)
5.0 67.58 0.81 -
0.0 56.07 0.94 16.0
-5.0 45.98 1.08 33.0
-10.0 37.20 1.25 54.0
-20.0 23.12 1.67 106.0
* Condenser temperature 40°C
Towards rationalizing the heat transfer areas, the heat transfer coefficient on refrigerant side can be
considered to range from 1400 - 2800 watts /m2K.
The refrigerant side heat transfer areas provided are of the order of 0.5 Sqm./TR and above in
evaporators.
Condensers in a refrigeration plant are critical equipment that influence the TR capacity
and power consumption demands. Given a refrigerant, the condensing temperature and cor-
responding condenser pressure, depend upon the heat transfer area provided, effectiveness
of heat exchange and the type of cooling chosen. A lower condensing temperature, pressure,
in best of combinations would mean that the compressor has to work between a lower pres -
sure differential as the discharge pressure is fixed by design and performance of the con-
denser. The choices of condensers in practice range from air cooled, air cooled with water
83
spray, and heat exchanger cooled. Generously sized shell and tube heat exchangers as
condensers, with good cooling tower operations help to operate with low discharge pressure
values and the TR capacity of the refrigeration plant also improves. With same refrigerant,
R22, a discharge pressure of 15 kg/cm2 with water cooled shell and tube condenser and 20
kg/cm2 with air cooled condenser indicate the kind of additional work of compression duty and
almost 30 % additional energy consumption required by the plant. One of the best option at
design stage would be to select generously sized (0.65 m 2/TR and above) shell and tube
condensers with water-cooling as against cheaper alternatives like air cooled con densers or
water spray atmospheric condenser units.
The effect of condenser temperature on refrigeration plant energy requirements is given in
Table 4.5.
TABLE 4.5 EFFECT OF VARIATION IN CONDENSER TEMPERATURE

ON COMPRESSOR POWER CONSUMPTION
Condensing Refrigeration Specific Power Increase in

Temperature (°C) Capacity (tons) Consumption (kW / TR)
kW/TR (%)
26.7 31.5 1.17 -
35.0 21.4 1.27 8.5
40.0 20.0 1.41 20.5
* Reciprocating compressor using R-22 refrigerant.
Evaporator temperature.-10°C
Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces

After ensuring procurement, effective maintenance holds the key to optimizing power con-
sumption.
Heat transfer can also be improved by ensuring proper separation of the lubricating oil and
the refrigerant, timely defrosting of coils, and increasing the velocity of the secondary coolant
(air, water, etc.). However, increased velocity results in larger pressure drops in the distribution
system and higher power consumption in pumps / fans. Therefore, careful analysis is required to
determine the most effective and efficient option.
Fouled condenser tubes force the compressor to work harder to attain the desired capac-
ity. For example, a 0.8 mm scale build-up on condenser tubes can increase energy con-
sumption by as much as 35 %. Similarly, fouled evaporators (due to residual lubricating oil
or infiltration of air) result in increased power consumption. Equally important is proper
selection, sizing, and maintenance of cooling towers. A reduction of 0.55°C temperature in
water returning from the cooling tower reduces compressor power consumption by 3.0 %
(see Table 4.6).
84
TABLE 4.6 EFFECT OF POOR MAINTENANCE ON COMPRESSOR POWER

CONSUMPTION
Condition Evap. Temp Cond. Refrigeration Specific Power Increase in

(°C) Temp Capacity* (tons) Consumption (kW/ton)
(°C) kW/Ton (%)
Normal 7.2 40.5 17.0 0.69 -
Dirty condenser 7.2 46.1 15.6 0.84 20.4
Dirty evaporator 1.7 40.5 13.8 0.82 18.3
Dirty condenser 1.7 46.1 12.7 0.96 38.7
and evaporator
* 15 ton reciprocating compressor based system. The power consumption is lower than that for
systems typically available in India. However, the percentage change in power consumption is
indicative of the effect of poor maintenance.
Multi-Staging For Efficiency

Efficient compressor operation requires that the compression ratio be kept low, to reduce discharge
pressure and temperature. For low temperature applications involving high compression ratios, and
for wide temperature requirements, it is preferable (due to equipment design limitations) and often
economical to employ multi-stage reciprocating machines or centrifugal / screw compressors.
Multi-staging systems are of two-types: compound and cascade - and are applicable to all types
of compressors. With reciprocating or rotary compressors, two-stage compressors are prefer-
able for load temperatures from -20 to -58°C, and with centrifugal machines for temperatures
around -43°C.
In multi-stage operation, a first-stage compressor, sized to meet the cooling load, feeds into
the suction of a second-stage compressor after inter-cooling of the gas. A part of the high-pres-
sure liquid from the condenser is flashed and used for liquid sub-cooling. The second com-
pressor, therefore, has to meet the load of the evaporator and the flash gas. A single refrigerant
is used in the system, and the work of compression is shared equally by the two compressors.
Therefore, two compressors with low compression ratios can in combination provide a high
compression ratio.
For temperatures in the range of -46°C to -101°C, cascaded systems are preferable. In this
system, two separate systems using different refrigerants are connected such that one provides
the means of heat rejection to the other. The chief advantage of this system is that a low
temperature refrigerant which has a high suction temperature and low specific volume can be
selected for the low-stage to meet very low temperature requirements.
Matching Capacity to System Load

During part-load operation, the evaporator temperature rises and the condenser temperature
falls, effectively increasing the COP. But at the same time, deviation from the design operation
point and the fact that mechanical losses form a greater proportion of the total power negate the
effect of improved COP, resulting in lower part-load efficiency.
Therefore, consideration of part-load operation is important, because most refrigeration
applications have varying loads. The load may vary due to variations in temperature and process
85
cooling needs. Matching refrigeration capacity to the load is a difficult exercise, requiring
knowledge of compressor performance, and variations in ambient conditions, and detailed
knowledge of the cooling load.
Capacity Control and Energy Efficiency

The capacity of compressors is controlled in a number of ways. Capacity control of reciprocating
compressors through cylinder unloading results in incremental (step-by-step) modulation as against
continuous capacity modulation of centrifugal through vane control and screw compressors
through sliding valves. Therefore, temperature control requires careful system design. Usually,
when using reciprocating compressors in applications with widely varying loads, it is desirable to
control the compressor by monitoring the return water (or other secondary coolant) temperature
rather than the temperature of the water leaving the chiller. This prevents excessive on-off cycling
or unnecessary loading / unloading of the compressor. However, if load fluctuations are not high,
the temperature of the water leaving the chiller should be monitored. This has the advantage of pre-
venting operation at very low water temperatures, especially when flow reduces at low loads. The
leaving water temperature should be monitored for centrifugal and screw chillers.
Capacity regulation through speed control is the most efficient option. However, when
employing speed control for reciprocating compressors, it should be ensured that the lubrication
system is not affected. In the case of centrifugal compressors, it is usually desirable to restrict
speed control to about 50 % of the capacity to prevent surging. Below 50 %, vane control or hot
gas bypass can be used for capacity modulation.
The efficiency of screw compressors operating at part load is generally higher than either
centrifugal compressors or reciprocating compressors, which may make them attractive in sit-
uations where part-load operation is common. Screw compressor performance can be optimized
by changing the volume ratio. In some cases, this may result in higher full-load efficiencies as
compared to reciprocating and centrifugal compressors. Also, the ability of screw compressors
to tolerate oil and liquid refrigerant slugs makes them preferred in some situations.
Multi-level Refrigeration for Plant Needs

The selection of refrigeration systems also depends on the range of temperatures required in the
plant. For diverse applications requiring a wide range of temperatures, it is generally more eco-
nomical to provide several packaged units (several units distributed throughout the plant)
instead of one large central plant. Another advantage would be the flexibility and reliability
accorded. The selection of packaged units could also be made depending on the distance at
which cooling loads need to be met. Packaged units at load centers reduce distribution losses in
the system. Despite the advantages of packaged units, central plants generally have lower power
consumption since at reduced loads power consumption can reduce significantly due to the
large condenser and evaporator surfaces.
Many industries use a bank of compressors at a central location to meet the load. Usually
the chillers feed into a common header from which branch lines are taken to different locations
in the plant. In such situations, operation at part-load requires extreme care. For efficient oper-
ation, the cooling load, and the load on each chiller must be monitored closely. It is more effi -
cient to operate a single chiller at full load than to operate two chillers at part -load. The distri-
bution system should be designed such that individual chillers can feed all branch lines.
Isolation valves must be provided to ensure that chilled water (or other coolant) does not flow
86
through chillers not in operation. Valves should also be provided on branch lines to isolate
sections where cooling is not required. This reduces pressure drops in the system and reduces
power consumption in the pumping system. Individual compressors should be loaded to their full
capacity before operating the second compressor. In some cases it is economical to provide a
separate smaller capacity chiller, which can be operated on an on-off control to meet peak
demands, with larger chillers meeting the base load.
Flow control is also commonly used to meet varying demands. In such cases the savings in
pumping at reduced flow should be weighed against the reduced heat transfer in coils due to
reduced velocity. In some cases, operation at normal flow rates, with subsequent longer periods of
no-load (or shut-off) operation of the compressor, may result in larger savings.
Chilled Water Storage

Depending on the nature of the load, it is economical to provide a chilled water storage facili-
ty with very good cold insulation. Also, the storage facility can be fully filled to meet the
process requirements so that chillers need not be operated continuously. This system is usually
economical if small variations in temperature are acceptable. This system has the added advan -
tage of allowing the chillers to be operated at periods of low electricity demand to reduce peak
demand charges - Low tariffs offered by some electric utilities for operation at night time can
also be taken advantage of by using a storage facility. An added benefit is that lower ambient
temperature at night lowers condenser temperature and thereby increases the COP.
If temperature variations cannot be tolerated, it may not be economical to provide a storage
facility since the secondary coolant would have to be stored at a temperature much lower than
required to provide for heat gain. The additional cost of cooling to a lower temperature may
offset the benefits. The solutions are case specific. For example, in some cases it may be
possible to employ large heat exchangers, at a lower cost burden than low temperature chiller
operation, to take advantage of the storage facility even when temperature variations are not
acceptable. Ice bank system which store ice rather than water are often economical.
System Design Features

In overall plant design, adoption of good practices improves the energy efficiency significantly.
Some areas for consideration are:
Design of cooling towers with FRP impellers and film fills, PVC drift eliminators, etc.
Use of softened water for condensers in place of raw water.
Use of economic insulation thickness on cold lines, heat exchangers, considering
cost of heat gains and adopting practices like infrared thermography for monitoring
- applicable especially in large chemical / fertilizer / process industry.
Adoption of roof coatings / cooling systems, false ceilings / as applicable, to
minimize refrigeration load.
Adoption of energy efficient heat recovery devices like air to air heat exchangers to
pre-cool the fresh air by indirect heat exchange; control of relative humidity through
indirect heat exchange rather than use of duct heaters after chilling.
Adopting of variable air volume systems; adopting of sun film application for heat
reflection; optimizing lighting loads in the air conditioned areas; optimizing number of
air changes in the air conditioned areas are few other examples.
87
4.8 Energy Saving Opportunities
a) Cold Insulation
Insulate all cold lines / vessels using economic insulation thickness to minimize heat gains; and
choose appropriate (correct) insulation.
b) Building Envelope
Optimise air conditioning volumes by measures such as use of false ceiling and segregation of
critical areas for air conditioning by air curtains.
c) Building Heat Loads Minimisation

Minimise the air conditioning loads by measures such as roof cooling, roof painting, efficient
lighting, pre-cooling of fresh air by air- to-air heat exchangers, variable volume air system, otpi-
mal thermo-static setting of temperature of air conditioned spaces, sun film applications, etc.
e) Process Heat Loads Minimisation

Minimize process heat loads in terms of TR capacity as well as refrigeration level, i.e.,
temperature required, by way of:
i) Flow optimization
ii) Heat transfer area increase to accept higher temperature coolant
iii) Avoiding wastages like heat gains, loss of chilled water, idle flows.
iv) Frequent cleaning / de-scaling of all heat exchangers
f) At the Refrigeration A/C Plant Area
i) Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant components as per manufacturer guide-
lines.
ii) Ensure adequate quantity of chilled water and cooling water flows, avoid bypass flows
by closing valves of idle equipment.
iii) Minimize part load operations by matching loads and plant capacity on line; adopt vari-
able speed drives for varying process load.
iv) Make efforts to continuously optimize condenser and evaporator parameters for mini-
mizing specific energy consumption and maximizing capacity.
v) Adopt VAR system where economics permit as a non-CFC solution.
88
5. DG SET SYSTEM
Syllabus
Diesel Generating system: Factors affecting selection, Energy performance assessment of
diesel conservation avenues
5.1 Introduction
Diesel engine is the prime mover, which drives an alternator to produce electrical energy. In
the diesel engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed to a high ratio (14:1 to
25:1). During this compression, the air is heated to a temperature of 700-900°C. A metered
quantity of diesel fuel is then injected into the cylinder, which ignites spontaneously because
of the high temperature. Hence, the diesel engine is also known as compression ignition (CI)
engine.
DG set can be classified according to cycle type as: two stroke and four stroke. However, the
bulk of IC engines use the four stroke cycle. Let us look at the principle of operation of the
four-stroke diesel engine.
Four Stroke - Diesel Engine

The 4 stroke operations in a diesel engine are: induction stroke, compression stroke, ignition
and power stroke and exhaust stroke.
1st : Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws in
fresh air.
2nd : Compression stroke - while the valves are closed, the air is compressed to a pressure of
up to 25 bar.
3rd : Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the valves are closed (fuel injection
actually starts at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel ignites spontaneously and the
piston is forced downwards by the combustion gases.
4th : Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent
gases from the cylinder.
Figure 5.1 Schematic Diagram of Four-Stroke Diesel Engine
89
Since power is developed during only one stroke, the single cylinder four-stroke engine has
a low degree of uniformity. Smoother running is obtained with multi c ylinder engines because
the cranks are staggered in relation to one another on the crankshaft. There are many variations
of engine configuration, for example. 4 or 6 cylinder, in-line, horizontally opposed, vee or radi-
al configurations.
DG Set as a System
A diesel generating set should be considered as a system since its successful operation depends on
the well-matched performance of the components, namely:
a) The diesel engine and its accessories.
b) The AC Generator.
c) The control systems and switchgear.
d) The foundation and power house civil works.
e) The connected load with its own components like heating, motor drives, lighting etc.
It is necessary to select the components with highest efficiency and operate them at their
optimum efficiency levels to conserve energy in this system.
Fig 5.2 DG Set System
Selection Considerations
To make a decision on the type of engine, which is most suitable for a specific application,
several factors need to be considered. The two most important factors are: power and speed of
the engine.
The power requirement is determined by the maximum load. The engine power rating
should be 10 - 20 % more than the power demand by the end use. This prevents overload-
ing the machine by absorbing extra load during starting of motors or switching of some
types of lighting systems or when wear and tear on the equipment pushes up its power
consumption.
Speed is measured at the output shaft and given in revolutions per minute (RPM). An
engine will operate over a range of speeds, with diesel engines typically running at lower
90
speeds (1300 - 3000 RPM). There will be an optimum speed at which fuel efficiency will be
greatest. Engines should be run as closely as possible to their rated speed to avoid poor
efficiency and to prevent build up of engine deposits due to incomplete combustion - which will
lead to higher maintenance and running costs. To determine the speed requirement of an
engine, one has to again look at the requirement of the load.
For some applications, the speed of the engine is not critical, but for other applications
such as a generator, it is important to get a good speed match. If a good match can be
obtained, direct coupling of engine and generator is possible; if not, then some form of gear-
ing will be necessary - a gearbox or belt system, which will add to the cost and reduce the
efficiency.
There are various other factors that have to be considered, when choosing an engine for
a given application. These include the following: cooling system, abnormal environmental
conditions (dust, dirt, etc.), fuel quality, speed governing (fixed or variable speed), poor
maintenance, control system, starting equipment, drive type, ambient temperature, altitude,
humidity, etc.
Suppliers or manufacturers literature will specify the required information when purchasing
an engine. The efficiency of an engine depends on various factors, for example, load factor
(percentage of full load), engine size, and engine type.
Diesel Generator Captive Power Plants

Diesel engine power plants are most frequently used in small power (captive non-utility)
systems. The main reason for their extensive use is the higher efficiency of the diesel engines
compared with gas turbines and small steam turbines in the output range considered. In
applications requiring low captive power, without much requirement of process steam, the ideal
method of power generation would be by installing diesel generator plants. The fuels burnt in
diesel engines range from light distillates to residual fuel oils. Most frequently used diesel engine
sizes are between the range 4 to 15 MW. For continuous operation, low speed diesel engine is
more cost-effective than high speed diesel engine.
Advantages of adopting Diesel Power Plants are:

■ Low installation cost
■ Short delivery periods and installation period
■ Higher efficiency (as high as 43 - 45 %)
■ More efficient plant performance under part loads
■ Suitable for different type of fuels such as low sulphur heavy stock and heavy fuel oil in
case of large capacities.
■ Minimum cooling water requirements,
■ Adopted with air cooled heat exchanger in areas where water is not available
■ Short start up time
A brief comparison of different types of captive power plants (combined gas turbine and
steam turbine, conventional steam plant and diesel engine power plant) is given in Table 9.1.
It can be seen from the Table that captive diesel plant wins over the other two in terms of
thermal efficiency, capital cost, space requirements, auxiliary power consumption, plant
load factor etc.
91
TABLE 5.1 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAPTIVE POWER PLANT
Description Units Combined Conventional Diesel Engine

GT & ST Steam Plant Power Plants
Thermal Efficiency % 40 - 46 33 - 36 43 - 45
Initial Investment of Rs./kW 8,500 - 10,000 15,000 - 18,000 7,500 - 9,000
Installed Capacity
Space requirement 125 % (Approx.) 250 % (Approx.) 100 % (Approx.)
Construction time Months 24 - 30 42 - 48 12 - 15
Project period Months 30 - 36 52 - 60 12
Auxiliary Power % 2-4 8 - 10 1.3 - 2.1
Consumption
Plant Load Factor kWh/kW 6000 - 7000 5000 - 6000 7200 - 7500
Start up time from cold Minutes About 10 120 - 180 15 - 20
Diesel Engine Power Plant Developments

The diesel engine developments have been steady and
impressive. The specific fuel consumption has come
down from a value of 220 g/kWh in the 1970s to a value
around 160 g/kWh in present times.
Slow speed diesel engine, with its flat fuel consump-
tion curve over a wide load range (50%-100%), compares
very favourably over other prime movers such as medium
speed diesel engine, steam turbines and gas turbines.
With the arrival of modern, high efficiency tur-
bochargers, it is possible to use an exhaust gas driven
turbine generator to further increase the engine rated out-
put. The net result - lower fuel consumption per kWh
and further increase in overall thermal efficiency.
The diesel engine is able to burn the poorest quality
fuel oils, unlike gas turbine, which is able to do so with
only costly fuel treatment equipment. Figure 5.3 Turbocharger
Slow speed dual fuel engines are now available using
high-pressure gas injection, which gives the same thermal efficiency and power output as a regular
fuel oil engine.
5.2 Selection and Installation Factors

Sizing of a Genset:
a) If the DG set is required for 100% standby, then the entire connected load in HP / kVA
should be added. After finding out the diversity factor, the correct capacity of a DG set
can be found out.
92
Example :
Connected Load = 650 kW
Diversity Factor = 0.54
(Demand / connected load)
Max. Demand = 650 x 0.54 = 350 kW
% Loading = 70
Set rating = 350/0.7 = 500 kW
At 0.8 PF, rating = 625 kVA
b) For an existing installation, record the current, voltage and power factors (kWh / kVAh)
reading at the main bus-bar of the system at every half-an-hour interval for a period of 2-3
days and during this period the factory should be having its normal operations. The
non-essential loads should be switched off to find the realistic current taken for running
essential equipment. This will give a fair idea about the current taken from which the
rating of the set can be calculated.
For existing installation:
kVA = √3 V I
kVA Rating = kVA / Load Factor
where Load factor = Average kVA / Maximum kVA
c) For a new installation, an approximate method of estimating the capacity of a DG set is
to add full load currents of all the proposed loads to be run in DG set. Then, applying a
diversity factor depending on the industry, process involved and guidelines obtained
from other similar units, correct capacity can be arrived at.
High Speed Engine or Slow/Medium Speed Engine

The normal accepted definition of high speed engine is 1500 rpm. The high speed sets have been
developed in India, whereas the slow speed engines of higher capacities are often imported. The
other features and comparison between high and medium / slow speed engines are mentioned below:
Factor Slow speed engine High speed engine

Break mean effective pressure - therefore Low High
wear and tear and consumption of spares
Weight to power ratio- therefore sturdiness More Less
and life
Space High Less
Type of use Continuous use Intermittent use
Period between overhauls* 8000 hours 3200
Direct operating cost (includes lubricating Less High
oils, filters etc.
* Typical recommendations from manufacturers
Keeping the above factors and available capacities of DG set in mind, the cost of economics
for both the engines should be worked out before arriving at a decision.
93
Capacity Combinations
From the point of view of space, operation, maintenance and initial capital investment,
it is certainly economical to go in for one large DG set than two or more DG sets in
parallel.
Two or more DG sets running in parallel can be a advantage as only the short-fall in
power-depending upon the extent of power cut prevailing - needs to filled up. Also, flexibility of
operation is increased since one DG set can be stopped, while the other DG set is generating at
least 50% of the power requirement. Another advantage is that one DG set can become 100%
standby during lean and low power-cut periods.
Air Cooling Vs. Water Cooling

The general feeling has been that a water cooled DG set is better than an air cooled set, as most
users are worried about the overheating of engines during summer months. This is to some
extent is true and precautions have to be taken to ensure that the cooling water temperature does not
exceed the prescribed limits. However, from performance and maintenance point of view, water
and air cooled sets are equally good except that proper care should be taken to ensure cross
ventilation so that as much cool air as possible is circulated through the radiator to keep its
cooling water temperature within limits.
While, it may be possible to have air cooled engines in the lower capacities, it will be
necessary to go in for water cooled engines in larger capacities to ensure that the engine does not
get over-heated during summer months.
Safety Features
It is advisable to have short circuit, over load and earth fault protection on all the DG sets.
However, in case of smaller capacity DG sets, this may become uneconomical. Hence, it is
strongly recommended to install a circuit protection. Other safety equipment like high tem -
perature, low lube oil pressure cut-outs should be provided, so that in the event of any of
these abnormalities, the engine would stop and prevent damage. It is also essential to pro-
vide reverse power relay when DG sets are to run in parallel to avoid back feeding from one
alternator to another.
Parallel Operation with Grid

Running the DG set in parallel with the mains from the supply undertakings can be done in con-
sultation with concerned electricity authorities. However, some supply undertakings ask the
consumer to give an undertaking that the DG set will not be run in parallel with their supply.
The reasons stated are that the grid is an infinite bus and paralleling a small capacity DG set
would involve operational risks despite normal protections like reverse power relay, voltage and
frequency relays.
Maximum Single Load on DG Set

The starting current of squirrel cage induction motors is as much as six times the rated current for
a few seconds with direct-on-line starters. In practice, it has been found that the starting current
value should not exceed 200 % of the full load capacity of the alternator. The voltage and
frequency throughout the motor starting interval recovers and reaches rated values usually
much before the motor has picked up full speed.
94
In general, the HP of the largest motor that can be started with direct on line starting is
about 50 % of the kVA rating of the generating set. On the other hand, the capacity of the
induction motor can be increased, if the type of starting is changed over to star delta or to
auto transformer starter, and with this starting the HP of the largest motor can be upto 75 % of
the kVA of Genset.
Unbalanced Load Effects

It is always recommended to have the load as much balanced as possible, since unbalanced
loads can cause heating of the alternator, which may result in unbalanced output voltages. The
maximum unbalanced load between phases should not exceed 10 % of the capacity of the gen -
erating sets.
Neutral Earthing
The electricity rules clearly specify that two independent earths to the body and neutral
should be provided to give adequate protection to the equipment in case of an earth fault,
and also to drain away any leakage of potential from the equipment to the earth for safe
working.
Site Condition Effects on Performance Derating

Site condition with respect to altitude, intake temperature and cooling water temperature derate
diesel engine output as shown in following Tables: 5.2 and 5.3.
TABLE 5.2 ALTITUDE AND INTAKE TEMPERATURE CORRECTIONS
Correction Factors For Engine Output

Altitude Correction Temperature Correction
Altitude Meters Non Super Super Charged Intake °C Correction Factor
over MSL Charged
610 0.980 0.980 32 1.000
915 0.935 0.950 35 0.986
1220 0.895 0.915 38 0.974
1525 0.855 0.882 41 0.962
1830 0.820 0.850 43 0.950
2130 0.780 0.820 46 0.937
2450 0.745 0.790 49 0.925
2750 0.712 0.765 52 0.913
3050 0.680 0.740 54 0.900
3660 0.612 0.685
4270 0.550 0.630
4880 0.494 0.580
95
TABLE 5.3 DERATING DUE TO AIR INTER COOLER
WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
Water Temperature °C Flow % Derating %

25 100 0
30 125 3
35 166 5
40 166 8
5.3 Operational Factors
Load Pattern & DG Set Capacity

The average load can be easily assessed by logging the current drawn at the main switchboard on an
average day. The 'over load' has a different meaning when referred to the D.G. set. Overloads, which
appear insignificant and harmless on electricity board supply, may become detrimental to a D.G.set,
and hence overload on D.G.set should be carefully analysed. Diesel engines are designed for 10%
overload for 1 hour in every 12 hours of operation. The A.C. generators are designed to meet 50%
overload for 15 seconds as specified by standards. The D.G.set/s selection should be such that the
overloads are within the above specified limits. It would be ideal to connect steady loads on DG set
to ensure good performance. Alongside alternator loading, the engine loading in terms of kW or
BHP, needs to be maintained above 50%. Ideally, the engine and alternator loading conditions are
both to be achieved towards high efficiency.
Engine manufacturers offer curves indicating % Engine Loading vs fuel Consumption in
grams/BHP. Optimal engine loading corresponding to best operating point is desirable for ener-
gy efficiency.
Alternators are sized for kVA rating with highest efficiency attainable at a loading of around
70% and more. Manufacturers curves can be referred to for best efficiency point and
corresponding kW and kVA loading values.
Sequencing of Loads
The captive diesel generating set has certain limits in handling the transient loads. This
applies to both kW (as reflected on the engine) and kVA (as reflected on the generator). In this
context, the base load that exists before the application of transient load brings down the
transient load handling capability, and in case of A.C. generators, it increases the transient
voltage dip. Hence, great care is required in sequencing the load on D.G.set/s. It is advisable
to start the load with highest transient kVA first followed by other loads in the descending
order of the starting kVA. This will lead to optimum sizing and better utilisation of transient
load handling capacity of D.G.set.
Load Pattern
In many cases, the load will not be constant throughout the day. If there is substantial variation
in load, then consideration should be given for parallel operation of D.G.sets. In such a situa-
tion, additional D.G. set(s) are to be switched on when load increases. The typical case may be
96
an establishment demanding substantially different powers in first, second and third shifts. By
parallel operation, D.G. sets can be run at optimum operating points or near about, for optimum
fuel consumption and additionally, flexibility is built into the system. This scheme can be also be
applied where loads can be segregated as critical and non-critical loads to provide standby power
to critical load in the captive power system.
Load Characteristics
Some of the load characteristics influence efficient use of D.G.set. These characteristics are
entirely load dependent and cannot be controlled by the D.G.set. The extent of detrimental
influence of these characteristics can be reduced in several cases.
- Power Factor:
The load power factor is entirely dependent on the load. The A.C. generator is designed for the
power factor of 0.8 lag as specified by standards. Lower power factor demands higher
excitation currents and results in increased losses. Over sizing A.C. generators for operation at
lower power factors results in lower operating efficiency and higher costs. The economical
alternative is to provide power factor improvement capacitors.
- Unbalanced Load:
Unbalanced loads on A.C. generator leads to unbalanced set of voltages and additional heating
in A.C. generator. When other connected loads like motor loads are fed with unbalanced set of
voltages additional losses occur in the motors as well. Hence, the load on the A.C.
generators should be balanced as far as possible. Where single phase loads are predominant,
consideration should be given for procuring single phase A.C. generator.
- Transient Loading:
On many occasions to contain transient voltage dip arising due to transient load application,
a specially designed generator may have to be selected. Many times an unstandard
combination of engine and A.C. generator may have to be procured. Such a combination
ensures that the prime mover is not unnecessarily over sized which adds to capital cost and
running cost.
- Special Loads:
Special loads like rectifier / thyristor loads, welding loads, furnace loads need an applica-
tion check. The manufacturer of diesel engine and AC generator should be consulted for
proper recommendation so that desired utilisation of DG set is achieved without any prob -
lem. In certain cases of loads, which are sensitive to voltage, frequency regulation, voltage
wave form, consideration should be given to segregate the loads, and feed it by a dedicated
power supply which usually assumes the form of DG motor driven generator set. Such an
alternative ensures that special design of AC generator is restricted to that portion of the
load which requires high purity rather than increasing the price of the D.G.set by specially
designed AC generator for complete load.
Waste Heat Recovery in DG Sets
A typical energy balance in a DG set indicates following break-up:
97
Input : 100% Thermal Energy
Outputs : 35% Electrical Output
4% Alternator Losses
33% Stack Loss through Flue Gases
24% Coolant Losses
4% Radiation Losses
Among these, stack losses through flue gases or the exhaust flue gas losses on account of
existing flue gas temperature of 350°C to 550°C, constitute the major area of concern towards
operational economy. It would be realistic to assess the Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) potential in
relation to quantity, temperature margin, in kcals/Hour as:
Potential WHR = (kWh Output/Hour) x (8 kg Gases / kWh Output)
x 0.25 kcal/kg°C x (tg - 180°C)
Where, tg is the gas temperature after Turbocharger, (the criteria being that limiting exit gas
temperature cannot be less than 180°C, to avoid acid dew point corrosion), 0.25 being the specific
heat of flue gases and kWh output being the actual average unit generation from the set per hour.
For a 1100 KVA set, at 800 KW loading, and with 480°C exhaust gas temperature, the waste heat
potential works out to:
800 kWh x 8 kg gas generation / kWh output x 0.25 kCal/kg°C
x (480 - 180), i.e., 4,80,000 kCal/hr
While the above method yields only the potential for heat recovery, the actual realisable
potential depends upon various factors and if applied judiciously, a well configured waste heat
recovery system can tremendously boost the economics of captive DG power generation.
The factors affecting Waste Heat Recovery from flue Gases are:
a) DG Set loading, temperature of exhaust gases
b) Hours of operation and
c) Back pressure on the DG set
* Consistent DG set loading (to over 60% of rating) would ensure a reasonable exit flue
gas quantity and temperature. Fluctuations and gross under loading of DG set results in
erratic flue gas quantity and temperature profile at entry to heat recovery unit, thereby
leading to possible cold end corrosion and other problems.
TABLE 5.4 TYPICAL FLUE GAS TEMPERATURE AND FLOW PATTERN IN A 5-MW DG SET
AT VARIOUS LOADS
100% Load 11.84 kgs/Sec 370°C

90% Load 10.80 kgs/Sec 350°C
70% Load 9.08 kgs/Sec 330°C
60% Load 7.50 kgs/Sec 325°C
If the normal load is 60%, the flue gas parameters for waste heat recovery unit would be 320°C inlet
temperature, 180°C outlet temperature and 27180 kgs/Hour gas flow.
At 90% loading, however, values would be 355°C and 32,400 kgs/Hour, respectively
98
Number of hours of operation of the DG Set has an influence on the thermal perfor-
* mance of waste heat Recovery unit. With continuous DG Set operations, cost benefits are
favourable.
Back pressure in the gas path caused by additional pressure drop in waste heat recovery
* unit is another key factor. Generally, the maximum back pressure allowed is around
250-300 mmWC and the heat recovery unit should have a pressure drop lower than that.
Choice of convective waste heat recovery systems with adequate heat transfer area are
known to provide reliable service.
The configuration of heat recovery system and the choice of steam parameters can be
judiciously selected with reference to the specific industry (site) requirements. Much good work
has taken place in Indian Industry regarding waste heat recovery and one interesting
configuration, deployed is installation of waste heat boiler in flue gas path along with a vapour
absorption chiller, to produce 8°C chilled water working on steam from waste heat.
The favourable incentives offered by Government of India for energy efficient equipment
and technologies (100% depreciation at the end of first year), make the waste heat recovery
option. Payback period is only about 2 years
5.4 Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets

Routine energy efficiency assessment of DG sets on shopfloor involves following typical steps:
1) Ensure reliability of all instruments used for trial.
2) Collect technical literature, characteristics, and specifications of the plant.
3) Conduct a 2 hour trial on the DG set, ensuring a steady load, wherein the following mea-
surements are logged at 15 minutes intervals.
a) Fuel consumption (by dip level or by flow meter)
b) Amps, volts, PF, kW, kWh
c) Intake air temperature, Relative Humidity (RH)
d) Intake cooling water temperature
e) Cylinder-wise exhaust temperature (as an indication of engine loading)
f) Turbocharger RPM (as an indication of loading on engine)
g) Charge air pressure (as an indication of engine loading)
h) Cooling water temperature before and after charge air cooler (as an indication of cool -
er performance)
i) Stack gas temperature before and after turbocharger (as an indication of turbocharger
performance)
4) The fuel oil/diesel analysis is referred to from an oil company data.
5) Analysis: The trial data is to be analysed with respect to:
a) Average alternator loading.
b) Average engine loading.
c) Percentage loading on alternator.
d) Percentage loading on engine.
e) Specific power generation kWh/liter.
f) Comments on Turbocharger performance based on RPM and gas temperature differ-
ence.
g) Comments on charge air cooler performance.
99
h) Comments on load distribution among various cylinders (based on exhaust tempera -
ture, the temperature to be ± 5% of mean and high/low values indicate disturbed
condition).
i) Comments on housekeeping issues like drip leakages, insulation, vibrations, etc. A
format as shown in the Table 5.5 is useful for monitoring the performance
TABLE 5.5TYPICAL FORMAT FOR DG SET MONITORING
DG Electricity Derated Type of Average Specific Specific

Set Generating Electricity Fuel Load as % Fuel Cons. Lube Oil
No. Capacity Generating used of Derated Lit/kWh Cons.
(Site), kW Capacity, kW Capacity Lit/kWh
1. 480 300 LDO 89 0.335 0.007
2. 480 300 LDO 110 0.334 0.024
3. 292 230 LDO 84 0.356 0.006
4. 200 160 HSD 89 0.325 0.003
5. 200 160 HSD 106 0.338 0.003
6. 200 160 HSD
7. 292 230 LDO 79 0.339 0.006
8. 292 230 LDO 81 0.362 0.005
9. 292 230 LDO 94 0.342 0.003
10. 292 230 LDO 88 0.335 0.006
11. 292 230 LDO 76 0.335 0.005
12. 292 230 LDO 69 0.353 0.006
13 400 320 HSD 75 0.334 0.004
14. 400 320 HSD 65 0.349 0.004
15. 880 750 LDO 85 0.318 0.007
16. 400 320 HSD 70 0.335 0.004
17. 400 320 HSD 80 0.337 0.004
18. 880 750 LDO 78 0.345 0.007
19. 800 640 HSD 74 0.324 0.002
20. 800 640 HSD 91 0.290 0.002
21. 880 750 LDO 96 0.307 0.002
22. 920 800 LDO 77 0.297 0.002
100
5.5 Energy Saving Measures for DG Sets
a) Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free air at intake (use
of air washers for large sets, in case of dry, hot weather, can be considered).
b) Improve air filtration.
c) Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturers' guidelines/oil com-
pany data.
d) Consider fuel oil additives in case they benefit fuel oil properties for DG set usage.
e) Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.
f) Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.
g) Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations, imbalance in phases, harmonic loads.
h) In case of a base load operation, consider waste heat recovery system adoption for steam
generation or refrigeration chiller unit incorporation. Even the Jacket Cooling Water is
amenable for heat recovery, vapour absorption system adoption.
i) In terms of fuel cost economy, consider partial use of biomass gas for generation. Ensure
tar removal from the gas for improving availability of the engine in the long run.
j) Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for improved loading and fuel economy
thereof.
k) Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set performance, and maintenance planning as
per requirements.
101
6. PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM
Syllabus
Pumps and Pumping System: Types, Performance evaluation, Efficient system
operation, Flow control strategies and energy conservation opportunities
6.1 Pump Types

Pumps come in a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications. They can be classified
according to their basic operating principle as dynamic or displacement pumps. Dynamic
pumps can be sub-classified as centrifugal and special effect pumps. Displacement pumps can be
sub-classified as rotary or reciprocating pumps.
In principle, any liquid can be handled by any of the pump designs. Where different pump
designs could be used, the centrifugal pump is generally the most economical followed by
rotary and reciprocating pumps. Although, positive displacement pumps are generally more
efficient than centrifugal pumps, the benefit of higher efficiency tends to be offset by increased
maintenance costs.
Since, worldwide, centrifugal pumps account for the majority of electricity used by pumps, the
focus of this chapter is on centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump is of a very simple design. The two main parts of the pump are the impeller
and the diffuser. Impeller, which is the only moving part, is attached to a shaft and driven by a
motor. Impellers are generally made of bronze, polycarbonate, cast iron, stainless steel as well as
other materials. The diffuser (also called as volute)
houses the impeller and captures and directs the water off
the impeller.
Water enters the center (eye) of the impeller and exits
the impeller with the help of centrifugal force. As water
leaves the eye of the impeller a low-pressure area is cre-
ated, causing more water to flow into the eye.
Atmospheric pressure and centrifugal force cause this to
happen. Velocity is developed as the water flows through
the impeller spinning at high speed. The water velocity is
collected by the diffuser and converted to pressure by
specially designed passageways that direct the flow to
the discharge of the pump, or to the next impeller should
the pump have a multi-stage configuration.
The pressure (head) that a pump will develop is in Figure 6.1 Centrifugal pump
direct relationship to the impeller diameter, the number
of impellers, the size of impeller eye, and shaft speed. Capacity is determined by the exit width
of the impeller. The head and capacity are the main factors, which affect the horsepower size of
the motor to be used. The more the quantity of water to be pumped, the more energy is required.
102
A centrifugal pump is not positive acting; it will not pump the same volume always. The
greater the depth of the water, the lesser is the flow from the pump. Also, when it pumps against
increasing pressure, the less it will pump. For these reasons it is important to select a centrifugal
pump that is designed to do a particular job.
Since the pump is a dynamic device, it is convenient to consider the pressure in terms of
head i.e. meters of liquid column. The pump generates the same head of liquid whatever the
density of the liquid being pumped. The actual contours of the hydraulic passages of the
impeller and the casing are extremely important, in order to attain the highest efficiency possi -
ble. The standard convention for centrifugal pump is to draw the pump performance curves
showing Flow on the horizontal axis and Head generated on the vertical axis. Efficiency, Power
& NPSH Required (described later), are conventionally shown on the vertical axis, plotted
against Flow, as illustrated in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 Pump Performance Curve
Given the significant amount of electricity attributed to pumping systems, even small
improvements in pumping efficiency could yield very significant savings of electricity. The
pump is among the most inefficient of the components that comprise a pumping system, including
the motor, transmission drive, piping and valves.
Hydraulic power, pump shaft power and electrical input power
Hydraulic power Ph = Q (m3/s) x Total head, hd - hs (m) x ρ (kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000
Where hd - discharge head, hs - suction head, ρ - density of the fluid, g - acceleration due to gravity
Pump shaft power Ps = Hydraulic power, Ph / pump efficiency, ηPump
Electrical input power = Pump shaft power Ps
ηMotor
103
6.2 System Characteristics
In a pumping system, the objective, in most cases, is either to transfer a liquid from a source to a
required destination, e.g. filling a high level reservoir, or to circulate liquid around a system, e.g.
as a means of heat transfer in heat exchanger.
A pressure is needed to make the liquid flow at the required rate and this must overcome
head 'losses' in the system. Losses are of two types: static and friction head.
Static head is simply the difference in height of the supply and destination reservoirs, as in
Figure 6.3. In this illustration, flow velocity in the pipe is assumed to be very small. Another
example of a system with only static head is pumping into a pressurised vessel with short pipe
runs. Static head is independent of flow and graphically would be shown as in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.3 Static Head Figure 6.4 Static Head vs. Flow
Friction head (sometimes called dynamic head loss) is the friction loss, on the liquid being
moved, in pipes, valves and equipment in the system. Friction tables are universally available for
various pipe fittings and valves. These tables show friction loss per 100 feet (or metres) of a spe-
cific pipe size at various flow rates. In case of fittings, friction is stated as an equivalent length
of pipe of the same size. The friction losses are proportional to the square of the flow rate. A
closed loop circulating system without a surface open to atmospheric pressure, would exhibit
only friction losses and would have a system friction head loss vs. flow curve as Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 Friction Head vs. Flow
104
Most systems have a combination of static and friction head and the system curves for two
cases are shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.7. The ratio of static to friction head over the operating range
influences the benefits achievable from variable speed drives which shall be discussed later.
Figure 6.6 System with High Static Head Figure 6.7 System with Low Static Head
Static head is a characteristic of the specific installation and reducing this head where this is
possible, generally helps both the cost of the installation and the cost of pumping the liquid.
Friction head losses must be minimised to reduce pumping cost, but after eliminating unnecessary
pipe fittings and length, further reduction in friction head will require larger diameter pipe, which
adds to installation cost.
6.3 Pump Curves
The performance of a pump can be expressed graphically as head against flow rate. The
centrifugal pump has a curve where the head falls gradually with increasing flow. This is called
the pump characteristic curve (Head - Flow curve) -see Figure 6.8.
Figure 6.8 Head- Flow Curve
105
Pump operating point
When a pump is installed in a system the effect can be illustrated graphically by superimposing
pump and system curves. The operating point will always be where the two curves intersect.
Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9 Pump Operating Point
If the actual system curve is different in reality to that calculated, the pump will operate at a
flow and head different to that expected.
For a centrifugal pump, an increasing system resistance will reduce the flow, eventually to
zero, but the maximum head is limited as shown. Even so, this condition is only acceptable for
a short period without causing problems. An error in the system curve calculation is also likely
to lead to a centrifugal pump selection, which is less than optimal for the actual system head loss-
es. Adding safety margins to the calculated system curve to ensure that a sufficiently large pump
is selected will generally result in installing an oversized pump, which will operate at an exces -
sive flow rate or in a throttled condition, which increases energy usage and reduces pump life.
6.4 Factors Affecting Pump Performance

Matching Pump and System Head-flow Characteristics
Centrifugal pumps are characterized by the relationship between the flow rate (Q) they produce
and the pressure (H) at which the flow is delivered. Pump efficiency varies with flow and
pressure, and it is highest at one particular flow rate.
106
The Figure 6.10 below shows a typical vendor-supplied head-flow curve for a centrifugal
pump. Pump head-flow curves are typically given for clear water. The choice of pump for a
given application depends largely on how the pump head-flow characteristics match the
requirement of the system downstream of the pump.
Figure 6.10 Typical Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve
Effect of over sizing the pump

As mentioned earlier, pressure losses to be overcome by the pumps are function of flow - the
system characteristics - are also quantified in the form of head-flow curves. The system curve
is basically a plot of system resistance i.e. head to be overcome by the pump versus various
flow rates. The system curves change with the physical configuration of the system; for
example, the system curves depends upon height or elevation, diameter and length of piping,
number and type of fittings and pressure drops across various equipment - say a heat
exchanger.
A pump is selected based on how well the pump curve and system head-flow curves match.
The pump operating point is identified as the point, where the system curve crosses the pump
curve when they are superimposed on each other.
107
The Figure 6.11 shows the effect on system curve with throttling.
Figure 6.11 Effect on System Curve with Throttling
In the system under consideration, water has to be first lifted to a height - this represents the
static head.
Then, we make a system curve, considering the friction and pressure drops in the systemthis
is shown as the green curve.
Suppose, we have estimated our operating conditions as 500 m 3/hr flow and 50 m head, we
will chose a pump curve which intersects the system curve (Point A) at the pump's best
efficiency point (BEP).
But, in actual operation, we find that 300 m 3/hr is sufficient. The reduction in flow rate has
to be effected by a throttle valve. In other words, we are introducing an artificial resistance in
the system.
Due to this additional resistance, the frictional part of the system curve increases and thus
the new system curve will shift to the left -this is shown as the red curve.
So the pump has to overcome additional pressure in order to deliver the reduced flow. Now,
the new system curve will intersect the pump curve at point B. The revised parameters are 300
m3/hr at 70 m head. The red double arrow line shows the additional pressure drop due to
throttling.
You may note that the best efficiency point has shifted from 82% to 77% efficiency.
So what we want is to actually operate at point C which is 300 m 3/hr on the original system
curve. The head required at this point is only 42 meters.
What we now need is a new pump which will operate with its best efficiency point at C. But
there are other simpler options rather than replacing the pump. The speed of the pump can be
reduced or the existing impeller can be trimmed (or new lower size impeller). The blue pump
curve represents either of these options.
108
Energy loss in throttling
Consider a case (see Figure 6.12) where we need to pump 68 m 3/hr of water at 47 m head. The
pump characteristic curves (A…E) for a range of pumps are given in the Figure 5.12.
Figure 6.12 Pump Characteristic Curves
109
6.5 Efficient Pumping System Operation
To understand a pumping system, one must realize that all of its components are
interdependent. When examining or designing a pump system, the process demands must first
be established and most energy efficiency solution introduced. For example, does the flow rate
have to be regulated continuously or in steps? Can on-off batch pumping be used? What are the
flow rates needed and how are they distributed in time?
The first step to achieve energy efficiency in pumping system is to target the end-use. A
plant water balance would establish usage pattern and highlight areas where water consumption
can be reduced or optimized. Good water conservation measures, alone, may eliminate the need
for some pumps.
Once flow requirements are optimized, then the pumping system can be analysed for energy
conservation opportunities. Basically this means matching the pump to requirements by
adopting proper flow control strategies. Common symptoms that indicate opportunities for
energy efficiency in pumps are given in the Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1 SYMPTOMS THAT INDICATE POTENTIAL OPPORTUNITY FOR

ENERGY SAVINGS
Symptom Likely Reason Best Solutions

Throttle valve-controlled systems Oversized pump Trim impeller, smaller impeller,
variable speed drive, two speed
drive, lower rpm
Bypass line (partially or Oversized pump Trim impeller, smaller impeller,
completely) open variable speed drive, two speed
drive, lower rpm
Multiple parallel pump system Pump use not Install controls
with the same number of pumps monitored or controlled
always operating
Constant pump operation in a Wrong system design On-off controls
batch environment
High maintenance cost (seals, Pump operated far Match pump capacity with
bearings) away from BEP system requirement
110
Effect of speed variation
As stated above, a centrifugal pump is a dynamic device with the head generated from a rotating
impeller. There is therefore a relationship between impeller peripheral velocity and generated
head. Peripheral velocity is directly related to shaft rotational speed, for a fixed impeller
diameter and so varying the rotational speed has a direct effect on the performance of the pump. All
the parameters shown in fig 6.2 will change if the speed is varied and it is important to have an
appreciation of how these parameters vary in order to safely control a pump at different speeds.
The equations relating rotodynamic pump performance parameters of flow, head and power
absorbed, to speed are known as the Affinity Laws:
Where:
Q = Flow rate
H = Head
P = Power absorbed
N = Rotating speed
Efficiency is essentially independent of speed
Flow: Flow is proportional to the speed
Q1 / Q 2 = N1 / N2
Example: 100 / Q2 = 1750/3500
Q2 = 200 m3/hr
Head: Head is proportional to the square of speed
H1/H2 = (N12) / (N22)

Example: 100 /H2 = 17502 / 35002
H2 = 400 m
Power(kW): Power is proportional to the cube of speed
kW1 / kW2 = (N13) / (N23)

Example: 5/kW2 = 17503 / 35003
kW2 = 40
As can be seen from the above laws, doubling the speed of the centrifugal pump will
increase the power consumption by 8 times. Conversely a small reduction in speed will result in
drastic reduction in power consumption. This forms the basis for energy conservation in
centrifugal pumps with varying flow requirements. The implication of this can be better understood
as shown in an example of a centrifugal pump in Figure 6.13 below.
111
Figure 6.13 Example of Speed Variation Effecting Centrifugal Pump Performance
Points of equal efficiency on the curves for the 3 different speeds are joined to make the iso-
efficiency lines, showing that efficiency remains constant over small changes of speed provid -
ing the pump continues to operate at the same position related to its best efficiency point (BEP).
The affinity laws give a good approximation of how pump performance curves change with
speed but in order to obtain the actual performance of the pump in a system, the system curve also
has to be taken into account.
Effects of impeller diameter change

Changing the impeller diameter gives a proportional change in peripheral velocity, so it follows
that there are equations, similar to the affinity laws, for the variation of performance with
impeller diameter D:
Efficiency varies when the diameter is changed within a particular casing. Note the difference
in iso-efficiency lines in Figure 6.14 compared with Figure 6.13. The relationships shown here
apply to the case for changing only the diameter of an impeller within a fixed casing geometry,
which is a common practice for making small permanent adjustments to the performance of a cen-
trifugal pump. Diameter changes are generally limited to reducing the diameter to about 75% of
the maximum, i.e. a head reduction to about 50%. Beyond this, efficiency and NPSH are badly
affected. However speed change can be used over a wider range without seriously reducing effi-
ciency. For example reducing the speed by 50% typically results in a reduction of efficiency by 1
or 2 percentage points. The reason for the small loss of efficiency with the lower speed is that
112
mechanical losses in seals and bearings, which generally represent <5% of total power, are
proportional to speed, rather than speed cubed. It should be noted that if the change in diameter is
more than about 5%, the accuracy of the squared and cubic relationships can fall off and for precise
calculations, the pump manufacturer's performance curves should be referred to.
Figure 6.14 Example: Impeller Diameter Reduction on Centrifugal Pump Performance
The illustrated curves are typical of most centrifugal pump types. Certain high flow, low
head pumps have performance curve shapes somewhat different and have a reduced operating
region of flows. This requires additional care in matching the pump to the system, when changing
speed and diameter.
Pump suction performance (NPSH)
Liquid entering the impeller eye turns and is split into separate streams by the leading edges of the
impeller vanes, an action which locally drops the pressure below that in the inlet pipe to the pump.
If the incoming liquid is at a pressure with insufficient margin above its vapour pressure,
then vapour cavities or bubbles appear along the impeller vanes just behind the inlet edges. This
phenomenon is known as cavitation and has three undesirable effects:
1) The collapsing cavitation bubbles can erode the vane surface, especially when pumping
water-based liquids.
2) Noise and vibration are increased, with possible shortened seal and bearing life.
3) The cavity areas will initially partially choke the impeller passages and reduce the pump per-
formance. In extreme cases, total loss of pump developed head occurs.
The value, by which the pressure in the pump suction exceeds the liquid vapour pressure, is expressed
as a head of liquid and referred to as Net Positive Suction Head Available - (NPSHA). This is a charac-
teristic of the system design. The value of NPSH needed at the pump suction to prevent the pump from
cavitating is known as NPSH Required - (NPSHR). This is a characteristic of the pump design.
The three undesirable effects of cavitation described above begin at different values of
NPSHA and generally there will be cavitation erosion before there is a noticeable loss of pump
113
head. However for a consistent approach, manufacturers and industry standards, usually define the
onset of cavitation as the value of NPSHR when there is a head drop of 3% compared with the
head with cavitation free performance. At this point cavitation is present and prolonged
operation at this point will usually lead to damage. It is usual therefore to apply a margin
bywhich NPSHA should exceed NPSHR.
As would be expected, the NPSHR increases as the flow through the pump increases, see fig
6.2. In addition, as flow increases in the suction pipework, friction losses also increase, giving a
lower NPSHA at the pump suction, both of which give a greater chance that cavitation will occur.
NPSHR also varies approximately with the square of speed in the same way as pump head and
conversion of NPSHR from one speed to another can be made using the following equations.
Q∝N
NPSHR ∝ N2
It should be noted however that at very low speeds there is a minimum NPSHR plateau,
NPSHR does not tend to zero at zero speed It is therefore essential to carefully consider NPSH in
variable speed pumping.
6.6 Flow Control Strategies
Pump control by varying speed
To understand how speed variation changes the duty point, the pump and system curves are
over-laid. Two systems are considered, one with only friction loss and another where static head
is high in relation to friction head. It will be seen that the benefits are different. In Figure 6.15,
Figure 6.15 Example of the Effect of Pump Speed Change in a System With Only Friction Loss
114
reducing speed in the friction loss system moves the intersection point on the system curve
along a line of constant efficiency. The operating point of the pump, relative to its best effi-
ciency point, remains constant and the pump continues to operate in its ideal region. The affin -
ity laws are obeyed which means that there is a substantial reduction in power absorbed accom-
panying the reduction in flow and head, making variable speed the ideal control method for sys-
tems with friction loss.
In a system where static head is high, as illustrated in Figure 6.16, the operating point for
the pump moves relative to the lines of constant pump efficiency when the speed is changed.
The reduction in flow is no longer proportional to speed. A small turn down in speed could give
a big reduction in flow rate and pump efficiency, which could result in the pump operating in a
region where it could be damaged if it ran for an extended period of time even at the lower
speed. At the lowest speed illustrated, (1184 rpm), the pump does not generate sufficient head
to pump any liquid into the system, i.e. pump efficiency and flow rate are zero and with energy
still being input to the liquid, the pump becomes a water heater and damaging temperatures can
quickly be reached.
Figure 6.16 Example for the Effect of Pump Speed Change with a System with High Static Head.
The drop in pump efficiency during speed reduction in a system with static head, reduces
the economic benefits of variable speed control. There may still be overall benefits but eco-
nomics should be examined on a case-by-case basis. Usually it is advantageous to select the
pump such that the system curve intersects the full speed pump curve to the right of best effi-
ciency, in order that the efficiency will first increase as the speed is reduced and then decrease.
This can extend the useful range of variable speed operation in a system with static head. The
pump manufacturer should be consulted on the safe operating range of the pump.
115
It is relevant to note that flow control by speed regulation is always more efficient than by
control valve. In addition to energy savings there could be other benefits of lower speed. The
hydraulic forces on the impeller, created by the pressure profile inside the pump casing, reduce
approximately with the square of speed. These forces are carried by the pump bearings and so
reducing speed increases bearing life. It can be shown that for a centrifugal pump, bearing life
is inversely proportional to the 7 th power of speed. In addition, vibration and noise are reduced
and seal life is increased providing the duty point remains within the allowable operating range.
The corollary to this is that small increases in the speed of a pump significantly increase
power absorbed, shaft stress and bearing loads. It should be remembered that the pump and
motor must be sized for the maximum speed at which the pump set will operate. At higher speed
the noise and vibration from both pump and motor will increase, although for small increases the
change will be small. If the liquid contains abrasive particles, increasing speed will give a
corresponding increase in surface wear in the pump and pipework.
The effect on the mechanical seal of the change in seal chamber pressure, should be
reviewed with the pump or seal manufacturer, if the speed increase is large. Conventional
mechanical seals operate satisfactorily at very low speeds and generally there is no requirement
for a minimum speed to be specified, however due to their method of operation, gas seals
require a minimum peripheral speed of 5 m/s.
Pumps in parallel switched to meet demand

Another energy efficient method of flow control, particularly for systems where static head is a
high proportion of the total, is to install two or more pumps to operate in parallel. Variation of
flow rate is achieved by switching on and off additional pumps to meet demand. The combined
pump curve is obtained by adding the flow rates at a specific head. The head/flow rate curves for
two and three pumps are shown in Figure 6.17.
Figure 6.17 Typical Head-Flow Curves for Pumps in Parallel
The system curve is usually not affected by the number of pumps that are running. For a
system with a combination of static and friction head loss, it can be seen, in Figure 6.18, that
116
the operating point of the pumps on their performance curves moves to a higher head and hence
lower flow rate per pump, as more pumps are started. It is also apparent that the flow rate with two
pumps running is not double that of a single pump. If the system head were only static, then flow
rate would be proportional to the number of pumps operating.
It is possible to run pumps of different sizes in parallel provided their closed valve heads are
similar. By arranging different combinations of pumps running together, a larger number of
different flow rates can be provided into the system.
Care must be taken when running pumps in parallel to ensure that the operating point of the
pump is controlled within the region deemed as acceptable by the manufacturer. It can be seen
from Figure 6.18 that if 1 or 2 pumps were stopped then the remaining pump(s) would operate
well out along the curve where NPSH is higher and vibration level increased, giving an
increased risk of operating problems.
Figure 6.18 Typical Head-Flow Curves for Pumps in Parallel, With System Curve Illustrated.
Stop/start control
In this control method, the flow is controlled by switching pumps on or off. It is necessary to
have a storage capacity in the system e.g. a wet well, an elevated tank or an accumulator type
pressure vessel. The storage can provide a steady flow to the system with an intermittent oper -
ating pump. When the pump runs, it does so at the chosen (presumably optimum) duty point and
when it is off, there is no energy consumption. If intermittent flow, stop/start operation and the
storage facility are acceptable, this is an effective approach to minimise energy consumption.
The stop/start operation causes additional loads on the power transmission components and
increased heating in the motor. The frequency of the stop/start cycle should be within the motor
design criteria and checked with the pump manufacturer.
It may also be used to benefit from "off peak" energy tariffs by arranging the run times during
the low tariff periods.
To minimise energy consumption with stop start control it is better to pump at as low flow
rate as the process permits. This minimises friction losses in the pipe and an appropriately small
pump can be installed. For example, pumping at half the flow rate for twice as long can reduce
energy consumption to a quarter.
117
Flow control valve
With this control method, the pump runs continuously and a valve in the pump discharge line is
opened or closed to adjust the flow to the required value.
Figure 6.19 Control of Pump Flow by Changing System Resistance Using a Valve.
To understand how the flow rate is controlled, see Figure 6.19. With the valve fully open, the
pump operates at "Flow 1". When the valve is partially closed it introduces an additional
friction loss in the system, which is proportional to flow squared. The new system curve cuts the
pump curve at "Flow 2", which is the new operating point. The head difference between the two
curves is the pressure drop across the valve.
It is usual practice with valve control to have the valve 10% shut even at maximum flow.
Energy is therefore wasted overcoming the resistance through the valve at all flow conditions.
There is some reduction in pump power absorbed at the lower flow rate (see Figure 6.19), but
the flow multiplied by the head drop across the valve, is wasted energy. It should also be noted
that, while the pump will accommodate changes in its operating point as far as it is able within
its performance range, it can be forced to operate high on the curve, where its efficiency is low,
and its reliability is affected.
Maintenance cost of control valves can be high, particularly on corrosive and solids-con-
taining liquids. Therefore, the lifetime cost could be unnecessarily high.
By-pass control
With this control approach, the pump runs continuously at the maximum process demand duty,
with a permanent by-pass line attached to the outlet. When a lower flow is required the surplus
liquid is bypassed and returned to the supply source.
An alternative configuration may have a tank supplying a varying process demand, which
is kept full by a fixed duty pump running at the peak flow rate. Most of the time the tank over-
118
flows and recycles back to the pump suction. This is even less energy efficient than a control
valve because there is no reduction in power consumption with reduced process demand.
The small by-pass line sometimes installed to prevent a pump running at zero flow is not a
means of flow control, but required for the safe operation of the pump.
xed Flow reduction
Impeller trimming
Impeller trimming refers to the process
of machining the diameter of an
impeller to reduce the energy added to
the system fluid.
Impeller trimming offers a useful
correction to pumps that, through over-
ly conservative design practices or
changes in system loads are oversized
for their application.
Trimming an impeller provides a
level of correction below buying a
smaller impeller from the pump manu-
facturer. But in many cases, the next
smaller size impeller is too small for the
pump load. Also, smaller impellers may Figure 6.20 Before Impeller trimming
not be available for the pump size in
question and impeller trimming is the
only practical alternative short of
replacing the entire pump/motor assem-
bly. (see Figures 6.20 & 6.21 for before
and after impeller trimming).
Impeller trimming reduces tip
speed, which in turn directly lowers the
amount of energy imparted to the sys-
tem fluid and lowers both the flow and
pressure generated by the pump.
The Affinity Laws, which describe
centrifugal pump performance, provide
a theoretical relationship between
impeller size and pump output (assum- Figure 6.21 After Impeller Trimming
ing constant pump speed):
Where:
Q = flow
H = head
BHP = brake horsepower of the pump motor
Subscript 1 = original pump,
Subscript 2 = pump after impeller trimming D
= Diameter
119
Trimming an impeller changes its operating efficiency, and the non-linearities of the
Affinity Laws with respect to impeller machining complicate the prediction of pump perfor-
mance. Consequently, impeller diameters are rarely reduced below 70 percent of their original
size.
Meeting variable flow reduction

Variable Speed Drives (VSDs)
In contrast, pump speed adjustments provide the most efficient means of controlling pump flow.
By reducing pump speed, less energy is imparted to the fluid and less energy needs to be throttled
or bypassed. There are two primary methods of reducing pump speed: multiple-speed pump motors
and variable speed drives (VSDs).
Although both directly control pump output, multiple-speed motors and VSDs serve
entirely separate applications. Multiple-speed motors contain a different set of windings for
each motor speed; consequently, they are more expensive and less efficient than single speed
motors. Multiple speed motors also lack subtle speed changing capabilities within discrete
speeds.
VSDs allow pump speed adjustments over a continuous range, avoiding the need to jump
from speed to speed as with multiple-speed pumps. VSDs control pump speeds using several
different types of mechanical and electrical systems. Mechanical VSDs include hydraulic
clutches, fluid couplings, and adjustable
belts and pulleys. Electrical VSDs
include eddy current clutches, wound-
rotor motor controllers, and variable fre-
quency drives (VFDs). VFDs adjust the
electrical frequency of the power sup-
plied to a motor to change the motor's
rotational speed. VFDs are by far the
most popular type of VSD.
However, pump speed adjustment is
not appropriate for all systems. In appli-
cations with high static head, slowing a
pump risks inducing vibrations and cre-
ating performance problems that are
similar to those found when a pump
operates against its shutoff head. For
systems in which the static head repre- Figure 6.22 Effect of VFD
120
sents a large portion of the total head, caution should be used in deciding whether to use VFDs.
Operators should review the performance of VFDs in similar applications and consult VFD
manufacturers to avoid the damage that can result when a pump operates too slowly against
high static head.
For many systems, VFDs offer a means to improve pump operating efficiency despite
changes in operating conditions. The effect of slowing pump speed on pump operation is
illustrated by the three curves in Figure 5.22. When a VFD slows a pump, its head/flow and brake
horsepower (BHP) curves drop down and to the left and its efficiency curve shifts to the left.
This efficiency response provides an essential cost advantage; by keeping the operating
efficiency as high as possible across variations in the system's flow demand, the energy and
maintenance costs of the pump can be significantly reduced.
VFDs may offer operating cost reductions by allowing higher pump operating efficiency, but
the principal savings derive from the reduction in frictional or bypass flow losses. Using a system
perspective to identify areas in which fluid energy is dissipated in non-useful work often reveals
opportunities for operating cost reductions.
For example, in many systems, increasing flow through bypass lines does not noticeably
impact the backpressure on a pump. Consequently, in these applications pump efficiency does
not necessarily decline during periods of low flow demand. By analyzing the entire system,
however, the energy lost in pushing fluid through bypass lines and across throttle valves can be
identified.
Another system benefit of VFDs is a soft start capability. During startup, most motors
experience in-rush currents that are 5 - 6 times higher than normal operating currents. This high
current fades when the motor spins up to normal speed. VFDs allow the motor to be started with a
lower startup current (usually only about 1.5 times the normal operating current). This reduces
wear on the motor and its controller.
6.7 Energy Conservation Opportunities in Pumping Systems

■ Ensure adequate NPSH at site of installation
■ Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like pressure gauges, flow meters.
■ Operate pumps near best efficiency point.
■ Modify pumping system and pumps losses to minimize throttling.
■ Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced control of multiple
units.
■ Stop running multiple pumps - add an auto-start for an on-line spare or add a booster pump in
the problem area.
■ Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures.
■ Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce pumping rates in case of heat
exchangers.
■ Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by dripping.
■ Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements. Avoid
■ pumping head with a free-fall return (gravity); Use siphon effect to advantage: Conduct
■ water balance to minimise water consumption
■ Avoid cooling water re-circulation in DG sets, air compressors, refrigeration systems,
cooling towers feed water pumps, condenser pumps and process pumps.
121
■ In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation of pumps to avoid throttling
■ Provide booster pump for few areas of higher head
■ Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps
■ In the case of over designed pump, provide variable speed drive, or downsize / replace
impeller or replace with correct sized pump for efficient operation.
■ Optimise number of stages in multi-stage pump in case of head margins
■ Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment and pipe size optimisation
122
7. LIGHTING SYSTEM
Syllabus
Lighting System: Light source, Choice of lighting, Luminance requirements, and Energy
conservation avenues
7.1 Introduction
Lighting is an essential service in all the industries. The power consumption by the industrial
lighting varies between 2 to 10% of the total power depending on the type of industry.
Innovation and continuous improvement in the field of lighting, has given rise to tremendous
energy saving opportunities in this area.
Lighting is an area, which provides a major scope to achieve energy efficiency at the design
stage, by incorporation of modern energy efficient lamps, luminaires and gears, apart from good
operational practices.
7.2 Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features

Lamps
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are described
briefly as follows:
• Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by
the flow of electric current through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also
known as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas
and the cap.
• Reflector lamps:
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror, which
follows exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus
making the lamp maintenance free and output efficient.
• Gas discharge lamps:

The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in either a
tubular or elliptical outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
• Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)
• Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
• Mercury Vapour Lamps
• Sodium Vapour Lamps
• Metal Halide Lamps
123
7. Lighting System
Luminaire
Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light emitted from one or
more lamps. The luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and protecting the
lamps, except the lamps themselves. In some cases, luminaires also include the necessary
circuit auxiliaries, together with the means for connecting them to the electric supply. The
basic physical principles used in optical luminaire are reflection, absorption, transmission
and refraction.
Control Gear
The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:
• Ballast:
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any discharge lamps. In
case of fluorescent lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting.
• Ignitors:
These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium vapour lamps.
Illuminance
This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a point of
surface containing the point, by the area of that element.
The lighting level produced by a lighting installation is usually qualified by the
illuminance produced on a specified plane. In most cases, this plane is the major plane
of the tasks in the interior and is commonly called the working plane. The illuminance
provided by an installation affects both the performance of the tasks and the appearance of
the space.
Lux (lx)
This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lumen, uniformly distributed over a
surface area of one square metre. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the lamp. It is a
reflection of efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light form.
Colour Rendering Index (RI)

Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given light source
confirm to those of the same surfaces under a reference illuminent; suitable allowance having
been made for the state of Chromatic adaptation.
7.3 Lamp Types and their Features

The Table 7.1 shows the various types of lamp available along with their features.
124
7. Lighting System
TABLE 7.1 LUMINOUS PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMONLY USED

LUMINARIES
Lumens / Watt Color Typical
Type of Lamp Range Avg. Rendering Typical Application Life
Index (hours)
Incandescent 8-18 14 Excellent Homes, restaurants, 1000
general lighting,
emergency lighting
Fluorescent Lamps 46-60 50 Good w.r.t. Offices, shops, 5000
coating hospitals, homes
Compact fluorescent 40-70 60 Very good Hotels, shops, 8000-10000
lamps (CFL) homes, offices
High pressure 44-57 50 Fair General lighting in 5000
mercury (HPMV) factories, garages,
car parking, flood
lighting
Halogen lamps 18-24 20 Excellent Display, flood 2000-4000
lighting, stadium
exhibition grounds,
construction areas
High pressure sodium 67-121 90 Fair General lighting 6000-12000
(HPSV) SON in factories, ware
houses, street
lighting
Low pressure sodium 101-175 150 Poor Roadways, tunnels, 6000-12000
(LPSV) SOX canals, street lighting
7.4 Recommended Illuminance Levels for Various

Tasks / Activities / Locations
Recommendations on Illuminance
Scale of Illuminance: The minimum illuminance for all non-working interiors, has been
mentioned as 20 Lux (as per IS 3646). A factor of approximately 1.5
represents the smallest significant difference in subjective effect of
illuminance. Therefore, the following scale of illuminances is
recommended.
20-30-50-75-100-150-200-300-500-750-1000-1500-2000, … Lux
Illuminance ranges: Because circumstances may be significantly different for different

interiors used for the same application or for different conditions for
the same kind of activity, a range of illuminances is recommended
for each type of interior or activity intended of a single value of
illuminance. Each range consists of three successive steps of the
recommended scale of illuminances. For working interiors the
125
7. Lighting System
middle value (R) of each range represents the recommended service

illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the factors
mentioned below apply.
The higher value (H) of the range should be used at exceptional cases where low
reflectances or contrasts are present in the task, errors are costly to rectify, visual work is critical,
accuracy or higher productivity is of great importance and the visual capacity of the worker makes
it necessary.
Similarly, lower value (L) of the range may be used when reflectances or contrasts are
unusually high, speed & accuracy is not important and the task is executed only occasionally.
Recommended Illumination
The following Table gives the recommended illuminance range for different tasks and activities for
chemical sector. The values are related to the visual requirements of the task, to user's
satisfaction, to practical experience and to the need for cost effective use of energy.(Source IS
3646 (Part I) : 1992).
For recommended illumination in other sectors, reader may refer Illuminating Engineers
Society Recommendations Handbook/
Chemicals
Petroleum, Chemical and Petrochemical works
Exterior walkways, platforms, stairs and ladders 30-50-100
Exterior pump and valve areas 50-100-150
Pump and compressor houses 100-150-200
Process plant with remote control 30-50-100
Process plant requiring occasional manual intervention 50-100-150
Permanently occupied work stations in process plant 150-200-300
Control rooms for process plant 200-300-500
Pharmaceuticals Manufacturer and Fine chemicals
manufacturer
Pharmaceutical manufacturer
Grinding, granulating, mixing, drying, tableting, s 300-500-750
terilising, washing, preparation of solutions, filling,
capping, wrapping, hardening
Fine chemical manufacturers
Exterior walkways, platforms, stairs and ladders 30-50-100
Process plant 50-100-150
Fine chemical finishing 300-500-750
Inspection 300-500-750
Soap manufacture
General area 200-300-500
Automatic processes 100-200-300
Control panels 200-300-500
Machines 200-300-500
126
7. Lighting System
Paint works
General 200-300-500
Automatic processes 150-200-300
Control panels 200-300-500
Special batch mixing 500-750-1000
Colour matching 750-100-1500
7.5 Methodology of Lighting System Energy Efficiency Study
A step-by-step approach for assessing energy efficiency of lighting system is given below:
Step-1: Inventorise the Lighting System elements, & transformers in the facility as per
following typical format (Table - 7.2 and 7.3).
TABLE 7.2 DEVICE RATING, POPULATION AND USE PROFILE
S. No. Plant Lighting Rating in Watts Population No. of hours

Location Device & Lamp & Ballast Numbers / Day
Ballast Type
TABLE 7.3 LIGHTING TRANSFORMER / RATING AND POPULATION

PROFILE:
S. No. Plant Lighting Numbers Meter Provisions Available
Location Transformer Installed Volts / Amps / kW / Energy
Rating (kVA)
In case of distribution boards (instead of transformers) being available, fuse ratings may be
inventorised along the above pattern in place of transformer kVA.
Step-2: With the aid of a lux meter, measure and document the lux levels at various plant
locations at working level, as daytime lux and night time lux values alongside the number of
lamps "ON" during measurement.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency 127

7. Lighting System
Step-3: With the aid of portable load analyzer, measure and document the voltage, current,
power factor and power consumption at various input points, namely the distribution boards or the
lighting voltage transformers at the same as that of the lighting level audit.
Step-4: Compare the measured lux values with standard values as reference and identify
locations as under lit and over lit areas.
Step-5: Collect and Analyse the failure rates of lamps, ballasts and the actual life expectancy
levels from the past data.
Step-6: Based on careful assessment and evaluation, bring out improvement options, which
could include :
i) Maximise sunlight use through use of transparent roof sheets, north light roof, etc.
ii) Examine scope for replacements of lamps by more energy efficient lamps, with due
consideration to luminiare, color rendering index, lux level as well as expected life
comparison.
iii) Replace conventional magnetic ballasts by more energy efficient ballasts, with due
consideration to life and power factor apart from watt loss.
iv) Select interior colours for light reflection.
v) Modify layout for optimum lighting.
vi) Providing individual / group controls for lighting for energy efficiency such as:
a. On / off type voltage regulation type (for illuminance control)
b. Group control switches / units
c. Occupancy sensors
d. Photocell controls
e. Timer operated controls
f. Pager operated controls
g. Computerized lighting control programs
vii) Install input voltage regulators / controllers for energy efficiency as well as longer life
expectancy for lamps where higher voltages, fluctuations are expected.
viii) Replace energy efficient displays like LED's in place of lamp type displays in control
panels / instrumentation areas, etc.
7.6 Case Examples
Energy Efficient Replacement Options
The lamp efficacy is the ratio of light output in lumens to power input to lamps in watts.
Over the years development in lamp technology has led to improvements in efficacy
of lamps. However, the low efficacy lamps, such as incandescent bulbs, still constitute
a major share of the lighting load. High efficacy gas discharge lamps suitable for differ-
ent types of applications offer appreciable scope for energy conservation. Typical energy
efficient replacement options, along with the per cent energy saving, are given in Table-
7.4.
128
7. Lighting System
TABLE 7.4 SAVINGS BY USE OF HIGH EFFICACY LAMPS
Lamp type Power saving

Sector
Existing Proposed Watts %
Domestic/Commercial GLS 100 W *CFL 25 W 75 75
Industry GLS 13 W *CFL 9W 4 31
GLS 200 W Blended 160 W 40 20
TL 40 W TLD 36 W 4 10
Industry/Commercial HPMV 250 W HPSV 150 W 100 37
HPMV 400 W HPSV 250 W 150 35
* Wattages of CFL includes energy consumption in ballasts.
Energy Saving Potential in Street Lighting

The energy saving potential, in typical cases of replacement of inefficient lamps with efficient
lamps in street lighting is given in the Table 7.5
TABLE 7.5 SAVING POTENTIAL BY USE OF HIGH

EFFICACY LAMPS FOR STREET LIGHTING
Existing lamp Replaced units Saving
Type W Life Type W Life W %

GLS 200 1000 ML 160 5000 40 7
GLS 300 1000 ML 250 5000 50 17
TL 2 X 40 5000 TL 2 X 36 5000 8 6
HPMV 125 5000 HPSV 70 12000 25 44
HPMV 250 5000 HPSV 150 12000 100 40
HPMV 400 5000 HPSV 250 12000 150 38
7.7 Some Good Practices in Lighting

Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of "Conventional" fluorescent
lamps.
Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent powder
technology. They offer excellent colour rendering properties in addition to the very high lumi -
nous efficacy.
Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in place of incandescent lamps.

Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower wattage
incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/Watt. The aver -
age rated lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times longer than that of a normal incandescent
129
7. Lighting System
lamps. CFL's are highly suitable for places such as Living rooms, Hotel lounges, Bars,
Restaurants, Pathways, Building entrances, Corridors, etc.
Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapour lamps.

Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury &
sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the
choice for colour critical applications where, higher illumination levels are required. These
lamps are highly suitable for applications such as assembly line, inspection areas, painting
shops, etc. It is recommended to install metal halide lamps where colour rendering is more
critical.
Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) lamps for applications where colour
rendering is not critical.
High pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the colour rendering
property of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV lamps for applications
such street lighting, yard lighting, etc.
Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps.

Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication, signaling,
etc. Conventionally filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has got the following dis-
advantages:
• High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)
• Failure of lamps is high (Operating life less than 1,000 hours)
• Very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations Recently, the conventional filament lamps are
being replaced with Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps.
• Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)
• Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power supply.
• Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)
It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.
Light distribution
Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps alone. Efficient
luminaires along with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror-optic
luminaires with a high output ratio and bat-wing light distribution can save energy.
For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are having light distribution characteristics
appropriate for the task interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with a lamp should
ensure that discomfort glare and veiling reflections are minimised. Installation of suitable
luminaires, depends upon the height - Low, Medium & High Bay. Luminaires for high intensity
discharge lamp are classified as follows:
• Low bay, for heights less than 5 metres.
• Medium bay, for heights between 5 - 7 metres.
• High bay, for heights greater than 7 metres.
130
7. Lighting System
System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major role in achieving energy efficiency.
This also varies from application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaires at optimum height
and usage of mirror optic luminaries leads to energy efficiency.
Light Control
The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is "On -Off"
switch. The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operational costs
may be high. This does not provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not
required.
Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduc-
tion in lighting level, when not needed. The following light control systems can be adopted at
design stage:
• Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control

Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.
• Installation of microprocessor based controllers

Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or switching
circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling, which
can take pre-programme commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting
control system uses movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals to the controllers.
• Optimum usage of daylighting

Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in combination with
electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of brightness in visual
environment. Usage of day lighting (in offices/air conditioned halls) will have to be very limited,
because the air conditioning load will increase on account of the increased solar heat dissipation
into the area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable reduction of electric light in the
window zones during certain hours, has to be designed.
• Installation of "exclusive" transformer for lighting

In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the problems faced by the
lighting equipment and the "gears" is due to the "voltage" fluctuations. Hence, the lighting
equipment has to be isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better voltage regulation for
the lighting. This will reduce the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the efficiency
of the lighting system.
• Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder
Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically attractive, servo
stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide stabilized voltage for the
lighting equipment. The performance of "gears" such as chokes, ballasts, will also improved
due to the stabilized voltage.
This set up also provides, the option to optimise the voltage level fed to the lighting feeder.
In many plants, during the non-peaking hours, the voltage levels are on the higher side. During
this period, voltage can be optimised, without any significant drop in the illumination level.
131
7. Lighting System
• Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts

New high frequency (28-32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the
traditional magnetic ballasts:
Energy savings up to 35%
Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load
• Lights instantly
• Improved power factor
• Operates in low voltage load
• Less in weight
• Increases the life of lamp
The advantage of HF electronic ballasts, out weigh the initial investment (higher costs when
compared with conventional ballast). In the past the failure rate of electronic ballast in Indian
Industries was high. Recently, many manufacturers have improved the design of the ballast
leading to drastic improvement in their reliability. The life of the electronic ballast is high
especially when, used in a lighting circuit fitted with a automatic voltage stabiliser.
The Table 7.6 gives the type of luminaire, gear and controls used in different areas of industry.
TABLE 7.6 TYPES OF LUMINAIRE WITH THEIR GEAR AND CONTROLS

USED IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS
Location Source Luminaire Gear Controls
Plant HID/FTL Industrial rail reflector: Conventional/low Manual/electronic
High bay loss electronic
Medium bay ballast
Low bay
Office FTL/CFL FTL/CFL Electronic/low Manual/auto
loss
Yard HID Flood light Suitable Manual
Road HID/PL Street light luminaire Suitable Manual
peripheral
132
8. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF COMPRESSORS
8.1 Introduction
The compressed air system is not only an energy intensive utility but also one of the least energy
efficient. Over a period of time, both performance of compressors and compressed air system
reduces drastically. The causes are many such as poor maintenance, wear and tear etc. All these
lead to additional compressors installations leading to more inefficiencies. A periodic performance
assessment is essential to minimize the cost of compressed air.
8.2 Purpose of the Performance Test

To find out:
• Actual Free Air Delivery (FAD) of the compressor
• Isothermal power required
• Volumetric efficiency
• Specific power requirement
The actual performance of the plant is to be compared with design / standard values for
assessing the plant energy efficiency.
8.3 Performance Terms and Definitions
8.4 Field Testing

8.4.1 Measurement of Free Air Delivery (FAD) by Nozzle method
Principle: If specially shaped nozzle discharge air to the atmosphere from a receiver getting
its supply from a compressor, sonic flow conditions sets in at the nozzle throat for a particular
133
8. Energy Performance Assessment of Compressors
ratio of upstream pressure (receiver) to the downstream pressure (atmospheric) i.e. Mach number
equals one.
When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for a reasonable intervals of time, the
airflow output of the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the
known characteristic of the nozzle.
8.4.2 Arrangement of test equipment
The arrangement of test equipment and measuring device shall confirm to Figure 8.1.
8.4.3 Nozzle Sizes

The following sizes of nozzles are recommended for the range of capacities indicated below:
Flow Nozzle: Flow nozzle with profile as desired in IS 10431:1994 and dimensions
Nozzle size (mm) Capacity (m3/hr)

6 3-9
10 9 - 30
16 27 - 90
22 60 - 170
33 130 - 375
50 300 - 450
80 750 - 2000
125 1800 - 5500
165 3500 - 10000
8.4.4 Measurements and duration of the test.

The compressor is started with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the
flow nozzle. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be equal
to or twice the pressure beyond the throttle. After the system is stabilized the following
measurements are carried out:
• Receiver pressure
• Pressure and temperature before the nozzle
• Pressure drop across the nozzle
• Speed of the compressor
• kW, kWh and amps drawn by the compressor
The above readings are taken for the 40%, 60%, 100% and 110% of discharge pressure values.
Measuring instruments required for test
• Thermometers or Thermocouple
• Pressure gauges or Manometers
• Differential pressure gauges or Manometers
• Standard Nozzle
134
• Psychrometer
• Tachometer/stroboscope
• Electrical demand analyser
8.5 Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method
k : Flow coefficient - as per IS

d : Nozzle diameter M
T1 : Absolute inlet temperature °K
P1 : Absolute inlet pressure kg/cm2
P3 : Absolute Pressure before nozzle kg/cm2
T3 : Absolute temperature before nozzle °K
Ra : Gas constant for air 287.1 J/kg k
P3-P4 : Differential pressure across the nozzle kg/cm2
135
II. Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal power/Input power
Isothermal power(kW) = P1 x Qf x loger

36.7
P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm 2
Qf = Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
III. Specific power consumption = Power consumption ,kW

at rated discharge pressure Free Air Delivered, m3/hr
IV. Volumetric efficiency = Free air delivered m3/min x 100

Compressor displacement, m3/min
Compressor Displacement = π
x D2 x L x S x χ x n
4
D = Cylinder bore, metre
L = Cylinder stroke, metre
S = Compressor speed rpm
χ = 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
8.6 Example
Calculation of Isothermal Efficiency for a Reciprocating Air Compressor.
Step - 1 : Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate
k : Flow coefficient (Assumed as 1)

d : Nozzle diameter : 0.08 metre
P2 : Receiver Pressure - 3.5 kg / cm2 (a)
P1 : Inlet Pressure - 1.04 kg / cm2(a)
T1 : Inlet air temperature 30°C or 303°K
P3 : Pressure before nozzle - 1.08 kg / cm2
T3 : Temperature before the nozzle 40°C or 313°K
P3 - P4 : Pressure drop across the nozzle = 0.036 kg / cm 2
Ra : Gas constant : 287 Joules / kg K
136
Step - 2 : Calculate Isothermal Power Requirement

Isothermal Power (kW) = P1 x Qf x loger
36.7
P1 - Absolute intake pressure = 1.04 kg / cm2 (a)
Qf - Free Air Delivered = 1407.6 m3 / h.
= 3.51 = 3.36
Compression ratio r
1.04
Isothermal Power = 1.04 x 1407.6 x loge3.36 = 48.34 kW
36.7
Step - 3 : Calculate Isothermal Efficiency
Motor input power = 100 kW

Motor and drive efficiency = 86 %
Compressor input power = 86 kW
Isothermal efficiency = Isothermal Power x 100

Compressor input Power
= 48.34 x 100 = 56%

86.0
8.7 Assessment of Specific Power requirement
Specific power consumption = Actual power consumed by the compressor

Measured Free Air Delivery
In the above example the measured flow is 1407.6 m 3/hr and actual power consumption is
100 kW.
Specific power requirement = 100

1407.6
= 0.071 kW/m3/hr
8.8 Measurement of FAD by Pump Up Method

(Note: The following section is a repeat of material provided in the chapter-3 on Compressed Air
System in Book-3.)
137
Another way of determining the Free Air Delivery of the compressor is by Pump Up
Method - also known as receiver filling method. Although this is less accurate, this can be
adopted where the elaborate nozzle method is difficult to be deployed.
Simple method of Capacity Assessment in Shop floor
• Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main
compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing
the receiver outlet.
• Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipeline.
Make sure that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test.
• Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.
• Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P 2 (in the receiver) from ini-
tial pressure P1.
• Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below:
Actual Free air discharge

P2 - P1 V
Q = X Nm3/Minute
P0 T
Where
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm 2 a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm 2a) after bleeding
P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm 2 a)
V = Storage volume in m 3 which includes receiver,
after cooler, and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes
The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is same as the ambient
air temperature, i.e., perfect isothermal compression. In case the actual compressed air temperature
at discharge, say t2°C is higher than ambient air temperature say t1°C (as is usual case), the FAD is
to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).
EXAMPLE
An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final
compressed air temperature is same as the ambient temperature) - Comment?
Piston displacement : 16.88 m3/minute

Theoretical compressor capacity : 14.75 m3/minute @ 7 kg/cm2
Compressor rated rpm 750 : Motor rated rpm : 1445
Receiver Volume : 7.79 m3
Additional hold up volume, i.e.,
pipe / water cooler, etc., is Total : 0.4974 m3
volume : 8.322 m3
138
Initial pressure P1 : 0.5 kg/cm2

Final pressure P2 : 7.03 kg/cm2
Atmospheric pressure P0 : 1.026 kg/cm2,a
Time taken to buildup pressure
from P1 to P2 : 4.021 minutes
(P2 - P1) × Total Volume
Compressor output m3/minute :
Atm. Pressure × Pumpup time
(7.03 - 0.5) × 8.322
: = 13.17 m3/minute
1.026 × 4.021
Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.75 m3/minute rating is 1.577 m3/minute i.e.,
10.69 %, which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further.
139
OF HVAC SYSTEMS
9.1 Introduction
Air conditioning and refrigeration consume significant amount of energy in buildings and in
process industries. The energy consumed in air conditioning and refrigeration systems is sensi -
tive to load changes, seasonal variations, operation and maintenance, ambient conditions etc.
Hence the performance evaluation will have to take into account to the extent possible all these
factors.

The purpose of performance assessment is to verify the performance of a refrigeration system by
using field measurements. The test will measure net cooling capacity (tons of refrigeration) and
energy requirements, at the actual operating conditions. The objective of the test is to estimate the
energy consumption at actual load vis-à-vis design conditions.

Tons of refrigeration (TR): One ton of refrigeration is the amount of cooling obtained by one ton
of ice melting in one day: 3024 kCal/h, 12,000 Btu/h or 3.516 thermal kW.
Net Refrigerating Capacity. A quantity defined as the mass flow rate of the evaporator water
multiplied by the difference in enthalpy of water entering and leaving the cooler, expressed in
kCal/h, tons of Refrigeration.
kW/ton rating: Commonly referred to as efficiency, but actually power input to compressor
motor divided by tons of cooling produced, or kilowatts per ton (kW/ton). Lower kW/ton indicates
higher efficiency.
Coefficient of Performance (COP): Chiller efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling) divided
by Btu input (electric power).
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER): Performance of smaller chillers and rooftop units is
frequently measured in EER rather than kW/ton. EER is calculated by dividing a chiller's cooling
capacity (in Btu/h) by its power input (in watts) at full-load conditions. The higher the EER, the
more efficient the unit.
9.4 Preparatory for Measurements

After establishing that steady-state conditions, three sets of data shall be taken, at a minimum of
five-minute intervals. To minimize the effects of transient conditions, test readings should be
taken as nearly simultaneously.
140
9. Energy Performance Assessment of HVAC Systems
9.5 Procedure
9.5.1 To determine the net refrigeration capacity
The test shall include a measurement of the net heat removed from the water as it passes
through the evaporator by determination of the following:
a. Water flow rate
b. Temperature difference between entering and leaving water
The heat removed from the chilled water is equal to the product of the chilled water flow
rate, the water temperature difference, and the specific heat of the water is defined as
follows
The net refrigeration capacity in tons shall be obtained by the following equation:
The accurate temperature measurement is very vital in refrigeration and air conditioning and
least count should be at least one decimal.
Methods of measuring the flow

In the absence of an on-line flow meter the chilled water flow can be measured by the following
methods
• In case where hot well and cold well are available, the flow can be measured from the tank
level dip or rise by switching off the secondary pump.
• Non invasive method would require a well calibrated ultrasonic flow meter using which
the flow can be measured without disturbing the system
• If the waterside pressure drops are close to the design values, it can be assumed that the
water flow of pump is same as the design rated flow.
9.5.2 Measurement of compressor power

The compressor power can be measured by a portable power analyser which would give reading
directly in kW.
If not, the ampere has to be measured by the available on-line ammeter or by using a tong
tester. The power can then be calculated by assuming a power factor of 0.9
Power (kW) = √3 x V x I x cosφ
141
9.5.3 Performance calculations

The energy efficiency of a chiller is commonly expressed in one of the three following
ratios:
First calculate the kW/ton rating from the measured parameters.
a) kW/ton rating = Measured compressor power, kW

Net refrigeration Capacity (TR)
Use this data to calculate other energy efficiency parameters with the following
relations
COP = 0.293 EER EER = 3.413 COP

kW/Ton = 12 / EER EER = 12 / (kW/Ton)
kW/Ton = 3.516 / COP COP = 3.516 / (kW/Ton)
* Source : American Refrigeration Institute
b) Coefficient of performance (COP) = 3.516

kW/ton rating
c) Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) = 12

kW/ton rating
9.5.4 Performance evaluation of air conditioning systems

For centralized air conditioning systems the air flow at the air handling unit (AHU) can be
measured with an anemometer. The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures can be measured at the
AHU inlet and outlet. The data can be used along with a psychrometric chart (Figure 9.1) to
determine the enthalpy (heat content of air at the AHU inlet and outlet)
142
Heat load (TR) = m x (hin - hout)

4.18 x 3024
m - mass flow rate of air, kg/hr

hin - enthalpy of inlet air at AHU, kJ/kg
hout - enthalpy of outlet air at AHU, kJ/kg
Heat load can also be calculated theoretically by estimating the various heat loads, both sen-
sible and latent, in the air-conditioned room (refer standard air conditioning handbooks). The
difference between these two indicates the losses by way of leakages, unwanted loads, heat
ingress etc.
9.6 Measurements to be Recorded During the Test

All instruments, including gauges and thermometers shall be calibrated over the range of test
readings for the measurement of following parameters.
Evaporator
a. Temperature of water entering evaporator
b. Temperature of water leaving evaporator
c. Chilled water flow rates
d. Evaporator water pressure drop (inlet to outlet)
Compressor
e. Power input to compressor electrical power, kW
9.7 Example
In a brewery chilling system, ethylene glycol is used a secondary refrigerant. The designed
capacity is 40 TR. A test was conducted to find out the operating capacity and energy
performance ratios. The flow was measured by switching off the secondary pump and measuring
the tank level difference in hot well.
Measurements data:
Temperature of ethylene glycol entering evaporator = (-) 1°C

Temperature of ethylene glycol leaving evaporator = (-) 4°C
Ethylene glycol flow rates = 13200 kg/hr
Evaporator ethylene glycol pressure drop (inlet to outlet) = 0.7 kg/cm2
Power input to compressor electrical power, kW = 39.5 kW
Specific heat capacity of ethylene glycol = 2.34 kCal/kg°C
143
144
145
10. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF LIGHTING
SYSTEMS
10.1 Introduction
Lighting is provided in industries, commercial buildings, indoor and outdoor for
providing comfortable working environment. The primary objective is to provide the
required lighting effect for the lowest installed load i.e highest lighting at lowest power
consumption.

Most interior lighting requirements are for meeting average illuminance on a horizontal plane,
either throughout the interior, or in specific areas within the interior combined with general
lighting of lower value.
The purpose of performance test is to calculate the installed efficacy in terms of
lux/watt/m² (existing or design) for general lighting installation. The calculated value can be
compared with the norms for specific types of interior installations for assessing
improvement options.
The installed load efficacy of an existing (or design) lighting installation can be assessed by
carrying out a survey as indicated in the following pages.

Lumen is a unit of light flow or luminous flux. The lumen
rating of a lamp is a measure of the total light output of the
lamp. The most common measurement of light output (or
luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labeled with an
output rating in lumens.
Lux is the metric unit of measure for illuminance of a
surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
Circuit Watts is the total power drawn by lamps and ballasts in a lighting circuit under
assessment.
Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained illuminance provided on a horizontal working
plane per circuit watt with general lighting of an interior. Unit: lux per watt per square metre
(lux/W/m²)
Lamp Circuit Efficacy is the amount of light (lumens) emitted by a lamp for each watt of
power consumed by the lamp circuit, i.e. including control gear losses. This is a more
meaningful measure for those lamps that require control gear. Unit: lumens per circuit
watt (lm/W)
Installed Power Density. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per
square metre of floor area to achieve 100 lux of average maintained illuminance on a horizon-
146
tal working plane with general lighting of an interior. Unit: watts per square metre per 100 lux
(W/m²/100 lux)
100
Installed power density (W/m²/100 lux) = —————————————-
Installed load efficacy (lux/W/m²)
Installed Load Efficacy Ratio (ILER)
= Actual Lux/W/m² Target W/m²/100lux
——————— or ————————
Target Lux/W/m² Actual W/m²/100lux
Average maintained illuminance is the average of lux levels measured at various points in a
defined area.
Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects.
To determine the CRI of a lamp, the color appearances of a set of standard color chips are measured
with special equipment under a reference light source with the same correlated color temperature as
the lamp being evaluated. If the lamp renders the color of the chips identical to the reference light
source, its CRI is 100. If the color rendering differs from the reference light source, the CRI is less
than 100. A low CRI indicates that some colors may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.
10.4 Preparation (before Measurements)
Before starting the measurements, the following care should be taken:
• All lamps should be operating and no luminaires should be dirty or stained.
• There should be no significant obstructions to the flow of light throughout the interior,
especially at the measuring points.
• Accuracies of readings should be ensured by
- Using accurate illuminance meters for measurements
- Sufficient number and arrangement of measurement points within the interior
- Proper positioning of illuminance meter
- Ensuring that no obstructions /reflections from surfaces affect measurement.
• Other precautions
- If the illuminance meter is relatively old and has not been checked recently, it
should be compared with one that has been checked over a range of illuminances,
e.g. 100 to 600 lux, to establish if a correction factor should be applied.
- that the number and arrangement of measurement points are sufficient and
suitable to obtain a reasonably accurate assessment of the average illuminance
throughout an interior. The procedure recommended in the CIBSE Code for
such site measurements is as follows:
The interior is divided into a number of equal areas, which should be as square as possible. The
illuminance at the centre of each area is measured and the mean value calculated. This gives an
estimate of the average illuminance on the horizontal working plane.
147
10.5 Procedure for Assessment of Lighting Systems
10.5.1 To Determine the Minimum Number and Positions of Measurement Points
Calculate the Room Index: RI = LxW

————-
Hm(L + W)
Where L = length of interior; W = width of interior; Hm = the mounting height, which is

the height of the lighting fittings above the horizontal working plane. The working plane is
usually assumed to be 0.75m above the floor in offices and at 0.85m above floor level in
manufacturing areas.
It does not matter whether these dimensions are in metres, yards or feet as long as the
same unit is used throughout. Ascertain the minimum number of measurement points from
Table10.1.
TABLE 10.1 DETERMINATION OF

MEASUREMENT POINTS
Room Index Minimum number of

measurement points
Below 1 9
1 and below 2 16
2 and below 3 25
3 and above 36
To obtain an approximately "square array", i.e. the spacing between the points on
each axis to be approximately the same, it may be necessary to increase the number of
points.
For example, the dimensions of an interior are:
Length = 9m, Width = 5m, Height of luminaires above working plane (Hm) = 2m
Calculate RI = 9 x 5 = 1.607
2(9 + 5)
From Table 10.1 the minimum number of measurement points is 16

As it is not possible to approximate a "square array" of 16 points within such a rectangle it
is necessary to increase the number of points to say 18, i.e. 6 x 3. These should be spaced as
shown below:
148
Therefore in this example the spacing between points along rows along the length of the
interior = 9 ÷ 6 = 1.5m and the distance of the 'end' points from the wall = 1.5 ÷ 2 = 0.75m.
Similarly the distance between points across the width of the interior = 5 ÷ 3 = 1.67m with
half this value, 0.83m, between the 'end' points and the walls.
If the grid of the measurement points coincides with that of the lighting fittings, large errors
are possible and the number of measurement points should be increased to avoid such an
occurrence.
10.5.2 Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load Efficacy Ratio of a
General Lighting Installation in an Interior
STEP 1 Measure the floor area of the interior: Area = -------------------- m²

STEP 2 Calculate the Room Index RI = -----------------------
STEP 3 Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power Total circuit watts = --------
meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual
value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by
totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts:
STEP 4 Calculate Watts per square metre, Value of step 3 ÷ value of step 1 W/m² = ----------------------
STEP 5 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance by

using lux meter, Eav. Maintained Eav.maint. = ----------------
STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate lux per watt per square Metre Lux/W/m² = ---------------
STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m² lux for type of the type of
interior/application and RI (2): Target Lux/W/m² =
STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 ÷ 7 ). ILER =
149
TABLE 10.2 Target lux/W/m² (W/m²/100lux) values for
maintained illuminance on horizontal
plane for all room indices and applica-
tions:
Ra : Colour rendering index
The principal difference between the targets for Commercial and Industrial Ra: 40-85
(Cols.2 & 3) of Table 10.2 is the provision for a slightly lower maintenance factor for the latter.
The targets for very clean industrial applications, with Ra: of 40 -85, are as column 2.
10.5.3 ILER Assessment

Compare the calculated ILER with the information in Table 10.3.
TABLE 10.3 INDICATORS OF

PERFORMANCE
ILER Assessment
0.75 or over Satisfactory to Good
0.51 - 0.74 Review suggested
0.5 or less Urgent action required
ILER Ratios of 0.75 or more may be considered to be satisfactory. Existing installations with
ratios of 0.51 - 0.74 certainly merit investigation to see if improvements are possible. Of course
there can be good reasons for a low ratio, such as having to use lower efficacy lamps or less
efficient luminaires in order to achieve the required lighting result -but it is essential to check
whether there is a scope for a more efficient alternative. Existing installations with an ILER of
0.5 or less certainly justify close inspection to identify options for converting the installation to
use more efficient lighting equipment.
150
Having derived the ILER for an existing lighting installation, then the difference between the
actual ILER and the best possible (1.0) can be used to estimate the energy wastage. For a given
installation:
Annual energy wastage (in kWh)
= (1.0 - ILER) x Total load (kW) x annual operating hours (h)
This process of comparing the installed load efficacy (ILE) with the target value for the
Room Index and type of application can also be used to assess the efficiency of designs for new
or replacement general lighting installations. If, when doing so, the calculated ILE (lux/W/m²)
is less than the target value then it is advisable to ascertain the reasons. It may be that the
requirements dictate a type of luminaire that is not as efficient as the best, or the surface
reflectances are less than the normal maxima, or the environment is dirty, etc., Whatever the
reasons, they should be checked to see if a more efficient solution is possible.
10.6 Example of ILER Calculation (for the room as mentioned in
paragraph 10.5.1)
STEP 1 Measure the floor area of the interior: Area = 45 m²

STEP 2 Calculate the Room Index RI = 1.93
STEP 3 Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power
meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual Total circuit watts = 990 W
value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by
totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts:
STEP 4 Calculate Watts per square metre, 3 ÷1 : W/m² = 22
STEP 5 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance, Eav. Maintained
(average lux levels measured at 18 points) Eav.maint. = 700
STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate the actual lux per watt per square Metre Lux/W/m² = 31.8
STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m² lux for type of the type of interior/
application and RI (2):(Refer Table 10.2) Target Lux/W/m² = 46
STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 ÷ 7 ). ILER = 0.7
Referring to table 3, ILER of 0.7 means that there is scope for review of the lighting system.
Annual energy wastage = (1 - ILER) x watts x no. of operating hours
= (1 - 0.7) x 990 x 8 hrs/day x 300 days
= 712 kWh/annum
10.7 Areas for Improvement
• Look for natural lighting opportunities through windows and other openings
• In the case of industrial lighting, explore the scope for introducing translucent sheets
• Assess scope for more energy efficient lamps and luminaries
• Assess the scope for rearrangement of lighting fixtures
151
10.8 Other Useful Information
10.8.1 IES - Recommendations
The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) has published illuminance recommendations for
various activities. These tables cover both generic tasks (reading, writing etc), and 100's of
very specific tasks and activities (such as drafting, parking, milking cows, blowing glass and
baking bread).
All tasks fall into 1 of 9 illuminance categories, covering from 20 to 20,000 lux, (2 to 2000
foot candles). The categories are known as A - I, and each provide a range of 3 iluminance values
(low, mid and high). See Table 10.4.
TABLE 10.4 IES ILLUMINANCE CATEGORIES AND VALUES - FOR GENERIC INDOOR
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY CATEGORY LUX FOOTCANDLES

Public spaces with dark surroundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5
Simple orientation for short temporary visits B 50-75-100 5-7.5-10
Working spaces where visual tasks are only C 100-150-200 10-15-20
occasionally performed
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast D 200-300-500 20-30-50
or large size
Performance of visual tasks of medium E 500-750-1000 50-75-100
contrast or small size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast F 1000-1500-2000 100-150-200
or very small size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500
or very small size over a prolonged period
Performance of very prolonged and exacting H 5000-7500-10000 500-750-1000
visual tasks
Performance of very special visual tasks of I 10000-15000-20000 1000-1500-2000
extremely low contrast
A-C for illuminances over a large area (i.e. lobby space) D-

F for localized tasks
G-I for extremely difficult visual tasks
10.8.2 Example Using IES Recommendations

Let us determine the appropriate light level for a card file area in a library.
Step 1: The visual task is reading card files in a library. A number of tasks are accomplished in the
room. In such a cases, a category is chosen based on the generic descriptions in the IES
Illuminance Category and Illuminance table discussed in step 3. For example, offices will usually
require Category E: 500-750-1000 lux.
152
Step 2: More detailed task descriptions are given in the recommended illuminance level tables in
the IES Handbook. (For an intensive lighting survey) Under the task category "Libraries,"
subheading "Card files," the illuminance category is E.
Step 3: From the IES Illuminance Category and Ranges table, find category E and choose 500-750-
1000 lux for the range of illuminance recommended. The first column in the table is illuminance
values in units of lux, the metric version of footcandle. Notice that categories A through C are for
general illumination throughout the area, but D through I are for illuminance on the task. Categories G
through I would require a combination of general lighting and task lighting.
Step 4: Use the weighting factors to decide which of the values in the illuminance range to use.
Since libraries are public facilities, there may be many individuals over 55 years of age so select
the category 'Over 55' for a weighting factor of +1.
Next, decide whether the demand for speed and accuracy is not important, important or crit-
ical. Filing of cards correctly is not a critical activity, so the weighting factor of zero (0) is
selected. An example of critical might be drafting work. The task background reflectance for
black type on a white page is 85%. So choose "greater than 70 percent" for a weighting factor
of -1. The total weighting factor is 0. So use the middle recommended illuminance, or 750 lux.
For more detailed information on this the IES handbook may be referred.
10.8.3 Characteristics of Different Types of Lamps

Type Lamp Lumens Lamp Efficiency Choke Life of Capacitor Color
of Wattage (Lumens/Watt) Rating Lamp Rating Renderin
Lamp (Watts) (Watts) (Hours) Required g
(Micro Index
farads)
HPSV 70 5600 80 13 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 12
20000
HPSV 150 14000 93 20 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 20
20000
HPSV 250 25000 100 20 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 32
20000
HPSV 400 47000 118 40 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 45
20000
HPSV 70 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Super
HPSV 100 9500 95 18 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super 20000
HPSV 150 15500 103 20 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super 20000
HPSV 250 30000 120 25 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super 20000
HPSV 400 54000 129 40 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---
153
Super 20000
HPSV 600 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Super
HPMV 80 3400 43 9 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 8
5000
HPMV 125 6300 50 12 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 10
5000
HPMV 250 13000 52 16 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 18
5000
HPMV 400 22000 55 25 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 18
5000
Metal 70 4200 84 26 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 150 10500 70 20 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 250 19000 76 25 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 400 31000 76 60 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 1000 80000 80 65 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
FTL 40 2400 60 15 4400 0.8 - 0.89 3.2 - 3.8
FTL 36 3250 90 5 14000 0.8 - 0.89 3.2 - 3.8
Super
154
OF WATER PUMPS
11.1 Introduction
Pumping is the process of addition of kinetic and potential energy to a liquid for the
purpose of moving it from one point to another. This energy will cause the liquid to do work
such as flow through a pipe or rise to a higher level. A centrifugal pump transforms mechan-
ical energy from a rotating impeller into a kinetic and potential energy required by the
system.
The most critical aspect of energy efficiency in a pumping system is matching of pumps to
loads. Hence even if an efficient pump is selected, but if it is a mismatch to the system then the
pump will operate at very poor efficiencies. In addition efficiency drop can also be expected
over time due to deposits in the impellers. Performance assessment of pumps would reveal the
existing operating efficiencies in order to take corrective action.
• Determination of the pump efficiency during the operating condition

• Determination of system resistance and the operating duty point of the pump and compare
the same with design.
Pump Capacity, Q = Volume of liquid delivered by pump per unit time,m 3/hr or m3/sec
Q is proportional to N, where N- rotational speed of the pump
Total developed head, H = The difference of discharge and suction pressure
The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from inlet
of the pump to the discharge of the pump.
There are three heads in common use in pumps namely
(i) Static head
(ii) Velocity head
(iii) Friction head.
The frictional head in a system of pipes, valves and fittings varies as a function (roughly as the
square) of the capacity flow through the system.
System resistance: The sum of frictional head in resistance & total static head.
155
11. Energy Performance Assessment of Water Pumps
Pump Efficiency: Fluid power and useful work done by the pump divided by the power input in
the pump shaft.
11.4 Field Testing for Determination of Pump Efficiency

To determine the pump efficiency, three key parameters are required: Flow, Head and Power. Of
these, flow measurement is the most crucial parameter as normally online flow meters are hardly
available, in a majority of pumping system. The following methods outlined below can be
adopted to measure the flow depending on the availability and site conditions.
11.4.1 Flow Measurement, Q

The following are the methods for flow measurements:
• Tracer method BS5857
• Ultrasonic flow measurement
• Tank filling method
• Installation of an on-line flowmeter
Tracer Method
The Tracer method is particularly suitable for cooling water flow measurement because of their
sensitivity and accuracy.
This method is based on injecting a tracer into the cooling water for a few minutes at an
accurately measured constant rate. A series of samples is extracted from the system at a point
where the tracer has become completely mixed with the cooling water. The mass flow rate is
calculated from:
qcw = q1 x C1/C2
where qcw = cooling water mass flow rate, kg/s

q1 = mass flow rate of injected tracer, kg/s
C1 = concentration of injected tracer, kg/kg
156
C2 = concentration of tracer at downstream position during the 'plateau' period

of constant concentration, kg/kg
The tracer normally used is sodium chloride.
Ultrasonic Flow meter

Operating under Doppler effect principle these meters are non-invasive, meaning measurements
can be taken without disturbing the system. Scales and rust in the pipes are likely to impact the
accuracy.
• Ensure measurements are taken in a sufficiently long length of pipe free from flow distur-
bance due to bends, tees and other fittings.
• The pipe section where measurement is to be taken should be hammered gently to enable
scales and rusts to fall out.
• For better accuracy, a section of the pipe can be replaced with new pipe for flow mea-
surements.
Tank filing method

In open flow systems such as water getting pumped to an overhead tank or a sump, the flow
can be measured by noting the difference in tank levels for a specified period during which
the outlet flow from the tank is stopped. The internal tank dimensions should be preferable
taken from the design drawings, in the absence of which direct measurements may be
resorted to.
Installation of an on-line flowmeter

If the application to be measured is going to be critical and periodic then the best option would
be to install an on-line flowmeter which can get rid of the major problems encountered with
other types.
11.4.3 Determination of total head, H
Suction head (hs)

This is taken from the pump inlet pressure gauge readings and the value to be converted in to
meters (1kg/cm2 = 10. m). If not the level difference between sump water level to the centerline
of the pump is to be measured. This gives the suction head in meters.
Discharge head (hd)

This is taken from the pump discharge side pressure gauge. Installation of the pressure gauge in
the discharge side is a must, if not already available.
11.4.4 Determination of hydraulic power (Liquid horse power),
Hydraulic power P h(kW) = Q x (hd - hs) x ρ x g / 1000

Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s), ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3), g = acceleration due to gravity
(m/s2), (hd - hs) = Total head in metres
157
11.4.5 Measurement of motor input power

The motor input power Pm can be measured by using a portable power analyser.
11.4.6 Pump shaft power

The pump shaft power Ps is calculated by multiplying the motor input power by motor
efficiency at the existing loading.
Ps = Pm x ηMotor
11.4.7 Pump efficiency

This is arrived at by dividing the hydraulic power by pump shaft power
ηPump = Ph
Ps
Example of pump efficiency calculation

Illustration of calculation method outlined
A chemical plant operates a cooling water pump for process cooling and refrigeration
applications. During the performance testing the following operating parameters were
measured;
Measured Data
Pump flow, Q 0.40 m3/ s

Power absorbed, P 325 kW
Suction head (Tower basin level), h 1 +1 M
Delivery head, h2 55 M
Height of cooling tower 5M
Motor efficiency 88 %
Type of drive Direct coupled
Density of water 996 kg/ m3
Pump efficiency
Flow delivered by the pump 0.40 m3/s

Total head, h2 -(+h1) 54 M
Hydraulic power 0.40 x 54 x 996 x 9.81/1000 = 211 kW
Actual power consumption 325 kW
Overall system efficiency (211 x 100) / 325 = 65 %
Pump efficiency 65/0.88 = 74 %
11.5 Determining the System resistance and Duty point

Determination of the system resistance curve and imposing the pump curve over it will give an
idea of the operating efficiency of the pump and also the drop in efficiencies when the system
158
curve changes from normal / design. The example following from the earlier example outlines
the method of constructing a system curve.
Example:
Location of equipments
The Refrigeration plant is located at +0.00 level and the Process plant condensers are located at
+15 M level. One cooler having a design pressure drop of 1.9 kg/cm 2 is located at the 0.00 level
(ground level). Other relevant data can be inferred from the earlier section.
The step-by-step approach for determining system resistance curve is given

below.
Step-1 Divide system resistance into Static and dynamic head
Find static head;

Static head (Condenser floor height) ; 15M
Find dynamic head;

Dynamic Head = Total Head - Static Head
Dynamic head = (54-15) = 39 M
Step-2 Check the maximum resistance circuit
Resistance in the different circuits is as under
S.no System Condenser loop Reactor loop Cooler loop

resistance, M resistance, M resistance, M
1. Supply line from 15 10 15
pump
2. Static head 15 5 Nil (cooler at
ground level)
3. Equipment 5 5 19
4. Return line from 15 10 15
equipment to CT
5. Tower head - - 5
6. Total 50 30 54
It can be noted that at full load the condenser and cooler circuits offer the maximum
resistance to flow.
159
Step 3; Draw system resistance curve
Choose the condenser loop as it offers maximum resistance and is also having a static head
component
Static head: 15 M
Dynamic head at full load; 39 M

Compute system resistance at different flow rates
S.No. Flow (%) Dynamic head Static head M Total head M

= 39x (%flow)2
1. 100 39 15 54
2. 75 21.9 15 36.9
3. 50 9.75 15 24.75
4. 25 2.44 15 17.44
Step 4 - Plot the system resistance against flow in the pump efficiency curves provided by the
vendor and compare actual operating duty point and see whether it operates at maximum
efficiency. In the example provided it is found that the pump system efficiency is lower by 4
% due to change in operating conditions.
160
12. PERFORMING FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
12.1 Introduction
When planning an energy efficiency or energy management project, the costs involved
should always be considered. Therefore, as with any other type of investment, energy man-
agement proposals should show the likely return on any capital that is invested. Consider the
case of an energy auditor who advises the senior management of an organisation that capi-
tal should be invested in new boiler plant. Inevitably, the management of the organisation
would ask:
• How much will the proposal cost?
• How much money will be saved by the proposal?
These are, of course, not unreasonable questions, since within any organisation there are
many worthy causes, each of which requires funding and it is the job of senior management to
invest in capital where it is going to obtain the greatest return. In order to make a decision about
any course of action, management needs to be able to appraise all the costs involved in a
project and determine the potential returns.
This however, is not quite as simple as it might first appear. The capital value of plant
or equipment usually decreases with time and it often requires more maintenance as it gets
older. If money is borrowed from a bank to finance a project, then interest will have to be
paid on the loan. Inflation too will influence the value of any future energy savings that
might be achieved. It is therefore important that the cost appraisal process allows for all
these factors, with the aim of determining which investments should be undertaken, and of
optimising the benefits achieved. To this end a number of accounting and financial appraisal
techniques have been developed which help energy managers and auditors make correct and
objective decisions.
The financial issues associated with capital investment in energy saving projects are investigated
in this chapter. In particular, the discounted cash flow techniques of net present value and
internal rate of return are discussed in detail.
12.2 Fixed and Variable Costs
When appraising the potential costs involved in a project it is important to understand the
difference between fixed and variable costs. Variable costs are those which vary directly with the
output of a particular plant or production process, such as fuel costs. Fixed costs are those costs,
which are not dependent on plant or process output, such as site-rent and insurance. The total
cost of any project is therefore the sum of the fixed and variable costs. Example 1 illustrates
how both fixed and variable costs combine to make the total operating cost.
Example 1
The capital cost of the DG set is Rs.9,00,000, the annual output is 219 MWh, and the
maintenance cost is Rs.30,000 per annum. The cost of producing each unit of electricity is
3.50 Rs./kWh. The total cost of a diesel generator operating over a 5-year period, taking into
consideration both fixed and variable cost is:
161
12. Performing Financial Analysis
Item Type of cost Calculation Cost

Capital cost of generator Fixed - 9,00,000
Annual maintenance Fixed 30,000 x 5 (years) 1,50,000
Fuel cost Variable 219,000 x 3.50 x 5 3,83,2500
Total cost 4,88,2500
From Example 1, it can be seen that the fixed costs represent 21.5% of the total cost. In fact, the
annual electricity output of 219 MWh assumes that the plant is operating with an average
output of 50 kW. If this output were increased to an average of 70 kW, then the fuel cost would
become Rs. 53,65,500, with the result that the fixed costs would drop to 16.37% of the total.
Thus the average unit cost of production decreases as output increases.
The concept of fixed and variable costs can be used to determine the break-even point
for a proposed project. The break-even point can be determined by using the following
equation.
Example 2
If the electricity bought from a utility company costs an average of Rs.4.5/kWh, the break-
even point for the generator described in Example 1, when the average output is 50 kW is
given by:
4.5 x 50 x n = (9,00,000 + 150000) + (3.5 x 50 x n)
n = 21000 hours
If the average output is 70 kW, the break-even point is given by:
4.5 x 70 x n = (9,00,000 + 150000) + (3.50 x 70 x n)
n= 15000 hours
Thus, increasing the average output of the generator significantly reduces the break-even
time for the project. This is because the capital investment (i.e. the generator) is being better
utilised.
162
12.3 Interest Charges

In order to finance projects, organizations often borrow money from banks or other leading
organizations. Projects financed in this way cost more than similar projects financed from
organisation's own funds, because interest charges must be paid on the loan. It is therefore
important to understand how interest charges are calculated. Interest charges can be calculated
by lending organization in two different ways: simple interest and compound interest.
(i) Simple interest: If simple interest is applied, then charges are calculated as a fixed
percentage of the capital that is borrowed. A fixed interest percentage is applied to each year
of the loan and repayments are calculated using the equation.
(ii) Compound interest: Compound interest is usually calculated annually (although this is not
necessarily the case). The interest charged is calculated as a percentage of the outstanding loan
at the end of each time period. It is termed 'compound' because the outstanding loan is the sum
of the unpaid capital and the interest charges up to that point. The value of the total repayment
can be calculated using the equation.
Example 3
A company borrows Rs.3,00,00,00 to finance a new boiler installation. If the interest rate is
10% per annum and the repayment period is 5 years, let us calculate the value of the total
repayment and the monthly repayment value, assuming (i) simple interest and (ii) compound
interest.
(i) Assuming simple interest:

Total repayment = 30,00,000 + (10/100 x 30,00,000 x 5) = Rs.45,00,000
Monthly repayment = 45,00,000 / (5 x 12) = Rs.75,000
(ii) Assuming compound interest

Repayment at end of year 1 = 30,00,000 + (10/100 x 30,00,000) = Rs.33,00,000
Repayment at end of year 2 = 33,00,000 + (10/100 x 33,00,000) = Rs.36,30,000
163
Similarly, the repayments at the end of years 3, 4 and 5 can be calculated:

Repayment at end of year 3 = Rs. 39,93,000
Repayment at end of year 4 = Rs. 43,92,300
Repayment at end of year 5 = Rs. 48,31530
Alternatively, the following equation can be used to determine the compound interest repayment
value.
Total repayment value = 30,00,000 x (1 + 10 / 100)5 = Rs.48,31,530

4831530
Monthly repayment = = Rs.80,525
5 x 12
It can be seen that by using compound interest, the lender recoups an additional Rs.33,1530. It is
not surprisingly lenders usually charge compound interest on loans.
12.4 Simple Payback Period

This is the simplest technique that can be used to appraise a proposal. The simple payback peri-
od can be defined as 'the length of time required for the running total of net savings before
depreciation to equal the capital cost of the project'. In theory, once the payback period has
ended, all the project capital costs will have been recouped and any additional cost savings
achieved can be seen as clear 'profit'. Obviously, the shorter the payback period, the more
attractive the project becomes. The length of the maximum permissible payback period gener-
ally varies with the business culture concerned. In some companies, payback periods in excess
of 3 years are considered acceptable.
The payback period can be calculated using the equation
The annual net cost saving (AS) is the least savings achieved after all the operational costs have
been met. Simple payback period is illustrated in Example 4.
164
Example 4
A new small cogeneration plant installation is expected to reduce a company's annual energy
bill by Rs.4,86,000. If the capital cost of the new boiler installation is Rs.22,20,000 and the
annual maintenance and operating costs are Rs. 42,000, the expected payback period for the
project can be worked out as.
Solution
PB = 22,20,000 / (4,86,000 - 42,000) = 5.0 years
12. 5 Discounted Cash Flow Methods

The payback method is a simple technique, which can easily be used to provide a quick
evaluation of a proposal. However, it has a number of major weaknesses:
• The payback method does not consider savings that are accrued after the payback period
has finished.
• The payback method does not consider the fact that money, which is invested, should
accrue interest as time passes. In simple terms there is a 'time value' component to cash
flows. Thus Rs.1000 today is more valuable than Rs.1000 in 10 years' time.
In order to overcome these weaknesses a number of discounted cash flow techniques have been
developed, which are based on the fact that money invested in a bank will accrue annual
interest. The two most commonly used techniques are the 'net present value' and the 'internal
rate of return' methods.
Net Present Value Method

The net present value method considers the fact that a cash saving (often referred to as a
'cash flow') of Rs.1000 in year 10 of a project will be worth less than a cash flow of Rs.1000
in year 2. The net present value method achieves this by quantifying the impact of time on
any particular future cash flow. This is done by equating each future cash flow to its current
value today, in other words determining the present value of any future cash flow. The pre-
sent value (PV) is determined by using an assumed interest rate, usually referred to as a dis-
count rate. Discounting is the opposite process to compounding. Compounding determines
the future value of present cash flows, where" discounting determines the present value of
future cash flows.
In order to understand the concept of present vale, consider the case described in Example 3.
If instead of installing a new cogeneration system, the company invested Rs.22,20,000 in a
bank at an annual interest rate of 8%, then:
The value of the sum at the end of year 1 = 22,20,000 + (0.08 x 22,20,000) = Rs.23,97,600
The value of the sum at the end of year 2 = 23,97,600 + (0.08 x 23,97,600) = Rs.25,89,408
The value of the investment would grow as compound interest is added, until after n years the
value of the sum would be:
165
Example :
The future value of the investment made at present, after 5 years will be:
FV = 22,20,000 x (1 + 8/100)5 = Rs.32,61,908.4

So in 5 years the initial investment of 22,20,000 will accrue Rs.10,41,908.4 in interest and will
be worth Rs.32,61,908.4. Alternatively, it could equally be said that Rs.32,61908.4 in 5 years
time is worth Rs.22,20,000 now (assuming an annual interest rate of 8%). In other words the
present value of Rs.32,61,908.40 in 5 years time is Rs.22,00,000 now.
The present value of an amount of money at any specified time in the future can be determined
by the following equation.
The net present value method calculates the present value of all the yearly cash flows (i.e.
capital costs and net savings) incurred or accrued throughout the life of a project, and summates
them. Costs are represented as a negative value and savings as a positive value. The sum of all
the present values is known as the net present value (NPV). The higher the net present value,
the more attractive the proposed project.
The present value of a future cash flow can be determined using the equation above.
However, it is common practice to use a discount factor (DF) when calculating present value.
The discount factor is based on an assumed discount rate (i.e. interest rate) and can be
determined by using equation.
DF = (1 + IR/100)-n
The product of a particular cash flow and the discount factor is the present value.
PV = S x DF
The values of various discount factors computed for a range of discount rates (i.e. interest rates)
are shown in Table 12.1. The Example 5 illustrates the process involved in a net present value
analysis.
166
TABLE 12.1COMPUTED DISCOUNT FACTORS
Discount rate % (or interest rate %)

Year 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
1 0.980 0.962 0.943 0.926 0.909 0.893 0.877 0.862
2 0.961 0.825 0.890 0.857 0.826 0.797 0.769 0.743
3 0.942 0.889 0.840 0.794 0.751 0.712 0.675 0.641
4 0.924 0.855 0.792 0.735 0.683 0.636 0.592 0.552
5 0.906 0.822 0.747 0.681 0.621 0.567 0.519 0.476
6 0.888 0.790 0.705 0.630 0.564 0.507 0.456 0.410
7 0.871 0.760 0.665 0.583 0.513 0.452 0.400 0.354
8 0.853 0.731 0.627 0.540 0.467 0.404 0.351 0.305
9 0.837 0.703 0.592 0.500 0.424 0.361 0.308 0.263
10 0.820 0.676 0.558 0.463 0.386 0.322 0.270 0.227
11 0.804 0.650 0.527 0.429 0.350 0.287 0.237 0.195
12 0.788 0.625 0.497 0.397 0.319 0.257 0.208 0.168
13 0.773 0.601 0.469 0.368 0.290 0.229 0.182 0.145
14 0.758 0.577 0.442 0.340 0.263 0.205 0.160 0.125
15 0.743 0.555 0.417 0.315 0.239 0.183 0.140 0.108
16 0.728 0.534 0.394 0.292 0.218 0.163 0.123 0.093
17 0.714 0.513 0.371 0.270 0.198 0.146 0.108 0.080
18 0.700 0.494 0.350 0.250 0.180 0.130 0.095 0.069
19 0.686 0.475 0.331 0.232 0.164 0.116 0.083 0.060
20 0.673 0.456 0.312 0.215 0.149 0.104 0.073 0.051
Example 5
Using the net present value analysis technique, let us evaluate the financial merits of the proposed
projects shown in the Table below. Assume an annual discount rate of 8% for each project.
Project - 1 Project - 2
Capital cost (Rs.) 30 000.00 30 000.00
Year Net annual saving (Rs.) Net annual saving (Rs.)
1 +6 000.00 +6 600.00
2 +6 000.00 +6 600.00
3 +6 000.00 +6 300.00
167
4 +6 000.00 +6 300.00
5 +6 000.00 +6 000.00
6 +6 000.00 +6 000.00
7 +6 000.00 +5 700.00
8 +6 000.00 +5 700.00
9 +6 000.00 +5 400.00
10 +6 000.00 +5 400.00
Total net saving at +60 000.00 + 60 000.00
end of year 10
Solution
The annual cash flows should be multiplied by the annual discount factors for a rate of 8% to
determine the annual present values, as shown in the Table below:
Year Discount Project 1 Project 2

Factor for Net Present Net Present
8% savings value (Rs.) savings value (Rs.)
(a) (Rs.) (a x b) (Rs.) (a x c)
(b) (c)
0 1.000 -30 000.00 -30 000.00 -30 000.00 -30 000.00
1 0.926 +6 000.00 +5 556.00 +6 600.00 +6 111.60
2 0.857 +6 000.00 +5 142.00 +6 600.00 +5 656.20
3 0.794 +6 000.00 +4 764.00 +6 300.00 +5 002.20
4 0.735 +6 000.00 +4 410.00 +6 300.00 +4 630.50
5 0.681 +6 000.00 +4 086.00 +6 000.00 +4 086.00
6 0.630 +6 000.00 +3 780.00 +6 000.00 +3 780.00
7 0.583 +6 000.00 +3 498.00 +5 700.00 +3323.10
8 0.540 +6 000.00 +3 240.00 +5 700.00 +3 078.00
9 0.500 +6 000.00 +3 000.00 +5 400.00 +2 700.00
10 0.463 +6 000.00 +2 778.00 +5 400.00 +2 500.20
NPV = +10 254.00 NPV = +10 867.80
It can be seen that over a 10 year life-span the net present value for Project 1 is
Rs.10,254.00, while for Project 2 it is Rs.10,867.80. Therefore Project 2 is the preferential
proposal.
168
The whole credibility of the net present value method depends on a realistic prediction of
future interest rates, which can often be unpredictable. It is prudent therefore to set the discount
rate slightly above the interest rate at which the capital for the project is borrowed. This will
ensure that the overall analysis is slightly pessimistic, thus acting against the inherent uncertain
ties in predicting future savings.
Internal rate of return method

It can be seen from Example 5 that both projects returned a positive net present value over 10
years, at a discount rate of 8%. However, if the discount rate were reduced there would come a
point when the net present value would become zero. It is clear that the discount rate which
must be applied, in order to achieve a net present value of zero, will be higher for Project 2 than
for Project 1. This means that the average rate of return for Project 2 is higher than for Project
1, with the result that Project 2 is the better proposition.
Example 6 illustrates how an internal rate of return analysis is performed.
Example 6
A proposed project requires an initial capital investment of Rs.20 000. The cash flows generated
by the project are shown in the table below:
Year Cash flow (Rs.)

0 -20,000.00
1 +6000.00
2 +5500.00
3 +5000.00
4 +4500.00
5 +4000.00
6 +4000.00
Given the above cash flow data, let us find out the internal rate of return for the project.
169
Solution
Cash 8% discount rate 12% discount rate 16% discount rate

flow Discount Present Discount Present Discount Present
(Rs.) Factor value factor value factor value
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
0 -20000 1.000 -20000 1.000 -20000 1.000 -20000
1 6000 0.926 5556 0.893 5358 0.862 5172
2 5500 0.857 4713.5 0.797 4383.5 0.743 4086.5
3 5000 0.794 3970 0.712 3560 0.641 3205
4 4500 0.735 3307.5 0.636 3862 0.552 2484
5 4000 0.681 2724 0.567 2268 0.476 1904
6 4000 0.630 2520 0.507 2028 0.410 1640
NPV = 2791 NPV = 459.5 NPV = -1508.5
It can clearly be seen that the discount rate which results in the net present value being zero lies
somewhere between 12% and 16%.
For12% discount rate, NPV is positive; for 16% discount rate, NPV is negative. Thus
for some discount rate between 12 and 16 percent, present value benefits are equated to
present value costs. To find the value exactly, one can interpolate between the two rates
as follows:
459.5
Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 - 0.12) x x 100
(459.5 - (-1508.5))
459.5
Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 - 0.12) x x 100 = 12.93%
(459.5 + 1508.5)
Thus the internal rate of return for the project is 12.93 %. At first sight both the net present
value and internal rate of return methods look very similar, and in some respects are. Yet there
is an important difference between the two. The net present value method is essentially a com-
parison tool, which enables a number of projects to be compared, while the internal rate of
return method is designed to assess whether or not a single project will achieve a target rate of
return.
Profitability index
Another technique, which can be used to evaluate the financial viability of projects, is the
profitability index. The profitability index can be defined as:
170
The application of profitability index is illustrated in Example 7.
Example 7
Determine the profitability index for the projects outlined in Example 5
10254
For Project 1: Profitability index = = 0.342
30,000
10867
For Project 2: Profitability index = = 0.362
30,000
Project 2 is therefore a better proposal than Project 1.
11.6 Factors Affecting Analysis

Although the Examples 5 and 6 illustrate the basic principles associated with the financial
analysis of projects, they do not allow for the following important considerations:
• The capital value of plant and equipment generally depreciates over time
• General inflation reduces the value of savings as time progresses. For example, Rs.1000
saved in 1 year's time will be worth more than Rs.1000 saved in 10 years time.
The capital depreciation of an item of equipment can be considered in terms of its salvage value
at the end of the analysis period. The Example 8 illustrates the point.
Example 8
It is proposed to install a heat recovery equipment in a factory. The capital cost of installing the
equipment is Rs.20,000 and after 5 years its salvage value is Rs.1500. If the savings accrued by
the heat recovery device are as shown below, we have to find out the net present value after
5 years. Discount rate is assumed to be 8%.
Data
Year 1 2 3 4 5
7000 6000 6000 5000 5000
171
Solution
Year Discount Capital Net Present

Factor for Investment Savings Value
8% (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
(a) (b) (c) (a) x (b + c)
0 1,000 -20,000.00 -20,000.00
1 0.926 +7000.00 +6482.00
2 0.857 +6000.00 +5142.00
3 0.794 +6000.00 +4764.00
4 0.735 +6000.00 +3675.00
5 0.681 +1,500.00 +5000.00 +4426.50
NPV = +4489.50
It is evident that over a 5-year life span the net present value of the project is Rs.4489.50. Had
the salvage value of the equipment not been considered, the net present value of the project
would have been only Rs.3468.00.
Real value
Inflation can be defined as the rate of increase in the average price of goods and services. In
some countries, inflation is expressed in terms of the retail price index (RPI), which is
determined centrally and reflects average inflation over a range of commodities. Because of
inflation, the real value of cash flow decreases with time. The real value of sum of money
(S) realised in n years time can be determined using the equation.
RV = S x (1 + R/100)-n
Where RV is the real value of S realized in n years time. S is the value of cash flow in n years
time and R is the inflation rate (%).
As with the discount factor it is common practice to use an inflation factor when assessing
the impact of inflation on a project. The inflation factor can be determined using the equation.
IF = (1 + R/100) -n
The product of a particular cash flow and inflation factor is the real value of the cash flow.
RV = S x IF
The application of inflation factors is considered in Example 9.
Example 9
Recalculate the net present value of the energy recovery scheme in Example 8, assuming the
discount rate remains at 8% and that the rate of inflation is 5%.
172
Solution
Because of inflation; Real interest rate = Discount rate - Rate of inflation
Therefore Real interest rate = 8 - 5 = 3%
Year Capital Net real Inflation Net real Real Present

Investment Savings Factor Savings Discount Value
(Rs.) (Rs.) For 5% (Rs.) Factor (Rs.)
For 3%
0 -20,000.00 1.000 -20,000.00 1.000 -20,000.00
1 +7000.00 0.952 +6664.00 0.971 +6470.74
2 +6000.00 0.907 +5442.00 0.943 +5131.81
3 +6000.00 0.864 +5184.00 0.915 +4743.36
4 +5000.00 0.823 +4145.00 0.888 +3654.12
5 +1500.00 +5000.00 0.784 +5096.00 0.863 +4397.85
NPV = +4397.88
The Example 9 shows that when inflation is assumed to be 5%, the net present value of the project
reduces from Rs.4489.50 to Rs.4397.88. This is to be expected, because general inflation will
always erode the value of future 'profits' accrued by a project.
173

Training Course On Energy Efficiency

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Training Course On Energy Efficiency

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Training Course On Energy Efficiency

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND AUDIT

1.1 Definition & Objectives of Energy Management

"The judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize

Another comprehensive definition is

• To minimise energy costs / waste without affecting production & quality

1.2 Energy Audit: Types And Methodology

1.2.1 Need for Energy Audit

1.2.2 Type of Energy Audit

1.2.4 Detailed Energy Audit Methodology

Phase I - Pre Audit Phase

Ten Steps Methodology for Detailed Energy Audit

Phase I -Pre Audit Phase Activities

Initial Site Visit and Preparation Required for Detailed Auditing

The main aims of this visit are: -

The information to be collected during the detailed audit includes: -

DATA COLLECTION HINTS

Example: A flowchart of Penicillin-G manufacturing is given in the figure1.1 below. Note

Identification of Energy Conservation Opportunities

Technical and Economic feasibility

• Technology availability, space, skilled manpower, reliability, service etc

Classification of Energy Conservation Measures

1. Low cost - high return;

1.3 Energy Audit Reporting Format

TABLE 1.2 SUMMARY OF ENERGY SAVING RECOMMENDATIONS

S.No. Energy Saving Annual Energy Annual Capital Simple

TABLE 1.3 TYPES AND PRIORITY OF ENERGY SAVING MEASURES

Type of Energy Annual Annual

1.4 Understanding Energy Costs

Understanding fuel cost is fairly simple

• Price at source, transport charge, type of transport

• Energy Charges, kWh

Example: Purchased energy Bill

Type of energy Original units Unit Cost Monthly Bill Rs.

Electricity (1 kWh) = 860 kCal/kWh (0.0036 GJ)

1.5 Benchmarking and Energy Performance

• Equipment / utility related

ating parameters to be reported while mentioning specific energy consumption data.

Plant Energy Performance

Reference Year Equivalent Energy Use

Reference year equivalent - Current year's energy

Monthly Energy Performance

1.6 Matching Energy Usage to Requirement

1.7 Maximising System Efficiency

Optimising the Input Energy Requirements

• Shuffling of compressors to match needs.

1.8 Fuel and Energy Substitution

Case Study : Example on Fuel Substitution

D: Energy Saving Calculations

Electrical Measuring Instruments:

These instruments are applied on-line i.e

Fuel Efficiency Monitor:

For surface temperature, a leaf type probe is

Pitot Tube and manometer:

Water flow meter:

A simple tachometer is a contact type instru-

More sophisticated and safer ones are non

2.2 Motor Types

2.3 Motor Characteristics