Module 1

Intermediate Course
Study Material
(Modules 1 to 2)
PAPER 6
AUDITING AND ASSURANCE
Module - 1
BOARD OF STUDIES
THE INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA
© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

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This Study Material has been prepared by the faculty of the Board of Studies. The
objective of the Study Material is to provide teaching material to the students to
enable them to obtain knowledge in the subject. In case students need any
clarification or have any suggestion for further improvement of the material
contained herein, they may write to the Director of Studies.
All care has been taken to provide interpretations and discussions in a manner
useful for the students. However, the Study Material has not been specifically
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expressed herein may not be taken to necessarily represent the views of the
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Permission of the Institute is essential for reproduction of any portion of this
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Edition : September, 2021
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The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India,
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BEFORE WE BEGIN….
Evolving role of a CA - Shift towards strategic decision making
The traditional role of a chartered accountant restricted to accounting and auditing,

has now changed substantially and there has been a marked shift towards strategic
decision making and entrepreneurial roles that add value beyond traditional financial
reporting. The primary factors responsible for the change are the increasing business
complexities on account of plethora of laws, borderless economies consequent to
giant leap in e-commerce, emergence of new financial instruments, emphasis on
corporate social responsibility, significant developments in information technology, to
name a few. These factors necessitate an increase in the competence of chartered
accountants to take up the role of not merely an accountant or auditor, but a global
solution provider. Towards this end, the scheme of education and training is being
continuously reviewed so that it is in sync with the requisites of the dynamic global
business environment; the competence requirements are being continuously reviewed
to enable aspiring chartered accountants to acquire the requisite professional
competence to take on new roles.
Skill requirements at Intermediate Level
Under the Revised Scheme of Education and Training, at the Intermediate Level,
you are expected to not only acquire professional knowledge but also the ability
to apply such knowledge in problem solving. The process of learning should also
help you inculcate the requisite professional skills, i.e., the intellectual skills and
communication skills, necessary for achieving the desired professional
competence.
Auditing – Core and Practical subject
Auditing is, perhaps, one of the most practical-oriented subjects in the C.A. curriculum.
This paper aims to provide knowledge of generally accepted auditing procedures and
of techniques and skills needed to apply them in audit engagements. A good
knowledge of the subject would provide a strong foundation to students while
pursuing the Chartered Accountancy course. A good understanding of the theoretical
concepts, particularly, in the context of auditing standards would make practical
training an enriching and enjoying experience. While studying this paper, students are
advised to integrate the knowledge acquired in other subjects, specifically, accounting

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and corporate laws in a meaningful manner. Such learning would only help a student
to become a better professional.
Know your Syllabus
The study material deals with the conceptual theoretical framework in detail.
In each chapter, the topic has been covered in a step by step approach. The text
has been explained, where appropriate, through illustrations, diagrams, tables,
flowcharts, screenshots etc. You should go through the chapter carefully ensuring
that you understand the topic and then can tackle the MCQs, Correct/Incorrect
and other question.
For understanding the coverage of the syllabus, it is important to read the study
material along with the Study Guidelines.
The entire syllabus has been divided into thirteen chapters.
Chapter-1 discusses the basics of audit such as nature, scope, objectives,
advantages, limitations etc. of audit. Also, Audit Engagement; Auditor’s
Independence; Role of International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board
(IAASB) & Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (AASB) have been discussed.
Chapter-2 is devoted to Audit Strategy; Audit planning and Audit programme;
Chapter-3 focusses on Audit Documentation; Audit evidence; Related Party
Transactions, Written Representations, External Confirmations, Subsequent Events,
Going Concern.
Chapter-4 is devoted to Audit Risk, Identifying and Assessing the Risk of Material
Misstatement, Risk Assessment procedures; Understanding the entity and its
environment; Internal Control.
Chapter-5 discusses the Responsibility for the Prevention and Detection of Fraud;
Fraud Risk Factors; Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud; Communication
of Fraud.
Chapter-6 extensively deals with the Impact of IT related Risks, Impact on Controls,
Internal Financial Controls, Audit approach, Understanding and documenting
Automated environment, data analytics for audit.
Chapter-7 discusses about Audit Sampling.

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Chapter-8 deals with analytical procedures.

Chapter-9 is devoted to the Audit of Items of Financial Statements. Chapter-10
discusses about the provisions of the Company Audit. Chapter-11 discusses
about various aspects of Auditor’s Report.
Chapter-12 deals with the Audit of Banks.
Chapter-13 extensively deals with the Appointment of Auditor, Audit Procedure
and Audit Report in respect of different Category of Entities.
Structure of the Study Material
The content for each chapter/unit at the Intermediate level has been structured in
the following manner –
Components of each About the component

Chapter
1. Learning Outcomes Learning outcomes which you need to demonstrate
after learning each topic have been detailed in the
first page of each chapter/unit. Demonstration of
these learning outcomes would help you to achieve
the desired level of technical competence.
2. Chapter Overview As the name suggests, this chart/table would give a
broad outline of the contents covered in the chapter.
3. Introduction A brief introduction is given at the beginning of each
chapter/unit which would help you get a feel of the
topic.
4. Content The concepts and provisions of law/standard are
explained in student-friendly manner with the aid of
Examples/illustrations/diagrams/flow charts. These
value additions would help you develop conceptual
clarity and get a good grasp of the topic. Diagrams
and Flow charts would help you understand the
concept/ provision in a better manner. Illustrations
would help you understand the application of
concepts/provisions.
5. Exercise Questions The exercise questions and answers would help you to
with Answers apply what you have learnt in problem solving. In

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effect, it would sharpen your application skills and test

your understanding as well as your application of
concepts/ provisions.
6. Let Us Recapitulate A summary of the chapter is given at the end to help
you revise what you have learnt. It would especially
help you to revise the chapter quickly the day before
the examination.
7. Test Your Knowledge This comprises of Multiple Choice Questions, Correct/
incorrect and other questions which test the breadth
and depth of your understanding of the topic.
We hope that these student-friendly features in the Study Material makes your
learning process more enjoyable, enriches your knowledge and sharpens your
application skills.
Happy Reading and Best Wishes!

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SYLLABUS
PAPER 6: AUDITING AND ASSURANCE (100 MARKS)

(One paper – Three hours – 100 Marks)
Objective:
To develop an understanding of the concepts in auditing and of the generally
accepted auditing procedures, techniques and skills and acquire the ability to
apply the same in audit and attestation engagements.
1. Nature, Objective and Scope of Audit
Auditing Concepts: Nature, objective and scope of Audit; Relationship of
auditing with other disciplines;
Standard Setting Process: Overview, Standard-setting process, Role of
International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB) & Auditing
and Assurance Standards Board (AASB); Standards on Auditing, Guidance
Note(s) issued by the ICAI;
Engagement Standards: Qualities of Auditor, Elements of System of
Quality Control (SQC 1 Quality Control for Firms that Perform Audits and
Reviews of Historical Financial Information, and Other Assurance and
Related Services Engagements); Ethical requirements relating to an audit of
financial statements; Inherent Limitations of an audit (SA 200 Overall
Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit in
Accordance with Standards on Auditing); Preconditions for an audit; Audit
Engagement; Agreement on Audit Engagement Terms; Terms of
Engagement in Recurring Audits (SA 210 Agreeing the Terms of Audit
Engagements); Leadership Responsibilities for Quality on Audits; Concept
of Auditor’s Independence; Threats to Independence; Acceptance and
Continuance of Client Relationships and Audit Engagements (SA 220
Quality Control for an Audit of Financial Statements).
2. Audit Strategy, Audit Planning and Audit Programme: Audit Strategy; Audit
planning (SA 300 Planning an Audit of Financial statements); Audit programme;
Development of Audit Plan and Programme, Control of quality of audit work -
Delegation and supervision of audit work; Materiality and Audit Plan; Revision of
Materiality; Documenting the Materiality; Performance Materiality (SA 320
Materiality in Planning and Performing an Audit).

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3. Audit Documentation and Audit Evidence: Concept of Audit

Documentation; Nature & Purpose of Audit Documentation; Form, Content
& Extent of Audit Documentation; Completion Memorandum; Ownership
and custody of Audit Documentation (SA 230 Audit Documentation); Audit
procedures for obtaining audit evidence; Sources of evidence; Relevance
and Reliability of audit evidence; Sufficient appropriate audit evidence,
Evaluation of Audit Evidence (SA 500 Audit Evidence); Written
Representations as Audit Evidence; Objective of Auditor regarding Written
Representation; Management from whom Written Representations may be
requested; Written Representations about Management’s Responsibilities (SA
580 Written Representations); Obtaining evidence of existence of inventory;
Audit procedure to identify litigation & claims (SA 501 Audit Evidence -
Specific Considerations for Selected Items); External confirmation
procedures; Management’s refusal to allow the auditor to send a
confirmation request; Negative Confirmations (SA 505 External
Confirmations); Audit evidence about opening balances; Accounting policies
relating to opening balances; Reporting with regard to opening balances (SA
510 Initial Audit Engagements-Opening Balances); Meaning of Related
Party; Nature of Related Party Relationships & Transactions; Understanding
the Entity’s Related Party Relationships & Transactions (SA 550 Related
Parties); Meaning of Subsequent Events; Auditor’s obligations in different
situations of subsequent events (SA 560 Subsequent Events);
Responsibilities of the Auditor with regard to Going Concern Assumption;
Objectives of the Auditor regarding Going Concern; Events or Conditions
that may cast doubt about Going Concern Assumption; Audit Procedures
when events or conditions are identified (SA 570 Going Concern).
4. Risk Assessment and Internal Control: Audit Risk, Identifying and Assessing
the Risk of Material Misstatement, Risk Assessment procedures;
Understanding the entity and its environment; Internal control,
Documenting the Risks; Evaluation of internal control system; Testing of
Internal control; Internal Control and IT Environment (SA 315 Identifying and
Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement Through Understanding the
Entity and Its Environment); Materiality and audit risk (SA 320 Materiality in
Planning and Performing an Audit); Internal audit, Basics of Standards on
Internal Audit (SIAs) issued by the ICAI; Basics of Internal Financial Control
and reporting requirements; Distinction between Internal Financial Control
and Internal Control over Financial Reporting.

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5. Fraud and Responsibilities of the Auditor in this Regard: Responsibility

for the Prevention and Detection of Fraud; Fraud Risk Factors; Risks of
Material Misstatement Due to Fraud; Communication of Fraud (SA 240 The
Auditor’s responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of Financial
Statements); Provisions of the Companies Act 2013 relating to fraud and
rules thereunder including reporting requirements under CARO.
6. Audit in an Automated Environment: Key features, Impact of IT related
Risks, Impact on Controls, Internal Financial Controls as per Regulatory
requirements, Types of Controls, Audit approach, Understanding and
documenting Automated environment, Testing methods, data analytics for
audit, assessing and reporting audit findings.
7. Audit Sampling: Meaning of Audit Sampling; Designing an audit sample;
Types of sampling; Sample Size and selection of items for testing; Sample
selection method (SA 530 Audit Sampling).
8. Analytical Procedures: Meaning, nature, purpose and timing of analytical
procedures; Substantive analytical procedures, Designing and performing
analytical procedures prior to Audit; investigating the results of analytical
procedures (SA 520 Analytical Procedures).
9. Audit of Items of Financial Statements: Audit of sale of Products and
Services; Audit of Interest Income, Rental Income, Dividend Income, Net
gain/loss on sale of Investments etc.
Audit of Purchases, Employee benefits expenses, Depreciation, Interest
expense, Expenditure on Power & Fuel, Rent, Repair to building, Repair to
Machinery, Insurance, Taxes, Travelling Expenses, Miscellaneous Expenses
etc.
Audit of Share Capital, Reserve & Surplus, Long Term Borrowings, Trade
Payables, Provisions, Short Term Borrowings & Other Current Liabilities.
Audit of Land, Buildings, Plant & Equipment, Furniture & Fixtures, Vehicles,
Office Equipments, Goodwill, Brand/Trademarks, Computer Software etc.
Audit of Loan & Advances, Trade Receivable, Inventories, Cash & Cash
Equivalent, Other Current Assets. Audit of Contingent Liabilities.
(The list of items is illustrative only)
10. The Company Audit: Eligibility, Qualifications and Disqualifications of
Auditors; Appointment of auditors; Removal of auditors; Remuneration of
Auditors; Powers and duties of auditors; Branch audit; Joint audit; Reporting

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requirements under the Companies Act, 2013 including CARO; Other

Important Provisions under the Companies Act, 2013 relating to Audit and
Auditors and Rules made thereunder.
11. Audit Report: Forming an opinion on the Financial Statements; Auditor’s
Report- basic elements (SA 700 Forming an Opinion and Reporting on
Financial Statements); Types of Modified Opinion; Circumstances When a
Modification to the Auditor’s Opinion is Required, Qualified, Adverse,
Disclaimer of Opinion (SA 705 Modification to the Opinion in the
Independent Auditor’s Report); Qualification, Disclaimer, Adverse opinion,
SA 706 Emphasis of Matter Paragraphs and Other Matter Paragraphs in the
Independent Auditor’s Report; Nature of Comparative Information;
Corresponding Figure; Comparative Financial Statements (SA 710
Comparative Information – Corresponding Figures and Comparative
Financial Statements).
12. Audit of Banks: Understanding of accounting system in Banks, Audit
Approach, Audit of Revenue items, Special Consideration in Bank Audit with
emphasis on Advances and NPAs.
13. Audit of Different Types of Entities: Appointment of Auditor, Audit
Procedure and Audit Report in respect of different Category of Entities:
Government; Local bodies and Not-for-profit organizations; Partnership Firms,
Audit of different type of undertakings, i.e., Educational institutions, Hotels,
Clubs, Hospitals Basics of Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs) audit and Co-
operative Societies Audit.
Note:
(i) The specific inclusions/exclusions, in any topic covered in the syllabus, will
be effected every year by way of Study Guidelines.
(ii) The provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 which are still in force would
form part of the syllabus till the time their corresponding or new provisions
of the Companies Act, 2013 are enforced.
(iii) If new legislations/ Standards on Auditing/Guidance Notes/Statements are
enacted in place of the existing legislations, the syllabus would include the
corresponding provisions of such new legislations with effect from a date
notified by the Institute. The changes in this regard would also form part of
Study Guidelines.

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SIGNIFICANT UPDATIONS IN 2021 EDITION

OVER 2020 EDITION
Chapter Name Sections/Sub Sections wherein Page

major updations have been Numbers
done
TOPIC 6 (ii) The Nature of Audit 1.11-1.12

Procedures-Point no. 3
Distinction between audit and
investigation has been explained
Chapter 1: Nature, Topic 8.2-About SAs, SREs, SAEs 1.21-1.23

Objective and and SRSs-explained in detail.
Scope of Audit
Topic 10.2 fundamental principles 1.27-1.28
of professional ethics explained.
Topic 10.2.2 Threats to 1.30-1.31

Independence More explanation
added
Constructing an Audit
10.4 2.16
Chapter 2: Audit Programme- Topic has been
Strategy, Audit revised
Planning and Audit
Programme Fig. at page 2.17 modified 2.17
Topic 12- AUDIT PLANNING AND

2.21-2.23
MATERIALITY-elaborated
Chapter 5-Fraud Amendment related to 5.22

and Responsibilities Companies Act, 2013
of the Auditor in
Change related to CARO,2020 5.23-5.24
this Regard

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Changes related to disclosure Throughout

Chapter 9- Audit of
requirements of Schedule III have the Chapter
Items of Financial
been done at relevant places in at relevant
Statements
bold and italics. places.
Chapter 10: The Amendment in Rule 11 10.36-10.37

Company Audit CARO,2020 10.41

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CONTENTS
MODULE – 1
Chapter 1 : Nature, Objective and Scope of Audit
Chapter 2 : Audit Strategy, Audit Planning and Audit Programme
Chapter 3 : Audit Documentation and Audit Evidence
Chapter 4 : Risk Assessment and Internal Control
Chapter 5 : Fraud and Responsibilities of the Auditor in this Regard
Chapter 6 : Audit in an Automated Environment
Chapter 7 : Audit Sampling
Chapter 8 : Analytical Procedures
MODULE – 2
Chapter 9 : Audit of Items of Financial Statements
Chapter 10 : The Company Audit
Chapter 11 : Audit Report
Chapter 12 : Audit of Banks
Chapter 13 : Audit of Different Types of Entities

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MODULE – 1: DETAILED CONTENTS
CHAPTER – 1: NATURE, OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF AUDIT
Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................................... 1.1

Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................. 1.1
Contents:
1. Meaning and Definition of Auditing .................................................................... 1.2
2. Objectives of Audit ................................................................................................. 1.3
3. Scope of Audit ........................................................................................................ 1.4
3.1 Aspects to be covered in Audit .........................................................1.5
4 Types of Audit .................................................................................................1.7
5. Advantages of Audit of Financial Statements ..................................................... 1.9
6. Inherent Limitations of Audit .............................................................................. 1.10
7. Relationship of Auditing with other disciplines ................................................ 1.14
7.1 Auditing and Accounting ....................................................................... 1.15
7.2 Auditing and Law ..................................................................................... 1.15
7.3 Auditing and Economics ......................................................................... 1.15
7.4 Auditing and Behavioural Science ......................................................... 1.16
7.5 Auditing and Statistics & Mathematics ................................................ 1.16
7.6 Auditing and Data Processing ............................................................... 1.16
7.7 Auditing and Financial Management .................................................... 1.17
7.8 Auditing and Production ........................................................................ 1.17
8. Standard Setting Process..................................................................................... 1.18
8.1 Role of International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board ....... 1.18

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8.2 Role of Auditing and Assurance Standards Board .............................. 1.19
9. Qualities of an Auditor ......................................................................................... 1.22
10. Elements of a System of Quality Control........................................................... 1.23
10.1. Leadership Responsibilities for Quality on Audits .........................1.23
10.2 Ethical Requirements Relating to an Audit of Financial

Statements ............................................................................................................... 1.24
10.3 Acceptance and Continuance of Client Relationships and Audit

Engagements .......................................................................................................... 1.34
10.4 Human Resources ....................................................................................... 1.34
10.5 Engagement Performance........................................................................ 1.35
10.6 Monitoring.................................................................................................... 1.35
11. Preconditions for an Audit................................................................................................ 1.36
12. Agreement on Audit Engagement Terms................................................................ 1.37
13. Recurring Audits ................................................................................................................... 1.38
14. Limitation on Scope Prior to Audit Engagement Acceptance ........................ 1.39
15. Acceptance of a Change in Engagement .......................................................... 1.40
Summary............................................................................................................................ 1.42
Test Your Knowledge ...................................................................................................................... 1.43
CHAPTER – 2: AUDIT STRATEGY, AUDIT PLANNING AND AUDIT PROGRAMME

Contents:
1. Audit Planning........................................................................................................................ 2.2
1.1 Audit Plan to conduct an effective audit........................................................ 2.2
1.2 Benefits of Planning in the audit of financial statements ........................ 2.2

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2. Audit Strategy.......................................................................................................................... 2.3
2.1 Overall Audit Strategy – Assistance to auditor ............................................ 2.3
2.2 Establishment of overall audit strategy .......................................................... 2.4
3. Relationship Between Overall Audit Strategy and Audit Plan............................... 2.6
4. Development of Audit Plan ................................................................................................ 2.6
4.1 Description of Audit Plan ..................................................................................... 2.6
4.2 Knowledge of the Client’s Business.................................................................. 2.7
5. Audit Planning a Continuous Process .......................................................................... 2.10
5.1 Additional Considerations in Initial Audit Engagements ....................... 2.10
6. Overall Audit Strategy and the Audit Plan – The Auditor’s

Responsibility......................................................................................................................... 2.10
7. Changes to Planning Decisions During the Course of the Audit ....................... 2.11
8. Direction, Supervision and Review ................................................................................ 2.12
9. Documentation. .................................................................................................................... 2.13
10. Audit Programme................................................................................................................. 2.14
10.1 Evolving One Audit Programme – Not Practicable For All

Businesses ................................................................................................................ 2.14
10.2 The Assistant Engaged - Be Encouraged

To Keep An Open Mind ...................................................................................... 2.14
10.3 Periodic Review of The Audit Programme................................................... 2.15
10.4 Constructing an Audit Programme ................................................................ 2.16
10.5 Audit Programme- Designed to provide audit evidence....................... 2.17
10.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of an Audit Programme...................... 2.19
11. Quality Control for Audit Work-Delegation and Supervision of

Audit Work.............................................................................................................................. 2.20
12. Audit Planning and Materiality ....................................................................................... 2.21

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12.1 Determining Materiality and Performance Materiality when

Planning the Audit ................................................................................................ 2.24
12.2. Materiality Level or Levels for Particular Classes of Transactions,

Account Balances or Disclosures ..................................................................... 2.27
12.3 Revision in Materiality level as the Audit Progresses .............................. 2.28
12.4 Documenting the Materiality............................................................................ 2.29
Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 2.29
Test Your Knowledge ...................................................................................................................... 2.30
CHAPTER – 3: AUDIT DOCUMENTATION AND AUDIT EVIDENCE

Contents
1. Audit Documentation ........................................................................................................... 3.2
1.1 Definition of Audit Documentation .................................................................. 3.2
1.2 Objective of the Auditor ....................................................................................... 3.3
1.3 Nature of Audit Documentation ....................................................................... 3.3
1.4 Purpose of Audit Documentation ..................................................................... 3.3
1.5 Form, Content and Extent of Audit Documentation .................................. 3.4
1.6 Examples of Audit Documentation................................................................... 3.5
1.7 Timely Preparation of Audit Documentation ............................................... 3.5
1.8 Audit File..................................................................................................................... 3.6
1.9 Assembly of the Final Audit File ........................................................................ 3.6
1.10 Documentation of Significant Matters and Related Significant

Professional Judgments ........................................................................................ 3.7
1.11 Completion Memorandum or Audit Documentation Summary ........... 3.8
1.12 Ownership of Audit Documentation................................................................ 3.9

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2. Audit Evidence......................................................................................................................... 3.9
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 3.9
2.2 Definition of Audit Evidence ............................................................................. 3.10
2.3 Objective of the Auditor ..................................................................................... 3.11
2.4 Information to be used as Audit Evidence .................................................. 3.11
2.5 Inconsistency in or Doubts over Reliability of Audit Evidence ............3.12
2.6 Sufficiency and Appropriateness of Audit Evidence ................................ 3.12
2.7 Sufficiency of Audit Evidence ........................................................................... 3.13
2.8 Appropriateness of Audit Evidence................................................................ 3.15
2.9 Sources of Audit Evidence ................................................................................. 3.15
2.10 Audit Procedures to Obtain Audit Evidence ............................................... 3.16
2.11 Audit Procedures ................................................................................................... 3.16
2.12 Types of Audit Evidence ..................................................................................... 3.34
2.13 Relevance and Reliability.................................................................................... 3.36
3. Written Representations.................................................................................................... 3.38
3.1 Written Representations as Audit Evidence ................................................ 3.39
3.2 The Objectives of the Auditor regarding Written

Representation ....................................................................................................... 3.40
3.3 Management from Whom Written Representations Requested ........3.41
3.4 Written Representations about Management’s Responsibilities ........3.42
3.5 Information Provided and Completeness of Transactions ....................3.42
3.6 Date of and Period(s) Covered by Written Representations ................3.43
3.7 Form of Written Representations.................................................................... 3.43
3.8 Doubt as to the Reliability of Written Representations .......................... 3.43
3.9 Requested Written Representations Not Provided .................................. 3.44

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4. Audit Evidence-Specific Considerations For Selected Items................................ 3.44
4.1 Inventory .................................................................................................................. 3.45
4.2 Attendance at Physical Inventory Counting ................................................ 3.45
4.3 Matters relevant in Planning Attendance at

Physical Inventory Counting ............................................................................. 3.45
4.4 Physical Inventory Counting Conducted other than at the

date of the Financial Statements..................................................................... 3.46
4.5 If the auditor is unable to attend Physical Inventory Counting

due to unforeseen circumstances ................................................................... 3.46
4.6 Attendance at Physical Inventory Counting is Impracticable ...............3.46
4.7 Litigation and Claims ........................................................................................... 3.48
4.8 If the auditor assesses a risk of material misstatement regarding

litigation or claims-Communication with the Entity’s External
Legal Counsel ......................................................................................................... 3.48
4.9 Segment Information .......................................................................................... 3.50
5. External Confirmation ......................................................................................................... 3.51
5.1 Objective of the auditor ..................................................................................... 3.51
5.1 Definition of External Confirmation .............................................................. 3.51
5.2 External Confirmation Procedures .................................................................. 3.53
5.3 Determining the Information to be Confirmed or Requested .............3.53
5.4 Determining the Information to be Confirmed or Requested .............3.53
5.5 Selecting the Appropriate Confirming Party .............................................. 3.53
5.6 Designing Confirmation Requests .................................................................. 3.53
5.7 Follow-Up on Confirmation Requests ........................................................... 3.54
5.8 Management’s Refusal to Allow the Auditor to Send a

Confirmation Request ......................................................................................... 3.54
5.9 Results of the External Confirmation Procedures ..................................... 3.55

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5.10 Negative Confirmations ...................................................................................... 3.56
5.11 Evaluating the Evidence Obtained .................................................................. 3.56
6. Initial Audit Engagement................................................................................................... 3.56
6.1 Objective of Auditor with respect to Opening Balances - in

conducting an initial audit engagement ...................................................... 3.57
6.2 Audit Procedures regarding Opening Balances ........................................ 3.57
6.3 Consistency of Accounting Policies relating to

Opening Balances. ................................................................................................ 3.58
6.4 Relevant Information in the Predecessor Auditor’s Report ..................3.58
6.5 Audit Conclusions and Reporting in relation to

Opening Balances. ................................................................................................ 3.58
6.6 Consistency of Accounting Policies................................................................ 3.59
6.7 Modification to the Opinion in the Predecessor Auditor’s Report ....3.59
7. Meaning of Related Party ................................................................................................. 3.59
7.1 Nature of Related Party Relationships and Transactions ....................... 3.60
7.2 Responsibilities of the Auditor ......................................................................... 3.60
7.3 The Identity of the Entity’s Related Parties.................................................. 3.61
8. Concept of True and Fair................................................................................................... 3.63
9. Auditor and the Subsequent Events ............................................................................. 3.65
9.1 Objectives................................................................................................................. 3.65
9.2 Audit Procedure Regarding Events Occurring between

the Date of the Financial Statements and the Date of
the Auditor’s Report............................................................................................. 3.66
9.3 Written Representations with respect to subsequent events ....................3.67
9.4 Auditor’s Obligations Regarding Subsequent Events ................................... 3.67

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10. Auditor and the Going Concern Assumption ............................................................ 3.68
10.1 Objectives of the auditor regarding going concern ................................ 3.69
10.2 Responsibilities of the Auditor ......................................................................... 3.69
10.3 Risk Assessment Procedures and Related Activities ................................ 3.70
10.4 Remaining Alert throughout the Audit for Audit

Evidence about Events or Conditions ............................................................ 3.70
10.5 Events or Conditions That May Cast Significant Doubt on

the Entity’s Ability to Continue as a Going Concern................................ 3.71
10.6 Additional Audit Procedures When Events or Conditions

Are Identified .......................................................................................................... 3.72
Summary............................................................................................................................ 3.74
Test Your Knowledge ...................................................................................................... 3.76
CHAPTER – 4: RISK ASSESSMENT AND INTERNAL CONTROL
Chapter Overview ............................................................................................................................... 4.1
Contents:
1. Audit Risk .................................................................................................................................. 4.2
1.1 Assessment of Risks - Matter of Professional Judgement....................... 4.3
1.2 What is not included in Audit Risk? ................................................................. 4.3
1.3 Risks of Material Misstatement at Two levels .............................................. 4.4
1.4 Components of Risk of Material Misstatement ........................................... 4.4
1.5 Combined Assessment of the Risk of Material Misstatement ............... 4.6
1.6 Detection Risk........................................................................................................... 4.7
2. Identifying and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement ............................ 4.8
2.1 Identify and Assess the Risks of Material Misstatement .......................... 4.9
2.2 Understanding of the Entity- A Continuous Process ............................... 4.12

xxii
2.3 The Required Understanding of the Entity and Its Environment

Including the Entity’s Internal Control .......................................................... 4.14
3. Internal Control ..................................................................................................................... 4.15
4. Evaluation of Internal Control by the Auditor ........................................................... 4.29
4.1 The Narrative Record ........................................................................................... 4.32
4.2 A Check List ............................................................................................................. 4.32
4.3 Internal Control Questionnaire ........................................................................ 4.33
4.4 Flow Chart ................................................................................................................ 4.34
5. Testing of Internal Control ............................................................................................... 4.35
6. Internal Control and “IT” Environment.........................................................................4.38
7. Materiality and Audit Risk ................................................................................................. 4.40
8. Documenting the Risk ........................................................................................................ 4.41
9. Internal Audit ......................................................................................................................... 4.42
9.1 Applicability of Provisions of Internal Audit ............................................... 4.42
9.2 Who can be appointed as Internal Auditor................................................. 4.44
9.3 Internal Audit Function. ...................................................................................... 4.44
10. Basics of Standards on Internal Audit issued by ICAI............................................. 4.47
11. Basic of Internal Control and Reporting requirements .......................................... 4.48
12. Difference between Internal Financial Control and Internal Control

over Financial Reporting.................................................................................................... 4.50
Summary............................................................................................................................ 4.50

xxiii
CHAPTER – 5: FRAUD AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE AUDITOR IN THIS

REGARD

Contents:
1. Meaning of Fraud. .................................................................................................. 5.2
2. Characteristics of Fraud ......................................................................................... 5.3
2.1 Fraud is Intentional ................................................................................................. 5.3
2.2 Fraud is a broad legal concept ............................................................................. 5.3
3. Detection of Fraud and Error: Duty of an Auditor .............................................. 5.9
4. Fraud Risk Factors and Possibility of Fraud ....................................................... 5.13
4.1 Fraud Risk Factors. ................................................................................................ 5.13
4.2 Circumstances Relating to Possibility of Fraud................................................. 5.17
5. Fraud Reporting .................................................................................................... 5.19
6. Auditor unable to continue the engagement ................................................... 5.26
Summary............................................................................................................................ 5.27
CHAPTER – 6: AUDIT IN AN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT
Contents:
1. What is an automated environment? .................................................................. 6.2
1.1 Key features of an Automated Environment.......................................... 6.3
2. Relevance of ‘IT’ in an Audit .................................................................................. 6.4
3. Risk & Controls in an Automated Environment ................................................. 6.6

xxiv
3.1 Understanding and Documenting Automated Environment .............. 6.6
3.2 Impact of IT related risks i.e. on Substantive Audit,

Controls and Reporting ............................................................................ 6.8
3.3 Types of Controls in an Automated Environment ................................. 6.9
4. Testing methods.................................................................................................... 6.12
5. Internal Financial Controls as per Regulatory Requirements.......................... 6.15
5.1 Audit Approach ........................................................................................ 6.17
6. Data Analytics for Audit. ...................................................................................... 6.17
7. Assess and report Audit Findings ....................................................................... 6.19
7.1 Reporting Audit Findings – An Illustration ........................................... 6.21
Glossary.............................................................................................................................. 6.21
Abbreviation ..................................................................................................................... 6.24
Summary............................................................................................................................ 6.25
CHAPTER – 7: AUDIT SAMPLING
Chapter Overview ............................................................................................................................... 7.1
Contents:
1. Sampling: An audit Procedure .............................................................................. 7.2
2. Meaning of Audit Sampling .................................................................................. 7.3
2.1 Population.................................................................................................................. 7.3
3. Approaches to Sampling ....................................................................................... 7.5
3.1 Statistical Sampling- More scientific ....................................................... 7.6
3.2 Non-statistical Sampling .......................................................................... 7.7
3.3 Appropriateness of Sampling Approaches ............................................ 7.9

xxv
4. Sample Design, Size and Selection of Items for testing .................................. 7.11
4.1 Sample Design ......................................................................................... 7.11
4.2 Sample Size .............................................................................................. 7.14
4.3 Selection of Items for Testing ....................................................................... 7.17
4.4 Sample Selection Methods..................................................................... 7.17
4.5 Sampling and Non-Sampling Risk ........................................................ 7.21
5. Performing Audit Procedures ............................................................................. 7.22
6. Nature and cause of deviations and Misstatements........................................ 7.23
7. Projecting Misstatements .................................................................................... 7.24
8. Evaluating results of Audit Sampling ................................................................. 7.24
Summary............................................................................................................................ 7.26
CHAPTER – 8: ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................8.1
Chapter Overview .............................................................................................8.1
Contents:
1. Meaning of Analytical Procedures ................................................................8.2
1.1 SA -520 Analytical Procedures .................................................................. 8.5
2. Purpose and timing of Analytical Procedures ..............................................8.6
2.1 Purpose of Analytical Procedures .....................................................8.6
2.2 Timing of Analytical Procedures .......................................................8.8
2.3 Analytical Procedures in Planning the Audit ....................................8.8
3. Substantive analytical procedures ................................................................8.9
3.1 Factors to be considered for Substantive Audit Procedures ...........8.9
3.2 Techniques available as Substantive Analytical Procedures ..........8.11

xxvi
3.3 Analytical Procedures used as Substantive Tests ...........................8.13
4. Suitability of Particular Analytical Procedures for given Assertions .........8.14
5. The Reliability of Data ..................................................................................8.15
6. Evaluation of Whether the expectation is sufficiently precise ..................8.17
7. Amount of difference of recorded amounts from

expected values that is acceptable ..................................................................... 8.17
8. Investigating Results of Analytical Procedures ..........................................8.18
9. Analytical Procedures that Assist when forming an Overall conclusion ...8.18
10. Considerations specific to Public sector entities ........................................8.19
Summary ..................................................................................................................8.19
Test Your Knowledge .............................................................................................8.20

CHAPTER
1
NATURE, OBJECTIVE AND

SCOPE OF AUDIT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Understand the functional classification and qualities of an auditor.
 Define audit and understand the objectives of audit, principles governing
audit etc.
 Distinguish between auditing and investigation.
 Understand different types of audit and relationship of auditing with
other disciplines.

1.2 AUDITING AND ASSURANCE
1. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF AUDITING

“An audit is an independent examination of financial information of any entity,
whether profit oriented or not, and irrespective of its size or legal form, when such
an examination is conducted with a view to expressing an opinion thereon.”
Analysis of the Definition

1. Audit is Independent examination of Financial information.
2. of any entity – that entity may be profit oriented or not and irrespective of its
size or legal form. For example – Profit oriented – Audit of Listed company
engaged in business. On the other hand, Audit of NGO – not profit oriented.
3. The objective of the audit is to express an opinion on the financial statements.
The person conducting this task should take care to ensure that financial
statements would not mislead anybody. This he can do honestly by satisfying
himself that:
(i) the accounts have been drawn up with reference to entries in the books of
account;
(ii) the entries in the books of account are adequately supported by sufficient
and appropriate evidence;
(iii) none of the entries in the books of account has been omitted in the process
of compilation and nothing which is not in the books of account has found
place in the statements;
(iv) the information conveyed by the statements is clear and unambiguous;
(v) the financial statement amounts are properly classified, described and
disclosed in conformity with accounting standards; and
(vi) the statement of accounts present a true and fair picture of the operational
results and of the assets and liabilities.
Example
While auditing the books of accounts of Talented and Efficient Limited for the
financial year 2020-21, the auditor of the above mentioned company observed that
Repair and Maintenance Expenses of ` 1,30,000 and Power and Fuel Expenses of
` 2,92,000 were not recorded in books of accounts, however they were appearing
in financial statements (Statement of Profit and Loss) of the above mentioned
company. After such observation the auditor of Talented and Efficient Limited came
to the conclusion that the financial statements are not presenting a true and fair

NATURE, OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF AUDIT 1.3
picture of the operational results of Talented and Efficient Limited for the financial
year 2020-21.
2. OBJECTIVES OF AUDIT
As per SA-200 “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor”, in conducting an
audit of financial statements, the overall objectives of the auditor are:
(a) To obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements as a
whole are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error,
thereby enabling the auditor to express an opinion on whether the financial
statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an
applicable financial reporting framework; and
(b) To report on the financial statements, and communicate as required by the
SAs, in accordance with the auditor’s findings.
Example
While auditing the books of accounts of Different and Capable Limited for the
financial year 2020-21, Mr. Z the auditor of the above mentioned company
explained to a new audit team members about the objectives for which Audit of a
company is conducted. While going through the financial statements of the
company, audit team observed that there were many errors in the heads of
expenses which were material and also requirements of Companies Act, 2013 were
not complied with. When audit team discussed the matters with Mr. Z with regard
to Different and Capable Limited , he came to the conclusion that the auditors did
not obtain reasonable assurance and were unable to express an opinion on the
financial statements of the company.

3. SCOPE OF AUDIT
The following points merit consideration in regard to scope of audit:
1. The audit should be organized to cover adequately all aspects of the
enterprise relevant to the financial statements being audited.
2. To form an opinion on the financial statements, the auditor should be
reasonably satisfied as to whether the information contained in the
underlying accounting records and other source data is reliable and
sufficient as the basis for the preparation of the financial statements.
3. In forming his opinion, the auditor should also decide whether the relevant
information is properly disclosed in the financial statements subject to
statutory requirements, where applicable.
4. The auditor assesses the reliability and sufficiency of the information
contained in the underlying accounting records and other source data by:
(a) making a study and evaluation of accounting systems and internal
controls and
(b) carrying out such other tests, enquiries and other verification
procedures of accounting transactions and account balances as he
considers appropriate in the particular circumstances.
5. The auditor determines whether the relevant information is properly
disclosed in the financial statements by:
(a) comparing the financial statements with the underlying accounting
records and other source data to see whether they properly summarize
the transactions and events recorded therein; and

(b) considering the judgments that management has made in

preparing the financial statements accordingly, the auditor assesses
the selection and consistent application of accounting policies, the
manner in which the information has been classified, and the adequacy
of disclosure.
6. The auditor is not expected to perform duties which fall outside the
scope of his competence. For example, the professional skill required of an
auditor does not include that of a technical expert for determining physical
condition of certain assets.
7. Constraints on the scope of the audit of financial statements that impair
the auditor’s ability to express an unqualified opinion on such financial
statement should be set out in his report, and a qualified opinion or
disclaimer of opinion should be expressed as appropriate.
3.1 Aspects to be covered in Audit

The principal aspects to be covered in an audit of the financial statements are the
following:
(i) An examination of the system of accounting and internal control to
ascertain whether it is appropriate for the business and helps in properly
recording all transactions.
Example
While conducting the audit of Extremely Careful Limited for the financial year
2020-21, the engagement partner of WY and Associates, auditor of the
company explained to the audit team members about the importance of
verifying the existence and proper working of system of internal control. He
explained further that if Internal Controls relating to financial transactions are
adequate and working properly, confidence of the auditor on the books of
accounts and thereby the financial statements increases and subsequently
detailed audit procedures on various transactions would be effective and
efficient.

(ii) Reviewing the system and procedures to find out whether they are adequate
and comprehensive and incidentally whether material inadequacies and
weaknesses exist to allow frauds and errors going unnoticed.
(iii) Checking of the arithmetical accuracy of the books of account by the
verification of postings, balances, etc.
(iv) Verification of the authenticity and validity of transactions entered into
by making an examination of the entries in the books of accounts with the
relevant supporting documents.
(v) Ascertaining that a proper distinction has been made between items of
capital and of revenue nature and that the amounts of various items of
income and expenditure adjusted in the accounts corresponding to the
accounting period.
(vi) Comparison of the balance sheet and profit and loss account or other
statements with the underlying record in order to see that they are in
accordance therewith.
(vii) Verification of the title, existence and value of the assets appearing in the
balance sheet.

Assertions about account balances at the period end:

(a) Existence—assets, liabilities, and equity interests exist.
(b) Rights and obligations—the entity holds or controls the rights to
assets, and liabilities are the obligations of the entity.
(c) Completeness—all assets, liabilities and equity interests that should
have been recorded have been recorded.
(d) Valuation and allocation—assets, liabilities, and equity interests are
included in the financial statements at appropriate amounts and any
resulting valuation or allocation adjustments are appropriately
recorded.
(viii) Verification of the liabilities stated in the balance sheet.
(ix) Checking the result shown by the profit and loss and to see whether the
results shown are true and fair.
(x) Where audit is of a corporate body, confirming that the statutory
requirements have been complied with.
(xi) Reporting to the appropriate person/body whether the statements of
account examined do reveal a true and fair view of the state of affairs and of
the profit and loss of the organisation.
Definition of Assertions: It refers to representations by management, explicit or
otherwise, that are embodied in the financial statements, as used by the auditor to
consider the different types of potential misstatements that may occur.
(Note: For detailed discussion on assertions, students may refer Chapter 3- Audit
Documentation and Audit Evidence)
4. TYPES OF AUDIT
Audit is not legally obligatory for all types of business organisations or
institutions. On this basis audits may be of two broad categories i.e., audits
required under law and voluntary audits.
(i) Audit required under law: The organisations which require audit under law are
the following: e.g companies governed by the Companies Act; banking
companies; other statutory bodies required by their regulators or by specific Act.
(ii) In the voluntary category are the audits of the accounts of proprietary
entities, partnership firms, Hindu undivided families, etc. In respect of such
accounts, there is no basic legal requirement of audit. Many of such

enterprises as a matter of internal rules require audit. Some may be required

to get their accounts audited on the directives of Government for various
purposes like sanction of grants, loans, etc. But the important motive for
getting accounts audited lies in the advantages that follow from an
independent professional audit. This is perhaps the reason why large
numbers of proprietary and partnership business firms get their accounts
audited. Government companies have some special features which will be
discussed later.
As already stated, the auditor should get the scope of his duties and responsibilities
defined by obtaining instructions in writing. Also, it is always a wise precaution to
state in the report, accompanying the financial statements of proprietary or
partnership firms or other similar organisations, the nature of the work carried out
and explain the important features of the financial statements on which a report
has been made. Furthermore, to ensure that the report will be brought to the notice
of all concerned stakeholders, the accounts should bear reference to the report.
A special reference is necessary for non-profit making institutions like schools,
clubs, hospitals, etc. Most of these have some internal rules to govern their affairs
and generally a provision about the requirement of audit is inserted. Activity in the
nature of business is not altogether ruled out as a club may sell drinks and eatables
to the members and their guests or a school may have endowed agricultural
property to yield income. What makes them distinct, is the absence of the question
of division of profit. Any surplus which may arise can only be used for achieving the
objects of the institution. Educational institutions, hospitals, associations, etc.,
irrespective of any internal rules, get their accounts audited because most of them
enjoy government or municipal grants and, generally, for this purpose audited
accounts are insisted upon.
Trusts, however, stand on a slightly different footing; these may be public trusts or
private trusts. Trusts can carry on business as well. In the majority of cases trustees
are private persons. Trusts generally have two classes of beneficiaries; tenants for
life and remainders; persons to whom the accounts are of the supreme importance
are often widows and minors, who cannot criticize the accounts in any effective
manner. Although audit of trusts, except for public trusts, is not mandatory yet most
of the trust deeds contain a clause for audit of accounts. Private trustees also
recognise the advantages of audit in their own interest, since any erroneous
treatment in the accounts for which they might be personally liable will be pointed
out by the auditor.

5. ADVANTAGES OF AUDIT OF FINANCIAL

STATEMENTS
The chief utility of audit lies in reliable financial statements on the basis of which
the state of affairs may be easy to understand. Apart from this obvious utility, there
are other advantages of audit. Some or all of these are of considerable value even to
those enterprises and organisations where audit is not compulsory, these
advantages are given below:
(a) It safeguards the financial interest of persons who are not associated
with the management of the entity, whether they are partners or shareholders
,bankers, Financial Institutions, public at large etc.
(b) It acts as a moral check on the employees from committing defalcations or
embezzlement.
(c) Audited financial statements are helpful in settling liability for taxes,
negotiating loans and for determining the purchase consideration for a
business.
(d) These are also useful for settling trade disputes for higher wages or bonus
as well as claims in respect of damage suffered by property, by fire or some
other calamity.
(e) An audit can also help in the detection of wastages and losses to show the
different ways by which these might be checked, especially those that occur

due to the absence or inadequacy of internal checks or internal control

measures.
(f) Audit ascertains whether the necessary books of account and allied
records have been properly kept and helps the client in making good
deficiencies or inadequacies in this respect.
(g) As an appraisal function, audit reviews the existence and operations of
various controls in the organisations and reports weaknesses,
inadequacies, etc., in them.
(h) Audited accounts are of great help in the settlement of accounts at the time
of admission or death of partner.
(i) Government may require audited and certified financial statements
before it gives assistance or issues a license for a particular trade.
ILLUSTRATION 1
The auditor of Very Different Limited explained to the audit team members as to how
the audited financial statements of the above mentioned company will help in
protecting the financial interests of shareholders of the company. Explain whether
audited financial statements of a company would help in protecting financial
interests of shareholders of that company.
SOLUTION
Audited financial statements of a company help in protecting financial interests of
shareholders of a company. Shareholders of a company are not directly involved in
management of company, so audited financial statements are definitely helpful to
the shareholders in understanding the true financial position of a company because
audit is an independent examination of financial statements of an entity.
6. INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF AUDIT

As per SA 200 “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the Conduct of
an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”,
The auditor is not expected to, and cannot, reduce audit risk to zero and cannot
therefore obtain absolute assurance that the financial statements are free from
material misstatement due to fraud or error. This is because there are inherent
limitations of an audit. The inherent limitations of an audit arise from:
(i) The Nature of Financial Reporting: The preparation of financial statements

involves judgment by management in applying the requirements of the

entity’s applicable financial reporting framework to the facts and

circumstances of the entity. In addition, many financial statement items
involve subjective decisions or assessments or a degree of uncertainty, and
there may be a range of acceptable interpretations or judgments that may be
made.
(ii) The Nature of Audit Procedures: There are practical and legal limitations on
the auditor’s ability to obtain audit evidence. For example:
1. There is the possibility that management or others may not provide,
intentionally or unintentionally, the complete information that is
relevant to the preparation and presentation of the financial statements
or that has been requested by the auditor.
2. Fraud may involve sophisticated and carefully organised schemes
designed to conceal it. Therefore, audit procedures used to gather audit
evidence may be ineffective for detecting an intentional misstatement
that involves, for example, collusion to falsify documentation which may
cause the auditor to believe that audit evidence is valid when it is not.
The auditor is neither trained as nor expected to be an expert in the
authentication of documents.
3. An audit is not an official investigation into alleged wrongdoing.
Accordingly, the auditor is not given specific legal powers, such as the
power of search, which may be necessary for such an investigation.
We have to clearly understand that audit is distinct from
investigation. Investigation is a critical examination of the
accounts with a special purpose. For example, if fraud is suspected
and it is specifically called upon to check the accounts whether
fraud really exists, it takes character of investigation.
The objective of audit, on the other hand as we have already
discussed, is to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the
financial statements as a whole are free from material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, thereby enabling the
auditor to express an opinion.
Therefore, audit is never started with a pre-conceived notion about
state of affairs; about wrong-doing; about some wrong having been
committed. The auditor seeks to report what he finds in normal
course of examination of accounts. However, it is quite possible
that sometimes investigation results from the prima facie findings

of the auditor. It may happen that auditor has given some findings
of serious concern. Such findings may prompt for calling an
investigation.
Example
A Partnership Firm of Chartered Accountants SW and Associates was
appointed to audit the books of accounts of Efficient and Vibrant Limited for
the financial year 2020-21. While auditing the books of accounts of the above
mentioned company, Mr. S one of the partners of SW and Associates
observed that the management and other senior employees of the above
mentioned company were not cooperating in providing required information
for the purpose of audit to him and his audit team members. This not so
cooperative behaviour of management and senior employees of Efficient and
Vibrant Limited will act as an Inherent Limitation for SW and Associates,
thereby preventing the auditor from expressing an opinion on the financial
statements of the above mentioned company.
(iii) Timeliness of Financial Reporting and the Balance between Benefit and
Cost: The matter of difficulty, time, or cost involved is not in itself a valid basis
for the auditor to omit an audit procedure for which there is no alternative.
Appropriate planning assists in making sufficient time and resources available
for the conduct of the audit. Notwithstanding this, the relevance of
information, and thereby its value, tends to diminish over time, and there is a
balance to be struck between the reliability of information and its cost.
(iv) Other Matters that Affect the Limitations of an Audit: In case of certain
subject matters, limitations on the auditor’s ability to detect material
misstatements are particularly significant. Such assertions or subject matters
include:
- Fraud, particularly fraud involving senior management or collusion.
- The existence and completeness of related party relationships and
transactions.
- The occurrence of non-compliance with laws and regulations.
- Future events or conditions that may cause an entity to cease to
continue as a going concern.

ILLUSTRATION 2
MNO Ltd requested the auditor CA P to provide for absolute assurance in respect of
its ten branches scattered in Delhi and confirm that the financial statements are free
from material misstatement due to fraud or error. Advise.
SOLUTION
The auditor is not expected to, and cannot, reduce audit risk to zero and cannot
therefore obtain absolute assurance that the financial statements are free from
material misstatement due to fraud or error. This is because there are inherent
limitations of an audit, which result in most of the audit evidence on which the auditor
draws conclusions and bases the auditor’s opinion being persuasive rather than
conclusive.
In view of the above, CA P cannot provide audit absolute assurance to MNO Ltd in
respect of its branches.
Inherent Limitations of Audit (SA 200 “Overall Objectives of the Independent

Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”):
The auditor is not expected to, and cannot, reduce audit risk to zero because there
are inherent limitations of an audit. The inherent limitations of an audit arise from:
The Nature of Financial Reporting: The preparation of financial statements
involves judgment by management.
The Nature of Audit Procedures: There are practical and legal limitations on the
auditor’s ability to obtain audit evidence such as:
Possibility that management or Fraud may involve An audit is not an
others may not provide, sophisticated and official
intentionally or unintentionally, the carefully organised investigation into
complete information relevant for schemes. alleged
preparation and presentation of FS. wrongdoing.
Timeliness of Financial Reporting and the Balance between Benefit and

Cost: Relevance of information, and thereby its value, tends to diminish over
time, and there is a balance to be struck between the reliability of information
and its cost.
Other Matters that Affect the Limitations of an Audit: Certain assertions or
subject matters are particularly significant, such assertions or subject matters
include:

• Fraud, particularly • The occurrence of non-compliance with laws and

involving senior regulations.
management or • Future events or conditions that may cause an
collusion. entity to cease to continue as a going concern.
• The existence and
completeness of
related party
relationships and
transactions.
ILLUSTRATION 3
DEF & Co. Chartered Accountants successfully carried out the audit of Shree Garments for
the f.y. 2019-2020. After the completion of the audit, there were found material
misstatements due to fraud in the financial statements which were not noticed and reported
by the auditor. Management alleges that it is failure on the part of auditor. Comment.
SOLUTION
Because of the limitations of an audit, there is an unavoidable risk that some
material misstatements of the financial statements may not be detected, even
though the audit is properly planned and performed in accordance with SAs.
Accordingly, the subsequent discovery of a material misstatement of the financial
statements resulting from fraud or error does not by itself indicate a failure to
conduct an audit in accordance with SAs. However, the inherent limitations of an
audit are not a justification for the auditor to be satisfied with less-than-persuasive
audit evidence. Whether the auditor has performed an audit in accordance with SAs
is determined by the audit procedures performed in the circumstances, the
sufficiency and appropriateness of the audit evidence obtained as a result thereof
and the suitability of the auditor’s report based on an evaluation of that evidence
in light of the overall objectives of the auditor.
7. RELATIONSHIP OF AUDITING WITH OTHER

DISCIPLINES
The field of auditing as a discipline in simple words involves review of various
assertions; both in financial as well as in non-financial terms, with a view to prove
the veracity of such assertions and expression of opinion by auditor on the same.
Thus, it is quite logical and natural that the function of audit can be performed
if and only if the person also possesses a good knowledge about the fields in
respect of which he is conducting such a review.

Auditing and Accounting: Auditing reviews the

financial statements which are nothing but a
result of the overall accounting process.
Auditing and Law: An auditor should have a
good knowledge of business laws affecting
the entity.
Auditing and Economics: Auditor is expected to
be familiar with the overall economic
environment of the client.
Auditing and Behavioural Science: knowledge of human behaviour is essential for
an auditor to effectively discharge his duties
Auditing and Statistics & Mathematics: auditor is also expected to have the
knowledge of statistical sampling for meaningful conclusions and mathematics
for verification of inventories.
Auditing and Data Processing: EDP auditing in itself is developing as a
discipline in itself.
Auditing and Financial Management: the auditor is expected to have
knowledge about various financial techniques such as working capital
management, fund flow, ratio analysis, capital budgeting etc.
Auditing and Production: good auditor is one who understands the client and his
business functions such as production, cost system, marketing etc.
7.1 Auditing and Accounting

It has been pointed out earlier that both accounting and auditing are closely related
with each other as auditing reviews the financial statements which are nothing but
a result of the overall accounting process. It naturally calls on the part of the auditor
to have a thorough and sound knowledge of generally accepted principles of
accounting before he can review the financial statements. In fact, auditing as a
discipline is also closely related with various other disciplines as there is lot of
linkages in the work which is done by an auditor in his day-to-day activities. To begin
with, it may be noted that the discipline of auditing itself is a logical construct and
everything done in auditing must be bound by the rules of logic. Ethical precepts
are the foundations on which the foundation of the entire accounting profession
rests. The knowledge of language is also considered essential in the field of auditing
as the auditor shall be required to communicate, both in writing as well as orally, in
day-to-day work.

7.2 Auditing and Law

The relationship between auditing and law is very close one. Auditing involves
examination of various transactions from the view point of whether or not these
have been properly entered into. It necessitates that an auditor should have a good
knowledge of business laws affecting the entity. He should be familiar with the law
of contracts, negotiable instruments, etc. The knowledge of taxation laws is also
inevitable as entity is required to prepare their financial statements taking into
account various provisions affected by various tax laws. In analysing the impact of
various transactions particularly from the accounting aspect, an auditor ought to
have a good knowledge about the direct as well as indirect Tax Laws.
7.3 Auditing and Economics

As, it is well known, accounting is concerned with the accumulation and
presentation of data relating to economic activity. Though the concept of income as
put forward by economists is different as compared to the accountants concept of
income, still, there are lot of similar grounds on which the accounting has
flourished. From the auditing view point, the auditors are more concerned with
Micro economics rather than with the Macro economics. The knowledge of Macro
economics should include the nature of economic force that affects the firm,
relationship of price, productivity and the role of Government and Government
regulations. Auditor is expected to be familiar with the overall economic
environment in which his client is operating.
7.4 Auditing and Behavioural Science

The field of auditing as a discipline involves review of various assertions; both in financial
as well as in non-financial terms, with a view to prove the veracity of such assertions and
expression of opinion by auditor on the same. Thus, it is quite logical and natural that
the function of audit can be performed if and only if the person also possesses a good
knowledge about the fields in respect of which he is conducting such a review.
The discipline of behavioural science is closely linked with the subject of auditing.
While it may be said that an auditor, particularly the financial auditor, deals basically
with the figures contained in the financial statements but he shall be required to
interact with a lot of people in the organisation. As against the financial auditor, the
internal auditor or a management auditor is expected to deal with human beings
rather than financial figures. One of the basic elements in designing the internal
control system is personnel. Howsoever, if a sound internal control structure is
designed, it cannot work until and unless the people who are working in the

organisation are competent and honest. The knowledge of human behaviour is

indeed very essential for an auditor so as to effectively discharge his duties.
7.5 Auditing and Statistics & Mathematics

With the passage of time, test check procedures in auditing have become part of
generally accepted auditing procedures. With the emergence of test check procedure,
discipline of statistics has come quite close to auditing as the auditor is also expected
to have the knowledge of statistical sampling so as to arrive at meaningful conclusions.
The knowledge of mathematics is also required on the part of auditor particularly at
the time of verification of inventories. The use of data analytics is advancing rapidly in
auditing where many organizations are using continuous auditing and continuous
monitoring of data to identify risks as part of their system of internal control.
7.6 Auditing and Data Processing

Today, organisations are witnessing revolution in the field of data processing of accounts.
Many organisations are carrying out their financial accounting activities with the help of
computers which can document, record, collate, allocate and value accounting data and
information in very large quantity at very high speed. The dependence on the accuracy of
the programmed instructions given today, the computer is able to carry out each of these
activities with complete accuracy. With such a phenomenal growth in the field of computer
sciences, the auditor should have good knowledge of the components, general capability
of the system and the related terms. In fact, Computerised Information System auditing is
developing as a discipline in itself.
ILLUSTRATION 4
Mr. G, one of the team members of audit team of Different and Capable Limited was
of the view that role of computers and data processing in auditing is increasing with
each passing day.
Explain how computers and data processing helps in conducting audit of a company.
SOLUTION
The role of computers and data processing is important while conducting the audit
of a particular company. Computers are able to save and process large volumes of
data and at the same time provide that data whenever required. This way
computers and data processing would be of huge help to the auditor in terms of
saving time and efforts while conducting the audit of a company.

7.7 Auditing and Financial Management

Auditing is also closely related with other functional fields of business such as
finance, production, marketing, personnel and other general areas of business
management. With the overgrowing field of auditing, the financial services sector
occupies a dominant place in our system. While in general terms, the auditor is
expected to have knowledge about various financial techniques such as working
capital management, funds flow, ratio analysis, capital budgeting etc. The auditor
is also expected to have a fair knowledge of the institutions that comprise the
market place. The knowledge of various institutions and Government activities that
influence the operations of the financial market are also required to be understood
by an auditor.
7.8 Auditing and Production

Regarding production function, it may be stated that a good auditor is one who
understands the client and his business. While carrying out the audit activity, the
auditor is required to evaluate transactions from the accounting aspect in relation
to the process through which it has passed through as accounting for by-products;
joint- products may also require to be done. The knowledge of production process
shall become more essential in case of an internal auditor. The auditor shall also
require understanding the cost system in operation in the factory and assessing
whether the same is adequate for the particular company. The understanding of
the terminology of the production shall enable an auditor to communicate with
production employees in connection with his work.
On the similar pattern the auditor is also expected to have good understanding
about the marketing, personnel and other general business management areas.
8. STANDARD SETTING PROCESS

8.1 Role of International Auditing and Assurance
Standards Board
In 1977, the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) was set up with a view
to bringing harmony in the profession of accountancy on an international scale. In
pursuing this mission, the IFAC Board has established the International Auditing
and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB) to develop and issue, in the public interest
and under its own authority, high quality auditing standards for use around the
world. The IFAC Board has determined that designation of the IAASB as the

responsible body, under its own authority and within its stated terms of reference,
best serves the public interest in achieving this aspect of its mission.
The IAASB functions as an independent standard-setting body under the auspices
of IFAC. The objective of the IAASB is to serve the public interest by setting high
quality auditing standards and by facilitating the convergence of international and
national standards, thereby enhancing the quality and uniformity of practice
throughout the world and strengthening public confidence in the global auditing
and assurance profession. The IAASB achieves this objective by:
♦ Establishing high quality auditing standards and guidance for financial
statement audits that are generally accepted and recognized by investors,
auditors, governments, banking regulators, securities regulators and other key
stakeholders across the world;
♦ Establishing high quality standards and guidance for other types of assurance
services on both financial and non-financial matters;
♦ Establishing high quality standards and guidance for other related services;
♦ Establishing high quality standards for quality control covering the scope of
services addressed by the IAASB; and
♦ Publishing other pronouncements on auditing and assurance matters,
thereby advancing public understanding of the roles and responsibility of
professional auditors and assurance service providers.
International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB): The IFAC Board
has established the IAASB to develop and issue, in the public interest and under its
own authority, high quality auditing standards for use around the world. The IAASB
functions as an independent standard-setting body under the auspices of IFAC.
Auditing and Assurance Standards Board: ICAI is a member of the IFAC and is
committed to work towards the implementation of the guidelines issued by the
IFAC. ICAI constituted the AASB (erstwhile Auditing Practices Committee) to review
the existing auditing practices in India and to develop Engagement and Quality
Control Standards (erstwhile Statements on Standard Auditing Practices) so that
these may be issued by the Council of the Institute.
8.2 Role of Auditing and Assurance Standards Board

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India is a member of the IFAC and is
committed to work towards the implementation of the guidelines issued by the
IFAC. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India constituted the Auditing

Practices Committee (APC) in 1982. The main function of the APC is to review the
existing auditing practices in India and to develop Statements on Standard Auditing
Practices (SAPs) so that these may be issued by the Council of the Institute. While
formulating the SAPs in India, the APC gives due consideration to the international
auditing guidelines issued by the IAPC and then tries to integrate them to the
extent possible in the light of the conditions and practices prevailing in India. While
formulating the SAPs, the APC takes into consideration the applicable laws,
customs, usages and business environment in India. In July, 2002, the Auditing
Practices Committee has been converted into an Auditing and Assurance Standards
Board (AASB) by the Council of the Institute, to be in line with the international
trend. A significant step has been taken aimed at bringing in the desired
transparency in the working of the Auditing and Assurance Standards Board,
through participation of representatives of various segments of the society and
interest groups, such as, regulators, industry and academics. The nomenclature of
SAPs had also been changed to Auditing and Assurance Standards (AASs).
A major development in the field of auditing has been the issuance of revised and
/or redrafted International Standards on Auditing pursuant to the Clarity Project of
IAASB. The objective of this project is to improve the clarity of International
Standards on Auditing (ISAs). The IAASB aims to set high quality international
auditing and assurance standards that are understandable, clear and capable of
consistent application, thereby serving to enhance the quality and uniformity of
practice worldwide. The Auditing and Assurance Standards Board has also laid out
a strategy to match step with the IAASB Clarity Project. In the year 2007, the Board
issued several revised/new Standards pursuant to the IAASB Clarity Project.
Renaming, Re-numbering and Categorisation of Auditing and Assurance
Standards: In terms of the Revised Preface, the Auditing and Assurance Standards
are now renamed based on the type of assurance provided by the engagement
undertaken by a member, viz.,

It is to be understood that Standards on Auditing (SAs) apply in “audit of

historical financial information” whereas Standards on Review Engagements
(SREs) apply in “review of historical financial information”. Remember that
Standards on auditing apply in “audit” of historical financial information
which is a reasonable assurance engagement whereas Standards on Review
Engagements apply in “review” of historical financial information which is a
limited assurance engagement only.
“Historical financial information means” information expressed in financial
terms in relation to a particular entity, derived primarily from that entity’s
accounting system, about economic events occurring in past time periods or
about economic conditions or circumstances at points in time in the past.
Here, we have to broadly understand that “audit” and “review” are two
different terms. Audit is a reasonable assurance engagement and its objective
is reduction in assurance engagement risk to an acceptably low level in the
circumstances of the engagement. However, “review” is a limited assurance
engagement and its objective is a reduction in assurance engagement risk to
a level that is acceptable in the circumstances of the engagement,
Standards on Auditing have been issued on wide spectrum of issues in the field
of auditing including (but not limited to) overall objectives of independent
auditor, audit documentation, planning an audit of financial statements,
identifying and assessing risk of material misstatement, audit evidence, audit
sampling, going concern and forming an opinion and reporting on financial
statements. You would be studying about these standards and many others in
subsequent chapters.
Some examples of Standards on Auditing are
♦ SA 200 Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the Conduct of
an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing
♦ SA 230 Audit Documentation
♦ SA 315 Identifying and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement
through Understanding the Entity and its Environment
♦ SA 500 Audit Evidence
♦ Revised SA 700 Forming an Opinion and Reporting on Financial
Statements

Examples of Standards on Review engagements are

♦ SRE 2400 (Revised) Engagements to Review Historical Financial
Statements
♦ SRE 2410 Review of Interim Financial Information Performed by the
Independent Auditor of the Entity
There is another set of standards which apply in assurance engagements
dealing with subject matters other than historical financial information. Such
assurance engagements do not include “audit” or “review” of historical
financial information. These standards are known as Standards on Assurance
Engagements.
For example, an assurance engagement relating to examination of prospective
financial information. Prospective financial information means financial
information based on assumptions about events that may occur in the future
and possible actions by an entity. It can be in the form a forecast or projection
or combination of both.
It is to be noted that in such type of assurance engagements, examination is
not of historical financial information.
Here, it is important to note the difference between “Historical financial
information” and “Prospective financial information.” The former relates to
information expressed in financial terms of an entity about economic events,
conditions or circumstances occurring in past periods. The latter relates to
financial information based on assumptions about occurrence of future events
and possible actions by an entity. Therefore, historical financial information
is rooted in past events which have already occurred whereas prospective
financial information is related to future events.
Examples of Standards on Assurance Engagements are: -
♦ SAE 3400 The Examination of Prospective Financial Information
♦ SAE 3420 Assurance Engagements to Report on the Compilation of Pro
Forma Financial Information Included in a Prospectus
Lastly, there are standards on related services. These standards apply in
engagements to perform agreed-upon procedures regarding financial
information. For example, an engagement to perform agreed-upon procedures
may require the auditor to perform certain procedures concerning individual
items of financial data, say, accounts payable, accounts receivable, purchases
from related parties and sales and profits of a segment of an entity, or a

financial statement, say, a balance sheet or even a complete set of financial

statements.
Examples of Standards on related services are: -
♦ SRS 4400 Engagements to perform agreed-upon procedures regarding
financial information
♦ SRS 4410 (Revised) Compilation engagements
It is to be clearly understood that all the above standards i.e., Standards on
Auditing (SAs), Standards on Review Engagements (SREs), Standards on
Assurance Engagements (SAEs) and Standards on related services (SRSs) are
collectively known as the Engagement Standards.
Further, it is also to be remembered that Standards on Quality Control (SQCs)
are to be applied for all services covered by Engagement Standards.
Diagrammatic Representation of the Structure of Standards Under the New
Preface
These Standards will apply whenever an independent audit is carried out; that is, in
the independent examination of financial information of any entity, whether profit

oriented or not, and irrespective of its size, or legal form (unless specified
otherwise) when such an examination is conducted with a view to expressing an
opinion thereon.
While discharging their attest function, it will be the duty of members of the Institute
to ensure that the Standards are followed in the audit of financial information
covered by their audit reports. If for any reason a member has not been able to
perform an audit in accordance with the Standards, his report should draw
attention to the material departures therefrom, auditors will be expected to follow
Standards in the audits commencing on or after the date specified in the statement.
Remember all Standards are mandatory from the date mentioned therein and it is
obligatory upon members of Institute to adhere to these whenever an audit is
carried out.
All relevant Standards which are important from students’ view point have been
covered as an integral part of the text.
Compliance with Documents Issued by the Institute: The Institute has, from time
to time, issued ‘Guidance Notes’ and ‘Statements’ on a number of matters. The
‘Statements’ have been issued with a view to securing compliance by members on
matters which, in the opinion of the Council, are critical for the proper discharge of
their functions. ‘Statements’ therefore are mandatory.
Accordingly, while discharging their attest function, it will be the duty of the
members of the Institute:
(a) to examine whether ‘Statements’ relating to accounting matters are complied
with in the presentation of financial statements covered by their audit. In the
event of any deviation from the ‘Statements’, it will be their duty to make
adequate disclosures in their audit reports so that the users of financial
statements may be aware of such deviations; and
(b) to ensure that the ‘Statements’ relating to auditing matters are followed in
the audit of financial information covered by their audit reports. If, for any
reason, a member has not been able to perform an audit in accordance with
such ‘Statements’, his report should draw attention to the material
departures, therefrom.
‘Guidance Notes’ : are primarily designed to provide guidance to members on matters

which may arise in the course of their professional work and on which they may rely in
the course of their professional work and on which they may desire assistance in
resolving issues which may pose difficulty. Guidance Notes are recommendatory in
nature. A member should ordinarily follow recommendations in a guidance note

relating to an auditing matter except where he is satisfied that in the circumstances of

the case, it may not be necessary to do so. Similarly, while discharging his attest
function, a member should examine whether the recommendations in a guidance note
relating to an accounting matter have been followed or not. If the same have not been
followed, the member should consider whether keeping in view the circumstances of
the case, a disclosure in his report is necessary.
There are however a few guidance notes in case of which the Council has specifically
stated (discussed in Announcements part reproduced in Handbook on Auditing
Pronouncements) that they should be considered as mandatory on members while
discharging their attest function.
9. QUALITIES OF AN AUDITOR
It is not enough to realise what an auditor should be. He is concerned with the
reporting on financial matters of business and other institutions. Financial matters
inherently are to be set with the problems of human fallibility; errors and frauds are
frequent. The qualities required, according to Dicksee, are tact, caution, firmness,
good temper, integrity, discretion, industry, judgement, patience, clear headedness
and reliability. In short, all those personal qualities that go to make a good
businessman contribute to the making of a good auditor. In addition, he must have
the shine of culture for attaining a great height. He must have the highest degree of
integrity backed by adequate independence. In fact, Code of ethics mentions
integrity, objectivity and independence as one of the fundamental principles of
professional ethics.
He must have a thorough knowledge of the general principles of law which govern
matters with which he is likely to be in intimate contact. The Companies Act need
special mention but mercantile law, specially the law relating to contracts, is no less
important. Needless to say, where undertakings are governed by a special statute,
its knowledge will be imperative; in addition, a sound knowledge of the law and
practice of taxation is unavoidable.
He must pursue an intensive programme of theoretical education in subjects like
financial and management accounting, general management, business and
corporate laws, computers and information systems, taxation, economics, etc. Both
practical training and theoretical education are equally necessary for the
development of professional competence of an auditor for undertaking any kind of
audit assignment.
The auditor should be equipped not only with a sufficient knowledge of the way in

which business generally is conducted but also with an understanding of the special
features peculiar to a particular business whose accounts are under audit. The
auditor, who holds a position of trust, must have the basic human qualities apart
from the technical requirement of professional training and education.
He is called upon constantly to critically review financial statements and it is
obviously useless for him to attempt that task unless his own knowledge is that of
an expert. An exhaustive knowledge of accounting in all its branches is the sine qua
non of the practice of auditing. He must know thoroughly all accounting principles
and techniques.
Lord Justice Lindley in the course of the judgment in the famous London & General
Bank case had succinctly summed up the overall view of what an auditor should be
as regards the personal qualities. He said, “an auditor must be honest that is, he
must not certify what he does not believe to be true and must take reasonable care
and skill before he believes that what he certifies is true”.
10. ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM OF QUALITY

CONTROL
The firm’s system of quality control should include policies and procedures
addressing each of the following elements:
(a) Leadership responsibilities for quality within the firm.
(b) Ethical requirements.
(c) Acceptance and continuance of client relationships and specific
engagements.
(d) Human resources.
(e) Engagement performance.
(f) Monitoring.
10.1 Leadership Responsibilities for Quality on Audits

As per SA 220 “Quality Control for an Audit of Financial Statements”, the
engagement partner shall take responsibility for the overall quality on each audit
engagement to which that partner is assigned.
The actions of the engagement partner and appropriate messages to the other
members of the engagement team, in taking responsibility for the overall quality
on each audit engagement, emphasise:

(a) The importance to audit quality of:

(i) Performing work that complies with professional standards and
regulatory and legal requirements;
(ii) Complying with the firm’s quality control policies and procedures as
applicable;
(iii) Issuing auditor’s reports that are appropriate in the circumstances; and
(iv) The engagement team’s ability to raise concerns without fear of reprisals; and
(b) The fact that quality is essential in performing audit engagements.
Engagement partner refers to the partner or other person in the firm who is
responsible for the audit engagement and its performance, and for the auditor’s
report that is issued on behalf of the firm, and who, where required, has the
appropriate authority from a professional, legal or regulatory body.
10.2.Ethical Requirements Relating to an Audit of Financial

Statements
The auditor shall comply with relevant ethical requirements, including those
pertaining to independence, relating to financial statement audit
engagements. Relevant ethical requirements ordinarily comprise the Code of
Ethics for Professional Accountants (IESBA Code) related to an audit of
financial statements.
First, broadly understand what are ethics? ”Ethics” are the principles of
conduct governing an individual or group. Professions like law, medicine have
their code of ethics. Auditing profession is no exception. Rather, in profession
of auditing, importance of ethics is manifold.
The IESBA Code establishes the following as the fundamental principles of
professional ethics relevant to the auditor when conducting an audit of
financial statements. We shall understand broad meaning and intent of these
fundamental principles as under:-
(a) Integrity
Integrity requires auditor to be straight forward and honest in all
professional and business relationships. It implies fair dealing and
truthfulness. It effectively means that he shall not be associated with
reports, returns, communications or other information which he believes
contains a materially false or misleading statement; contains statements

or information provided recklessly or omits required information where

such omission could be misleading.
(b) Objectivity
The principle of objectivity requires an auditor not to compromise
professional judgment because of bias, conflict of interest or undue
influence of others.
(c) Professional competence and due care
It requires that auditor attains and maintains professional knowledge
and skill at the level required to render competent professional service
based on current technical and professional standards and legislation
and also to act diligently and in accordance with technical and
professional standards. Diligence includes responsibility to act carefully,
thoroughly and on a timely basis in accordance with requirements of an
assignment.
(d) Confidentiality
Confidentiality principle requires an auditor to respect the
confidentiality of information acquired as a result of professional or
business relationships.
and
(e) Professional behaviour
It requires an auditor to comply with relevant laws and regulations and
avoid any conduct that he knows or should know might discredit the
profession.
The auditor should be independent of the entity subject to the audit. The Code
describes independence as comprising both-
Independence of Mind
and
Independence in Appearance.
The auditor’s independence safeguards the auditor’s ability to form an audit

opinion without being affected by any influences. Independence enhances the
auditor’s ability to act with integrity, to be objective and to maintain an attitude of
professional skepticism.
Standard on Quality Control (SQC) 1 sets out the responsibilities of the firm for

establishing policies and procedures regarding compliance with relevant ethical

requirements.
SA 220 sets out the engagement partner’s responsibilities with respect to relevant
ethical requirements. These include evaluating whether members of the
engagement team have complied with relevant ethical requirements. SA 220
recognises that the engagement team is entitled to rely on a firm’s systems in
meeting its responsibilities with respect to quality control procedures.
10.2.1 Independence of Auditors
Professional integrity and independence are considered essential characteristics of
all the professions but are more so in the case of accountancy profession.
Independence implies that the judgement of a person is not subordinate to the
wishes or direction of another person who might have engaged him.
It is not possible to define “independence” precisely. Rules of professional conduct
dealing with independence are framed primarily with a certain objective. The rules
themselves cannot create or ensure the existence of independence. Independence
is a condition of mind as well as personal character. It should not be confused with
the superficial and visible standards of independence which are sometimes
imposed by law.
There are two interlinked perspectives of independence of auditors, one,
independence of mind; and two, independence in appearance. The Code of Ethics
for Professional Accountants issued by International Federation of Accountants
(IFAC) defines the term ‘Independence’ as follows:
“Independence is: (a) Independence of mind – the state of mind that permits the
provision of an opinion without being affected by influences allowing an individual
to act with integrity, and exercise objectivity and professional skepticism; and
(b) Independence in appearance – the avoidance of facts and circumstances
that are so significant that a third party would reasonably conclude an auditor’s
integrity, objectivity or professional skepticism had been compromised.”
Independence of the auditor has not only to exist in fact, but also appear to
so exist to all reasonable persons.
The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable an auditor to express
an opinion on such financial statements. The auditor’s opinion helps determination
of the true and fair view of the financial position and operating results of an
enterprise. The user should not assume that the auditor’s opinion is an assurance
as to the future viability of the enterprise or the efficiency or effectiveness with

which management has conducted the affairs of the enterprise.

The auditor should be straightforward, honest and sincere in his approach to his
professional work. He must be fair and must not allow prejudice or bias to override
his objectivity. He should maintain an impartial attitude and both be and appear to
be free of any interest which might be regarded as being incompatible with
integrity and objectivity.
Many different circumstances, or combination of circumstances, may be relevant
and accordingly it is impossible to define every situation that creates threats to
independence and specify the appropriate mitigating action that should be taken.
In addition, the nature of assurance engagements may differ and consequently
different threats may exist requiring the application of different safeguards.
10.2.2 Threats to Independence
The Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants, prepared by the International
Federation of Accountants (IFAC) identifies five types of threats. These are:
1. Self-interest threats, which occur when an auditing firm, its partner or
associate could benefit from a financial interest in an audit client. Examples
include (i) direct financial interest or materially significant indirect financial
interest in a client, (ii) loan or guarantee to or from the concerned client, (iii)
undue dependence on a client’s fees and, hence, concerns about losing the
engagement, (iv) close business relationship with an audit client, (v) potential
employment with the client, and (vi) contingent fees for the audit
engagement. Like, in case an audit firm unduly relies on fees from a
client, it may result in threat to self interest of auditor and he may not
work objectively for the fear of losing client.
2. Self-review threats, which occur when during a review of any judgement or
conclusion reached in a previous audit or non-audit engagement (Non audit
services include any professional services provided to an entity by an auditor,
other than audit or review of the financial statements. These include
management services, internal audit, investment advisory service, design and
implementation of information technology systems etc.), or when a member
of the audit team was previously a director or senior employee of the client.
Instances where such threats come into play are (i) when an auditor having
recently been a director or senior officer of the company, and (ii) when
auditors perform services that are themselves subject matters of audit.
3. Advocacy threats, which occur when the auditor promotes, or is perceived
to promote, a client’s opinion to a point where people may believe that

objectivity is getting compromised, e.g. when an auditor deals with shares or

securities of the audited company, or becomes the client’s advocate in
litigation and third party disputes. In such situations, auditor can be
perceived as backing and championing causes of auditee client and it
may lead to belief that auditor is not acting and working objectively.
Remember that auditor has not only to be independent but also appear
to be acting so.
4. Familiarity threats are self-evident, and occur when auditors form
relationships with the client where they end up being too sympathetic to the
client’s interests. This can occur in many ways: (i) close relative of the audit
team working in a senior position in the client company, (ii) former partner of
the audit firm being a director or senior employee of the client, (iii) long
association between specific auditors and their specific client counterparts,
and (iv) acceptance of significant gifts or hospitality from the client company,
its directors or employees. Provisions in Companies Act, 2013 regarding
rotation of auditors mainly address these very familiarity threats. Such
provisions prescribe that auditor is rotated after a certain number of
years so that auditors do not become too familiar with their clients. You
would study about these provisions in detail in Chapter 10 on Company
audit.
5. Intimidation threats, which occur when auditors are deterred from acting
objectively with an adequate degree of professional skepticism. Basically,
these could happen because of threat of replacement over disagreements
with the application of accounting principles, or pressure to
disproportionately reduce work in response to reduced audit fees or being
threatened with litigation. Such threats attempt to intimidate auditors
to deter them from acting objectively.
10.2.3 Safeguards to Independence
The Chartered Accountant has a responsibility to remain independent by taking
into account the context in which they practice, the threats to independence and
the safeguards available to eliminate the threats.
The following are the guiding principles in this regard: -
1. For the public to have confidence in the quality of audit, it is essential that
auditors should always be and appears to be independent of the entities that
they are auditing.

2. In the case of audit, the key fundamental principles are integrity, objectivity
and professional skepticism, which necessarily require the auditor to be
independent.
3. Before taking on any work, an auditor must conscientiously consider whether
it involves threats to his independence.
4. When such threats exist, the auditor should either desist from the task or put
in place safeguards that eliminate them.
5. If the auditor is unable to fully implement credible and adequate safeguards,
then he must not accept the work.
Example
Mr. S and Mr. W are partners in SW and Associates, a Partnership Firm of Chartered
Accountants. During the financial year 2020-21, SW and Associates were appointed
as auditors of Capable and Composed Limited. The brother of Mr. W was involved
in the management of Capable and Composed Limited. Mr. S being aware of the
whole situation, on behalf of SW and Associates did not accept the appointment as
auditors of Capable and Composed Limited as it would act as a threat (familiarity
threat) and affect independence of auditors.
10.2.4 Professional Skepticism

Professional skepticism refers to an attitude that includes a questioning mind,
being alert to conditions which may indicate possible misstatement due to error
or fraud, and a critical assessment of audit evidence.
The auditor shall plan and perform an audit with professional skepticism
recognising that circumstances may exist that cause the financial statements to be
materially misstated.
Professional skepticism includes being alert to, for example:
♦ Audit evidence that contradicts other audit evidence obtained.
♦ Information that brings into question the reliability of documents and
responses to inquiries to be used as audit evidence.
♦ Conditions that may indicate possible fraud.

♦ Circumstances that suggest the need for audit procedures in addition to
those required by the SAs.

♦ Maintaining professional skepticism throughout the audit is necessary if the

auditor is to reduce the risks of:
♦ Overlooking unusual circumstances.
♦ Over generalising when drawing conclusions from audit observations.
♦ Using inappropriate assumptions in determining the nature, timing, and
extent of the audit procedures and evaluating the results thereof.
Professional skepticism is necessary to the critical assessment of audit evidence. It
also includes consideration of the sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence
obtained in the light of the circumstances, for example in the case where fraud risk
factors exist and a single document, of a nature that is susceptible to fraud, is the
sole supporting evidence for a material financial statement amount.
The auditor may accept records and documents as genuine unless the auditor has
reason to believe the contrary. Nevertheless, the auditor is required to consider the
reliability of information to be used as audit evidence. In cases of doubt about the
reliability of information or indications of possible fraud, the SAs require that the
auditor investigate further and determine what modifications or additions to audit
procedures are necessary to resolve the matter.
The auditor cannot be expected to disregard past experience of the honesty and
integrity of the entity’s management and those charged with governance.
Nevertheless, a belief that management and those charged with governance are
honest and have integrity does not relieve the auditor of the need to maintain
professional skepticism.
ILLUSTRATION 5
Mr. H is an audit team member of a Partnership Firm of Chartered Accountants WY
and Associates. Mr. H was of the opinion that Professional Skepticism is required only
at planning stage of an audit because situations and circumstances which are
unusual in nature exist at the beginning of an audit only.
Explain whether Professional Skepticism is only required at planning stage of an audit.
SOLUTION
Professional Skepticism is not only required at planning stage of an audit, rather
Professional Skepticism is required during the entire process of an audit because
situations and circumstances that are not usual in nature exist during the entire
process of an audit.

10.3.Acceptance and Continuance of Client Relationships

and Audit Engagements
The engagement partner shall be satisfied that appropriate procedures regarding
the acceptance and continuance of client relationships and audit engagements
have been followed:
SQC 1 requires the firm to obtain information before accepting an engagement.

Information such as the following assists the engagement partner in determining
whether the decisions regarding the acceptance and continuance of audit
engagements are appropriate:
♦ The integrity of the principal owners, key management and those charged
with governance of the entity;
♦ Whether the engagement team is competent to perform the audit
engagement and has the necessary capabilities, including time and resources;
♦ Whether the firm and the engagement team can comply with relevant ethical
requirements; and
♦ Significant matters that have arisen during the current or previous audit
engagement, and their implications for continuing the relationship.
If the engagement partner obtains information that would have caused the firm to
decline the audit engagement had that information been available earlier, the
engagement partner shall communicate that information promptly to the firm, so
that the firm and the engagement partner can take the necessary action.
10.4 Human Resources

The firm should establish policies and procedures designed to provide it with
reasonable assurance that it has sufficient personnel with the capabilities,
competence, and commitment to ethical principles necessary to perform its
engagements in accordance with professional standards and regulatory and legal
requirements, and to enable the firm or engagement partners to issue reports that
are appropriate in the circumstances.
Such policies and procedures address the following personnel issues:

(a) Recruitment;
(b) Performance evaluation;
(c) Capabilities;

(d) Competence;
(e) Career development;
(f) Promotion;
(g) Compensation; and
(h) Estimation of personnel needs.
Addressing these issues enables the firm to ascertain the number and
characteristics of the individuals required for the firm’s engagements. The firm’s
recruitment processes include procedures that help the firm select individuals of
integrity as well as the capacity to develop the capabilities and competence
necessary to perform the firm’s work.
10.5 Engagement Performance

reasonable assurance that engagements are performed in accordance with
professional standards and regulatory and legal requirements, and that the firm or
the engagement partner issues reports that are appropriate in the circumstances.
Through its policies and procedures, the firm seeks to establish consistency in
the quality of engagement performance. This is often accomplished through
written or electronic manuals, software tools or other forms of standardized
documentation, and industry or subject matter-specific guidance materials. Matters
addressed include the following:
♦ How engagement teams are briefed on the engagement to obtain an
understanding of the objectives of their work.
♦ Processes for complying with applicable engagement standards.
♦ Processes of engagement supervision, staff training and coaching.
♦ Methods of reviewing the work performed, the significant judgments made
and the form of report being issued.
♦ Appropriate documentation of the work performed and of the timing and
extent of the review.
♦ Processes to keep all policies and procedures current.
10.6 Monitoring
reasonable assurance that the policies and procedures relating to the system of
quality control are relevant, adequate, operating effectively and complied with in

practice. Such policies and procedures should include an ongoing consideration

and evaluation of the firm’s system of quality control, including a periodic
inspection of a selection of completed engagements.
The purpose of monitoring compliance with quality control policies and
procedures is to provide an evaluation of:
(a) Adherence to professional standards and regulatory and legal requirements;
(b) Whether the quality control system has been appropriately designed and
effectively implemented; and
(c) Whether the firm’s quality control policies and procedures have been
appropriately applied, so that reports that are issued by the firm or
engagement partners are appropriate in the circumstances.
Follow-up by appropriate firm personnel so that necessary modifications are
promptly made to the quality control policies and procedures.
11. PRECONDITIONS FOR AN AUDIT

As per SA 210 “Agreeing the Terms of Audit Engagements”, preconditions for an
audit may be defined as the use by management of an acceptable financial
reporting framework in the preparation of the financial statements and the
agreement of management and, where appropriate, those charged with
governance to the premise on which an audit is conducted.
In order to establish whether the preconditions for an audit are present, the auditor
shall:
(a) Determine whether the financial reporting framework is acceptable; and
(b) Obtain the agreement of management that it acknowledges and understands
its responsibility:
(i) For the preparation of the financial statements in accordance with the
applicable financial reporting framework;

(ii) For the internal control as management considers necessary; and

(iii) To provide the auditor with:
 Access to all information such as records, documentation and
other matters;
 Additional information that the auditor may request from
management for the purpose of the audit; and
 Unrestricted access to persons within the entity from whom the
auditor determines it necessary to obtain audit evidence.
ILLUSTRATION 6
TH and Associates, a Partnership Firm of Chartered Accountants are appointed as
auditors of Grateful and Cheerful Limited for the financial year 2020-21. Mr. Y is one
of the audit team members of TH and Associates. Mr. Y required from the company,
its financial statements and other relevant information for which the audit is to be
conducted. State who is responsible for providing such an information to the auditor.
SOLUTION
Management of a company is responsible for providing the auditor with access to
all information such as records, documentation and other matters, additional
information that the auditor may request from management for the purpose of the
audit and unrestricted access to persons within the entity from whom the auditor
determines it necessary to obtain audit evidence.
12. AGREEMENT ON AUDIT ENGAGEMENT

TERMS
Legal requirement to get the accounts audited so far extends only to companies,
registered societies etc. In these cases the respective law governs the appointment
of auditors and their duties. In all other cases, it is a matter of contract. It is,
therefore, important, both for the auditor and client, that each party should be
clear about the nature of the engagement. It must be reduced to writing and
should exactly specify the scope of the work. The audit engagement letter is sent
by the auditor to his client. The ICAI has issued SA 210 “Agreeing the Terms of Audit
Engagements” on the subject. It is in the interest of both the auditor and the client to
issue an engagement letter so that the possibility of misunderstanding is reduced
to a great extent.
In the case of partnerships, a few more precautions are needed. The

appointment of the auditor is normally governed by the partnership deed. The

accountant, when he is approached for undertaking a professional assignment by a
firm or a partner of a firm, should first get a clear idea of the nature of the service
required and then ensure, with reference to the terms of partnership agreement
that his appointment is valid.
According to SA 210 “Agreeing the Terms of Audit Engagements”, the auditor shall
agree the terms of the audit engagement with management or those charged with
governance, as appropriate.
The agreed terms of the audit engagement shall be recorded in an audit
engagement letter or other suitable form of written agreement and shall include:
(a) The objective and scope of the audit of the financial statements;
(b) The responsibilities of the auditor;
(c) The responsibilities of management;
(d) Identification of the applicable financial reporting framework for the
preparation of the financial statements; and
(e) Reference to the expected form and content of any reports to be issued by
the auditor and a statement that there may be circumstances in which a
report may differ from its expected form and content.
If law or regulation prescribes in sufficient detail the terms of the audit engagement
, the auditor need not record them in a written agreement, except for the fact that
such law or regulation applies and that management acknowledges and
understands its responsibilities.
13. RECURRING AUDITS

On recurring audits, the auditor shall assess whether circumstances require the
terms of the audit engagement to be revised and whether there is a need to remind
the entity of the existing terms of the audit engagement.
The auditor may decide not to send a new audit engagement letter or other written
agreement each period. However, the following factors may make it appropriate to
revise the terms of the audit engagement or to remind the entity of existing terms:
♦ Any indication that the entity misunderstands the objective and scope of the
audit.
♦ Any revised or special terms of the audit engagement.

♦ A recent change of senior management.

♦ A significant change in ownership.
♦ A significant change in nature or size of the entity’s business.
♦ A change in legal or regulatory requirements.
♦ A change in the financial reporting framework adopted in the preparation of
the financial statements.
♦ A change in other reporting requirements.
ILLUSTRATION 7
R & Co, a firm of Chartered Accountants have not revised the terms of engagements
and obtained confirmation from the clients for last 5 years despite changes in
business and professional environment.
Required
Elucidate the circumstances that may warrant the revision in terms of engagement.
SOLUTION
As per SA 210 on “Agreeing the Terms of Audit Engagements”, the auditor may
decide not to send a new audit engagement letter or other written agreement each
period. However, the factors that may make it appropriate to revise the terms of the
audit engagement or to remind the entity of existing terms are discussed above.
14. LIMITATION ON SCOPE PRIOR TO AUDIT

ENGAGEMENT ACCEPTANCE
If management or those charged with governance impose a limitation on the scope
of the auditor’s work in the terms of a proposed audit engagement such that the
auditor believes the limitation will result in the auditor disclaiming an opinion on
the financial statements, the auditor shall not accept such a limited engagement as
an audit engagement, unless required by law or regulation to do so.
Analysis
— If management or TCWG
— impose limitation on the scope
— such that auditor believes
— limitation would result in

— auditor disclaiming an opinion

— the auditor shall not accept such a limited engagement
15. ACCEPTANCE OF A CHANGE IN ENGAGEMENT

An auditor who, before the completion of the engagement, is requested to change
the engagement to one which provides a lower level of assurance, should
consider the appropriateness of doing so.
A request from the client for the auditor to change the engagement may result
from-
1. a change in circumstances affecting the need for the service,
2. a misunderstanding as to the nature of an audit or related service originally
requested.
3. a restriction on the scope of the engagement, whether imposed by
management or caused by circumstances.
The auditor would consider carefully the reason given for the request,
particularly the implications of a restriction on the scope of the engagement,
especially any legal or contractual implications.
If the auditor concludes that there is reasonable justification to change the
engagement and if the audit work performed complied with the SAs applicable to
the changed engagement, the report issued would be appropriate for the revised

terms of engagement. In order to avoid confusion, the report would not include
reference to:
(a) the original engagement; or
(b) any procedures that may have been performed in the original engagement.
The auditor should not agree to a change of engagement where there is no
reasonable justification for doing so.
If the terms of the audit engagement are changed, the auditor and management
shall agree on and record the new terms of the engagement in an engagement
letter or other suitable form of written agreement.
If the auditor is unable to agree to a change of the terms of the audit engagement
and is not permitted by management to continue the original audit engagement,
the auditor shall:
(a) Withdraw from the audit engagement where possible under applicable law
or regulation; and
(b) Determine whether there is any obligation, either contractual or otherwise, to
report the circumstances to other parties, such as those charged with
governance, owners or regulators.
ILLUSTRATION 8
M/s Sureshchandra & Co. has been appointed as an auditor of SC Ltd. for the financial
year 2014-15. CA. Suresh, one of the partners of M/s Sureshchandra & Co., completed
entire routine audit work by 29th May, 2015. Unfortunately, on the very next morning,
while going towards office of SC Ltd. to sign final audit report, he met with a road
accident and died. CA. Chandra, another partner of M/s Sureshchandra & Co.,
therefore, signed the accounts of SC Ltd., without reviewing the work performed by
CA. Suresh.
Required
State with reasons whether CA. Chandra is right in expressing an opinion on financial
statements the audit of which is performed by another auditor.
SOLUTION
Relying on Work Performed by Another Auditor: As per SA 220 “Quality Control for
an Audit of Financial Statements”, an engagement partner taking over an audit
during the engagement may apply the review procedures such as the work has
been performed in accordance with professional standards and regulatory and

legal requirements; significant matters have been raised for further consideration;
appropriate consultations have taken place and the resulting conclusions have
been documented and implemented; there is a need to revise the nature, timing and
extent of work performed; the work performed supports the conclusions reached
and is appropriately documented; the evidence obtained is sufficient and
appropriate to support the auditor’s report; and the objectives of the engagement
procedures have been achieved.
Further, one of the basic principles, which govern the auditor’s professional
responsibilities and which should be complied with wherever an audit is carried, is
that when the auditor delegates work to assistants or uses work performed by other
auditor and experts, he will continue to be responsible for forming and expressing
his opinion on the financial information. However, he will be entitled to rely on work
performed by others, provided he exercises adequate skill and care and is not aware
of any reason to believe that he should not have so relied. This is the fundamental
principle which is ethically required as per Code of Ethics.
However, the auditor should carefully direct, supervise and review work delegated.
He should obtain reasonable assurance that work performed by other
auditors/experts and assistants is adequate for his purpose.
In the given case, all the auditing procedures before the moment of signing of final
report have been performed by CA. Suresh. However, the report could not be signed
by him due to his unfortunate death. Later on, CA. Chandra signed the report
relying on the work performed by CA. Suresh. Here, CA. Chandra is allowed to sign
the audit report, though, will be responsible for expressing the opinion. He may rely
on the work performed by CA. Suresh provided he further exercises adequate skill
and due care and review the work performed by him.
SUMMARY
An audit is independent examination of financial information of any entity, whether
profit oriented or not, and irrespective of its size or legal form, when such an
examination is conducted with a view to expressing an opinion thereon. The person
conducting this task should take care to ensure that financial statements would not
mislead anybody. As per SA-200 “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor”,
in conducting an audit of financial statements, the overall objectives of the auditor
are to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements as a
whole are free from material misstatement and to report on the financial
statements. The auditor should get the scope of his duties and responsibilities
defined by obtaining instructions in writ¬ing. The chief utility of audit lies in reliable

financial statements on the basis of which the state of affairs may be easy to
understand. The auditor is not expected to, and cannot, reduce audit risk to zero
and cannot therefore obtain absolute assurance that the financial statements are
free from material misstatement due to fraud or error. This is because there are
inherent limitations of an audit.
A significant step has been taken aimed at bringing in the desired transparency in
the working of the Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, through participation
of representatives of various segments of the society and interest groups, such as,
regulators, industry and academics.
The auditor shall comply with relevant ethical requirements including those
pertaining to independence. Relevant ethical requirements ordinarily comprise the
Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants (IESBA Code) related to an audit of
financial statements. The Code establishes the five fundamental principles of
professional ethics relevant to the auditor when conducting an audit of financial
statements. (a) Integrity; (b) Objectivity; (c)Professional competence and due care;
(d) Confidentiality; and (e) Professional behavior.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct /Incorrect
State with reasons (in short) whether the following statements are correct or
incorrect:
(i) The basic objective of audit does not change with reference to nature, size or
form of an entity
(ii) The purpose of an audit is to enhance the degree of confidence of intended
users in the financial statements
(iii) The auditor is not expected to, and cannot, reduce audit risk to zero and
cannot therefore obtain absolute assurance that the financial statements are
free from material misstatement due to fraud or error.
(iv) The audit engagement letter is sent by the client to auditor.
(v) Specific disclosure is required of the fundamental accounting assumptions
followed in the financial statements.
(vi) An Auditor is considered to lack independence if the partner of the audit firm
deals with shares and securities of the audited entity.

(vii) The Audit Engagement documentations should ordinarily be retained by the

auditor for minimum of six years from the date of the auditor's report or the
date of the group auditor's report, whichever is later.
(viii) Mr. S, one of the new team members of the auditor of Extremely Effective
Limited was of the view that for the purpose of conducting an audit, only
knowledge of direct tax is required whereas no knowledge of indirect tax is
required.
(ix) According to Mr. H, one of the team members of the auditor of Very Essential
Limited was of the view that no relation exists between accounting and
auditing from the point of view of a company.
(x) The term “Engagement Standards” refer to Standards on Auditing only.
Theoretical Questions
1. Explain clearly meaning of Auditing. How would you as an auditor perform
the audit.
2. “The independent audit of an entity’s financial statements is a vital service to
investors, trade payables, and other participants in economic exchange”.
Explain
3. State the objectives of Audit according to SA 200
4. “The Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants, prepared by the
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) identifies five types of
threats”. Explain
5. There are practical and legal limitations on the auditor’s ability to obtain audit
evidence. Explain with examples.
6. In case of certain subject matters, limitations on the auditor’s ability to detect
material misstatements are particularly significant. Explain such assertions or
subject matters.
7. As per SA 220, “Quality Control for an Audit of Financial Statements” the
auditor should obtain information considered necessary in the circumstances
before accepting an engagement with a new client, when deciding whether
to continue an existing engagement and when considering acceptance of a
new engagement with an existing client. Explain
8. “An auditor who before the completion of the engagement is requested to
change the engagement to one which provides a lower level of assurance
should consider the appropriateness of doing so.” Discuss.

9. An audit is distinct from investigation. However, it is quite possible that

sometimes investigation results from the prima facie findings of the auditor.
Discuss.
10. “Integrity’” and “Objectivity” are among the fundamental principles of
professional ethics relevant to an auditor enshrined in IESBA code. Distinguish
between the two.
ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
Answers to Correct/Incorrect
(i) Correct: An audit is an independent examination of financial information of
any entity, whether profit oriented or not, and irrespective of its size or legal
form, when such an examination is conducted with a view to expressing an
opinion thereon. It is clear that the basic objective of auditing, i.e., expression
of opinion on financial statements does not change with reference to nature,
size or form of an entity.
(ii) Correct: As per SA 200 “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and
the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”, the
purpose of an audit is to enhance the degree of confidence of intended users
in the financial statements. This is achieved by the expression of an opinion
by the auditor on whether the financial statements are prepared, in all
material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting
framework.
(iii) Correct: As per SA 200 “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and
the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”, the
auditor is not expected to, and cannot, reduce audit risk to zero and cannot
therefore obtain absolute assurance that the financial statements are free
from material misstatement due to fraud or error. This is because there are
inherent limitations of an audit, which result in most of the audit evidence on
which the auditor draws conclusions and bases the auditor’s opinion being
persuasive rather than conclusive.
(iv) Incorrect: As per SA 210 “Agreeing the Terms of Audit Engagements”, the
Audit engagement letter is sent by the auditor to his client.
(v) Incorrect, as per AS 1, “Disclosure of Accounting Policies”, specific disclosure
of the fundamental accounting assumption is required if they are not
followed in the financial statements.

(vi) Correct: As per section 141(3)(d), a person shall not be eligible for
appointment as an auditor of a company namely- a person, or his relative or
partner is holding any security of or interest in the company or its subsidiary,
or of its holding or associate company or a subsidiary of such holding
company. From the above it can be concluded that if the partner deals with
shares and securities of the audited entity, he would be lacking
independence, hence, disqualified to be appointed as an auditor.
Further, the Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants, prepared by the
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) identifies five types of threats
and if partner of the firm deals with shares and securities of the audited firm
then such threat is known as the Advocacy Threats and auditor will be lacking
independence.
(vii) Incorrect: SQC 1 requires firms to establish policies and procedures for the
retention of engagement documentation. The retention period for audit
engagements ordinarily is no shorter than seven years from the date of the
auditor’s report, or, if later, the date of the group auditor’s report.
(viii) Incorrect: The viewpoint of Mr. S is incorrect because for the purpose of
conducting an audit, proper knowledge of both direct tax as well as indirect
tax is required.
(ix) Incorrect: The viewpoint of Mr. H is incorrect because there exists a proper
relation between accounting and auditing from the point of view of a
company. Audit is conducted for financial statements of a company and those
financial statements are prepared with the help of books of accounts of that
company. In order to properly conduct an audit of a company, an auditor is
required to be aware of accounting principles and accounting policies of that
company.
(x) Incorrect: Engagement Standards refer not only to Standards on auditing but
also to Standards on review engagements, Standards on assurance
engagements and Standards on related services.
Answers to Theoretical Questions
1. Refer 1: Meaning and Definition of Auditing.
2. Auditing along with other disciplines such as accounting and law, equips you
with all the knowledge that is required to enter into auditing as a profession.
No business or institution can effectively carry on its activities without the
help of proper records and accounts, since transactions take place at different

of time with numerous persons and entities. The effect of all transactions has
to be recorded and suitably analysed to see the results as regards the
business as a whole. Periodical statements of account are drawn up to
measure the success of whole. Periodical statements of account are drawn
up to measure the success or failure of the activities in achieving the objective
of the organization. This would be impossible without a systematic record of
transactions. Financial statements are often the basis for decision making by
the management and for corrective action so as to even closing down the
organization or a part of it. All this would be possible only if the statements
are reliable; decisions based on wrong accounting statements may prove very
harmful or even fatal to the business. For example, if the business has really
earned a profit but because of wrong accounting, the annual accounts show
a loss, the proprietor may take the decision to sell the business at a loss. Thus
from the point of view of the management itself, authenticity of financial
statements is essential. It is more essential for those who have invested their
money in the business but cannot take part in its management, for example,
shareholders in a company, such persons certainly need an assurance that the
annual statements of accounts sent to them are fully reliable. It is auditing
which ensures that the accounting statements are authentic. In today’s
economic environment, information and accountability have assumed a
larger role than ever before. As a result, the independent audit of an entity’s
financial statements is a vital service to investors, trade payable, and other
participants in economic exchange.
3. Refer para 2: Overall Objectives of Audit.
4. Refer para 11.2.2: Threats to Independence.
5. The Nature of Audit Procedures: There are practical and legal limitations on
the auditor’s ability to obtain audit evidence. For example:
1. There is the possibility that management or others may not provide,
intentionally or unintentionally, the complete information that is
relevant to the preparation and presentation of the financial statements
or that has been requested by the auditor.
2. Fraud may involve sophisticated and carefully organised schemes
designed to conceal it. Therefore, audit procedures used to gather audit
evidence may be ineffective for detecting an intentional misstatement
that involves, for example, collusion to falsify documentation which may
cause the auditor to believe that audit evidence is valid when it is not.

The auditor is neither trained as nor expected to be an expert in the

authentication of documents.
3. An audit is not an official investigation into alleged wrongdoing.
Accordingly, the auditor is not given specific legal powers, such as the
power of search, which may be necessary for such an investigation.
6. In the case of certain subject matters, limitations on the auditor’s ability to
detect material misstatements are particularly significant. Such assertions or
subject matters include:
- Fraud, particularly fraud involving senior management or collusion.
- The existence and completeness of related party relationships and
transactions.
- The occurrence of non-compliance with laws and regulations.
- Future events or conditions that may cause an entity to cease to
continue as a going concern.
7. Information which assist the Auditor in accepting and continuing of
relationship with Client: As per SA 220, “Quality Control for an Audit of
Financial Statements” the auditor should obtain information considered
necessary in the circumstances before accepting an engagement with a new
client, when deciding whether to continue an existing engagement and when
considering acceptance of a new engagement with an existing client. The
following information would assist the auditor in accepting and continuing of
relationship with the client:
(i) The integrity of the principal owners, key management and those
charged with governance of the entity;
(ii) Whether the engagement team is competent to perform the audit
engagement and has the necessary capabilities, including time and
resources;
(iii) Whether the firm and the engagement team can comply with relevant
ethical requirements; and
(iv) Significant matters that have arisen during the current or previous audit
engagement, and their implications for continuing the relationship.
8. Acceptance of a Change in Engagement: An auditor who, before the
completion of the engagement, is requested to change the engagement to

one which provides a lower level of assurance, should consider the

appropriateness of doing so.
A request from the client for the auditor to change the engagement may
result from a change in circumstances affecting the need for the service, a
misunderstanding as to the nature of an audit or related service originally
requested or a restriction on the scope of the engagement, whether imposed
by management or caused by circumstances. The auditor would consider
carefully the reason given for the request, particularly the implications of a
restriction on the scope of the engagement, especially any legal or
contractual implications.
If the auditor concludes that there is reasonable justification to change the
engagement and if the audit work performed complied with the SAs
applicable to the changed engagement, the report issued would be
appropriate for the revised terms of engagement. In order to avoid
confusion, the report would not include reference to-
(i) the original engagement; or
(ii) any procedures that may have been performed in the original
engagement, except where the engagement is changed to an
engagement to undertake agreed-upon procedures and thus reference
to the procedures performed is a normal part of the report.
The auditor should not agree to a change of engagement where there
is no reasonable justification for doing so.
If the terms of the audit engagement are changed, the auditor and
management shall agree on and record the new terms of the
engagement in an engagement letter or other suitable form of written
agreement.
If the auditor is unable to agree to a change of the terms of the audit
engagement and is not permitted by management to continue the
original audit engagement, the auditor shall-
(i) Withdraw from the audit engagement where possible under
applicable law or regulation; and
(ii) Determine whether there is any obligation, either contractual or
otherwise, to report the circumstances to other parties, such as
those charged with governance, owners or regulators.

9. Audit is distinct from investigation. Investigation is a critical examination of

the accounts with a special purpose. For example, if fraud is suspected and it
is specifically called upon to check the accounts whether fraud really exists, it
takes character of investigation.
The objective of audit, on the other hand as we have already discussed, is to
obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements as a
whole are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error,
thereby enabling the auditor to express an opinion.
Therefore, audit is never started with a pre-conceived notion about state of
affairs; about wrong-doing; about some wrong having been committed. The
auditor seeks to report what he finds in normal course of examination of
accounts.
However, it is quite possible that sometimes investigation results from the
prima facie findings of the auditor. It may happen that auditor has given some
findings of serious concern. Such findings may prompt for calling an
investigation.
10. The principle of” Integrity” requires auditor to be straight forward and honest
in all professional and business relationships. It implies fair dealing and
truthfulness. It effectively means that he shall not be associated with reports,
returns communications or other informations which he believes contains a
materially false or misleading statement; contains statements or informations
provided recklessly or omits required information where such omission could
be misleading
The principle of objectivity requires auditor not to compromise professional
judgment because of bias, conflict of interest or undue influence of others.
Hence, integrity requires auditor to be involved in fair dealing and
truthfulness with client and not be associated with materially false or
misleading statements, reports, returns or communications. However,
objectivity requires auditor not to compromise professional judgment
because of bias, conflict of interest or undue influence of others.

CHAPTER
2
AUDIT STRATEGY, AUDIT
PLANNING AND AUDIT
PROGRAMME
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand the Audit Planning and Overall Audit Strategy for an audit.
 Draft audit programme.
 Understand Audit Planning and Materiality.
 Learn to develop the Audit Plan and Program.
 Gain the knowledge of control of quality of audit work w.r.t delegation and
supervision of audit work.

1. AUDIT PLANNING
Planning an audit involves:
(a) Establishing the overall audit strategy
(b) Developing an audit plan
1.1 Audit Plan to Conduct an Effective Audit

“The auditor should plan his work to enable him to conduct an effective audit in
an efficient and timely manner. Plans should be based on knowledge of the client’s
business”.
Plans should be made to cover, among other things:
(a) acquiring knowledge of the client’s accounting systems, policies and internal
control procedures;
(b) establishing the expected degree of reliance to be placed on internal control;
(c ) determining and programming the nature, timing, and extent of the audit
procedures to be performed; and
(d) coordinating the work to be performed.
Plans should be further developed and revised as necessary during the course
of the audit.
1.2 Benefits of Planning in the Audit of Financial

Statements
Planning an audit involves establishing the overall audit strategy for the
engagement and developing an audit plan. Adequate planning benefits the audit
of financial statements in several ways, including the following:
(a) Helping the auditor to devote appropriate attention to important areas of the
audit.
(b) Helping the auditor identify and resolve potential problems on a timely basis.
(c) Helping the auditor properly organize and manage the audit engagement so
that it is performed in an effective and efficient manner.
(d) Assisting in the selection of engagement team members with appropriate
levels of capabilities and competence to respond to anticipated risks, and the
proper assignment of work to them.

AUDIT STRATEGY, AUDIT PLANNING AND AUDIT 2.3
PROGRAMME
(e) Facilitating the direction and supervision of engagement team members and
the review of their work.
(f) Assisting, where applicable, in coordination of work done by auditors of
components and experts.
2. AUDIT STRATEGY
FIG.: Audit Strategy *
2.1 Overall Audit Strategy – Assistance to auditor

Overall audit strategy sets the scope, timing and direction of the audit, and guides
the development of the more detailed audit plan.
The auditor shall establish an overall audit strategy that sets the scope, timing and
direction of the audit, and that guides the development of the audit plan.
The process of establishing the overall audit strategy assists the auditor to
determine, subject to the completion of the auditor’s risk assessment procedures,
such matters as:
1. The resources to deploy for specific audit areas, such as the use of
appropriately experienced team members for high risk areas or the
involvement of experts on complex matters;
2. The amount of resources to allocate to specific audit areas, such as the number
of team members assigned to observe the inventory count at material
locations, the extent of review of other auditors’ work in the case of group
audits, or the audit budget in hours to allocate to high risk areas;
*
www.Audit-is-cool.blogsopot.com

3. When these resources are to be deployed, such as whether at an interim audit

stage or at key cut-off dates; and
4. How such resources are managed, directed and supervised, such as when
team briefing and debriefing meetings are expected to be held, how
engagement partner and manager reviews are expected to take place (for
example, on-site or off-site), and whether to complete engagement quality
control reviews.
ILLUSTRATION 1
The auditor T of Hand Fab Ltd is worried as to management of key resources to be
employed to conduct audit.
Required
How the audit strategy would be helpful to the auditor?
SOLUTION
Refer Para 2.1 - Overall audit strategy – assistance to auditor for solution
2.2 Establishment of Overall Audit Strategy

In establishing the overall audit strategy, the auditor shall
(a) Identify the characteristics of the engagement that define its scope;
Example
• The expected audit coverage, including the number and locations of
components to be included.
• The nature of the business segments to be audited, including the need
for specialized knowledge.
• The expected use of audit evidence obtained in previous audits, for
example, audit evidence related to risk assessment procedures and tests
of controls.
(b) Ascertain the reporting objectives of the engagement to plan the timing of
the audit and the nature of the communications required;
Example
• The entity’s timetable for reporting, such as at interim and final stages.

PROGRAMME
• The organization of meetings with management and those charged
with governance to discuss the nature, timing and extent of the audit
work.
• The discussion with management and those charged with governance
regarding the expected type and timing of reports to be issued and other
communications, both written and oral, including the auditor’s report,
management letters and communications to those charged with
governance.
• The discussion with management regarding the expected
communications on the status of audit work throughout the
engagement.
(c ) Consider the factors that, in the auditor’s professional judgment, are

significant in directing the engagement team’s efforts;
(d) Consider the results of preliminary engagement activities and, where
applicable, whether knowledge gained on other engagements performed by
the engagement partner for the entity is relevant; and
Example
• Preliminary identification of areas where there may be a higher risk of
material misstatement.
• Results of previous audits that involved evaluating the operating
effectiveness of internal control, including the nature of identified
deficiencies and action taken to address them.
• Volume of transactions, which may determine whether it is more
efficient for the auditor to rely on internal control.
(e) Ascertain the nature, timing and extent of resources necessary to perform the
engagement.
Example
• The selection of engagement team and the assignment of audit work to
the team members, including the assignment of appropriately
experienced team members to areas where there may be higher risks of
• Engagement budgeting, including considering the appropriate amount
of time to set aside for areas where there may be higher risks of material
misstatement.

3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OVERALL AUDIT

STRATEGY AND AUDIT PLAN
Once the overall audit strategy has been established, an audit plan can be
developed to address the various matters identified in the overall audit strategy,
taking into account the need to achieve the audit objectives through the efficient
use of the auditor’s resources. The establishment of the overall audit strategy and
the detailed audit plan are not necessarily discrete or sequential processes, but are
closely inter-related since changes in one may result in consequential changes to
the other.
4. DEVELOPMENT OF AUDIT PLAN

4.1 Description of Audit Plan
The auditor shall develop an audit plan that shall include a description of
(a) The nature, timing and extent of planned risk assessment procedures, as
determined under SA 315 “Identifying and Assessing the Risks of Material
Misstatement through Understanding the Entity and Its Environment”.
(b) The nature, timing and extent of planned further audit procedures at the
assertion level, as determined under SA 330 “The Auditor’s Responses to
Assessed Risks”.
(c ) Other planned audit procedures that are required to be carried out so that
the engagement complies with SAs.
The audit plan is more detailed than the overall audit strategy that includes the
nature, timing and extent of audit procedures to be performed by engagement team
members. Planning for these audit procedures takes place over the course of the
audit as the audit plan for the engagement develops.
Example
Planning of the auditor’s risk assessment procedures occurs early in the audit
process.
However, planning the nature, timing and extent of specific further audit procedures
depends on the outcome of those risk assessment procedures. In addition, the
auditor may begin the execution of further audit procedures for some classes of
transactions, account balances and disclosures before planning all remaining
further audit procedures.

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4.2 Knowledge of the Client’s Business

It is one of the important principles in developing an overall audit plan. In fact
without adequate knowledge of client’s business, a proper audit is not possible. As
per SA-315, “Identifying and Assessing the Risk of Material Misstatement through
Understanding the Entity and Its Environment”, the auditor shall obtain an
understanding of the following:
(a) Relevant industry, regulatory and other external factors including the
applicable financial reporting framework.
Example
• The competitive environment, including demand, capacity, product and
price competition as well as cyclical or seasonal activity.
• Supplier and customer relationships, such as types of suppliers and
customers (e.g., related parties, unified buying groups) and the related
contracts with those entities.
• Technological developments, such as those related to the entity’s
products
• Energy supply and cost.
• The effect of regulation on entity operations.
(b) The nature of the entity, including:

(i) its operations;
(ii) its ownership and governance structures;
(iii) the types of investments that the entity is making and plans to make,
including investments in special-purpose entities; and
(iv) the way that the entity is structured and how it is financed;
to enable the auditor to understand the classes of transactions, account
balances, and disclosures to be expected in the financial statements.
Example
• Understanding the sources of an entity’s earnings can help us identify
risks of material misstatement related to valuation of certain products
or lines of businesses or areas that may be more susceptible to
management fraud.

• Understanding key supplier and customer relationships can help us

identify potential related parties or risks related to revenue recognition.
• An entity with components in multiple tax jurisdictions, resulting in
additional risk of misstatement in the tax accounts.
• An acquisition may result in a complex structure of holding companies
to achieve benefits to the shareholders giving rise to significant
intercompany transactions which may give rise to material
misstatements due to fraud or error.
• Transactions outside the entity’s normal course of business may include:
complex equity transactions, transactions regarding the leasing of premises,
or the rendering of management services by the entity to another party, when
no consideration is exchanged, transactions under contracts with terms that
change before expiration should be studied in depth.
(c) The entity’s selection and application of accounting policies, including the
reasons for changes thereto. The auditor shall evaluate whether the entity’s
accounting policies are appropriate for its business and consistent with the
applicable financial reporting framework and accounting policies used in the
relevant industry.
Example
1. We use our understanding of the entity’s accounting principles,
financial reporting policies or disclosures to help us determine:
 The need to involve a specialist to help perform audit
procedures related to particular disclosures, such as pension
disclosures.
 The effect on our audit of significant new or revised disclosures
that may be required as a result of changes in the entity’s
environment, financial condition or activities, such as a change
in the segments for the reporting of segment information
arising from a significant business combination.
2. Management determines that most of the entity’s competitors have
adopted an accounting policy that is different from that adopted by
the entity. After evaluation, management determines that the
alternative accounting policy is generally accepted and further
determines that the alternative accounting policy preferable as it will
result in greater comparability and result in reliable and more

PROGRAMME
relevant information. Management therefore decides to change the
entity’s accounting policy.
(d) The entity’s objectives and strategies, and those related business risks that
may result in risks of material misstatement.
Example
1. If one of management’s objectives is to grow the business,
management may develop a strategy of steady but regular growth
through specific marketing campaigns and development of new
markets. Alternatively, management may develop a more aggressive,
complex strategy of acquiring competitors. Each of these strategies
gives rise to differing business risks and potentially differing risks of
2. Examples of potential business risks include:
 Failure to keep up to date with new products, technologies or
services.
 Excessive reliance on a key supplier, product or individual, such as
the owner.
 Lack of personnel with expertise to react to changes in the
industry.
 Insufficient or excessive production capacity caused by inaccurate
estimation of demand.
 Loss of financing due to the entity’s inability to meet financial
covenants
(e) The measurement and review of the entity’s financial performance.
Example
External information such as analysts’ reports and credit rating agency reports may
be useful information for us to obtain an understanding of an entity’s performance
measures. Such reports can often be obtained from the entity.
In addition to the importance of knowledge of the client’s business in establishing
the overall audit plan, such knowledge helps the auditor to identify areas of special
audit consideration, to evaluate the reasonableness both of accounting estimates
and management representations and to make judgements regarding the
appropriateness of accounting policies and disclosures.

5. AUDIT PLANNING – A CONTINUOUS PROCESS

In the context of recurring audits, as per SA-300, “Planning an Audit of Financial
Statements”, Planning is not a discrete phase of an audit, but rather a continual and
iterative process that often begins shortly after (or in connection with) the
completion of the previous audit and continues until the completion of the current
audit engagement. Planning, however, includes consideration of the timing of certain
activities and audit procedures that need to be completed prior to the performance
of further audit procedures. For example, planning includes the need to consider,
prior to the auditor’s identification and assessment of the risks of material
misstatement, such matters as:
1. The analytical procedures to be applied as risk assessment procedures.
2. Obtaining a general understanding of the legal and regulatory framework
applicable to the entity and how the entity is complying with that framework.
3. The determination of materiality.
4. The involvement of experts.
5. The performance of other risk assessment procedures.
5.1 Additional Considerations in Initial Audit Engagements

(As per SA-300, “Planning an Audit of Financial Statements”)
The auditor shall undertake the following activities prior to starting an initial audit:
(a) Performing procedures required by SA 220 regarding the acceptance of the
client relationship and specific audit engagement, and
(b) Communicating with the predecessor auditor, where there has been a change
of auditors, in compliance with relevant ethical requirements
6. OVERALL AUDIT STRATEGY AND THE AUDIT

PLAN – THE AUDITOR’S RESPONSIBILITY
The auditor may decide to discuss elements of planning with the entity’s
management to facilitate the conduct and management of the audit engagement.
Example
To coordinate some of the planned audit procedures with the work of the entity’s
personnel.

PROGRAMME
Although these discussions often occur, the overall audit strategy and the audit
plan remain the auditor’s responsibility. When discussing matters included in the
overall audit strategy or audit plan, care is required in order not to compromise the
effectiveness of the audit.
Example
Discussing the nature and timing of detailed audit procedures with management
may compromise the effectiveness of the audit by making the audit procedures too
predictable.
The involvement of the engagement partner and other key members of the
engagement team in planning the audit draws on their experience and insight,
thereby enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of the planning process.
ILLUSTRATION 2
W, the auditor of SKM Ltd asks its finance and audit head to prepare audit strategy
for conducting audit of SKM Ltd. W, also insist him to draw detailed audit procedures
also. On the request of auditor W, complete audit strategy as well as audit procedures
are prepared by finance head of the company. Subsequently, auditor realizes that
effectiveness of the audit is compromised and it was his responsibility to prepare the
overall audit strategy. Comment.
SOLUTION
Refer paragraph 6- Overall Audit Strategy and the Audit Plan – The Auditor’s
Responsibility-Keeping in view the content given in paragraph 6, approach of W
was wrong and he should have prepared overall audit strategy and detailed audit
procedures
7. CHANGES TO PLANNING DECISIONS

DURING THE COURSE OF THE AUDIT
The auditor shall update and change the overall audit strategy and the audit plan
as necessary during the course of the audit. As a result of unexpected events,
changes in conditions, or the audit evidence obtained from the results of audit
procedures, the auditor may need to modify the overall audit strategy and audit
plan and thereby the resulting planned nature, timing and extent of further audit
procedures, based on the revised consideration of assessed risks. This may be the
case when information comes to the auditor’s attention that differs significantly
from the information available when the auditor planned the audit procedures.
For example, audit evidence obtained through the performance of substantive

procedures may contradict the audit evidence obtained through tests of controls.
8. DIRECTION, SUPERVISION AND REVIEW

The auditor shall plan the nature, timing and extent of direction and supervision of
engagement team members and the review of their work.
The nature, timing and extent of the direction and supervision of engagement team
members and review of their work vary depending on many factors, including:
1. The size and complexity of the entity.
2. The area of the audit.
3. The assessed risks of material misstatement
Example
An increase in the assessed risk of material misstatement for a given area of
the audit ordinarily requires a corresponding increase in the extent and
timeliness of direction and supervision of engagement team members, and a
more detailed review of their work.
4. The capabilities and competence of the individual team members performing
the audit work.
Example
We may have identified a problem related to the production process that
raised concerns about inventory obsolescence. After obtaining an
understanding of the entity’s process that raised concerns about inventory
obsolescence (which we had identified as a significant class of transactions),
we concluded that additional tests of details were required. Therefore, the
senior will likely take part, along with the team, in the discussions with
management about the provision for obsolescence and examine related
documentation supporting the provision, rather than just reading the memo
on file. These procedures should be completed as the work is being performed
rather than as an after the fact review. The extent of the senior’s involvement
requires judgment, taking into consideration the complexity of the area and
the experience of the team.

PROGRAMME
9. DOCUMENTATION
The auditor shall document:
(a) the overall audit strategy;
(b) the audit plan; and
(c) any significant changes made during the audit engagement to the overall
audit strategy or the audit plan, and the reasons for such changes.
The documentation of the overall audit strategy is a record of the key decisions
considered necessary to properly plan the audit and to communicate significant
matters to the engagement team.
Example
The auditor may summarize the overall audit strategy in the form of a memorandum
that contains key decisions regarding the overall scope, timing and conduct of the
audit.
The documentation of the audit plan is a record of the planned nature, timing and
extent of risk assessment procedures and further audit procedures at the assertion
level in response to the assessed risks. It also serves as a record of the proper planning
of the audit procedures that can be reviewed and approved prior to their performance.
The auditor may use standard audit programs and/or audit completion checklists,
tailored as needed to reflect the particular engagement circumstances.
A record of the significant changes to the overall audit strategy and the audit plan,
and resulting changes to the planned nature, timing and extent of audit procedures,
explains why the significant changes were made, and the overall strategy and audit
plan finally adopted for the audit. It also reflects the appropriate response to the
significant changes occurring during the audit.
Example
The following things should form part of auditor’s documentation:
♦ A summary of discussions with the entity’s key decision makers.
♦ Documentation of audit committee pre-approval of services, where required.
♦ Audit documentation access letters.
♦ Other communications or agreements with management or those charged
with governance regarding the scope, or changes in scope, of our services.

♦ Auditor’s report on the entity’s financial statements.

♦ Other reports as specified in the engagement agreement (e.g., debt covenant
compliance letter).
10. AUDIT PROGRAMME

It is desirable that in respect of each audit and more particularly for bigger audits
an audit programme should be drawn up. Audit programme is a list of examination
and verification steps to be applied and set out in such a way that the inter-
relationship of one step to another is clearly shown and designed, keeping in view
the assertions discernible in the statements of account produced for audit or on
the basis of an appraisal of the accounting records of the client.
Definition : An audit programme consists of a series of verification procedures to

be applied to the financial statements and accounts of a given company for the
purpose of obtaining sufficient evidence to enable the auditor to express an
informed opinion on such statements.
In other words, an audit programme is a detailed plan of applying the audit

procedures in the given circumstances with instructions for the appropriate
techniques to be adopted for accomplishing the audit objectives.
10.1 Evolving One Audit Programme – Not Practicable For

All Businesses
Businesses vary in nature, size and composition; work which is suitable to one
business may not be suitable to others; efficiency and operation of internal controls
and the exact nature of the service to be rendered by the auditor are the other
factors that vary from assignment to assignment. On account of such variations,
evolving one audit programme applicable to all business under all circumstances is
not practicable. However, it becomes a necessity to specify in detail in the audit
programme the nature of work to be done so that no time will be wasted on matters
not pertinent to the engagement and any special matter or any specific situation
can be taken care of.
10.2 The Assistant Engaged - Be Encouraged To Keep An

Open Mind
To start with, an auditor having regard to the nature, size and composition of the
business and the dependability of the internal control and the given scope of work,
should frame a programme which should aim at providing for a minimum essential

PROGRAMME
work which may be termed as a standard programme. As experience is gained by
actually carrying out the work, the programme may be altered to take care of
situations which were left out originally, but are found relevant for the particular
concern. Similarly, if any work originally provided for proves beyond doubt to be
unnecessary or irrelevant, it may be dropped. The assistant engaged in the job
should be encouraged to keep an open mind beyond the programme given to him.
He should be instructed to note and report significant matters coming to his notice,
to his seniors or to the partners or proprietor of the firm engaged for doing the
audit.
10.3 Periodic Review of The Audit Programme

There should be periodic review of the audit programme to assess whether the
same continues to be adequate for obtaining requisite knowledge and evidence
about the transactions. Unless this is done, any change in the business policy of the
client may not be adequately known, and consequently, audit work may be carried
on, on the basis of an obsolete programme and, for this negligence, the whole audit
may be held as negligently conducted and the auditor may have to face legal
consequences.
Example
If the audit programme for the audit of a branch of a financing house, drawn up a
number of years ago, fails to take into consideration that the previous policy of
financing of a vehicle has been changed to financing of real estate acquisition, the
whole audit conducted thereunder would be entirely misdirected and may even
result into nothing more than a farce. [Pacific Acceptance Corporation Ltd. v.
Forsyth and Others.]
The utility of the audit programme can be retained and enhanced only by keeping
the programme as also the client’s operations and internal control under periodic
review so that inadequacies or redundancies of the programme may be removed.
However, as a basic feature, audit programme not only lists the tasks to be carried out
but also contains a few relevant instructions, like the extent of checking, the sampling
plan, etc. So long as the programme is not officially changed by the principal, every
assistant deputed on the job should unfailingly carry out the detailed work
according to the instructions governing the work. Many persons believe that this
brings an element of rigidity in the audit programme. This is not true provided the
periodic review is undertaken to keep the programme as up-to-date as possible
and by encouraging the assistants on the job to observe all salient features of the
various accounting functions of the client.

10.4 Constructing an Audit Programme

The audit planning ideally commences at the conclusion of the previous year’s
audit, and along with the related programme, it should be reconsidered for
modification as the audit progresses. Such consideration is based on the
auditor’s review of the internal control, his preliminary evaluation thereof, and
the results of his compliance and substantive procedures.
While developing an audit programme, the auditor may conclude that relying
on certain internal controls is an effective and efficient way to conduct his
audit. However, the auditor may decide not to rely on internal controls when
there are other more efficient ways of obtaining sufficient appropriate audit
evidence. The auditor should also consider the timing of the procedures, the
coordination of any assistance expected from the client, the availability of
assistants, and the involvement of other auditors or experts.
Further, the auditor normally has flexibility in deciding when to perform audit
procedures. However, in some cases, the auditor may have no discretion as to
timing, for example, when observing the taking of inventories by client
personnel or verifying the securities and cash balances at the year-end.
For the purpose of programme construction, the following points should be kept
in mind:
(1) Stay within the scope and limitation of the assignment.
(2) Prepare a written audit programme setting forth the procedures that are
needed to implement the audit plan.
(3) Determine the evidence reasonably available and identify the best
evidence for deriving the necessary satisfaction.
(4) Apply only those steps and procedures which are useful in accomplishing
the verification purpose in the specific situation.
(5) Include the audit objectives for each area and sufficient details which
serve as a set of instructions for the assistants involved in audit and help
in controlling the proper execution of the work.
(6) Consider all possibilities of error.
(7) Co-ordinate the procedures to be applied to related items.

PROGRAMME
Stay within the

scope and
limitation of the
assignment.
Co-ordinate
the procedures Prepare a
to be applied written audit
to related programme.
items.
Determine the
evidence
Consider all
reasonably
possibilities of
available and
error.
identify the best
evidence.
Apply only those

Include the steps which are
audit useful in
objectives for accomplishing
each area. the verification
purpose.
10.5 Audit Programme- Designed to provide Audit

Evidence
Audit Evidence may be defined as the information used by the auditor in arriving
at the conclusions on which the auditor’s opinion is based. Audit evidence includes
both information contained in the accounting records underlying the financial
statements and other information.
Evidence is the very basis for formulation of opinion and an audit programme is
designed to provide for that by prescribing procedures and techniques. What is
best evidence for testing the accuracy of any assertion is a matter of expert
knowledge and experience. This is the primary task before the auditor when he
draws up the audit programme. Transactions are varied in nature and impact;
procedures to be prescribed depend on prior knowledge of what evidence is
reasonably available in respect of each transaction.

Example
Sales are evidenced by:

(i) invoices raised by the client;
(ii) price list;
(iii) forwarding notes to client;
(iv) inventory-issue records;
(v) sales managers’ advice to the inventory section;
(vi) acknowledgements of the receipt of goods by the customers; and
(vii) collection of money against sales by the client.
In most of the assertions much of the evidence be drawn and each one should be
considered and weighed to ascertain its weight to prove or disprove the assertion.
In this process, an auditor would be in a position to identify the evidence that brings
the highest satisfaction to him about the appropriateness or otherwise of the
assertion.
An auditor picks up evidence from a variety of fields and it is generally of the
following broad types:
(a) Documentary examination,
(b) Physical examination,
(c) Statements and explanation of management, officials and employees,
(d) Statements and explanations of third parties,
(e) Arithmetical calculations by the auditor,
(f) State of internal controls and internal checks,
(g) Inter-relationship of the various accounting data,
(h) Subsidiary and memorandum records,
(i) Minutes,
(j) Subsequent action by the client and by others.
Example
1. For cash in hand, the best evidence is ‘count’

2. For investment pledged with a bank, the banker’s certificate.

PROGRAMME
3. For verifying assertions about book debts, the client’s ledger invoices, debit
notes, credit notes, monthly accounts statement sent to the customers are
all evidence: some of these are corroborative, other being complementary. In
addition, balance confirmation procedure is often resorted to, to obtain
greater satisfaction about the reliability of the assertion.
The auditor, however, has to place appropriate weight on each piece of evidence
and accordingly should prescribe the priority of verification. It is true that in all
cases one procedure may not bring the highest satisfaction and it may be
dangerous for the auditor to ignore any evidence that is available. By the word
“available” we do not mean that the evidence available with the client is the only
available evidence. The auditor should know what normally should be available in the
context of the transaction having regard to the circumstances and usage.
10.6Advantages and Disadvantages of an Audit

Programme
The advantages of an audit programme are:
(a) It provides the assistant carrying out the audit with total and clear set of
instructions of the work generally to be done.
(b) It is essential, particularly for major audits, to provide a total perspective of
the work to be performed.
(c) Selection of assistants for the jobs on the basis of capability becomes easier
when the work is rationally planned, defined and segregated.
(d) Without a written and pre-determined programme, work is necessarily to be
carried out on the basis of some ‘mental’ plan. In such a situation there is
always a danger of ignoring or overlooking certain books and records. Under
a properly framed programme, such danger is significantly less and the audit
can proceed systematically.
(e) The assistants, by putting their signature on programme, accept the
responsibility for the work carried out by them individually and, if necessary,
the work done may be traced back to the assistant.
(f) The principal can control the progress of the various audits in hand by
examination of audit programmes initiated by the assistants deputed to the
jobs for completed work.
(g) It serves as a guide for audits to be carried out in the succeeding year.

(h) A properly drawn up audit programme serves as evidence in the event of any
charge of negligence being brought against the auditor. It may be of
considerable value in establishing that he exercised reasonable skill and care
that was expected of professional auditor.
Some disadvantages are also there in the use of audit programmes but most
of these can be removed by following some concrete steps.
The disadvantages are:

(a) The work may become mechanical and particular parts of the programme
may be carried out without any understanding of the object of such parts in
the whole audit scheme.
(b) The programme often tends to become rigid and inflexible following set
grooves; the business may change in its operation of conduct, but the old
programme may still be carried on. Changes in staff or internal control may
render precaution necessary at points different from those originally decided
upon.
(c) Inefficient assistants may take shelter behind the programme i.e. defend
deficiencies in their work on the ground that no instruction in the matter is
contained therein.
(d) A hard and fast audit programme may kill the initiative of efficient and
enterprising assistants.
All these disadvantages may be eliminated by imaginative supervision of the work

carried on by the assistants; the auditor must have a receptive attitude as regards
the assistants; the assistants should be encouraged to observe matters objectively
and bring significant matters to the notice of supervisor/principal.
11. QUALITY CONTROL FOR AUDIT WORK–

DELEGATION AND SUPERVISION OF AUDIT
WORK
An audit is a complex task involving number of people at different levels. As we
observed in the preparation and development of audit programme, the auditor
would naturally have to depend upon number of technical experts as well. During
the course of his work, the auditor is also likely to use the work performed by other
auditors also.

PROGRAMME
A lot of work is delegated by auditor to his assistants. The auditor should carefully
direct, supervise and review work delegated to assistants. The auditor should obtain
reasonable assurance that work performed by other auditors or experts is adequate
for his purpose. SA 220, “Quality Control for an Audit of Financial Statements” lays
down standards on the quality control.
The objective of the auditor is to implement quality control procedures at the

engagement level that provides the auditor with reasonable assurance that:
12. AUDIT PLANNING AND MATERIALITY

Financial Statements are prepared to portray a true and fair view of the
performance and state of affairs of an enterprise. In selecting a policy,
alternative accounting policies should be evaluated in that light. In particular,
materiality is one of the major considerations that governs the selection of a
particular policy.
Financial statements should disclose all ‘material items, i.e. the items the
knowledge of which might influence the decisions of the user of the financial
statement. Materiality is not always a matter of relative size. For example a
small amount lost by fraudulent practices of certain employees can indicate a
serious flaw in the enterprise’s internal control system requiring immediate
attention to avoid greater losses in future. In certain cases quantitative limits
of materiality is specified. A few of such cases are given below:
(a) A company should disclose by way of notes additional information
regarding any item of income or expenditure which exceeds 1% of the
revenue from operations or ` 1,00,000 whichever is higher (Refer general
Instructions for preparation of Statement of Profit and Loss in Schedule
III to the Companies Act, 2013).
(b) A company should disclose in Notes to Accounts, shares in the company
held by each shareholder holding more than 5 per cent shares specifying
the number of shares held.

Standard on Auditing (SA) -320 on “Materiality in Planning and Performing

an Audit” deals with the auditor’s responsibility to apply the concept of
materiality in planning and performing an audit of financial statements. SA
450 explains how materiality is applied in evaluating the effect of identified
misstatements on the audit and of uncorrected misstatements on the financial
statements.
Financial reporting frameworks often discuss the concept of materiality in the
context of the preparation and presentation of financial statements. Although
financial reporting frameworks may discuss materiality in different terms,
they generally explain that:
1. Misstatements are material if expected to influence the economic
decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements:
Misstatements, including omissions, are considered to be material if
they, individually or in the aggregate, could reasonably be expected to
influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the
financial statements;
2. Judgments about materiality are affected by the size or nature of a
misstatement :
Judgments about materiality are made in the light of surrounding
circumstances, and are affected by the size or nature of a misstatement,
or a combination of both; and
3. Judgments about matters that are material are based on a consideration
of the common financial information needs of users as a group :
Judgments about matters that are material to users of the financial
statements are based on a consideration of the common financial
information needs of users as a group. The possible effect of
misstatements on specific individual users, whose needs may vary
widely, is not considered.
Such a discussion, if present in the applicable financial reporting framework,
provides a frame of reference to the auditor in determining materiality for the
audit. If the applicable financial reporting framework does not include a
discussion of the concept of materiality, the characteristics referred above
provide the auditor with such a frame of reference.
The auditor’s determination of materiality is a matter of professional
judgment, and is affected by the auditor’s perception of the financial

PROGRAMME
information needs of users of the financial statements. In this context, it is
reasonable for the auditor to assume that users:
(a) Have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and

accounting and a willingness to study the information in the financial
statements with reasonable diligence;
(b) Understand that financial statements are prepared, presented and

audited to levels of materiality;
(c) Recognize the uncertainties inherent in the measurement of amounts

based on the use of estimates, judgment and the consideration of future
events; and
(d) Make reasonable economic decisions on the basis of the information in

the financial statements.
The concept of materiality is applied by the auditor both in planning and

performing the audit, and in evaluating the effect of identified misstatements
on the audit and of uncorrected misstatements, if any, on the financial
statements and in forming the opinion in the auditor’s report.
Materiality is an important consideration for an auditor to evaluate whether the

financial statements reflect a true and fair view or not. SA 320 on “Materiality in
Planning and Performing an Audit” requires that an auditor should consider
materiality and its relationship with audit risk while conducting an audit. When
planning the audit, the auditor considers what would make the financial information
materially misstated. The auditor’s preliminary assessment of materiality related to
specific account balances and classes of transactions helps the auditor decide such
questions as what items to examine and whether to use sampling and analytical
procedures. This enables the auditor to select audit procedures that, in
combination, can be expected to support the audit opinion at an acceptably low
degree of audit risk. It may be noted that the auditor’s assessment of materiality
and audit risk may be different at the time of initially planning of the audit as
against at the time of evaluating the results of audit procedures.
At the planning stage, the auditor needs to consider the materiality for the financial
statements as a whole. The auditor has to carry out a preliminary identification of
significant components and material classes of transactions, account balances and

disclosure which he plans to examine. What could be considered material for all
situations cannot be defined precisely and an amount or transaction material in
one situation may not be material in other situation. For example, ` 5,000 may be
material for a small entity, but even ` 100,000 may not be material for a large entity.
The auditor has to apply his professional judgement in determining materiality,
choosing appropriate benchmark and determining level of benchmark. Materiality
forms the basis for determination of audit scope and the levels of testing the
transactions. As per SA 320, Materiality in Planning and Performing an audit,
Misstatements, including omissions, are considered to be material if they,
individually or in the aggregate, could reasonably be expected to influence the
economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements
If there is any statutory requirement of disclosure, it is to be considered material
irrespective of the value of amount.
Example
As per new Division I schedule III of Companies Act, 2013, any item of income or
expenditure which exceeds one percent of the revenue from operations or
` 1,00,000, whichever is higher, needs to be disclosed separately.
While judging materiality, the significance of an item has to be viewed from
different perspectives. Materiality of an item may be judged by considering the
impact on the profit and loss, or on the balance sheet, or in the total of the category
of expenditure or income to which it pertains, and on its comparison with the
corresponding figure for the previous year.
12.1 Determining Materiality and Performance Materiality

when Planning the Audit
When establishing the overall audit strategy, the auditor shall determine materiality
for the financial statements as a whole. If, in the specific circumstances of the entity,
there is one or more particular classes of transactions, account balances or
disclosures for which misstatements of lesser amounts than the materiality for the
financial statements as a whole could reasonably be expected to influence the
economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements, the
auditor shall also determine the materiality level or levels to be applied to those
particular classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures.

PROGRAMME
Performance Materiality defined : Performance materiality means the amount or
amounts set by the auditor at less than materiality for the financial statements as
a whole to reduce to an appropriately low level the probability that the aggregate
of uncorrected and undetected misstatements exceeds materiality for the financial
statements as a whole. If applicable, performance materiality also refers to the
amount or amounts set by the auditor at less than the materiality level or levels for
particular classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures.
12.1.1 Use of Benchmarks in Determining Materiality for the Financial

Statements as a Whole
Determining materiality involves the exercise of professional judgment. A
percentage is often applied to a chosen benchmark as a starting point in
determining materiality for the financial statements as a whole. Factors that may
affect the identification of an appropriate benchmark include the following:
♦ The elements of the financial statements
Example
Assets, liabilities, equity, revenue, expenses;
♦ Whether there are items on which the attention of the users of the particular
entity’s financial statements tends to be focused
Example
For the purpose of evaluating financial performance users may tend to focus
on profit, revenue or net assets
♦ The nature of the entity, where the entity is at in its life cycle, and the industry
and economic environment in which the entity operates;The entity’s
ownership structure and the way it is financed and
Example
If an entity is financed solely by debt rather than equity, users may put more
emphasis on assets, and claims on them, than on the entity’s earnings;
♦ The relative volatility of the benchmark.

12.1.2 Examples of appropriate benchmarks depending on entity’s

circumstances
Examples of benchmarks that may be appropriate, depending on the

circumstances of the entity, include categories of reported income such as :
♦ profit before tax,
♦ total revenue,
♦ gross profit and total expenses,
♦ total equity or net asset value.
Profit before tax from continuing operations is often used for profit-oriented
entities. When profit before tax from continuing operations is volatile, other
benchmarks may be more appropriate, such as gross profit or total revenues.

PROGRAMME
12.1.3 Chosen Benchmark – Relevant financial data
In relation to the chosen benchmark, relevant financial data ordinarily includes –
♦ prior periods’ financial results and financial positions,
♦ the period to-date financial results and financial position, and
♦ budgets or forecasts for the current period,
♦ adjusted for significant changes in the circumstances of the entity (for
example, a significant business acquisition) and relevant changes of conditions
in the industry or economic environment in which the entity operates.
Example
When, as a starting point, the materiality for the financial statements as a whole is
determined for a particular entity based on a percentage of profit before tax from
continuing operations, circumstances that give rise to an exceptional decrease or
increase in such profit may lead the auditor to conclude that the materiality for the
financial statements as a whole is more appropriately determined using a normalized
profit before tax from continuing operations figure based on past results.
12.1.4 Determining a percentage to be applied to a chosen benchmark

involves the exercise of professional judgment.
There is a relationship between the percentage and the chosen benchmark, such
that a percentage applied to profit before tax from continuing operations will
normally be higher than a percentage applied to total revenue.
Example
The auditor may consider five percent of profit before tax from continuing operations
to be appropriate for a profit oriented entity in a manufacturing industry, while the
auditor may consider one percent of total revenue or total expenses to be appropriate
for a not-for-profit entity. Higher or lower percentages, however, may be deemed
appropriate in different circumstances.
12.2Materiality Level or Levels for Particular Classes of

Transactions, Account Balances or Disclosures
Factors that may indicate the existence of one or more particular classes of
transactions, account balances or disclosures for which misstatements of lesser
amounts than materiality for the financial statements as a whole could reasonably
be expected to influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the

financial statements include the following:

1. Whether law, regulations or the applicable financial reporting framework
affect users’ expectations regarding the measurement or disclosure of certain
items.
Example
Related party transactions, and the remuneration of management and those
charged with governance.
2. The key disclosures in relation to the industry in which the entity operates.
Example
Research and development costs for a pharmaceutical company.

3. Whether attention is focused on a particular aspect of the entity’s business
that is separately disclosed in the financial statements.
Example
A newly acquired business.
12.3 Revision in Materiality level as the Audit Progresses

Materiality for the financial statements as a whole (and, if applicable, the materiality
level or levels for particular classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures)
may need to be revised as a result of a change in circumstances that occurred
during the audit (for example, a decision to dispose of a major part of the entity’s
business), new information, or a change in the auditor’s understanding of the entity
and its operations as a result of performing further audit procedures.
Example
If during the audit it appears as though actual financial results are likely to be
substantially different from the anticipated period end financial results that were
used initially to determine materiality for the financial statements as a whole, the
auditor revises that materiality.
If the auditor concludes that a lower materiality for the financial statements as a
whole (and, if applicable, materiality level or levels for particular classes of
transactions, account balances or disclosures) than that initially determined is
appropriate, the auditor shall determine whether it is necessary to revise
performance materiality, and whether the nature, timing and extent of the further
audit procedures remain appropriate.

PROGRAMME
12.4 Documenting the Materiality

The audit documentation shall include the following amounts and the factors
considered in their determination:
(a) Materiality for the financial statements as a whole;
(b) If applicable, the materiality level or levels for particular classes of
transactions, account balances or disclosures ;
(c) Performance materiality ; and
(d) Any revision of (a)-(c) as the audit progressed
SUMMARY
After establishment of the overall audit strategy, an audit plan can be developed
to address the various matters identified in the overall audit strategy, taking into
account the need to achieve the audit objectives through the efficient use of the
auditor’s resources.
In establishing the overall audit strategy, the auditor shall:
Planning is not a discrete phase of an audit, but rather a continual and iterative
process that often begins shortly after (or in connection with) the completion of
the previous audit and continues until the completion of the current audit
engagement.
The auditor shall document (a) the overall audit strategy;(b) the audit plan; and (c)
any significant changes made during the audit engagement to the overall audit
strategy or the audit plan, and the reasons for such changes.

AN AUDIT PROGRAMME is a detailed plan and consists of a series of verification

procedures to be applied to the financial statements and accounts of a given
company for the purpose of obtaining sufficient evidence to enable the auditor to
express an informed opinion on such statements. For framing an audit programme
the following points should be kept in view:
SA 320 on “Materiality in Planning and
Performing an Audit” requires that an
auditor should consider materiality and
its relationship with audit risk while
conducting an audit. The auditor’s
preliminary assessment of materiality
related to specific account balances and
classes of transactions helps the auditor
decide such questions as what items to
examine and whether to use sampling
and analytical procedures.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct/Incorrect
incorrect:
1. The establishment of the overall audit strategy and the detailed audit plan
are not necessarily discrete or sequential processes, but are closely inter-
related since changes in one may result in consequential changes to the
other.
2. Establishing an overall audit strategy that sets the scope, timing and direction
of the audit, and that guides the development of the audit plan is prerogative
of the management.
3. Planning is a discrete phase of an audit
4. Materiality for the financial statements as a whole (and, if applicable, the
materiality level or levels for particular classes of transactions, account
balances or disclosures) does not need any revision.
5. A detailed Audit Programme once prepared for a business can be used for all
business under all circumstances.
6. The audit plan is more detailed than the overall audit strategy

PROGRAMME
1. “Once the overall audit strategy has been established, an audit plan can be
developed to address the various matters identified in the overall audit
strategy”. Explain.
2. “Planning is not a discrete phase of an audit, but rather a continual and
iterative process”. Discuss.
3. ”The nature, timing and extent of the direction and supervision of
engagement team members and review of their work vary depending on
many factors.” Explain.
4. “The utility of the audit programme can be retained and enhanced only by
keeping the programme and also the client’s operations and internal control
under periodic review so that inadequacies or redundancies of the
programme may be removed’. Discuss stating clearly the advantages of an
audit programme.
5. “Determining materiality involves the exercise of professional judgment”.
Discuss stating the factors that may affect the identification of an appropriate
benchmark. Also give example.
6. Is it necessary to document the audit plan? If so, what all activities in the
planning phase needs to be documented? State with Examples.
7. Whether misstatements of lesser amounts than materiality for the financial
statements as a whole could reasonably be expected to influence the
economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financials statements?
Explain with examples
ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
1. Correct: Once the overall audit strategy has been established, an audit plan
can be developed to achieve the audit objectives through the efficient use
of the auditor’s resources. The establishment of the overall audit strategy and
the detailed audit plan are not necessarily discrete or sequential processes,
but are closely inter-related since changes in one may result in consequential
changes to the other.

2. Incorrect. The auditor shall establish an overall audit strategy that sets the
scope, timing and direction of the audit, and that guides the development of
the audit plan.
3. Incorrect. Planning is not a discrete phase of an audit, but rather a continual
and iterative process that often begin shortly after (or in connection with) the
completion of the previous audit and continues until the completion of the
current audit engagement. Planning, however, includes consideration of the
timing of certain activities and audit procedures that need to be completed
prior to the performance of further audit procedures
4. Incorrect: Materiality for the financial statements as a whole (and, if
applicable, the materiality level or levels for particular classes of transactions,
account balances or disclosures) may need to be revised as a result of a
change in circumstances that occurred during the audit (for example, a
decision to dispose of a major part of the entity’s business), new information,
or a change in the auditor’s understanding of the entity and its operations as
a result of performing further audit procedures.
5. Incorrect. Businesses vary in nature, size and composition; work which is
suitable to one business may not be suitable to others; efficiency and
operation of internal controls and the exact nature of the service to be
rendered by the auditor are the other factors that vary from assignment to
assignment. On account of such variations, evolving one audit programme
applicable to all business under all circumstances is not practicable
6. Correct. The audit plan is more detailed than the overall audit strategy that
includes the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures to be performed by
engagement team members. Planning for these audit procedures takes place
over the course of the audit as the audit plan for the engagement develops.
Hints to Theoretical Questions

1. Refer para 3
2. Refer para 5
3. Refer para 8
4. Refer para 10.7
5. Refer para 12.1.1
6. Refer Para. 9
7. Refer Para. 12.1

CHAPTER
3
AUDIT DOCUMENTATION
AND AUDIT EVIDENCE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand the concepts of audit documentation, nature and purpose of
audit documentation, Form, content and extent of audit documentation, audit
documentation summary, audit file, assembly of the final audit file, ownership
of audit documentation, nature of related party relationships and
transactions.
 Gain the knowledge of written representations and the objectives of the
auditor regarding written representation.
 Identify Audit Evidence—Specific Considerations for Selected Items, External
confirmation.
 Learn objective of Auditor with respect to Opening balances – in conducting
an initial audit engagement.
 Explain audit evidence, sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence,
types of audit evidence, relevance and reliability of audit evidence, and also
methods to obtain audit evidence.
 Understand materiality, its definition and judge the materiality of the item in
different circumstances.
 Explain concepts of true and fair and disclosure of accounting policies.
 Understand the Fundamental Accounting Assumptions.

1. AUDIT DOCUMENTATION
SA 230 on “Audit Documentation”, deals with the auditor’s responsibility to prepare
audit documentation for an audit of financial statements. It is to be adapted as
necessary in the circumstances when applied to audits of other historical financial
information. The specific documentation requirements of other SAs do not limit the
application of this SA. Laws or regulations may establish additional documentation
requirements.
1.1 Definition of Audit Documentation:

Audit Documentation refers to the record of audit procedures performed, relevant
audit evidence obtained, and conclusions the auditor reached. (terms such as
“working papers” or “work papers” are also sometimes used.)

AUDIT DOCUMENTATION AND AUDIT EVIDENCE 3.3
1.2 Objective of the Auditor:

The objective of the auditor is to prepare documentation that provides:
(a) A sufficient and appropriate record of the basis for the auditor’s report; and
(b) Evidence that the audit was planned and performed in accordance with SAs
and applicable legal and regulatory requirements.
1.3 Nature of Audit Documentation

Audit documentation provides:
(a) evidence of the auditor’s basis for a conclusion about the achievement of the
overall objectives of the auditor; and
(b) evidence that the audit was planned and performed in accordance with SAs
and applicable legal and regulatory requirements.
1.4 Purpose of Audit Documentation

The following are the purpose of Audit documentation:
1. Assisting the engagement team to plan and perform the audit.
2. Assisting members of the engagement team to direct and supervise the audit
work, and to discharge their review responsibilities.
3. Enabling the engagement team to be accountable for its work.
4. Retaining a record of matters of continuing significance to future audits.
5. Enabling the conduct of quality control reviews and inspections in accordance
with SQC 1.
6. Enabling the conduct of external inspections in accordance with applicable
legal, regulatory or other requirements.
ILLUSTRATION 1
A new team member of the auditors of Extremely Vibrant Limited was of the view
that Audit Documentation does not help in planning the audit of any company.
Explain whether Audit Documentation has any relation with regard to planning the
audit of a company.
SOLUTION
Audit Documentation helps in planning the audit of a company in a proper manner
and also helps in conducting the audit of that company in a more effective way.

1.5 Form, Content and Extent of Audit Documentation

♦ The auditor shall prepare audit documentation that is sufficient to enable an
experienced auditor, having no previous connection with the audit, to
understand:
(a) The nature, timing and extent of the audit procedures performed.
(b) The results of the audit procedures performed and the audit evidence
obtained and
(c) Significant matters arising during the audit and the conclusions reached
thereon and significant professional judgements made in reaching
those conclusions.
♦ Further in documenting the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures
performed, the auditor shall record:
(a) The identifying characteristics of the specific items or matters tested.
(b) Who performed the audit work and the date such work was completed;
and
(c) Who reviewed the audit work performed and the date and extent of
such review.
♦ The auditor shall document discussions of significant matters with
management, those charged with governance, and others, including the
nature of the significant matters discussed and when and with whom the
discussions took place.
♦ If the auditor identified information that is inconsistent with the auditor’s final
conclusion regarding a significant matter, the auditor shall document how
the auditor addressed the inconsistency
The form, content and extent of audit documentation depend on
factors such as:
1. The size and complexity of the entity.
2. The nature of the audit procedures to be performed.
3. The identified risks of material misstatement.
4. The significance of the audit evidence obtained.
5. The nature and extent of exceptions identified.

6. The need to document a conclusion or the basis for a conclusion not readily
determinable from the documentation of the work performed or audit
evidence obtained.
7. The audit methodology and tools used.
1.6 Examples of Audit Documentation

Audit documentation may be recorded on paper or on electronic or other media.
Example
Audit Documentation include:

Audit programmes.
Analyses.
Issues memoranda.
Summaries of significant matters.
Letters of confirmation and representation.
Checklists.
Correspondence (including e-mail) concerning significant matters.
The auditor may include copies of the entity’s records (for example, significant and
specific contracts and agreements) as part of audit documentation. Audit
documentation is not a substitute for the entity’s accounting records.
The auditor need not include in audit documentation superseded drafts of working
papers and financial statements, notes that reflect incomplete or preliminary
thinking, previous copies of documents corrected for typographical or other errors,
and duplicates of documents.
1.7 Timely Preparation of Audit Documentation

The auditor shall prepare audit documentation on a timely basis. Preparing
sufficient and appropriate audit documentation on a timely basis helps to enhance
the quality of the audit and facilitates the effective review and evaluation of the
audit evidence obtained and conclusions reached before the auditor’s report is
finalised. Documentation prepared after the audit work has been performed is likely
to be less accurate than documentation prepared at the time such work is
performed.

1.8 Audit File

Audit file may be defined as one or more folders or other storage media, in physical
or electronic form, containing the records that comprise the audit documentation
for a specific engagement.
one or more folders or other storage media
in physical or electronic form, containing the record

that comprise
the audit documentation for a specific engagement
ILLUSTRATION 2
While auditing the books of accounts of Very Careful Limited for the financial year
2020-21, a team member of the auditors of Very Careful Limited was of the view that
with regard to audit of the company, no relation exists between Audit File and Audit
Documentation. Explain the relationship between Audit File and Audit
Documentation.
SOLUTION
Audit file may be defined as one or more folders or other storage media, in physical
or electronic form, containing the records that comprise the audit documentation
for a specific engagement. The auditor shall assemble the audit documentation in
an audit file and complete the administrative process of assembling the final audit
file on a timely basis after the date of the auditor’s report.
1.9 Assembly of the Final Audit File

The auditor shall assemble the audit documentation in an audit file and complete
the administrative process of assembling the final audit file on a timely basis after
the date of the auditor’s report.
♦ SQC 1 “Quality Control for Firms that perform Audits and Review of Historical
Financial Information, and other Assurance and related services”, requires
firms to establish policies and procedures for the timely completion of the
assembly of audit files.
♦ An appropriate time limit within which to complete the assembly of the final
audit file is ordinarily not more than 60 days after the date of the auditor’s

report. The completion of the assembly of the final audit file after the date of
the auditor’s report is an administrative process that does not involve the
performance of new audit procedures or the drawing of new conclusions.
♦ Changes may, however, be made to the audit documentation during the final
assembly process, if they are administrative in nature.
Examples of such changes include:

• Deleting or discarding superseded documentation.
• Sorting, collating and cross-referencing working papers.
• Signing off on completion checklists relating to the file assembly
process.
• Documenting audit evidence that the auditor has obtained, discussed
and agreed with the relevant members of the engagement team before
♦ After the assembly of the final audit file has been completed, the auditor shall
not delete or discard audit documentation of any nature before the end of its
retention period.
♦ SQC 1 requires firms to establish policies and procedures for the retention of
engagement documentation. The retention period for audit engagements
ordinarily is no shorter than seven years from the date of the auditor’s report,
or, if later, the date of the group auditor’s report.
1.10 Documentation of Significant Matters and Related

Significant Professional Judgements
Judging the significance of a matter requires an objective analysis of the facts and
circumstances.
Examples of significant matters include:

Matters that give rise to significant risks.
♦ Results of audit procedures indicating (a) that the financial statements could
be materially misstated, or (b) a need to revise the auditor’s previous
assessment of the risks of material misstatement and the auditor’s responses
to those risks.
♦ Circumstances that cause the auditor significant difficulty in applying
necessary audit procedures.

♦ Findings that could result in a modification to the audit opinion or the

inclusion of an Emphasis of Matter Paragraph in the auditor’s report.
An important factor in determining the form, content and extent of audit
documentation of significant matters is the extent of professional judgement
exercised in performing the work and evaluating the results.
Documentation of the professional judgements made, where significant, serves to
explain the auditor’s conclusions and to reinforce the quality of the judgement.
Such matters are of particular interest to those responsible for reviewing audit
documentation, including those carrying out subsequent audits, when reviewing
matters of continuing significance (for example, when performing a retrospective
review of accounting estimates).
Some examples of circumstances in which it is appropriate to prepare audit
documentation relating to the use of professional judgement include, where
the matters and judgements are significant:
The rationale for the auditor’s conclusion when a requirement provides that the
auditor ‘shall consider’ certain information or factors, and that consideration is
significant in the context of the particular engagement.
The basis for the auditor’s conclusion on the reasonableness of areas of subjective
judgements (for example, the reasonableness of significant accounting estimates).
The basis for the auditor’s conclusions about the authenticity of a document when
further investigation (such as making appropriate use of an expert or of
confirmation procedures) is undertaken in response to conditions identified during
the audit that caused the auditor to believe that the document may not be
authentic.
1.11 Completion Memorandum or Audit Documentation

Summary
The auditor may consider it helpful to prepare and retain as part of the audit
documentation a summary (sometimes known as a completion memorandum) that
describes-
♦ the significant matters identified during the audit and
♦ how they were addressed.
Such a summary may facilitate effective and efficient review and inspection of the
audit documentation, particularly for large and complex audits. Further, the

preparation of such a summary may assist auditor’s consideration of the significant

matters. It may also help the auditor to consider whether there is any individual
relevant SA objective that the auditor cannot achieve that would prevent the
auditor from achieving the overall objectives of the auditor.
1.12 Ownership of Audit Documentation

♦ Standard on Quality Control (SQC) 1 provides that, unless otherwise specified
by law or regulation, audit documentation is the property of the auditor.
♦ He may at his discretion, make portions of, or extracts from, audit
documentation available to clients, provided such disclosure does not
undermine the validity of the work performed, or, in the case of assurance
engagements, the independence of the auditor or of his personnel.
ILLUSTRATION 3
A director of Very Different Limited was of the view that Audit Documentation of a
company is the property of that company. Comment on the contention of the director
regarding the audit documentation of the company.
SOLUTION
Audit Documentation of a company is not the property of the company rather Audit
Documentation is the property of Auditor of that company.
2. AUDIT EVIDENCE
2.1 Introduction
Auditing is a logical process. An auditor is called upon to assess the actualities of
the situation, review the statements of account and give an expert opinion about the
truth and fairness of such accounts. This he cannot do unless he has examined the
financial statements objectively.
Objective examination connotes critical examination and scrutiny of the accounting
statements of the undertaking with a view to assessing how far the statements
present the actual state of affairs in the correct context and whether they give a
true and fair view about the financial results and state of affairs. An opinion founded
on a rather reckless and negligent examination and evaluation may expose the
auditor to legal action with consequential loss of professional standing and
prestige.
He needs evidence to obtain information for arriving at his judgement.

SA 500 – “Audit Evidence”, explains what constitutes audit evidence in an audit of

financial statements, and deals with the auditor’s responsibility to design and
perform audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to be able
to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base the auditor’s opinion.
2.2 Definition of Audit Evidence

Audit evidence may be defined as the information used by the auditor in arriving
Audit evidence is Information used by the auditor
in arriving at the conclusions on which the
auditor's opinion is based
It includes both information contained in the

accounting records underlying the financial
statements and other information
ILLUSTRATION 4
The auditor of Fresh and Well Limited explained to the audit team members about
the relationship between Audit Evidence and Opinion of Auditor. Explain what
relationship exists between Audit Evidence and Opinion of Auditor.
SOLUTION
There exists a very important relationship between Audit Evidence and opinion of
the Auditor. While conducting an audit of a company, the auditor obtains audit
evidence and with the help of that audit evidence obtained, the auditor forms an
audit opinion on the financial statements of that company.
Explaining this further, audit evidence includes:-
(1) Information contained in the accounting records: Accounting records
include
• the records of initial accounting entries and supporting records, such
as checks and records of electronic fund transfers;
• invoices;
• contracts;

• the general and subsidiary ledgers, journal entries and other

adjustments to the financial statements that are not reflected in journal
entries; and
• records such as work sheets and spreadsheets supporting cost
allocations, computations, reconciliations and disclosures.
(2) Other information that authenticates the accounting records and also
supports the auditor’s rationale behind the true and fair presentation of
the financial statements: Other information which the auditor may use as
audit evidence includes, for example
• minutes of the meetings,
• written confirmations from trade receivables and trade payables,
• manuals containing details of internal control etc.
A combination of tests of accounting records and other information is
generally used by the auditor to support his opinion on the financial
statements.
2.3 Objective of the Auditor

The objective of the auditor is to design and perform audit procedures in such a
way as to enable the auditor to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to be
able to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base the auditor’s opinion.
2.4 Information to Be Used as Audit Evidence

When designing and performing audit procedures, the auditor shall consider the
relevance and reliability of the information to be used as audit evidence.
When information to be used as audit evidence has been prepared using the
work of a management’s expert, the auditor shall, to the extent necessary,
having regard to the significance of that expert’s work for the auditor’s
purposes:
(a) Evaluate the competence, capabilities and objectivity of that expert;
(b) Obtain an understanding of the work of that expert; and
(c) Evaluate the appropriateness of that expert’s work as audit evidence for the
relevant assertion.

When using information produced by the entity, the auditor shall evaluate
whether the information is sufficiently reliable for the auditor’s purposes,
including as necessary in the circumstances:
(a) Obtaining audit evidence about the accuracy and completeness of the
information; and
(b) Evaluating whether the information is sufficiently precise and detailed for the
auditor’s purposes.
Selecting Items for Testing to Obtain Audit Evidence
When designing tests of controls and tests of details, the auditor shall determine
means of selecting items for testing that are effective in meeting the purpose of
the audit procedure.
2.5 Inconsistency in or Doubts over Reliability of Audit

Evidence
If:
(a) audit evidence obtained from one source is inconsistent with that obtained
from another; or
(b) the auditor has doubts over the reliability of information to be used as audit
evidence,
the auditor shall determine what modifications or additions to audit procedures are
necessary to resolve the matter, and shall consider the effect of the matter, if any,
on other aspects of the audit.
2.6 Sufficiency and Appropriateness of Audit Evidence

♦ The auditor shall design and perform audit procedures that are appropriate
in the circumstances for the purpose of obtaining sufficient and appropriate
audit evidence.
♦ Audit evidence is necessary to support the auditor’s opinion and report. It is
cumulative in nature and is primarily obtained from audit procedures
performed during the course of the audit.
♦ It may, however, also include information obtained from other sources such
as previous audits.
♦ In addition to other sources inside and outside the entity, the entity’s
accounting records are an important source of audit evidence.

♦ Also, information that may be used as audit evidence may have been
prepared using the work of a management’s expert.
♦ Audit evidence comprises both information that supports and corroborates
management’s assertions, and any information that contradicts such
assertions.
♦ In addition, in some cases the absence of information (for example,
management’s refusal to provide a requested representation) is used by the
auditor, and therefore, also constitutes audit evidence.
Most of the auditor’s work in forming the auditor’s opinion consists of obtaining
and evaluating audit evidence. Audit procedures to obtain audit evidence can
include inspection, observation, confirmation, recalculation, re-performance and
analytical procedures, often in some combination, in addition to inquiry. Although
inquiry may provide important audit evidence, and may even produce evidence of a
misstatement, inquiry alone ordinarily does not provide sufficient audit evidence of
the absence of a material misstatement at the assertion level, nor of the operating
effectiveness of controls.
As explained in SA 200, “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the
Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”, reasonable
assurance is obtained when the auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate audit
evidence to reduce audit risk (i.e., the risk that the auditor expresses an
inappropriate opinion when the financial statements are materially misstated) to an
acceptably low level. The sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence are
interrelated.
• measure of quantity of audit evidence

Sufficiency
• measure of quality of audit evidence
Appropriateness
2.7 Sufficiency of Audit Evidence

Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence. The quantity of audit
evidence needed is affected by the auditor’s assessment of the risks of misstatement
(the higher the assessed risks, the more audit evidence is likely to be required) and
also by the quality of such audit evidence (the higher the quality, the less may be
required). Obtaining more audit evidence, however, may not compensate for its
poor quality.

ILLUSTRATION 5
There was a Partnership Firm of Chartered Accountants WT and Associates. Mr. W,
one of the partners of WT and Associates, while explaining to his audit team members
about importance of audit evidence informed them about sufficiency and
appropriateness of audit evidence. Mr. H, one of the members of audit team of WT
and Associates was of the view that sufficiency of audit evidence means simplicity of
audit evidence and appropriateness of audit evidence means ease of obtaining audit
evidence. Explain whether sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence mean
simplicity and ease of obtaining audit evidence.
SOLUTION
Sufficiency and Appropriateness of audit evidence does not mean simplicity and
ease of obtaining audit evidence rather sufficiency of audit evidence is related to
the quantity of audit evidence and appropriateness of audit evidence is related to
quality of audit evidence.
Further, auditor’s judgement as to sufficiency may be affected by the factors
such as:
Factors affecting auditor's

judgement as to sufficiency of
audit evidence
Risk of
Size & characteristics of
Materiality Material
the population
Misstatement
(a) Materiality: It may be defined as the significance of classes of transactions,

account balances and presentation and disclosures to the users of the financial
statements. Less evidence would be required in case assertions are less
material to users of the financial statements. But on the other hand if
assertions are more material to the users of the financial statements, more
evidence would be required.
(b) Risk of material misstatement: It may be defined as the risk that the
financial statements are materially misstated prior to audit. This consists of two
components described as follows at the assertion level:
• Inherent risk—The susceptibility of an assertion to a misstatement that
could be material before consideration of any related controls.

• Control risk—The risk that a misstatement that could occur in an

assertion that could be material will not be prevented or detected and
corrected on a timely basis by the entity’s internal control.
Less evidence would be required in case assertions that have a lower risk of
material misstatement. But on the other hand, if assertions have a higher risk
of material misstatement, more evidence would be required.
(c) Size of a population: It refers to the number of items included in the
population. Less evidence would be required in case of smaller, more
homogeneous population but on the other hand in case of larger, more
heterogeneous populations, more evidence would be required.
2.8 Appropriateness of Audit Evidence

Appropriateness is the measure of the quality of audit evidence; that is, its
relevance and its reliability in providing support for the conclusions on which the
auditor’s opinion is based.
The reliability of evidence is influenced by its source and by its nature, and is
dependent on the individual circumstances under which it is obtained.
SA 330, “The Auditor’s Responses to Assessed Risks” requires the auditor to
conclude whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence has been obtained.
Whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence has been obtained to reduce audit
risk to an acceptably low level, and thereby enable the auditor to draw reasonable
conclusions on which to base the auditor’s opinion, is a matter of professional
judgement. SA 200 contains discussion of such matters as the nature of audit
procedures, the timeliness of financial reporting, and the balance between benefit
and cost, which are relevant factors when the auditor exercises professional
judgement regarding whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence has been
obtained.
In order to obtain reliable audit evidence, information produced by the entity that is
used for performing audit procedures needs to be sufficiently complete and accurate.
2.9 Sources of Audit Evidence

Some audit evidence is obtained by performing audit procedures to test the
accounting records.

Example
♦ through analysis and review,

♦ reperforming procedures followed in the financial reporting process,
♦ and reconciling related types and applications of the same information.
Through the performance of such audit procedures, the auditor may determine that
the accounting records are internally consistent and agree to the financial
statements.
More assurance is ordinarily obtained from consistent audit evidence obtained
from different sources or of a different nature than from items of audit evidence
considered individually.
Example
Corroborating information obtained from a source independent of the entity may
increase the assurance the auditor obtains from audit evidence that is generated
internally, such as evidence existing within the accounting records, minutes of
meetings, or a management representation.
Information from sources independent of the entity that the auditor may use as
audit evidence may include confirmations from third parties, analysts’ reports, and
comparable data about competitors.
2.10 Audit Procedures to Obtain Audit Evidence

Audit evidence to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base the auditor’s
opinion is obtained by performing:
(a) Risk assessment procedures; and
(b) Further audit procedures, which comprise:
(i) Test of controls, when required by the SAs or when the auditor has
chosen to do so; and
(ii) Substantive procedures, including tests of details and substantive
analytical procedures.
2.11 Audit Procedures

The audit procedures inspection, observation, confirmation, recalculation, re-
performance and analytical procedures, often in some combination, in addition to
inquiry described below may be used as risk assessment procedures, test of

controls or substantive procedures, depending on the context in which they are

applied by the auditor
Nature and Timing of the Audit Procedures
The nature and timing of the audit procedures to be used may be affected by the
fact that some of the accounting data and other information may be available only
in electronic form or only at certain points or periods in time.
For example, source documents, such as purchase orders and invoices, may exist
only in electronic form when an entity uses electronic commerce, or may be
discarded after scanning when an entity uses image processing systems to facilitate
storage and reference.
Certain electronic information may not be retrievable after a specified period of
time. For example, if files are changed and if backup files do not exist. Accordingly,
the auditor may find it necessary as a result of an entity’s data retention policies to
request retention of some information for the auditor’s review or to perform audit
procedures at a time when the information is available.
Audit Procedures
Audit procedures to obtain audit evidence can include:
(i) Inspection
(ii) Observation
(iii) External Confirmation
(iv) Recalculation
(v) Reperformance
(vi) Analytical Procedures
(vii) Inquiry

Inspection
Inspection involves examining records or documents, whether internal or
external, in paper form, electronic form, or other media, or a physical
examination of an asset. Inspection of records and documents provides audit
evidence of varying degrees of reliability, depending on their nature and source and,
in the case of internal records and documents, on the effectiveness of the controls
over their production.
Example
Example of inspection used as a test of controls is inspection of records for

evidence of authorisation.
Some documents represent direct audit evidence of the existence of an asset, for
example, a document constituting a financial instrument such as a inventory or
bond. Inspection of such documents may not necessarily provide audit evidence
about ownership or value. In addition, inspecting an executed contract may provide
audit evidence relevant to the entity’s application of accounting policies, such as
revenue recognition. Inspection of tangible assets may provide reliable audit
evidence with respect to their existence, but not necessarily about the entity’s rights
and obligations or the valuation of the assets. Inspection of individual inventory
items may accompany the observation of inventory counting.
Observation
Observation consists of looking at a process or procedure being performed by
others.
Example
The auditor’s observation of inventory counting by the entity’s personnel, or of
the performance of control activities.
Observation provides audit evidence about the performance of a process or procedure,

but is limited to the point in time at which the observation takes place, and by the fact
that the act of being observed may affect how the process or procedure is performed.
ILLUSTRATION 6
While auditing the books of accounts of Extremely Distinct Limited for the financial
year 2020-21, the auditor of the company used an audit procedure according to
which complete documents and records of the company were checked in detail in
order to obtain audit evidence. Explain the audit procedure used by the auditor of
Extremely Distinct Limited.

SOLUTION
The audit procedure used by auditor of Extremely Distinct Limited is known as
Inspection because inspection is an audit procedure in which complete documents
and records of a company are checked in detail for the purpose of obtaining audit
evidence.
External Confirmation
An external confirmation represents audit evidence obtained by the auditor
as a direct written response to the auditor from a third party (the confirming
party), in paper form, or by electronic or other medium. External confirmation
procedures frequently are relevant when addressing assertions associated with
certain account balances and their elements. However, external confirmations need
not be restricted to account balances only.
Example
The auditor may request confirmation of the terms of agreements or transactions an

entity has with third parties; the confirmation request may be designed to ask if
any modifications have been made to the agreement and, if so, what the relevant
details are.
External confirmation procedures also are used to obtain audit evidence about the
absence of certain conditions.
Example
The absence of a “side agreement” that may influence revenue recognition.

Recalculation
Recalculation consists of checking the mathematical accuracy of documents
or records. Recalculation may be performed manually or electronically.
Re-performance
Re-performance involves the auditor’s independent execution of procedures
or controls that were originally performed as part of the entity’s internal
control.
Example
Re-performing the reconciliation of bank statement, re-performing the aging of
accounts receivable.

Analytical Procedures
Analytical procedures consist of evaluations of financial information made by
a study of plausible relationships among both financial and non- financial data.
Analytical procedures also encompass the investigation of identified fluctuations
and relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant information or deviate
significantly from predicted amounts.
(Note: Students are advised to refer Chapter 8 Analytical Procedures for detailed
understanding of the concept)
Inquiry
Inquiry consists of seeking information of knowledgeable persons, both financial
and non-financial, within the entity or outside the entity. Inquiry is used extensively
throughout the audit in addition to other audit procedures.
Inquiries may range from formal written inquiries to informal oral inquiries.
Evaluating responses to inquiries is an integral part of the inquiry process.
Responses to inquiries may provide the auditor with information not previously
possessed or with corroborative audit evidence. Alternatively, responses might
provide information that differs significantly from other information that the
auditor has obtained, for example, information regarding the possibility of
management override of controls. In some cases, responses to inquiries provide a
basis for the auditor to modify or perform additional audit procedures.
Although corroboration of evidence obtained through inquiry is often of particular
importance, in the case of inquiries about management intent, the information
available to support management’s intent may be limited. In these cases,
understanding management’s past history of carrying out its stated intentions,
management’s stated reasons for choosing a particular course of action, and
management’s ability to pursue a specific course of action may provide relevant
information to corroborate the evidence obtained through inquiry.
In respect of some matters, the auditor may consider it necessary to obtain written
representations from management and, where appropriate, those charged with
governance to confirm responses to oral inquiries.
At this stage, it would be pertinent to discuss the concept of Risk assessment
procedures and Further audit procedures:

Risk assessment procedures:

Risk assessment procedures refer to the audit procedures performed to obtain an
understanding of the entity and its environment, including the entity’s internal
control, to identify and assess the risks of material misstatement, whether due to
fraud or error, at the financial statement and assertion levels.
Further Audit Procedures
Further Audit Procedures comprise of:
(i) Tests of controls, when required by the SAs or when the auditor has chosen to
do so; and
(ii) Substantive procedures, including tests of details and substantive analytical
procedures.
Test of controls
Test of controls may be defined as an audit procedure designed to evaluate the
operating effectiveness of controls in preventing, or detecting and correcting,
material misstatements at the assertion level.
in preventing or
Audit procedures to evaluate the operating detecting and correcting
designed effectiveness of controls material misstatement at
the assertion level
The auditor shall design and perform tests of controls to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence as to the operating effectiveness of relevant controls
when:
(a) The auditor’s assessment of risks of material misstatement at the assertion
level includes an expectation that the controls are operating effectively (i.e.,
the auditor intends to rely on the operating effectiveness of controls in
determining the nature, timing and extent of substantive procedures); or
(b) Substantive procedures alone cannot provide sufficient appropriate audit
evidence at the assertion level.
A higher level of assurance may be sought about the operating effectiveness of
controls when the approach adopted consists primarily of tests of controls, in

particular where it is not possible or practicable to obtain sufficient appropriate

audit evidence only from substantive procedures.
Nature and Extent of Test of Controls
In designing and performing test of controls, the auditor shall:
(a) Perform other audit procedures in combination with inquiry to obtain audit
evidence about the operating effectiveness of the controls, including:
(i) How the controls were applied at relevant times during the period
under audit.
(ii) The consistency with which they were applied.
(iii) By whom or by what means they were applied.
(b) Determine whether the controls to be tested depend upon other controls
(indirect controls), and if so, whether it is necessary to obtain audit evidence
supporting the effective operation of those indirect controls.
Inquiry alone is not sufficient to test the operating effectiveness of controls.
Accordingly, other audit procedures are performed in combination with inquiry. In
this regard, inquiry combined with inspection or reperformance may provide more
assurance than inquiry and observation, since an observation is pertinent only at
the point in time at which it is made.
The nature of the particular control influences the type of procedure required to
obtain audit evidence about whether the control was operating effectively.
For example, if operating effectiveness is evidenced by documentation, the auditor
may decide to inspect it to obtain audit evidence about operating effectiveness.
When more persuasive audit evidence is needed regarding the effectiveness of a
control, it may be appropriate to increase the extent of testing of the control as
well as the degree of reliance on controls. Matters the auditor may consider in
determining the extent of test of controls include the following:
♦ The frequency of the performance of the control by the entity during the
period.
♦ The length of time during the audit period that the auditor is relying on the
operating effectiveness of the control.
♦ The expected rate of deviation from a control.
♦ The relevance and reliability of the audit evidence to be obtained regarding
the operating effectiveness of the control at the assertion level.

♦ The extent to which audit evidence is obtained from tests of other controls
related to the assertion.
Timing of Test of Controls
The auditor shall test controls for the particular time, or throughout the period, for
which the auditor intends to rely on those controls in order to provide an
appropriate basis for the auditor’s intended reliance.
Audit evidence pertaining only to a point in time may be sufficient for the auditor’s
purpose, for example, when testing controls over the entity’s physical inventory
counting at the period end. If, on the other hand, the auditor intends to rely on a
control over a period, tests that are capable of providing audit evidence that the
control operated effectively at relevant times during that period are appropriate.
Such tests may include tests of the entity’s monitoring of controls.
Using Audit Evidence Obtained in Previous Audits
In determining whether it is appropriate to use audit evidence about the operating
effectiveness of controls obtained in previous audits, and, if so, the length of the
time period that may elapse before retesting a control, the auditor shall consider
the following:
(a) The effectiveness of other elements of internal control, including the control
environment, the entity’s monitoring of controls, and the entity’s risk
assessment process;
(b) The risks arising from the characteristics of the control, including whether it
is manual or automated;
(c) The effectiveness of general IT-controls;
(d) The effectiveness of the control and its application by the entity, including
the nature and extent of deviations in the application of the control noted in
previous audits, and whether there have been personnel changes that
significantly affect the application of the control;
(e) Whether the lack of a change in a particular control poses a risk due to
changing circumstances; and
(f) The risks of material misstatement and the extent of reliance on the control.
If the auditor plans to use audit evidence from a previous audit about the operating
effectiveness of specific controls, the auditor shall establish the continuing relevance
of that evidence by obtaining audit evidence about whether significant changes in
those controls have occurred subsequent to the previous audit.

Evaluating the Operating Effectiveness of Controls

When evaluating the operating effectiveness of relevant controls, the auditor shall
evaluate whether misstatements that have been detected by substantive
procedures indicate that controls are not operating effectively. The absence of
misstatements detected by substantive procedures, however, does not provide
audit evidence that controls related to the assertion being tested are effective.
A material misstatement detected by the auditor’s procedures is a strong indicator
of the existence of a significant deficiency in internal control.
Specific inquiries by auditor when deviations from controls are
detected.
When deviations from controls upon which the auditor intends to rely are detected,
the auditor shall make specific inquiries to understand these matters and their
potential consequences, and shall determine whether:
(a) The test of controls that have been performed provide an appropriate basis
for reliance on the controls;
(b) Additional test of controls are necessary; or
(c) The potential risks of misstatement need to be addressed using substantive
procedures.
Substantive Procedures
Substantive procedure may be defined as an audit procedure designed to detect
material misstatements at the assertion level.
Audit procedures to detect material

at the assertion level
designed misstatement
Substantive procedures comprise:

(i) Tests of details (of classes of transactions, account balances, and disclosures),
and
(ii) Substantive analytical procedures.

The following chart illustrates different audit procedures:
Designing and Performing Substantive Procedures

Irrespective of the assessed risks of material misstatement, the auditor shall design
and perform substantive procedures for each material class of transactions, account
balance, and disclosure.
1. This requirement reflects the facts that:
(i) the auditor’s assessment of risk is judgemental and so may not identify
all risks of material misstatement; and
(ii) there are inherent limitations to internal control, including management
override.
2. Depending on the circumstances, the auditor may determine that:
(i) Performing only substantive analytical procedures will be sufficient to
reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level. For example, where the
auditor’s assessment of risk is supported by audit evidence from test of
controls.
(ii) Only tests of details are appropriate.

(iii) A combination of substantive analytical procedures and tests of details

are most responsive to the assessed risks.
3. Substantive analytical procedures are generally more applicable to large
volumes of transactions that tend to be predictable over time. SA 520,
“Analytical Procedures” establishes requirements and provides guidance on
the application of analytical procedures during an audit.
4. The nature of the risk and assertion is relevant to the design of tests of details.
For example, tests of details related to the existence or occurrence assertion
may involve selecting from items contained in a financial statement amount
and obtaining the relevant audit evidence. On the other hand, tests of details
related to the completeness assertion may involve selecting from items that are
expected to be included in the relevant financial statement amount and
investigating whether they are included.
5. Because the assessment of the risk of material misstatement takes account of
internal control, the extent of substantive procedures may need to be
increased when the results from test of controls are unsatisfactory.
6. In designing tests of details, the extent of testing is ordinarily thought of in
terms of the sample size. However, other matters are also relevant, including
whether it is more effective to use other selective means of testing.
External Confirmation as Substantive Procedures
The auditor shall consider whether external confirmation procedures are to be
performed as substantive audit procedures.
1. External confirmation procedures frequently are relevant when addressing
assertions associated with account balances and their elements, but need not
be restricted to these items. For example, the auditor may request external
confirmation of the terms of agreements, contracts, or transactions between
an entity and other parties. External confirmation procedures also may be
performed to obtain audit evidence about the absence of certain conditions.
For example, a request may specifically seek confirmation that no “side
agreement” exists that may be relevant to an entity’s revenue cut-off
assertion.
• Other situations where external confirmation procedures may provide
relevant audit evidence in responding to assessed risks of material
misstatement include:
(i) Bank balances and other information relevant to banking relationships.

(ii) Accounts receivable balances and terms.

(iii) Inventories held by third parties at bonded warehouses for processing
or on consignment.
(iv) Property title deeds held by lawyers or financiers for safe custody or as
security.
(v) Investments held for safekeeping by third parties, or purchased from
stockbrokers but not delivered at the balance sheet date.
(vi) Amounts due to lenders, including relevant terms of repayment and

restrictive covenants.
(vii) Accounts payable balances and terms.
2. Although external confirmations may provide relevant audit evidence relating

to certain assertions, there are some assertions for which external
confirmations provide less relevant audit evidence.
Example
External confirmations provide less relevant audit evidence relating to the
recoverability of accounts receivable balances, than they do of their existence
3. The auditor may determine that external confirmation procedures performed
for one purpose provide an opportunity to obtain audit evidence about other
matters.
Example
For example, confirmation requests for bank balances often include requests
for information relevant to other financial statement assertions.
Such considerations may influence the auditor’s decision about whether to

perform external confirmation procedures.
4. Factors that may assist the auditor in determining whether external
confirmation procedures are to be performed as substantive audit procedures
include:
(i) The confirming party’s knowledge of the subject matter – responses
may be more reliable if provided by a person at the confirming party
who has the requisite knowledge about the information being
confirmed.
(ii) The ability or willingness of the intended confirming party to respond –
For example, the confirming party:

 may not accept responsibility for responding to a confirmation

request;
 may consider responding too costly or time consuming;
 may have concerns about the potential legal liability resulting
from responding;
 may account for transactions in different currencies; or
 may operate in an environment where responding to confirmation
requests is not a significant aspect of day-to-day operations.
In such situations, confirming parties may not respond, may respond in
a casual manner or may attempt to restrict the reliance placed on the
response.
(iii) The objectivity of the intended confirming party – if the confirming
party is a related party of the entity, responses to confirmation requests
may be less reliable.
Substantive Procedures Related to the Financial Statement Closing
Process
The auditor’s substantive procedures shall include the following audit procedures
related to the financial statement closing process:
(a) Agreeing or reconciling the financial statements with the underlying
accounting records; and
(b) Examining material journal entries and other adjustments made during the
course of preparing the financial statements.
The nature, and also the extent, of the auditor’s examination of journal entries and
other adjustments depends on the nature and complexity of the entity’s financial
reporting process and the related risks of material misstatement.
Substantive Procedures Responsive to Significant Risks: When the auditor has
determined that an assessed risk of material misstatement at the assertion level is
a significant risk, the auditor shall perform substantive procedures that are
specifically responsive to that risk. When the approach to a significant risk consists
only of substantive procedures, those procedures shall include tests of details.
The above paragraph requires the auditor to perform substantive procedures that
are specifically responsive to risks the auditor has determined to be significant risks.
Audit evidence in the form of external confirmations received directly by the auditor

from appropriate confirming parties may assist the auditor in obtaining audit
evidence with the high level of reliability that the auditor requires to respond to
significant risks of material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.
Example
If the auditor identifies that management is under pressure to meet earnings
expectations, there may be a risk that management is inflating sales by improperly
recognising revenue related to sales agreements with terms that preclude revenue
recognition or by invoicing sales before shipment. In these circumstances, the
auditor may, for example, design external confirmation procedures not only to
confirm outstanding amounts, but also to confirm the details of the sales
agreements, including date, any rights of return and delivery terms. In addition, the
auditor may find it effective to supplement such external confirmation procedures
with inquiries of non-financial personnel in the entity regarding any changes in
sales agreements and delivery terms.
In obtaining audit evidence from substantive procedures, the auditor is concerned
with the following assertions:
Assertions refer to representations by management, explicit or otherwise, that are
embodied in the financial statements, as used by the auditor to consider the
different types of potential misstatements that may occur.
Representations by management
that are embodied in the financial statements
to consider different types of potential misstatements
The Use of Assertions

1. In representing that the financial statements are in accordance with the
applicable financial reporting framework, management implicitly or explicitly
makes assertions regarding the recognition, measurement, presentation and
disclosure of the various elements of financial statements and related
disclosures.
2. Assertions used by the auditor to consider the different types of potential
misstatements that may occur fall into the following three categories and may
take the following forms:

Classes of
Account Presentation
transactions
balances and Disclosure
and events
Occurence Occurence and rights
Existence
and obligations
Completeness
Rights and obligations Completeness
Accuracy
Classification and
Completeness
understandability
Cut - Off
Valuation and Accuracy and

Classification allocation valuation
(a) Assertions about classes of transactions and events for the period under
audit:
(i) Occurrence – transactions and events that have been recorded have
occurred and pertain to the entity.
(ii) Completeness – all transactions and events that should have been
recorded have been recorded.
(iii) Accuracy – amounts and other data relating to recorded transactions

and events have been recorded appropriately.
(iv) Cut-off – transactions and events have been recorded in the correct
accounting period.
(v) Classification – transactions and events have been recorded in the

proper accounts.
(b) Assertions about account balances at the period end:

(i) Existence – assets, liabilities, and equity interests exist.
(ii) Rights and obligations – the entity holds or controls the rights to
assets, and liabilities are the obligations of the entity.
(iii) Completeness – all assets, liabilities and equity interests that should
have been recorded have been recorded.

(iv) Valuation and allocation – assets, liabilities, and equity interests are
included in the financial statements at appropriate amounts and any
resulting valuation or allocation adjustments are appropriately recorded.
(c) Assertions about presentation and disclosure:

(i) Occurrence and rights and obligations – disclosed events, transactions,
and other matters have occurred and pertain to the entity.
(ii) Completeness – all disclosures that should have been included in the
financial statements have been included.
(iii) Classification and understandability – financial information is

appropriately presented and described, and disclosures are clearly
expressed.
(iv) Accuracy and valuation – financial and other information are disclosed
fairly and at appropriate amounts.
3. The auditor may use the assertions as described above or may express them
differently provided all aspects described above have been covered. For
example, the auditor may choose to combine the assertions about
transactions and events with the assertions about account balances.
4. When making assertions about the financial statements of certain entities,
especially, for example, where the Government is a major stakeholder, in
addition to those assertions set out in paragraph 2, management may often
assert that transactions and events have been carried out in accordance with
legislation or proper authority. Such assertions may fall within the scope of
the financial statement audit.
Let us elaborate this with the help of two illustrations. We must clearly understand
that each item contained in financial statements asserts something to the readers
of the accounts to indicate the ownership, existence, quantity of various things, etc.
Auditing is concerned with the testing of the authenticity of the information thus
conveyed.
Example
When we find in the balance sheet, an item under current assets reading as “cash
in hand - ` 8,000” the obvious assertions that would strike the mind are the
following:
(i) The firm concerned had ` 8,000 in hand in valid notes and coins on the
balance sheet day;

(ii) That the cash was free and available for expenditure to the firm; and
(iii) That the books of account show a cash balance of identical amount at the end
of the day on which the balance sheet is drawn up.
Example
Particulars ₹
Plant and Machinery (at cost) 2,00,000
Less: Depreciation till the end of previous year 70,000
Depreciation for the year 13,000 83,000
1,17,000
The assertions are as follows:

(i) the firm owns the plant and machinery;
(ii) the historical cost of plant and machinery is ` 2 lacs;
(iii) the plant and machinery physically exists;
(iv) the asset is being utilised in the business of the company productively;
(v) total charge of depreciation on this asset is ` 83,000 to date on which ` 13,000
relates to the year in respect of which the accounts are drawn up; and
(vi) the amount of depreciation has been calculated on recognised basis and the
calculation is correct.
From the above two illustrations we know the sort of assertions that are implied in
the financial statements. Incidentally, the assertions are generally implied and not
specifically spelt out, though some explicit assertions are also found in the financial
statements. Explicit assertions are made when otherwise the reader will be left with
an incomplete picture; it may even be misleading.
An example of the former category may be found in the following items appearing
in the liability side of the balance sheet:
Secured Loans ` 4,00,000
The description does not give us a complete picture. We do not know:
(i) the name of the lender, if it is relevant;
(ii) the nature of security provided; and
(iii) the rate at which interest in payable.

A specific mention is required about these things for a proper appreciation of the
item and the financial position.
Negative assertions are also encountered in the financial statements and the same
may be expressed or implied. For example, if it is stated that there is no contingent
liability it would be an expressed negative assertion; on the other hand, if in the
balance sheet there is no item as “building”, it would be an implied negative
assertion that the entity did not own any building on the balance sheet date.
Every financial statement contains an overall representation in addition to the
specific assertions so far discussed. Each financial statement purports to present
something as a whole in addition to its component details. For example, an income
statement purports to present “the results of operations” a balance sheet purports
to present “financial position”. The auditor’s opinion is typically directed to these
overall representations. But to formulate and offer an opinion on the overall truth
of these statements he has first to inquire into the truth of many specific assertions,
expressed and implied, both positive, and negative, that makes up each of these
statements. Out of his individual judgements of these specific assertions he arrives
at a judgement on the financial statement as a whole.
Some observations about audit evidence may be of help in deciding upon the
techniques to be adopted for obtaining them.
1. There is nothing mysterious about the evidence which an auditor can obtain
and on which he relies; it is straight forward information, some of it is obtained
only by diligent effort but all of it is of the common sense variety.
2. Evidence varies in reliability. When the auditor recalculates certain figures,
like depreciation or inventory valuation, he may be completely convinced
about the reliability of the company’s figure. However, information supplied
by an employee may not be that reliable because he may have an interest in
concealing rather than revealing the truth. This suggests that we must always
be alert to the relative reliability of different kinds of evidence.
3. Some evidence may be more difficult to obtain than other. It is relatively easy
to put questions to employees who are present inside the company. It is easy
to examine inventory on hand; it is more difficult to verify inventory stored
elsewhere.
4. It must be recognised that the available evidence be persuasive and that the
evidence may not be conclusive. In giving the opinion, the auditor necessarily
takes a calculated risk. He gets the best evidence reasonably available and

forms his judgement accordingly. In fact, in auditing it is very difficult and at

times impracticable to obtain conclusive evidence both on account of time and
cost constraints. This explains why an auditor gives an opinion rather than
some kind of guarantee or certificate. All he can state is that he has carefully
examined the various assertions in the financial statements, obtained
evidence what he, in his professional judgement, thought adequate or the
best available; and that he has considered that evidence judiciously in forming
an opinion as to the reliability of the financial statements.
5. The auditor may gain increased assurance when audit evidence obtained from
different sources of a different nature is consistent. In the circumstances, he
may obtain a cumulative degree of assurance higher than that which he
attaches to the individual items of evidence by themselves. Conversely when
audit evidence obtained from one source is inconsistent with that obtained
from another, further procedure may have to be performed to resolve the
inconsistency.
6. The auditor should be thorough in his efforts to obtain evidence and be
objective in its evaluation. In selecting procedures to obtain evidence, he
should recognize the possibility that the financial information may be
materially misstated.
7. There should be a rational relationship between the cost of obtaining
evidence and the usefulness of the information obtained. However, the matter
of difficulty and expenses involved in testing a particular item is not in itself a
valid basis for omitting a procedure.
8. When the auditor is in reasonable doubt as to any assertion he should
attempt to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence to remove such doubt. If he
is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence, he should not express an
unqualified opinion.
2.12 Types of Audit Evidence

Depending upon nature:

1. Visual: For example, observing physical verification of inventory conducted
by the client’s staff.
2. Oral: For example, discussion with the management and various officers of
the client.
3. Documentary: For example, fixed deposit certificate, loan agreement, sales
bill etc.
Depending upon source:
Internal Evidence: Evidence which originates within the organisation being
audited is internal evidence.
Example
Sales invoice, Copies of sales challan and forwarding notes, goods received note,
inspection report, copies of cash memo, debit and credit notes, etc.
External evidence: The evidence that originates outside the client’s organization is
external evidence.
Example
Purchase invoice, supplier’s challan and forwarding note, debit notes and credit
notes coming from parties, quotations, confirmations, etc.
In an audit situation, the bulk of evidence that an auditor gets is internal in nature.
However, substantial external evidence is also available to the auditor. Since in the
origination of internal evidence, the client and his staff have the control, the auditor
should be careful in putting reliance on such evidence. It is not suggested that they
are to be suspected; but an auditor has to be alive to the possibilities of manipulation
and creation of false and misleading evidence to suit the client or his staff. The external
evidence is generally considered to be more reliable as they come from third parties
who are not normally interested in manipulation of the accounting information of
others. However, if the auditor has any reason to doubt the independence of any
third party who has provided any material evidence e.g. an invoice of an associated
concern, he should exercise greater vigilance in that matter. As an ordinary rule the
auditor should try to match internal and external evidence as far as practicable.
Where external evidence is not readily available to match, the auditor should see as
to what extent the various internal evidence corroborate each other.

ILLUSTRATION 7
An audit team member of the auditors of Extremely Genuine Limited was of the view
that audit evidence obtained internally from within the company under audit are
more appropriate from the reliability point of view as compared to audit evidence
obtained externally as evidence obtained internally are obtained from the company
whose audit is being conducted.
Give your views as auditor of Extremely Genuine Limited.
SOLUTION
Audit evidence obtained externally is more appropriate from reliability point of
view as compared to those which are obtained internally. The reason that audit
evidence obtained externally is more appropriate from the point of view of
reliability is that there is a very low risk that they can be altered or changed .
2.13 Relevance and Reliability

While audit evidence is primarily obtained from audit procedures performed during
the course of the audit, it may also include information obtained from other
sources.
Example
Previous audits, in certain circumstances, and a firm’s quality control procedures for
client acceptance and continuance. The quality of all audit evidence is affected by
the relevance and reliability of the information upon which it is based.
Relevance
Relevance deals with the logical connection with, or bearing upon, the purpose of
the audit procedure and, where appropriate, the assertion under consideration. The
relevance of information to be used as audit evidence may be affected by the
direction of testing.
Example
If the purpose of an audit procedure is to test for overstatement in the existence
or valuation of accounts payable, testing the recorded accounts payable may be a
relevant audit procedure. On the other hand, when testing for understatement in the
existence or valuation of accounts payable, testing the recorded accounts payable
would not be relevant, but testing such information as subsequent disbursements,
unpaid invoices, suppliers’ statements, and unmatched receiving reports may be
relevant.

A given set of audit procedures may provide audit evidence that is relevant to
certain assertions, but not others. For example, inspection of documents related
to the collection of receivables after the period end may provide audit evidence
regarding existence and valuation, but not necessarily cut-off. Similarly, obtaining
audit evidence regarding a particular assertion, for example, the existence of
inventory, is not a substitute for obtaining audit evidence regarding another
assertion, for example, the valuation of that inventory. On the other hand, audit
evidence from different sources or of a different nature may often be relevant to
the same assertion.
Test of controls are designed to evaluate the operating effectiveness of controls in
preventing, or detecting and correcting, material misstatements at the assertion
level. Designing test of controls to obtain relevant audit evidence includes
identifying conditions (characteristics or attributes) that indicate performance of a
control, and deviation in conditions which indicate departures from adequate
performance. The presence or absence of those conditions can then be tested by
the auditor.
Substantive procedures are designed to detect material misstatements at the
assertion level. They comprise tests of details and substantive analytical
procedures. Designing substantive procedures includes identifying conditions
relevant to the purpose of the test that constitute a misstatement in the relevant
assertion.
Reliability
The reliability of information to be used as audit evidence, and therefore of the audit
evidence itself, is influenced by its source and its nature, and the circumstances under
which it is obtained, including the controls over its preparation and maintenance
where relevant. Therefore, generalisations about the reliability of various kinds of
audit evidence are subject to important exceptions. Even when information to be
used as audit evidence is obtained from sources external to the entity,
circumstances may exist that could affect its reliability.
For example, information obtained from an independent external source may not
be reliable if the source is not knowledgeable, or a management’s expert may lack
objectivity. While recognising that exceptions may exist, the following
generalisations about the reliability of audit evidence may be useful:
♦ The reliability of audit evidence is increased when it is obtained from
independent sources outside the entity.

♦ The reliability of audit evidence that is generated internally is increased when

the related controls, including those over its preparation and maintenance,
imposed by the entity are effective.
♦ Audit evidence obtained directly by the auditor (for example, observation of
the application of a control) is more reliable than audit evidence obtained
indirectly or by inference (for example, inquiry about the application of a
control).
♦ Audit evidence in documentary form, whether paper, electronic, or other
medium, is more reliable than evidence obtained orally (for example, a
contemporaneously written record of a meeting is more reliable than a
subsequent oral representation of the matters discussed).
♦ Audit evidence provided by original documents is more reliable than audit
evidence provided by photocopies or facsimiles, or documents that have
been filmed, digitised or otherwise transformed into electronic form, the
reliability of which may depend on the controls over their preparation and
maintenance.
3. WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS
SA 580- “Written Representations” deals with the

auditor’s responsibility to obtain written representations
from management and, where appropriate, those charged
with governance.
Definition of Written Representation:

Written representations may be defined as a written statement by management
provided to the auditor to confirm certain matters or to support other audit

evidence. Written representations in this context do not include financial

statements, the assertions therein, or supporting books and records.
to
to support
written provided confirm
other
statement by to the certain
audit
management auditor matters
evidence
or
3.1 Written Representations as Audit Evidence

Audit evidence is all the information used by the auditor in arriving at the
conclusions on which the audit opinion is based. Written representations are
necessary information that the auditor requires in connection with the audit of the
entity’s financial statements. Accordingly, similar to responses to inquiries, written
representations are audit evidence.
Written representations are requested from those responsible for the preparation
and presentation of the financial statements.
Although written representations provide necessary audit evidence, they do not
provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence on their own about any of the matters
with which they deal. Furthermore, the fact that management has provided reliable
written representations does not affect the nature or extent of other audit evidence
that the auditor obtains about the fulfillment of management’s responsibilities, or
about specific assertions.
ILLUSTRATION 8
The auditor P of PAR and Co., a firm of Chartered Accountants is conducting audit of
Kapur Industries Ltd. The auditor requests management to provide Banker’s certificate
in support of Fixed deposits whereas management provides only written representation
on the matter.
Required
Discuss how would you deal as an auditor.
SOLUTION
Although written representations provide necessary audit evidence, they do not
provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence on their own about any of the matters

with which they deal. Furthermore, the fact that management has provided reliable
written representations does not affect the nature or extent of other audit evidence
that the auditor obtains about the fulfillment of management’s responsibilities, or
about specific assertions.
Applying the above to the given problem, the auditor would further request the
management to provide him with the Banker’s certificate in support of fixed
deposits held by the company.
3.2 The objectives of the auditor regarding written

representation
To obtain Written
Representations
Objectives of auditor
To support other
regarding written evidence
representation
To respond
appropriately
The objectives of the auditor are:

(a) To obtain written representations
To obtain written representations from management. Also that management
believes that it has fulfilled its responsibility for the preparation of the
financial statements and for the completeness of the information provided to
the auditor;
(b) To support other evidence
To support other audit evidence relevant to the financial statements or
specific assertions in the financial statements by means of written
representations; and
(c) To respond appropriately
To respond appropriately to written representations provided by
management or if management does not provide the written representations
requested by the auditor.

3.3 Management from Whom Written Representations

Requested
The auditor shall request written representations from management with
appropriate responsibilities for the financial statements and knowledge of the
matters concerned.
Written representations are requested from those responsible for the preparation
and presentation of the financial statements. Those individuals may vary depending
on the governance structure of the entity, and relevant law or regulation. However,
management (rather than those charged with governance) is often the responsible
party.
Written representations may therefore be requested from the entity’s chief
executive officer and chief financial officer, or other equivalent persons in entities
that do not use such titles. In some circumstances, however, other parties, such as
those charged with governance, are also responsible for the preparation and
presentation of the financial statements.
Due to its responsibility for the preparation and presentation of the financial
statements, and its responsibilities for the conduct of the entity’s business,
management would be expected to have sufficient knowledge of the process
followed by the entity in preparing and presenting the financial statements and the
assertions therein on which to base the written representations.
In some cases, however, management may decide to make inquiries of others who
participate in preparing and presenting the financial statements and assertions
therein, including individuals who have specialized knowledge relating to the
matters about which written representations are requested. Such individuals may
include:
♦ An actuary responsible for actuarially determined accounting measurements.
♦ Staff engineers who may have responsibility for and specialized knowledge
about environmental liability measurements.
♦ Internal counsel who may provide information essential to provisions for legal
claims.
In some cases, management may include in the written representations qualifying
language to the effect that representations are made to the best of its knowledge
and belief. It is reasonable for the auditor to accept such wording if the auditor is
satisfied that the representations are being made by those with appropriate
responsibilities and knowledge of the matters included in the representations.

3.4 Written Representations about Management’s

Responsibilities
The auditor shall request management to provide a written representation that it
has fulfilled its responsibility for the preparation of the financial statements in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework.
Audit evidence obtained during the audit that management has fulfilled the
responsibilities is not sufficient without obtaining confirmation from management
about the same. This is because the auditor is not able to judge solely on other
audit evidence.
For example, the auditor could not conclude that management has provided the
auditor with all relevant information agreed in the terms of the audit engagement
without asking it whether, and receiving confirmation that, such information has
been provided.
3.5 Information Provided and Completeness of Transactions

The auditor shall request management to provide a written representation that:
(a) It has provided the auditor with all relevant information and access as agreed
in the terms of the audit engagement, and
(b) All transactions have been recorded and are reflected in the financial
statements.
Description of Management’s Responsibilities in the Written
Representations.
Management’s responsibilities shall be described in the written representations in
the manner in which these responsibilities are described in the terms of the audit
engagement.
Other Written Representations
Other SAs require the auditor to request written representations. If, in addition to
such required representations, the auditor determines that it is necessary to obtain
one or more written representations to support other audit evidence relevant to
the financial statements or one or more specific assertions in the financial
statements, the auditor shall request such other written representations.
The written representations draw on the agreed acknowledgement and
understanding of management of its responsibilities by requesting confirmation
that it has fulfilled them. The auditor may also ask management to reconfirm its

acknowledgement and understanding of those responsibilities in written

representations. This is particularly appropriate when:
♦ Those who signed the terms of the audit engagement on behalf of the entity
no longer have the relevant responsibilities;
♦ The terms of the audit engagement were prepared in a previous year;
♦ There is any indication that management misunderstands those
responsibilities; or
♦ Changes in circumstances make it appropriate to do so.
3.6 Date of and Period(s) Covered by Written

Representations
The date of the written representations shall be as near as practicable to but not
after, the date of the auditor’s report on the financial statements. The written
representations shall be for all financial statements and period(s) referred to in the
auditor’s report. Because written representations are necessary audit evidence, the
auditor’s opinion cannot be expressed, and the auditor’s report cannot be dated,
before the date of the written representations.
Furthermore, because the auditor is concerned with events occurring up to the date
of the auditor’s report that may require adjustment to or disclosure in the financial
statements, the written representations are dated as near as practicable to, but not
after, the date of the auditor’s report on the financial statements.
3.7 Form of Written Representations

The written representations shall be in the form of a representation letter addressed
to the auditor. If law or regulation requires management to make written public
statements about its responsibilities, and the auditor determines that such
statements provide some or all of the representations required, the relevant
matters covered by such statements need not be included in the representation
letter.
3.8 Doubt as to the Reliability of Written Representations

and Requested Written Representations Not Provided
Doubt as to the Reliability of Written Representations
If the auditor has concerns about the competence, integrity, ethical values or
diligence of management, or about its commitment to or enforcement of these, the

auditor shall determine the effect that such concerns may have on the reliability of
representations (oral or written) and audit evidence in general.
In particular, if written representations are inconsistent with other audit evidence,
the auditor shall perform audit procedures to attempt to resolve the matter.
If the matter remains unresolved, the auditor shall reconsider the assessment of the
competence, integrity, ethical values or diligence of management, or of its
commitment to or enforcement of these, and shall determine the effect that this
may have on the reliability of representations (oral or written) and audit evidence
in general.
If the auditor concludes that the written representations are not reliable, the auditor
shall take appropriate actions, including determining the possible effect on the
opinion in the auditor’s report in accordance with SA 705.
3.9 Requested Written Representations Not Provided

If management does not provide one or more of the requested written
representations, the auditor shall:
(a) Discuss the matter with management;
(b) Re-evaluate the integrity of management and evaluate the effect that this
may have on the reliability of representations (oral or written) and audit
evidence in general; and
(c) Take appropriate actions, including determining the possible effect on the
opinion in the auditor’s report in accordance with SA 705.
4. AUDIT EVIDENCE — SPECIFIC

CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTED ITEMS
SA 501- “Audit Evidence- Specific Considerations for Selected Items” deals
with specific considerations by the auditor in obtaining sufficient appropriate audit
evidence with respect to certain aspects of inventory, litigation and claims involving
the entity, and segment information in an audit of financial statements.
The objective of the auditor is to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding the:
(a) Existence and condition of inventory;
(b) Completeness of litigation and claims involving the entity; and

(c) Presentation and disclosure of segment information in accordance with the

4.1 Inventory
When inventory is material to the financial statements, the auditor shall obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the existence and condition of
inventory by:
(a) Attendance at physical inventory counting, unless impracticable, to:
(i) Evaluate management’s instructions and procedures for recording and
controlling the results of the entity’s physical inventory counting;
(ii) Observe the performance of management’s count procedures;
(iii) Inspect the inventory; and
(iv) Perform test counts.
(b) Performing audit procedures over the entity’s final inventory records to
determine whether they accurately reflect actual inventory count results.
4.2 Attendance at Physical Inventory Counting

Attendance at Physical Inventory Counting Involves:
(a) Inspecting the inventory to ascertain its existence and evaluate its condition,
and performing test counts;
(b) Observing compliance with management’s instructions and the performance
of procedures for recording and controlling the results of the physical
inventory count; and
(c) Obtaining audit evidence as to the reliability of management’s count
procedures.
These procedures may serve as test of controls or substantive procedures
depending on the auditor’s risk assessment, planned approach and the specific
procedures carried out.
4.3 Matters Relevant in Planning Attendance at Physical

Inventory Counting
Matters relevant in planning attendance at physical inventory counting include, for
example:
(a) Nature of inventory.

(b) Stages of completion of work in progress.

(c) The risks of material misstatement related to inventory.
(d) The nature of the internal control related to inventory.
(e) Whether adequate procedures are expected to be established and proper
instructions issued for physical inventory counting.
(f) The timing of physical inventory counting.
(g) Whether the entity maintains a perpetual inventory system.
(h) The locations at which inventory is held, including the materiality of the
inventory and the risks of material misstatement at different locations, in
deciding at which locations attendance is appropriate
(i) Whether the assistance of an auditor’s expert is needed.
4.4 Physical Inventory Counting Conducted Other than at

the Date of the Financial Statements
If physical inventory counting is conducted at a date other than the date of the
financial statements, the auditor shall, in addition to the procedures required
above, perform audit procedures to obtain audit evidence about whether changes in
inventory between the count date and the date of the financial statements are
properly recorded.
4.5 If the Auditor is unable to Attend Physical Inventory

Counting due to Unforeseen Circumstances
If the auditor is unable to attend physical inventory counting due to unforeseen
circumstances, the auditor shall make or observe some physical counts on an
alternative date, and perform audit procedures on intervening transactions.
4.6 Attendance at Physical Inventory Counting Is

Impracticable
If attendance at physical inventory counting is impracticable, the auditor shall
perform alternative audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence regarding the existence and condition of inventory. If it is not possible to
do so, the auditor shall modify the opinion in the auditor’s report in accordance
with SA 705.

In some cases, attendance at physical inventory counting may be impracticable.

This may be due to factors such as the nature and location of the inventory, for
example, where inventory is held in a location that may pose threats to the safety
of the auditor.
The matter of general inconvenience to the auditor, however, is not sufficient to
support a decision by the auditor that attendance is impracticable. Further, as
explained in SA 200, the matter of difficulty, time, or cost involved is not in itself a
valid basis for the auditor to omit an audit procedure for which there is no
alternative or to be satisfied with audit evidence that is less than persuasive.
In some cases where attendance is impracticable, alternative audit procedures,
for example inspection of documentation of the subsequent sale of specific
inventory items acquired or purchased prior to the physical inventory counting,
may provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence about the existence and
condition of inventory.
In other cases, however, it may not be possible to obtain sufficient appropriate
audit evidence regarding the existence and condition of inventory by performing
alternative audit procedures. In such cases, SA 705 requires the auditor to modify
the opinion in the auditor’s report as a result of the scope limitation.
When inventory under the custody and control of a third party is material to the
financial statements, the auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding the existence and condition of that inventory by performing one or both
of the following:
(a) Request confirmation from the third party as to the quantities and condition
of inventory held on behalf of the entity.
(b) Perform inspection or other audit procedures appropriate in the
circumstances.
ILLUSTRATION 9
Paramount Exports Ltd is a manufacturer exporter having its own production capacity
and also gets the job work done through various job workers. The auditor of Paramount
Exports Ltd. Considers that inventory held with job workers is material to the financial
statements.
Required
Suggest the audit procedures in the given case.

SOLUTION
When inventory under the custody and control of a third party is material to the
financial statements, the auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding the existence and condition of that inventory by performing one or both
of the following:
(a) Request confirmation from the third party as to the quantities and condition
of inventory held on behalf of the entity.
(b) Perform inspection or other audit procedures appropriate in the
circumstances.
4.7 Litigation and Claims

The auditor shall design and perform audit procedures in order to identify litigation
and claims involving the entity which may give rise to a risk of material
misstatement, including:
(a) Inquiry of management and, where applicable, others within the entity,
including in-house legal counsel;
(b) Reviewing minutes of meetings of those charged with governance and
correspondence between the entity and its external legal counsel; and
(c) Reviewing legal expense accounts.
4.8 If the Auditor Assesses a Risk of Material Misstatement

regarding Litigation or Claims - Communication with
the Entity’s External Legal Counsel
If the auditor assesses a risk of material misstatement regarding litigation or claims
that have been identified, or when audit procedures performed indicate that other
material litigation or claims may exist, the auditor shall, in addition to the
procedures required by other SAs, seek direct communication with the entity’s
external legal counsel.
The auditor shall do so through a letter of inquiry requesting the entity’s external
legal counsel to communicate directly with the auditor.
If law, regulation or the respective legal professional body prohibits the entity’s
external legal counsel from communicating directly with the auditor, the auditor
shall perform alternative audit procedures.

In certain circumstances, the auditor also may judge it necessary to meet with the
entity’s external legal counsel to discuss the likely outcome of the litigation or
claims.
This may be the case, for example, where:
♦ The auditor determines that the matter is a significant risk.
♦ The matter is complex.
♦ There is disagreement between management and the entity’s external legal
counsel. Ordinarily, such meetings require management’s permission and are
held with a representative of management in attendance.
ILLUSTRATION 10
Pride India Ltd is a manufacturer of various FMCG (fast moving consumable goods)
range of products. The company is having several cases of litigation pending in courts.
The auditor wanted to identify litigation and claims resulting to risk of material
misstatements.
Required
Suggest the auditor with reference to SAs.
SOLUTION
The auditor shall design and perform audit procedures in order to identify litigation
and claims involving the entity which may give rise to a risk of material
misstatement, including:
(a) Inquiry of management and, where applicable, others within the entity,
including in-house legal counsel;
(b) Reviewing minutes of meetings of those charged with governance and
correspondence between the entity and its external legal counsel; and
(c) Reviewing legal expense accounts.

Further if:
(a) management refuses to give the auditor permission to communicate or meet
with the entity’s external legal counsel, or the entity’s external legal counsel
refuses to respond appropriately to the letter of inquiry, or is prohibited from
responding; and
(b) the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence by
performing alternative audit procedures,
the auditor shall modify the opinion in the auditor’s report in accordance with SA 705.
Written Representations
The auditor shall request management and, where appropriate, those charged with
governance to provide written representations that all known actual or possible
litigation and claims whose effects should be considered when preparing the
financial statements have been disclosed to the auditor and appropriately
accounted for and disclosed in accordance with the applicable financial reporting
framework.
4.9 Segment Information

The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the
presentation and disclosure of segment information in accordance with the
applicable financial reporting framework by:
(a) Obtaining an understanding of the methods used by management in
determining segment information. Further,
(i) Evaluating whether such methods are likely to result in disclosure in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework; and
(ii) Where appropriate, testing the application of such methods; and
(b) Performing analytical procedures or other audit procedures appropriate in
the circumstances
Understanding of the Methods Used by Management
Depending on the circumstances, example of matters that may be relevant when
obtaining an understanding of the methods used by management in determining
segment information and whether such methods are likely to result in disclosure in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework include:
♦ Sales, transfers and charges between segments, and elimination of
intersegment amounts.

♦ Comparisons with budgets and other expected results, for example, operating
profits as a percentage of sales.
♦ The allocation of assets and costs among segments.
♦ Consistency with prior periods, and the adequacy of the disclosures with
respect to inconsistencies
5. EXTERNAL CONFIRMATION
SA 505- “External Confirmations”, deals with the auditor’s use of external
confirmation procedures to obtain audit evidence.SA 500 indicates that the
reliability of audit evidence is influenced by its source and by its nature, and is
dependent on the individual circumstances under which it is obtained . That SA also
includes the following generalisations applicable to audit evidence
♦ Audit evidence is more reliable when it is obtained from independent sources
outside the entity.
♦ Audit evidence obtained directly by the auditor is more reliable than audit
evidence obtained indirectly or by inference.
♦ Audit evidence is more reliable when it exists in documentary form, whether
paper, electronic or other medium.
Accordingly, depending on the circumstances of the audit, audit evidence in the
form of external confirmations received directly by the auditor from confirming
parties may be more reliable than evidence generated internally by the entity. This
SA is intended to assist the auditor in designing and performing external
confirmations procedures to obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence
5.1 Objective of the auditor

The objective of the auditor, when using external confirmation procedures, is to
design and perform such procedures to obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence.
5.2 Definition of External Confirmation:

External confirmation may be defined as an audit evidence obtained as a direct
written response to the auditor from a third party (the confirming party), in paper
form, or by electronic or other medium.

in paper
Audit as a direct form, or by
to the from a third
evidence written electronic or
auditor party
obtained response other
medium
Definition of other Important Terms

Positive confirmation request – A request that the confirming party respond
directly to the auditor indicating whether the confirming party agrees or disagrees
with the information in the request, or providing the requested information.
Negative confirmation request – A request that the confirming party respond
directly to the auditor only if the confirming party disagrees with the information
provided in the request.
Non-response – A failure of the confirming party to respond, or fully respond, to
a positive confirmation request, or a confirmation request returned undelivered.
Exception – A response that indicates a difference between information requested
to be confirmed, or contained in the entity’s records, and information provided by
the confirming party.
The exception needs to be assessed to the entire population after analyzing the
reason for difference.
ILLUSTRATION 11
During the financial year 2020-21, the auditor of Delicious and Healthy Limited asked
a Trade Receivable to respond directly to the auditor whether or not the amount they
were required to pay to Delicious and Healthy Limited was Rs. 79,000. That trade
receivable confirmed to the auditor of Delicious and Healthy Limited, that they were
required to pay an amount of Rs. 79,000 to Delicious and Healthy Limited. State and
explain the type of Confirmation Request as required by the auditor.
SOLUTION
The above mentioned situation is an example of Positive Confirmation Request
because in Positive Confirmation Request the party confirms the auditor of a
company whether such party agrees or whether such party disagrees with the
information for which the confirmation is required by auditor of that company.

5.3 External Confirmation Procedures

When using external confirmation procedures, the auditor shall maintain control
over external confirmation requests, including:
(a) Determining the information to be confirmed or requested;
(b) Selecting the appropriate confirming party;
(c) Designing the confirmation requests, including determining that requests are
properly addressed and contain return information for responses to be sent
directly to the auditor; and
(d) Sending the requests, including follow-up requests when applicable, to the
confirming party.
5.4 Determining the Information to be Confirmed or

Requested
External confirmation procedures frequently are performed to confirm or request
information regarding account balances and their elements. They may also be used
to confirm terms of agreements, contracts, or transactions between an entity and
other parties, or to confirm the absence of certain conditions, such as a “side
agreement”.
5.5 Selecting the Appropriate Confirming Party

Responses to confirmation requests provide more relevant and reliable audit
evidence when confirmation requests are sent to a confirming party the auditor
believes is knowledgeable about the information to be confirmed.
For example, a financial institution official who is knowledgeable about the
transactions or arrangements for which confirmation is requested may be the most
appropriate person at the financial institution from whom to request confirmation.
5.6 Designing Confirmation Requests

The design of a confirmation request may directly affect the confirmation response
rate, and the reliability and the nature of the audit evidence obtained from
responses.
Factors to consider when designing confirmation requests include:
♦ Specific identified risks of material misstatement, including fraud risks.
♦ The layout and presentation of the confirmation request.

♦ Prior experience on the audit or similar engagements.

♦ The assertions being addressed.
♦ The method of communication [for example, in paper form, or by electronic
mode (like e-mail) or other medium].
♦ Management’s authorisation or encouragement to the confirming parties to
respond to the auditor. Confirming parties may only be willing to respond to
a confirmation request containing management’s authorisation.
♦ The ability of the intended confirming party to confirm or provide the
requested information (for example, individual invoice amount versus total
balance).
5.7 Follow-Up on Confirmation Requests

The auditor may send an additional confirmation request when a reply to a previous
request has not been received within a reasonable time.
For example, the auditor may, having re-verified the accuracy of the original
address, send an additional or follow-up request.
5.8 Management’s Refusal to Allow the Auditor to Send a

Confirmation Request
If management refuses to allow the auditor to send a confirmation request, the
auditor shall:
(a) Inquire as to management’s reasons for the refusal, and seek audit evidence as
to their validity and reasonableness;
(b) Evaluate the implications of management’s refusal on the auditor’s assessment
of the relevant risks of material misstatement, including the risk of fraud, and
on the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures; and
(c) Perform alternative audit procedures designed to obtain relevant and reliable
audit evidence.
If the auditor concludes that management’s refusal to allow the auditor to send a
confirmation request is unreasonable, or the auditor is unable to obtain relevant
and reliable audit evidence from alternative audit procedures, the auditor shall
communicate with those charged with governance in accordance with SA 260.
The auditor also shall determine the implications for the audit and the auditor’s
opinion in accordance with SA 705.

ILLUSTRATION 12
While conducting the audit of Jay Kay Ltd, the auditor K of KLM and Associates,
Chartered Accountants observes that there are large number of Trade payables and
receivables standing in the books of accounts as on 31st March. The auditor wanted to
send confirmation request to few trade receivables but the management refused the
auditor to send confirmation request.
Required
How would the auditor proceed?
SOLUTION
If management refuses to allow the auditor to send a confirmation request, the
auditor shall:
(a) Inquire as to management’s reasons for the refusal, and seek audit evidence as
to their validity and reasonableness;
(b) Evaluate the implications of management’s refusal on the auditor’s assessment
of the relevant risks of material misstatement, including the risk of fraud, and
on the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures; and
(c) Perform alternative audit procedures designed to obtain relevant and reliable
audit evidence.
If the auditor concludes that management’s refusal to allow the auditor to send a
confirmation request is unreasonable, or the auditor is unable to obtain relevant
and reliable audit evidence from alternative audit procedures, the auditor shall
communicate with those charged with governance in accordance with SA 260.
The auditor also shall determine the implications for the audit and the auditor’s
opinion in accordance with SA 705.
5.9 Results of the External Confirmation Procedures

Reliability of Responses to Confirmation Requests
If the auditor identifies factors that give rise to doubts about the reliability of the
response to a confirmation request, the auditor shall obtain further audit evidence
to resolve those doubts.
If the auditor determines that a response to a confirmation request is not reliable,
the auditor shall evaluate the implications on the assessment of the relevant risks
of material misstatement, including the risk of fraud, and on the related nature,
timing and extent of other audit procedures.

5.10 Negative Confirmations

Negative confirmations provide less persuasive audit evidence than positive
confirmations. Accordingly, the auditor shall not use negative confirmation
requests as the sole substantive audit procedure to address an assessed risk of
material misstatement at the assertion level unless all of the following are present:
(a) The auditor has assessed the risk of material misstatement as low and has
obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the operating
effectiveness of controls relevant to the assertion;
(b) The population of items subject to negative confirmation procedures comprises
a large number of small, homogeneous, account balances, transactions or
conditions;
(c) A very low exception rate is expected; and
(d) The auditor is not aware of circumstances or conditions that would cause
recipients of negative confirmation requests to disregard such requests.
5.11 Evaluating the Evidence Obtained

The auditor shall evaluate whether the results of the external confirmation
procedures provide relevant and reliable audit evidence, or whether performing
further audit procedures is necessary
6. INITIAL AUDIT ENGAGEMENT

SA 510- “Initial Audit Engagements- Opening Balances”, deals with the
auditor’s responsibilities relating to opening balances when conducting an initial
audit engagement. In addition to financial statement amounts, opening balances
include matters requiring disclosure that existed at the beginning of the period,
such as contingencies and commitments.
Definition of Initial Audit Engagement
An engagement in which either:
(i) The financial statements for the prior period were not audited; or
(ii) The financial statements for the prior period were audited by a predecessor
auditor.

6.1 Objective of Auditor with respect to Opening Balances

– in conducting an Initial Audit Engagement
In conducting an initial audit engagement, the objective of the auditor with respect
to opening balances is to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about
whether:
(a) Opening balances contain misstatements that materially affect the current
period’s financial statements; and
(b) Appropriate accounting policies reflected in the opening balances have been
consistently applied in the current period’s financial statements, or changes
thereto are properly accounted for and adequately presented and disclosed
in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework.
6.2 Audit Procedures regarding Opening Balances

The auditor shall read the most recent financial statements, if any, and the
predecessor auditor’s report thereon, if any, for information relevant to opening
balances, including disclosures.
The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether the
opening balances contain misstatements that materially affect the current period’s
financial statements by:
(a) Determining whether the prior period’s closing balances have been correctly
brought forward to the current period or, when appropriate, any adjustments
have been disclosed as prior period items in the current year’s Statement of
Profit and Loss;
(b) Determining whether the opening balances reflect the application of
appropriate accounting policies; and
(c) Performing one or more of the following:
(i) Where the prior year financial statements were audited, perusing the
copies of the audited financial statements including the other relevant
documents relating to the prior period financial statements;
(ii) Evaluating whether audit procedures performed in the current period
provide evidence relevant to the opening balances; or
(iii) Performing specific audit procedures to obtain evidence regarding the
opening balances.

If the auditor obtains audit evidence that the opening balances contain
misstatements that could materially affect the current period’s financial statements,
the auditor shall perform such additional audit procedures as are appropriate in
the circumstances to determine the effect on the current period’s financial
statements. If the auditor concludes that such misstatements exist in the current
period’s financial statements, the auditor shall communicate the misstatements
with the appropriate level of management and those charged with governance in
accordance with SA 450.
6.3 Consistency of Accounting Policies relating to opening

balances
accounting policies reflected in the opening balances have been consistently
applied in the current period’s financial statements, and whether changes in the
accounting policies have been properly accounted for and adequately presented
and disclosed in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework.
6.4 Relevant Information in the Predecessor Auditor’s

Report
If the prior period’s financial statements were audited by a predecessor auditor and
there was a modification to the opinion, the auditor shall evaluate the effect of the
matter giving rise to the modification in assessing the risks of material
misstatement in the current period’s financial statements in accordance with
SA 315
6.5 Audit Conclusions and Reporting in relation to

Opening Balances
If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding
the opening balances, the auditor shall express a qualified opinion or a disclaimer
of opinion, as appropriate, in accordance with SA 705.
If the auditor concludes that the opening balances contain a misstatement that
materially affects the current period’s financial statements, and the effect of the
misstatement is not properly accounted for or not adequately presented or
disclosed, the auditor shall express a qualified opinion or an adverse opinion, as
appropriate, in accordance with SA 705.

6.6 Consistency of Accounting Policies

If the auditor concludes that:
(a) the current period’s accounting policies are not consistently applied in
relation to opening balances in accordance with the applicable financial
reporting framework; or
(b) a change in accounting policies is not properly accounted for or not
adequately presented or disclosed in accordance with the applicable financial
reporting framework,
the auditor shall express a qualified opinion or an adverse opinion as appropriate
in accordance with SA 705(Revised).
6.7 Modification to the Opinion in the Predecessor

Auditor’s Report
If the predecessor auditor’s opinion regarding the prior period’s financial
statements included a modification to the auditor’s opinion that remains relevant
and material to the current period’s financial statements, the auditor shall modify
the auditor’s opinion on the current period’s financial statements in accordance
with SA 705(Revised) and SA 710
7. MEANING OF RELATED PARTY

SA 550- “Related Parties”, deals with the auditor’s
responsibilities regarding related party relationships
and transactions when performing an audit of
financial statements.
Definition of Related Party:

A party that is either:
(i) A related party as defined in the applicable financial reporting framework; or
(ii) Where the applicable financial reporting framework establishes minimal or no
related party requirements:
(a) A person or other entity that has control or significant influence, directly
or indirectly through one or more intermediaries, over the reporting
entity;

(b) Another entity over which the reporting entity has control or significant
influence, directly or indirectly through one or more intermediaries; or
(c) Another entity that is under common control with the reporting entity
through having:
 Common controlling ownership;
 Owners who are close family members; or
 Common key management.
However, entities that are under common control by a state (i.e., a national, regional
or local government) are not considered related unless they engage in significant
transactions or share resources to a significant extent with one another.
7.1 Nature of Related Party Relationships and Transactions

Many related party transactions are in the normal course of business. In such
circumstances, they may carry no higher risk of material misstatement of the
financial statements than similar transactions with unrelated parties. However, the
nature of related party relationships and transactions may, in some circumstances,
give rise to higher risks of material misstatement of the financial statements than
transactions with unrelated parties.
Example
♦ Related parties may operate through an extensive and complex range of
relationships and structures, with a corresponding increase in the complexity of
related party transactions.
♦ Information systems may be ineffective at identifying or summarising
transactions and outstanding balances between an entity and its related parties.
♦ Related party transactions may not be conducted under normal market terms
and conditions; for example, some related party transactions may be conducted
with no exchange of consideration.
7.2 Responsibilities of the Auditor

There are specific accounting and disclosure requirements for related party
relationships, transactions and balances to enable users of the financial statements
to understand their nature and effects on the financial statements.
The auditor has a responsibility to perform audit procedures to identify, assess and
respond to the risks of material misstatement arising from the entity’s failure to
appropriately account for related party relationships, transactions or balances.

The auditor needs to obtain an understanding of the entity’s related party

relationships and transactions sufficient to be able to conclude whether the
financial statements, insofar as they are affected by those relationships and
transactions:
(a) Achieve a true and fair presentation; or
(b) Are not misleading (for compliance frameworks).
In addition, an understanding of the entity’s related party relationships and
transactions is relevant to the auditor’s evaluation of whether fraud risk factors are
present as required by SA 240. This is because fraud may be more easily committed
through related parties.
Owing to the inherent limitations of an audit, there is an unavoidable risk that some
material misstatements of the financial statements may not be detected, even
though the audit is properly planned and performed in accordance with the SAs. In
the context of related parties, the potential effects of inherent limitations on the
auditor’s ability to detect material misstatements are greater for such reasons as
the following:
♦ Management may be unaware of the existence of all related party
relationships.
♦ Related party relationships may present a greater opportunity for collusion,
concealment or manipulation by management.
Planning and performing the audit with professional skepticism as required by SA
200 is therefore particularly important in this context, given the potential for
undisclosed related party relationships and transactions. The requirements in this
SA are designed to assist the auditor in identifying and assessing the risks of
material misstatement associated with related party relationships and transactions,
and in designing audit procedures to respond to the assessed risks.
7.3 The Identity of the Entity’s Related Parties

♦ Where the applicable financial reporting framework establishes related party
requirements, information regarding the identity of the entity’s related
parties is likely to be readily available to management because the entity’s
information systems will need to record, process and summarise related party
relationships and transactions to enable the entity to meet the accounting
and disclosure requirements of the framework.
♦ Management is therefore likely to have a comprehensive list of related parties
and changes from the prior period. For recurring engagements, making the

inquiries provides a basis for comparing the information supplied by

management with the auditor’s record of related parties noted in previous
audits.
♦ However, where the framework does not establish related party requirements,
the entity may not have such information systems in place.
♦ Under such circumstances, it is possible that management may not be aware
of the existence of all related parties. Nevertheless, the requirement to make
the inquiries specified above still applies because management may be aware
of parties that meet the related party definition set out in this SA.
♦ In such a case, however, the auditor’s inquiries regarding the identity of the
entity’s related parties are likely to form part of the auditor’s risk assessment
procedures and related activities performed in accordance with SA 315 to
obtain information regarding:
1. The entity’s ownership and governance structures;
2. The types of investments that the entity is making and plans to make;
and
3. The way the entity is structured and how it is financed.
♦ In the particular case of common control relationships, as management is
more likely to be aware of such relationships if they have economic
significance to the entity, the auditor’s inquiries are likely to be more effective
if they are focused on whether parties with which the entity engages in
significant transactions, or shares resources to a significant degree, are
related parties.
Question:
How can an auditor verify the existence of related party relationships and
transactions?
Answer: During the audit, the auditor should maintain alertness for related party
information while reviewing records and documents. He may inspect the following
records or documents that may provide information about related party
relationships and transactions, for example:
1. Entity income tax returns.
2. Information supplied by the entity to regulatory authorities.
3. Shareholder registers to identify the entity’s principal shareholders.

4. Statements of conflicts of interest from management and those charged with

governance.
5. Records of the entity’s investments and those of its pension plans.
6. Contracts and agreements with key management or those charged with
governance.
7. Significant contracts and agreements not in the entity’s ordinary course of
business.
8. Specific invoices and correspondence from the entity’s professional advisors.
9. Life insurance policies acquired by the entity.
10. Significant contracts re-negotiated by the entity during the period.
11. Internal auditors’ reports.
12. Documents associated with the entity’s filings with a securities regulator e.g,
prospectuses)
8. CONCEPT OF TRUE AND FAIR

The concept of true and fair is a fundamental concept in auditing. The phrase “true
and fair” in the auditor’s report signifies that the auditor is required to express his
opinion as to whether the state of affairs and the results of the entity as ascertained
by him in the course of his audit are truly and fairly represented in the accounts
under audit. This requires that the auditor should examine the accounts with a view
to verify that all assets, liabilities, income and expenses are stated as amounts which
are in accordance with accounting principles and policies which are relevant and
no material amount, item or transaction has been omitted.
SA 700 “Forming an Opinion and Reporting on Financial Statements”, requires

the auditor to form an opinion on the financial statements based on an
evaluation of the conclusions drawn from the audit evidence obtained; and
express clearly that opinion through a written report that also describes the
basis for the opinion. The auditor is required to express his opinion on the
financial statements that, the accompanying financial statements present
fairly, in all material respects, (or give a true and fair view of) the financial
position of the Company as at December 31, 20X1, and (of) its financial
performance and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with
Accounting Standards.

What constitutes a ‘true and fair’ view is a matter of an auditor’s judgement in the
particular circumstances of a case. In more specific terms, to ensure true and fair
view, an auditor has to see:
(i) that the assets are neither undervalued or overvalued, according to the
applicable accounting principles,
(ii) no material asset is omitted;
(iii) the charge, if any, on assets are disclosed;
(iv) material liabilities should not be omitted;
(v) the profit and loss account and balance sheet discloses all the matters
required to be disclosed;
(vi) accounting policies have been followed consistently; and
(vii) all unusual, exceptional or non-recurring items have been disclosed
separately.
ILLUSTRATION 13
While auditing the books of accounts of Completely Balanced Limited for the financial
year 2020-21, the auditor observed that following transactions were not recorded in
financial statements, even though they were recorded in books of accounts:
(a) The Equipment H amounting for Rs. 40,000.
(b) Trade Receivable of Rs. 29,000 and Trade Payable of Rs. 22,000.
(c) Repair and Maintenance Expenses of Rs. 56,000.
(d) Other Incomes of Rs. 94,000.
Every amount mentioned above was material in nature.
Comment on the true and fair view as depicted by the financial statements of the
above mentioned company
SOLUTION
According to the auditor, the financial statements of Completely Balanced Limited
for the financial year 2020-21 do not present a true and fair view because certain
material transactions relating to liabilities, incomes, assets and expenses were not
recorded in the financial statements. The actual position as depicted in the books
of accounts of Completely Balanced Limited for the financial year 2020-21, that
same position was not presented in the financial statements of the above
mentioned company.

9. AUDITOR AND THE SUBSEQUENT EVENTS

Definitions:
1. Subsequent Events: Events occurring between the date of the financial
statements and the date of the auditor’s report, and facts that become known
to the auditor after the date of the auditor’s report.
2. Date of financial statements: The date of the end of the latest period
covered by the financial statements.
3. Date of the auditor’s report: The date the auditor dated the report on the
financial statements in accordance with SA 700.
SA 560, “Subsequent Events” deals with the auditor’s responsibilities relating to

subsequent events in an audit of financial statements
Financial statements may be affected by certain events that occur after the date of
the financial statements. Many financial reporting frameworks specifically refer to
such events. Such financial reporting frameworks ordinarily identify two types of
events:
(a) Those that provide evidence of conditions that existed at the date of the
financial statements; and
(b) Those that provide evidence of conditions that arose after the date of the
SA 700 explains that the date of the auditor’s report informs the reader that the
auditor has considered the effect of events and transactions of which the auditor
becomes aware and that occurred up to that date
9.1 Objectives
The objectives of the auditor are to:
(a) Obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether events occurring
between the date of the financial statements and the date of the auditor’s
report that require adjustment of, or disclosure in, the financial statements
are appropriately reflected in those financial statements; and

(b) Respond appropriately to facts that become known to the auditor after the
date of the auditor’s report, that, had they been known to the auditor at that
date, may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s report.
9.2 Audit Procedure Regarding Events Occurring between

the Date of the Financial Statements and the Date of
the Auditor’s Report
♦ The auditor shall perform audit procedures designed to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence that all events occurring between the date of the
financial statements and the date of the auditor’s report that require
adjustment of, or disclosure in, the financial statements have been identified.
♦ The auditor is not, however, expected to perform additional audit procedures on
matters to which previously applied audit procedures have provided
satisfactory conclusions.
♦ The auditor shall perform the procedures required above so that they cover
the period from the date of the financial statements to the date of the auditor’s
report, or as near as practicable thereto. The auditor shall take into account the
auditor’s risk assessment which shall include the following:

(a) Obtaining an understanding of any procedures management has

established to ensure that subsequent events are identified.
(b) Inquiring of management and, where appropriate, those charged with
governance as to whether any subsequent events have occurred which
might affect the financial statements.
(c) Reading minutes, if any, of the meetings, of the entity’s owners,
management and those charged with governance, that have been held
after the date of the financial statements and inquiring about matters
discussed at any such meetings for which minutes are not yet available.
(d) Reading the entity’s latest subsequent interim financial statements, if
any.
When, as a result of the procedures performed as required above, the auditor
identifies events that require adjustment of, or disclosure in, the financial statements,
the auditor shall determine whether each such event is appropriately reflected in
those financial statements.
9.3 Written Representations with respect to subsequent

events:
The auditor shall request management and, where appropriate, those charged with
governance, to provide a written representation in accordance with SA 580,
“Written Representations” that all events occurring subsequent to the date of the
financial statements and for which the applicable financial reporting framework
requires adjustment or disclosure have been adjusted or disclosed.
9.4 Auditor’s Obligations Regarding Subsequent Events

(I) Facts which become known to the auditor after the date of the auditor’s
report but before the date the financial statements are issued
The auditor has no obligation to perform any audit procedures regarding the
financial statements after the date of the auditor’s report. However, when, after the
date of the auditor’s report but before the date the financial statements are issued,
a fact becomes known to the auditor that, had it been known to the auditor at the
date of the auditor’s report, may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s
report, the auditor shall:
(a) Discuss the matter with management and, where appropriate, those charged
with governance.
(b) Determine whether the financial statements need amendment and, if so,

(c) Inquire how management intends to address the matter in the financial
statements.
(II) Facts Which Become Known to the Auditor After the Financial
Statements have been Issued
After the financial statements have been issued, the auditor has no obligation to
perform any audit procedures regarding such financial statements. However, when,
after the financial statements have been issued, a fact becomes known to the
auditor that, had it been known to the auditor at the date of the auditor’s report,
may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s report, the auditor shall:
(a) Discuss the matter with management and, where appropriate, those charged
with governance.
(b) Determine whether the financial statements need amendment and, if so,
statements.
10. AUDITOR AND THE GOING CONCERN

ASSUMPTION
SA 570 (Revised) on “Going concern” deals with :
(I) The auditor’s responsibilities in the audit of financial statements relating
to going concern and
(II) The implications for the auditor’s report.
(I) The auditor’s responsibilities in the audit of financial statements relating
to going concern:
It is important to note that-
SA 701 deals with the auditor’s responsibility to communicate key audit matters in

the auditor’s report. SA 701 acknowledges that, when SA 701 applies, matters
relating to going concern may be determined to be key audit matters, and explains
that a material uncertainty related to events or conditions that may cast significant
doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern is, by its nature, a key
audit matter.
Going Concern Basis of Accounting
Under the going concern basis of accounting, the financial statements are prepared
on the assumption that the entity is a going concern and will continue its
operations for the foreseeable future.
General purpose financial statements are prepared using the going concern
basis of accounting, unless management either
(i) intends to liquidate the entity or to cease operations,
(ii) or has no realistic alternative but to do so.
When the use of the going concern basis of accounting is appropriate, assets and
liabilities are recorded on the basis that the entity will be able to realize its assets
and discharge its liabilities in the normal course of business.
10.1 Objectives of the auditor regarding going concern
(a) To obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding, and conclude on,
the appropriateness of management’s use of the going concern basis of
accounting in the preparation of the financial statements;
(b) To conclude, based on the audit evidence obtained, whether a material
uncertainty exists related to events or conditions that may cast significant
doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern; and
(c) To report in accordance with this SA.
10.2 Responsibilities of the Auditor
The auditor’s responsibilities are:
(1) to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding, and conclude on,
the appropriateness of management’s use of the going concern basis of
accounting in the preparation of the financial statements, and
(2) to conclude, based on the audit evidence obtained, whether a material
uncertainty exists about the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.

However, as described in SA 200, the potential effects of inherent limitations on the

auditor’s ability to detect material misstatements are greater for future events or
conditions that may cause an entity to cease to continue as a going concern. The
auditor cannot predict such future events or conditions. Accordingly, the absence
of any reference to a material uncertainty about the entity’s ability to continue as a
going concern in an auditor’s report cannot be viewed as a guarantee as to the
entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.
10.3 Risk Assessment Procedures and Related Activities
When performing risk assessment procedures as required by SA 315, the auditor
shall consider whether events or conditions exist that may cast significant doubt on
the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.
In so doing, the auditor shall determine whether management has already
performed a preliminary assessment of the entity’s ability to continue as a going
concern, and:
(a) If such an assessment has been performed, the auditor shall discuss the
assessment with management and determine whether management has
identified events or conditions that, individually or collectively, may cast
significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern and, if
so, management’s plans to address them; or
(b) If such an assessment has not yet been performed, the auditor shall discuss
with management the basis for the intended use of the going concern basis
of accounting, and inquire of management whether events or conditions exist
that, individually or collectively, may cast significant doubt on the entity’s
ability to continue as a going concern.
10.4Remaining Alert throughout the Audit for Audit

Evidence about Events or Conditions
The auditor shall remain alert throughout the audit for audit evidence of events or
conditions that may cast significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a
going concern.
SA 315 requires the auditor to revise the auditor’s risk assessment and modify the
further planned audit procedures accordingly when additional audit evidence is
obtained during the course of the audit that affects the auditor’s assessment of
risk.

10.5 Events or Conditions That May Cast Significant Doubt

on the Entity’s Ability to Continue as a Going Concern
The following are examples of events or conditions that, individually or collectively,
may cast significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.
Financial
♦ Net liability or net current liability position.
♦ Fixed-term borrowings approaching maturity without realistic prospects of
renewal or repayment; or excessive reliance on short-term borrowings to
finance long-term assets.
♦ Indications of withdrawal of financial support by creditors.
♦ Negative operating cash flows indicated by historical or prospective financial
statements.
♦ Adverse key financial ratios.
Operating
♦ Management intentions to liquidate the entity or to cease operations.
♦ Loss of key management without replacement.
♦ Loss of a major market, key customer(s), franchise, license, or principal
supplier(s).
♦ Labor difficulties.
♦ Shortages of important supplies.
♦ Emergence of a highly successful competitor.
Other
♦ Non-compliance with capital or other statutory or regulatory requirements,
such as solvency or liquidity requirements for financial institutions.
♦ Pending legal or regulatory proceedings against the entity that may, if
successful, result in claims that the entity is unlikely to be able to satisfy.
♦ Changes in law or regulation or government policy expected to adversely
affect the entity.
♦ Uninsured or underinsured catastrophes when they occur.

10.6 Additional Audit Procedures When Events or Conditions Are

Identified
If events or conditions have been identified that may cast significant doubt on the
entity’s ability to continue as a going concern, the auditor shall obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence to determine whether or not a material uncertainty
exists related to events or conditions that may cast significant doubt on the entity’s
ability to continue as a going concern (hereinafter referred to as “material
uncertainty”) through performing additional audit procedures, including
consideration of mitigating factors. These procedures shall include:
(a) Where management has not yet performed an assessment of the entity’s
ability to continue as a going concern, requesting management to make its
assessment.
(b) Evaluating management’s plans for future actions in relation to its going
concern assessment, whether the outcome of these plans is likely to improve
the situation and whether management’s plans are feasible in the
circumstances.
(c) Where the entity has prepared a cash flow forecast, and analysis of the forecast
is a significant factor in considering the future outcome of events or
conditions in the evaluation of management’s plans for future actions:
(i) Evaluating the reliability of the underlying data generated to prepare
the forecast; and
(ii) Determining whether there is adequate support for the assumptions
underlying the forecast.
(d) Considering whether any additional facts or information have become
available since the date on which management made its assessment.
(e) Requesting written representations from management regarding their future
action plans and the feasibility of these plans.
Audit procedures that are relevant to the requirement as stated above may include
the following:
♦ Analyzing and discussing cash flow, profit and other relevant forecasts with
management.
♦ Analyzing and discussing the entity’s latest available interim financial
statements.

♦ Reading the terms of debentures and loan agreements and determining

whether any have been breached.
♦ Reading minutes of the meetings of shareholders, those charged with
governance and relevant committees for reference to financing difficulties.
♦ Inquiring of the entity’s legal counsel regarding the existence of litigation and
claims and the reasonableness of management’s assessments of their
outcome and the estimate of their financial implications.
♦ Confirming the existence, legality and enforceability of arrangements to
provide or maintain financial support with related and third parties and
assessing the financial ability of such parties to provide additional funds.
♦ Evaluating the entity’s plans to deal with unfilled customer orders.
♦ Performing audit procedures regarding subsequent events to identify those
that either mitigate or otherwise affect the entity’s ability to continue as a
going concern.
♦ Confirming the existence, terms and adequacy of borrowing facilities.
♦ Obtaining and reviewing reports of regulatory actions.
♦ Determining the adequacy of support for any planned disposals of assets.
(II) Implications for the Auditor’s Report
(A) Use of Going Concern Basis of Accounting is Inappropriate
If the financial statements have been prepared using the going concern basis of
accounting but, in the auditor’s judgement, management’s use of the going
concern basis of accounting in the preparation of the financial statements is
inappropriate, the auditor shall express an adverse opinion.
When the use of the going concern basis of accounting is not appropriate in the
circumstances, management may be required, or may elect, to prepare the financial
statements on another basis (e.g., liquidation basis). The auditor may be able to
perform an audit of those financial statements provided that the auditor
determines that the other basis of accounting is acceptable in the circumstances.
The auditor may be able to express an unmodified opinion on those financial
statements, provided there is adequate disclosure therein about the basis of
accounting on which the financial statements are prepared, but may consider it
appropriate or necessary to include an Emphasis of Matter paragraph in
accordance with SA 706 (Revised) in the auditor’s report to draw the user’s
attention to that alternative basis of accounting and the reasons for its use.

(B) Use of the Going Concern Basis of Accounting is Appropriate but a

Material Uncertainty Exists
The identification of a material uncertainty is a matter that is important to users’
understanding of the financial statements. The use of a separate section with a
heading that includes reference to the fact that a material uncertainty related to
going concern exists alerts users to this circumstance.
(1) Adequate Disclosure of a Material Uncertainty is Made in the Financial
Statements
If adequate disclosure about the material uncertainty is made in the financial
statements, the auditor shall express an unmodified opinion and the auditor’s
report shall include a separate section under the heading “Material Uncertainty
Related to Going Concern.”
(2) Adequate Disclosure of a Material Uncertainty is Not Made in the
Financial Statements
If adequate disclosure about the material uncertainty is not made in the financial
statements, the auditor shall:
(a) Express a qualified opinion or adverse opinion, as appropriate, in
accordance with SA 705 (Revised); and
(b) In the Basis for Qualified (Adverse) Opinion section of the auditor’s report,
state that a material uncertainty exists that may cast significant doubt on the
entity’s ability to continue as a going concern and that the financial
statements do not adequately disclose this matter.
SUMMARY
Audit documentation (SA 230) refers to the record of audit procedures performed,
relevant audit evidence obtained, and conclusions the auditor reached. Audit
documentation provides evidence of the auditor’s basis for a conclusion and
evidence that the audit was planned and performed in accordance with SAs. Audit
file refers to one or more folders or other storage media containing the records
that comprise the audit documentation for a specific engagement.
The auditor shall assemble the audit documentation in an audit file and complete
the administrative process of assembling the final audit file on a timely basis after
Audit evidence may be defined as the information used by the auditor in arriving


As explained in SA 200, “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the
Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”, reasonable
assurance is obtained when the auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate audit
evidence to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level. Sufficiency is the measure
of the quantity of audit evidence. Appropriateness is the measure of the quality of
audit evidence. The reliability of information to be used as audit evidence, and
therefore of the audit evidence itself, is influenced by its source and its nature, and
the circumstances under which it is obtained, including the controls over its
preparation and maintenance where relevant.
Risk assessment procedures refer to the audit procedures performed to obtain an
understanding of the entity and its environment, including the entity’s internal
control, to identify and assess the risks of material misstatement, whether due to
fraud or error, at the financial statement and assertion levels.
Assertions refer to representations by management, explicit or otherwise, that are
embodied in the financial statements, as used by the auditor to consider the
different types of potential misstatements that may occur.
Written representations may be defined as a written statement by management
provided to the auditor to confirm certain matters or to support other audit evidence.
When inventory is material to the financial statements, the auditor shall obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the existence and condition of
inventory.
External confirmation may be defined as an audit evidence obtained as a direct
written response to the auditor from a third party (the confirming party), in paper
form, or by electronic or other medium. The design of a confirmation request may
directly affect the confirmation response rate, and the reliability and the nature of
the audit evidence obtained from responses.
opening balances contain misstatements that materially affect the current period’s
financial statements

The auditor has a responsibility to perform audit procedures to identify, assess and
respond to the risks of material misstatement arising from the entity’s failure to
appropriately account for related party relationships, transactions or balances.
The concept of true and fair is a fundamental concept in auditing. The phrase “true
and fair” in the auditor’s report signifies that the auditor is required to express his
opinion as to whether the state of affairs and the results of the entity as ascertained
by him in the course of his audit are truly and fairly represented in the accounts
under audit.
Events occurring between the date of the financial statements and the date of the
auditor’s report, and facts that become known to the auditor after the date of the
auditor’s report.
The auditor’s responsibilities are to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding, and conclude on, the appropriateness of management’s use of the going
concern basis of accounting in the preparation of the financial statements, and to
conclude, based on the audit evidence obtained, whether a material uncertainty
exists about the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct/Incorrect
incorrect:
(i) As per SA 230 on “Audit Documentation”, the working papers are not the
property of the auditor.
(ii) Purchase invoice is an example of internal evidence.
(iii) Sufficiency is the measure of the quality of audit evidence.
(iv) Inquiry alone is sufficient to test the operating effectiveness of controls.
(v) Mr. A is a statutory auditor of ABC Ltd. The branch of ABC Ltd. is audited by
Mr. B, another Chartered Accountant. Mr. A requests for the photocopies of
the audit documentation of Mr. B pertaining to the branch audit.
(vi) When auditor inquires the management as part of the audit procedures it
should be formal written form only and not informal oral inquiries.
(vii) Assertions refer to the representations by the auditor to consider the different
types of the potential misstatements that may occur.

1. Define audit documentation. Also give some examples.
2. “Audit documentation summary may facilitate effective and efficient reviews
and inspections of the audit documentation, particularly for large and
complex audits”. Explain.
3. “Although written representations provide necessary audit evidence yet they
do not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence on their own about any
of the matters with which they deal”. Discuss.
4. Discuss the objective of Auditor with respect to Opening balances in
conducting an initial audit engagement.
5. Define Risk of material misstatement. Explain its components also.
6. “When deviations from controls upon which the auditor intends to rely are
detected, the auditor shall make specific inquiries to understand these
matters and their potential consequences” Explain.
7. M/s Pankaj & Associates, Chartered Accountants, have been appointed as an
auditor of ABC Limited. CA Pankaj did not apply any audit procedures
regarding opening balances. He argued that since financial statements were
audited by the predecessor auditor therefore he is not required to verify
them. Is CA Pankaj correct in his approach?
8 Audit evidence is all the information used by the auditor in arriving at the
necessary information that the auditor requires in connection with the audit
of the entity’s financial statements. Accordingly, similar to responses to
inquiries, written representations are audit evidence. Explain stating clearly
objectives of the auditor regarding written representation.
9. The auditor has no obligation to perform any audit procedures regarding the
financial statements after the date of the auditor’s report. However, when,
after the date of the auditor’s report but before the date the financial
statements are issued, a fact becomes known to the auditor that, had it been
known to the auditor at the date of the auditor’s report, may have caused the
auditor to amend the auditor’s report. Explain the auditor’s obligation in the
above situation.
10. The nature of related party relationships and transactions may, in some
circumstances, give rise to higher risks of material misstatement of the

financial statements than transactions with unrelated parties. Explain with the
help of at least three examples.
11. When using external confirmation procedures, the auditor shall maintain
control over external confirmation requests including sending the requests,
including follow-up requests when applicable, to the confirming party.
Explain the other points as to when using external confirmation procedures,
the auditor would be required to maintain control over external confirmation
requests.
12. Explain clearly the examples of matters relevant in planning attendance at
physical inventory counting.
13. The auditor P of PAR and Co., a firm of Chartered Accountants is conducting
audit of AB Industries Ltd. The auditor requests management to provide
Banker’s certificate in support of Fixed deposits whereas management
provides only written representation on the matter. Analyse how would you
deal as an auditor
14. Most of the auditor’s work in forming the auditor’s opinion consists of
obtaining and evaluating audit evidence. Explain
15. Irrespective of the assessed risks of material misstatement, the auditor shall
design and perform substantive procedures for each material class of
transactions, account balance, and disclosure. Analyse and explain.
16. M/s ANS & Associates has been appointed as the statutory auditors of MNO
Ltd. The company has been suffering losses due to the emergence of highly
successful competitor, thereby leading to negative networth. Also, the sales
head, key management personnel, of the company left the company due to
health issues. When CA Amar, the engagement partner discussed the scenario
with the management of the company, he did not get any satisfactory reply
from the management. What is the responsibility of M/s ANS & Associates
with regard to SA 570?
17. M/s PQR and associates are the statutory auditors of TUV Ltd. for the FY 2020-
21-. They have been appointed as statutory auditors of TUV Ltd. for the first
time. What is the objective of the engagement partner in terms of SA 510?
18. What is meant by sufficiency of Audit Evidence? Explain the factors affecting
the auditor’s judgement as to the sufficiency of audit evidence.

ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
(i) Incorrect: As per SA 230 on “Audit Documentation” the working papers are
the property of the auditor and the auditor has right to retain them. He may
at his discretion can make available working papers to his client. The auditor
should retain them long enough to meet the needs of his practice and legal
or professional requirement.
(ii) Incorrect: Internal evidence is the evidence that originates within the client’s
organisation. Since purchase invoice originates outside the client’s
organisation, therefore, it is an example of external evidence.
(iii) Incorrect: Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence. On the
other hand, appropriateness is the measure of the quality of audit evidence.
(iv) Incorrect: Inquiry along with other audit procedures (for example
observation, inspection, external confirmation etc.) would only enable the
auditor to test the operating effectiveness of controls. Inquiry alone is not
sufficient to test the operating effectiveness of controls.
(v) Incorrect: SA 230 issued by ICAI on Audit Documentation, and “Standard on
Quality Control (SQC) 1, provid es that, unless otherwise specified by law or
regulation, audit documentation is the property of the auditor. He may at his
discretion, make portions of, or extracts from, audit documentation available
to clients, provided such disclosure does not undermine the validity of the
work performed, or, in the case of assurance engagements, the independence
of the auditor or of his personnel.
(vi) Incorrect: When auditor inquires the management as part of audit
procedures such inquiries may range from formal written inquiries to informal
oral inquiries.
(vii) Incorrect: Assertions refer to representations by management that are
embodied in the financial statements as used by the auditor to consider the
different types of the potential misstatements that may occur.
1. Audit Documentation refers to the record of audit procedures performed,
relevant audit evidence obtained, and conclusions the auditor reached. (terms
such as “working papers” or “work papers” are also sometimes used.)
Refer Para 1.5

2. Refer Para 1.9

3. Refer Para 3.1
4. Refer Para 6.1
5. Refer Para 2.6
6. Refer Para 2.8
7. Initial audit engagement is an engagement in which either:
(i) The financial statements for the prior period were not audited; or
(ii) The financial statements for the prior period were audited by a
predecessor auditor.
From the above, it is quite clear that CA Pankaj is not correct in his approach
and therefore would be required to follow the initial audit engagement and
also apply audit procedures regarding opening balances.
Audit Procedures regarding Opening Balances; The auditor shall read the
most recent financial statements, if any, and the predecessor auditor’s report
thereon, if any, for information relevant to opening balances, including
disclosures.
The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether
the opening balances contain misstatements that materially affect the current
period’s financial statements by:
(a) Determining whether the prior period’s closing balances have been
correctly brought forward to the current period or, when appropriate,
any adjustments have been disclosed as prior period items in the
current year’s Statement of Profit and Loss;
(b) Determining whether the opening balances reflect the application of
appropriate accounting policies; and
(c) Performing one or more of the following:
(i) Where the prior year financial statements were audited, perusing the
copies of the audited financial statements including the other relevant
documents relating to the prior period financial statements;
(ii) Evaluating whether audit procedures performed in the current period

provide evidence relevant to the opening balances; or
(iii) Performing specific audit procedures to obtain evidence regarding the

opening balances.

8 Audit evidence is all the information used by the auditor in arriving at the
necessary information that the auditor requires in connection with the audit
of the entity’s financial statements. Accordingly, similar to responses to
inquiries, written representations are audit evidence.
Written representations are requested from those responsible for the
preparation and presentation of the financial statements.
Although written representations provide necessary audit evidence, they do
not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence on their own about any of
the matters with which they deal. Furthermore, the fact that management has
provided reliable written representations does not affect the nature or extent
of other audit evidence that the auditor obtains about the fulfilment of
management’s responsibilities, or about specific assertions.
The objectives of the auditor regarding written representation
(a) To obtain written representations
To obtain written representations from management. Also that
management believes that it has fulfilled its responsibility for the
preparation of the financial statements and for the completeness of the
information provided to the auditor;
(b) To support other evidence
To support other audit evidence relevant to the financial statements or
specific assertions in the financial statements by means of written
representations.
(c) To respond appropriately
To respond appropriately to written representations provided by
management or if management does not provide the written
representations requested by the auditor.
9 The auditor has no obligation to perform any audit procedures regarding the
financial statements after the date of the auditor’s report. However, when,
after the date of the auditor’s report but before the date the financial
statements are issued, a fact becomes known to the auditor that, had it been
known to the auditor at the date of the auditor’s report, may have caused the
auditor to amend the auditor’s report, the auditor shall:

(a) Discuss the matter with management and, where appropriate, those
(b) Determine whether the financial statements need amendment andIf so,
statements.
10. Many related party transactions are in the normal course of business. In such
circumstances, they may carry no higher risk of material misstatement of the
financial statements than similar transactions with unrelated parties.
However, the nature of related party relationships and transactions may, in
some circumstances, give rise to higher risks of material misstatement of the
financial statements than transactions with unrelated parties.
Example
• Related parties may operate through an extensive and complex range
of relationships and structures, with a corresponding increase in the
complexity of related party transactions.
• Information systems may be ineffective at ide82e levant82g
summarising transactions and outstanding balances between an entity
and its related parties.
• Related party transactions may not be conducted under normal market
terms and conditions; for example, some related party transactions may
be conducted with no exchange of consideration.
11. When using external confirmation procedures, the auditor shall maintain
control over external confirmation requests, including:
(a) Determining the information to be confirmed or requested;
(b) Selecting the appropriate confirIg party;
(c) Designing the confirmation requests, including determining that
requests are properly addressed and contain return information for
responses to be sent directly to the auditor; and
(d) Sending the requests, including follow-up requests when applicable, to
the confirming party.
12. Matters relevant in planning attendance at physical inventory counting
include, for example:
(a) Nature of inventory.

(b) Stages of completion of work in progress.

(c) The risks of material misstatement related to inventory.
(d) The nature of the internal control related to inventory.
(e) Whether adequate procedures are expected to be established and
proper instructions issued for physical inventory counting.
(f) The timing of physical inventory counting.
(g) Whether the entity maintains a perpetual inventory system.
(h) The locations at which inventory is held, including the materiality of the
inventory and the risks of material misstatement at different locations,
in deciding at which locations attendance is appropriate
(i) Whether the assistance of an auditor’s expert is needed.
13. Although written representations provide necessary audit evidence, they do
not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence on their own about any of
the matters with which they deal. Furthermore, the fact that management has
provided reliable written representations does not affect the nature or extent
of other audit evidence that the auditor obtains about the fulfillment of
management’s responsibilities, or about specific assertions.
Applying the above to the given problem, the auditor would further request
the management to provide him with the Banker’s certificate in support of
fixed deposits held by the company.
14. Audit evidence is necessary to support the auditor’s opinion and report.
It is cumulative in nature and is primarily obtained from audit procedures
performed during the course of the audit. It may, however, also include
information obtained from other sources such as previous audits. In addition
to other sources inside and outside the entity, the entity’s accounting records
are an important source of audit evidence. Also, information that may be used
as audit evidence may have been prepared using the work of a management’s
expert. Audit evidence comprises both information that supports and
corroborates management’s assertions, and any information that contradicts
such assertions. In addition, in some cases the absence of information (for
example, management’s refusal to provide a requested representation) is
used by the auditor, and therefore, also constitutes audit evidence.
Most of the auditor’s work in forming the auditor’s opinion consists of
obtaining and evaluating audit evidence. Audit procedures to obtain audit

evidence can include inspection, observation, confirmation, recalculation, re-

performance and analytical procedures, often in some combination, in
addition to inquiry. Although inquiry may provide important audit evidence,
and may even produce evidence of a misstatement, inquiry alone ordinarily
does not provide sufficient audit evidence of the absence of a material
misstatement at the assertion level, nor of the operating effectiveness of
controls.
As explained in SA 200, “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and
the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”,
reasonable assurance is obtained when the auditor has obtained sufficient
appropriate audit evidence to reduce audit risk (i.e., the risk that the auditor
expresses an inappropriate opinion when the financial statements are
materially misstated) to an acceptably low level. The sufficiency and
appropriateness of audit evidence are interrelated.
15. Irrespective of the assessed risks of material misstatement, the auditor
shall design and perform substantive procedures for each material class of
transactions, account balance, and disclosure.
1. This requirement reflects the facts that:
(i) the auditor’s assessment of risk is judgemental and so may not identify
all risks of material misstatement; and
(ii) there are inherent limitations to internal control, including management
override.
2. Depending on the circumstances, the auditor may determine that:

 Performing only substantive analytical procedures will be
sufficient to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level. For
example, where the auditor’s assessment of risk is supported by
audit evidence from tests of controls.
 Only tests of details are appropriate.
 A combination of substantive analytical procedures and tests of
details are most responsive to the assessed risks.
3. Substantive analytical procedures are generally more applicable to
large volumes of transactions that tend to be predictable over time. SA
520, “Analytical Procedures” establishes requirements and provides
guidance on the application of analytical procedures during an audit.

4. The nature of the risk and assertion is relevant to the design of tests of
details. For example, tests of details related to the existence or
occurrence assertion may involve selecting from items contained in a
financial statement amount and obtaining the relevant audit evidence.
On the other hand, tests of details related to the completeness
assertion may involve selecting from items that are expected to be
included in the relevant financial statement amount and investigating
whether they are included.
5. Because the assessment of the risk of material misstatement takes
account of internal control, the extent of substantive procedures may
need to be increased when the results from tests of controls are
unsatisfactory.
6. In designing tests of details, the extent of testing is ordinarily thought
of in terms of the sample size. However, other matters are also relevant,
including whether it is more effective to use other selective means of
testing.
16. As per SA 570, one of the objectives of the auditor regarding going concern
is to obtain sufficient and appropriate audit evidence regarding the same and
to conclude on the appropriateness of the management’s use of the going
concern basis of accounting in the preparation of the financial statements.
• Further it also contains the list of events or conditions that may cast
significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern
which are:
 Financial indicator- Negative networth
 Operating indicator- Loss of key management and emergence of
highly successful competitor.
• In the present case, MNO Ltd. has negative networth on account of
emergence of highly successful competitor and the sales head of the
company has also left the company.
• Also, CA Amar did not get any satisfactory reply when he discussed the
going concern matter with the management.
• Thus, from the above facts, it appears that MNO Ltd. is not going
concern.

• If the management of MNO Ltd. has used the going concern basis of
accounting, the auditor should first ask the management to adjust the
• If the management of MNO Ltd. does not agree with the same, CA Amar
shall consider the impact on his audit report.
17. As per SA 510, “Initial Engagement- Opening balances” the objective of
the auditor with respect to the opening balances is to obtain sufficient and
appropriate audit evidence about whether:
(a) Opening balances contain misstatements that materially affect the
current period’s financial statements; and
(b) Appropriate accounting policies reflected in the opening balances have
been consistently applied in the current period’s financial statements,
or changes thereto are properly accounted for and adequately
presented and disclosed in accordance with the applicable financial
reporting framework.
18. Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence. The quantity of
audit evidence needed is affected by the auditor’s assessment of the risks of
misstatement (the higher the assessed risks, the more audit evidence is likely
to be required) and also by the quality of such audit evidence (the higher
the quality, the less may be required). Obtaining more audit evidence,
however, may not compensate for its poor quality.
Following are the factors affecting the auditor’s judgement as to the
sufficiency of audit evidence:
(a) Materiality: It may be defined as the significance of classes of
transactions, account balances and presentation and disclosures to the
users of the financial statements. Less evidence would be required in
case assertions are less material to users of the financial statements. But
on the other hand if assertions are more material to the users of the
financial statements, more evidence would be required.
(b) Risk of material misstatement: It may be defined as the risk that the
financial statements are materially misstated prior to audit. This consists
of two components described as follows at the assertion level :
 Inherent risk—The susceptibility of an assertion to a misstatement
that could be material before consideration of any related
controls.

 Control risk—The risk that a misstatement that could occur in an

assertion that could be material will not be prevented or detected
and corrected on a timely basis by the entity’s internal control.
Less evidence would be required in case assertions that have a lower
risk of material misstatement. But on the other hand, if assertions have
a higher risk of material misstatement, more evidence would be
required.
(c) Size of a population: It refers to the number of items included in the
population. Less evidence would be required in case of smaller, more
homogeneous population but on the other hand in case of larger, more
heterogeneous populations, more evidence would be required.

CHAPTER
4
RISK ASSESSMENT AND

INTERNAL CONTROL
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Audit Risk, Risk of Material Misstatement and its Components.
 Risk Assessment Procedures.
 The Entity and Its Environment, Including the Entity’s Internal Control.
 Concept of Internal Control, Components of Internal Control and
Controls relevant to Audit.
 Identify Significant Risks.

1. AUDIT RISK
Audit risk means the risk that the auditor gives an inappropriate audit opinion
when the financial statement are materially misstated. Thus, it is the risk that the
auditor may fail to express an appropriate opinion in an audit assignment.
Audit Risk could be simply understood as follows:
During the audit of a company if the financial statements of that company are
misstated and those misstatements are material in nature, then there will be a risk
that audit opinion given by the auditor regarding audit of that company would be
incorrect. Then that risk will be known as Audit Risk.
Example
Strength limited purchased a Plant and Machinery for ` 2 Crores in the financial
year 2020-2021. The accountant of strength limited debited Rs 2 crores in the
Repair and Maintenance account in the statement of Profit and loss instead of
taking it to the balance sheet as PPE and claim depreciation on it . While auditing
the accounts of this company the auditor did not notice this and consequently
did not report anything regarding the plant and machinery. Therefore, opinion
given by the auditor would be inappropriate resulting in audit risk.
Audit risk is a function of the risks of material misstatement and detection risk.
From the above, it is clear that –

Audit Risk = Risk of Material Misstatement x Detection Risk------(1)
Note 1: Risk of material misstatement may be defined as the risk that the
financial statements are materially misstated prior to audit. This consists of two
components, described as follows at the assertion level:
(a) Inherent risk—The susceptibility of an assertion about a class of
transaction, account balance or disclosure to a misstatement that could be
material, either individually or when aggregated with other misstatements,
before consideration of any related controls. There is always a risk that
before considering any existence of internal control in an entity, a particular
transaction, balance of an account or a disclosure required to be made in
the financial statements of an entity have a chance of being misstated and
such misstatement can be material. This risk is known as Inherent Risk.
(b) Control risk—The risk that a misstatement that could occur in an assertion
about a class of transaction, account balance or disclosure and that could
be material, either individually or when aggregated with other

RISK ASSESSMENT AND INTERNAL CONTROL 4.3
misstatements, will not be prevented, or detected and corrected, on a timely

basis by the entity’s internal control. Control Risk is a risk that internal
control existing and operating in an entity would not be efficient enough to
stop from happening, or find and then rectify in an appropriate time, any
material misstatement relating to a transaction, balance of an account or
disclosure required to be made in the financial statements of that entity. So
in a way it can be said that there exists an inverse relation between Control
Risk and Efficiency of Internal Control of an Entity. When efficiency of
internal control of an entity is high the control risk is low and when
efficiency of internal control of that entity is low the control risk is high.
Example
During the financial year 2020-21, certain accounting transactions regarding
purchases of material and some disclosures required to be made in the financial
statements of Appreciation Limited were misstated and those misstatements were
material in nature. There was a risk that internal control operating in Appreciation
Limited would not be able to find and then rectify those misstatements in proper
time. This risk is called as Control Risk.
Note 2: Misstatement refers to a difference between the amount, classification,
presentation, or disclosure of a reported financial statement item and the amount,
classification, presentation, or disclosure that is required for the item to be in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. Misstatements can
arise from error or fraud.
1.1 Assessment of Risks - Matter of Professional

Judgement
The assessment of risks is based on audit procedures to obtain information
necessary for that purpose and evidence obtained throughout the audit. The
assessment of risks is a matter of professional judgment, rather than a matter
capable of precise measurement.
1.2 What is not included in Audit Risk?

(i) Audit risk does not include the risk that the auditor might express an opinion
that the financial statements are materially misstated when they are not.
This risk is ordinarily insignificant.
(ii) Further, audit risk is a technical term related to the process of auditing; it does
not refer to the auditor’s business risks such as loss from litigation, adverse

publicity, or other events arising in connection with the audit of financial

statements.
1.3 Risks of Material Misstatement at Two levels

The risks of material misstatement may exist at two levels:
(i) The overall financial statement level- Risks of material misstatement at
the overall financial statement level refer to risks of material misstatement that
relate pervasively to the financial statements as a whole and potentially affect
many assertions.
(ii) The assertion level for classes of transactions, account balances, and
disclosures-Risks of material misstatement at the assertion level are assessed in
order to determine the nature, timing, and extent of further audit procedures
necessary to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence. This evidence enables the
auditor to express an opinion on the financial statements at an acceptably low
level of audit risk.
1.4 Components of Risk of Material Misstatement

The risks of material misstatement at the assertion level consist of two
components:
(i) Inherent risk and
(ii) control risk.
Inherent risk and control risk are the entity’s risks; they exist independently of the
audit of the financial statements.
Inherent risk is higher for some assertions and related classes of transactions,
account balances, and disclosures than for others. For example, it may be higher
for complex calculations. External circumstances giving rise to business risks may
also influence inherent risk. For example, technological developments might make
a particular product obsolete. Factors in the entity and its environment may also
influence the inherent risk related to a specific assertion.
Inherent risk factors are considered while designing tests of controls and
substantive procedures. Category of auditor’s assessment lower or higher, each
category covers a range of degrees of inherent risk. Auditor may assess the
inherent risk of two different assertions as lower while recognizing that one
assertion has less inherent risk than the other, although both have been assessed
as lower. It is important to consider the reason for each identified inherent risk

even if the risk is lower, when auditor designs tests of controls and substantive
procedures.
Example
A lack of sufficient working capital to continue operations or a declining industry

characterised by a large number of business failures.
Control risk is a function of the effectiveness of the design, implementation and

maintenance of internal control by management. However, internal control can
only reduce but not eliminate risks of material misstatement in the financial
statements. This is because of the inherent limitations of internal control.
Example
The possibility of human errors or mistakes, or of controls being circumvented by

collusion. Accordingly, some control risk will always exist.
The SAs provide the conditions under which the auditor is required to test the
operating effectiveness of controls in determining the nature, timing and extent
of substantive procedures to be performed.
Auditor assesses control risk as Rely or Not rely on Controls. When making
control risk assessments, consider:
♦ The control environment’s influence over internal control. A control
environment that supports the prevention, and detection and correction, of
material misstatements allows greater confidence in the reliability of
internal control and audit evidence generated within the entity. However it
does not guarantee the effectiveness of specific controls. We therefore, test
the operating effectiveness of controls over significant class of transactions
(SCOTs) when we plan to take a controls reliance strategy. Conversely, the
control environment may undermine the effectiveness of specific controls
and is a key factor in our control risk assessments.
♦ Evaluations of the related IT processes that support application and IT-
dependent manual controls.
♦ Our testing approach over SCOTs and disclosure processes (i.e., controls
reliance or substantive only strategy).
♦ The expectation of the operating effectiveness of controls based on the
understanding of entity’s processes.

Example
Identify a control that a shipping report is prepared only for goods that have
been shipped. To determine that only sales that have occurred are recorded,
identify a further control that sales cannot be recorded unless a shipping report is
produced. In this example, several controls operate collectively in order to
address the occurrence assertion for sales.
In another example, a regular reconciliation of quantities shipped to quantities
billed is a specific control that may be effective enough by itself to address the
WCGW (What Could Go Wrong) regarding the completeness assertion in a
sales process.
Whether several controls are required to operate collectively (i.e., a suite of
controls) to achieve a financial reporting objective. If so, the auditor should
assess whether all controls operate effectively in order to rely on controls.
Control risk assessment when control deficiencies are identified : When
auditor identifies deficiencies and report on internal controls, he determines the
significant financial statement assertions that are affected by the ineffective
controls in order to evaluate the effect on control risk assessments and strategy
for the audit of the financial statements.
When control deficiencies are identified and auditor identifies and tests more than one
control for each relevant assertion, he evaluates control risk considering all of the
controls he has tested. If auditor determines that they support a ‘rely on controls’ risk
assessment, or if compensating controls are identified, tested and evaluated to be
effective, he may conclude that the ‘rely on controls’ is still appropriate. Otherwise we
change our control risk assessment to ‘not rely on controls.’
When a deficiency relates to an ineffective control that is the only control
identified for an assertion, he revises risk assessment to ‘not rely on controls’ for
associated assertions, as no other controls have been identified that mitigate the
risk related to the assertion. If the deficiency relates to one WCGW (what can go
wrong) out of several WCGW’s, he can ‘rely on controls’ but performs additional
substantive procedures to adequately address the risks related to the deficiency.
1.5 Combined Assessment of the Risk of Material

Misstatement
The SAs do not ordinarily refer to inherent risk and control risk separately, but
rather to a combined assessment of the “risks of material misstatement”. However,
the auditor may make separate or combined assessments of inherent and control
risk depending on preferred audit techniques or methodologies and practical
considerations. The assessment of the risks of material misstatement may be

expressed in quantitative terms, such as in percentages, or in non-quantitative

terms. In any case, the need for the auditor to make appropriate risk assessments
is more important than the different approaches by which they may be made.
It can be concluded from the above that-
Risk of Material Misstatement= Inherent Risk x Control Risk------(2)

From (1) and (2), we arrive at-
Audit Risk = Inherent Risk x Control Risk x Detection Risk
SA 315 establishes requirements and provides guidance on identifying and

assessing the risks of material misstatement at the financial statement and
assertion levels.
1.6 Detection Risk

Detection risk: The risk that the procedures performed by the auditor to reduce
audit risk to an acceptably low level will not detect a misstatement that exists and
that could be material, either individually or when aggregated with other
misstatements.
Suppose auditor of a company uses certain audit procedures for the purpose of
obtaining audit evidence and reducing audit risk, but still there will remain a risk that
audit procedures used by the auditor may not be able to detect a misstatement
which by nature is material, then that risk is known as Detection Risk.
Example
While auditing the books of accounts of Grateful Limited for the financial year 2020-
21, the auditor of the above mentioned company used various audit procedures, for
example-observation, inspection, reperformance, recalculation etc for obtaining audit
evidence regarding stock, Debtors, sales, purchases etc., and consequently reducing
the audit risk. However, there will always remain a risk that various audit procedures
as used by auditor of Grateful Limited will not be able to detect misstatements which
are material in nature. This risk is known as Detection Risk.
ILLUSTRATION 1
XYZ Ltd is engaged in the business and running several stores dealing in variety of
items such as ready made garments for all seasons, shoes, gift items, watches etc.
There are security tags on each and every item. Moreover, inventory records are
physically verified on monthly basis.
Discuss the types of inherent, control and detection risks as perceived by the

auditor.
SOLUTION
Inherent Risk: Because items may have been misappropriated by employees,
therefore, risk to the auditor is that inventory records would be inaccurate.
Control Risk: There is a security tag on each item displayed. Moreover, inventory
records are physically verified on monthly basis. Despite various controls being
implemented at the stores, still collusion among employees may be there and risk
to auditor would again be that inventory records would be inaccurate.
Detection Risk: Auditor checks the efficiency and effectiveness of various control
systems in place. He would do that by making observation, inspection, enquiry,
etc. In addition to these, the auditor would also employ sampling techniques to
check few sales transactions from beginning to end. However, despite all these
procedures, the auditor may not detect the items which have been stolen or
misappropriated.
ILLUSTRATION 2
A Partnership Firm of Chartered Accountants HT and Associates was appointed to
audit the books of accounts of Wind and Ice Limited for the financial year 2020-21.
There was a risk that HT and Associates would give an inappropriate audit opinion
if the financial statements of Wind and Ice Limited are materially misstated. State
the Risk mentioned in the question
SOLUTION
The risk mentioned in the question is known as Audit Risk, because risk that
auditor of a company will give an inappropriate audit opinion if the financial
statements of that company are materially misstated is known as Audit Risk.
2. IDENTIFYING AND ASSESSING THE RISKS

OF MATERIAL MISSTATEMENT
Objective of Auditor as per SA 315: As per SA 315 - “Identifying and Assessing
the Risks of Material Misstatement through Understanding the Entity and its
Environment”, the objective of the auditor is to identify and assess the risks of
material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, at the financial statement
and assertion levels, through understanding the entity and its environment,
including the entity’s internal control, thereby providing a basis for designing
and implementing responses to the assessed risks of material misstatement. This

will help the auditor to reduce the risk of material misstatement to an acceptably
low level.
Let us understand the objective of the auditor as stated in SA 315 in detail.
2.1 Identify and assess the risks of material misstatement

(i) The auditor shall identify and assess the risks of material misstatement at:
(a) the financial statement level
(b) the assertion level for classes of transactions, account balances,
and disclosures
to provide a basis for designing and performing further audit procedures
(ii) For the purpose of Identifying and assessing the risks of material
misstatement, the auditor shall:
(a) Identify risks throughout the process of obtaining an understanding of
the entity and its environment, including relevant controls that relate
to the risks, and by considering the classes of transactions, account
balances, and disclosures in the financial statements;
(b) Assess the identified risks, and evaluate whether they relate more
pervasively to the financial statements as a whole and potentially affect
many assertions;
(c) Relate the identified risks to what can go wrong at the assertion level,
taking account of relevant controls that the auditor intends to test; and
(d) Consider the likelihood of misstatement, including the possibility of
multiple misstatements, and whether the potential misstatement is of
a magnitude that could result in a material misstatement.
2.1.1 Risk Assessment Procedures
Definition: The audit procedures performed to obtain an understanding of the
entity and its environment, including the entity’s internal control, to identify and
assess the risks of material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, at the
financial statement and assertion levels.
Risk assessment procedure - a basis for the identification and assessment of

risks of material misstatement at the financial statement and assertion levels
The auditor shall perform risk assessment procedures to provide a basis for the
identification and assessment of risks of material misstatement at the financial

statement and assertion levels. Risk assessment procedures by themselves, however,

do not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence on which to base the audit
opinion.
Information obtained by performing risk assessment procedures - Used as
audit evidence
Information obtained by performing risk assessment procedures and related
activities may be used by the auditor as audit evidence to support assessments of
the risks of material misstatement. In addition, the auditor may obtain audit
evidence about classes of transactions, account balances, or disclosures and
related assertions and about the operating effectiveness of controls, even though
such procedures were not specifically planned as substantive procedures or as
tests of controls. The auditor also may choose to perform substantive procedures
or tests of controls concurrently with risk assessment procedures because it is
efficient to do so.
The risks to be assessed include both those due to error and those due to
fraud
The risks to be assessed include both those due to error and those due to fraud,
and both are covered by this SA. However, the significance of fraud is such that
further requirements and guidance are included in SA 240, “The Auditor’s
Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of Financial Statements”, in relation
to risk assessment procedures and related activities to obtain information that is
used to identify the risks of material misstatement due to fraud. (Fraud risk is
discussed in detail in Chapter 5 Fraud and Responsibilities of an Auditor in this
regard).
What is included in Risk Assessment Procedures ?
The risk assessment procedures shall include the following:
(a) Inquiries of management and of others within the entity who in the
auditor’s judgment may have information that is likely to assist in
identifying risks of material misstatement due to fraud or error.
(b) Analytical procedures.
(c) Observation and inspection.
(a) Inquiries of Management and Others Within the Entity: Much of the
information obtained by the auditor’s inquiries is obtained from
management and those responsible for financial reporting. However, the

auditor may also obtain information, or a different perspective in identifying

risks of material misstatement, through inquiries of others within the entity
and other employees with different levels of authority.
Example
♦ Inquiries directed towards those charged with governance may help

the auditor understand the environment in which the financial
statements are prepared.
♦ Inquiries directed toward internal audit personnel may provide
information about internal audit procedures performed during the
year relating to the design and effectiveness of the entity’s internal
control and whether management has satisfactorily responded to
findings from those procedures.
♦ Inquiries of employees involved in initiating, processing or
recording complex or unusual transactions may help the auditor to
evaluate the appropriateness of the selection and application of
certain accounting policies.
♦ Inquiries directed toward in-house legal counsel may provide
information about such matters as litigation, compliance with laws
and regulations, knowledge of fraud or suspected fraud affecting
the entity, warranties, post-sales obligations, arrangements (such as
joint ventures) with business partners and the meaning of contract
t
♦ Inquiries directed towards marketing or sales personnel may provide
information about changes in the entity’s marketing strategies,
sales trends, or contractual arrangements with its customers.
♦ Inquiries directed to the risk management function (or those
performing such roles) may provide information about operational
and regulatory risks that may affect financial reporting.
♦ Inquiries directed to information systems personnel may provide
information about system changes, system or control failures, or
other information system- related risks.
(b) Analytical Procedures: Analytical procedures performed as risk assessment
procedures may identify aspects of the entity of which the auditor was unaware
and may assist in assessing the risks of material misstatement in order to
provide a basis for designing and implementing responses to the assessed
risks. Analytical procedures performed as risk assessment procedures may
include both financial and non-financial information, for example, the

relationship between sales and square footage of selling space or volume of

goods sold.
Analytical procedures may help identify the existence of unusual
transactions or events, and amounts, ratios, and trends that might indicate
matters that have audit implications. Unusual or unexpected relationships
that are identified may assist the auditor in identifying risks of material
misstatement, especially risks of material misstatement due to fraud.
However, when such analytical procedures use data aggregated at a high
level (which may be the situation with analytical procedures performed as
risk assessment procedures), the results of those analytical procedures only
provide a broad initial indication about whether a material misstatement
may exist. Accordingly, in such cases, consideration of other information
that has been gathered when identifying the risks of material misstatement
together with the results of such analytical procedures may assist the auditor
in understanding and evaluating the results of the analytical procedures.
(c) Observation and Inspection: Observation and inspection may support
inquiries of management and others, and may also provide information
about the entity and its environment.
Example
Examples of such audit procedures include observation or inspection of the
following:
The entity’s operations.
Documents (such as business plans and strategies), records, and internal
control manuals.
Reports prepared by management (such as quarterly management reports and
interim financial statements) and those charged with governance (such as
minutes of board of director’s meetings)
The entity’s premises and plant facilities.
2.2 UNDERSTANDING OF THE ENTITY- A CONTINUOUS

PROCESS
Obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment, including the
entity’s internal control (referred to hereafter as an “understanding of the entity”),
is a continuous, dynamic process of gathering, updating and analysing

information throughout the audit. The understanding establishes a frame of

reference within which the auditor plans the audit and exercises professional
judgment throughout the audit, for example, when:
♦ Assessing risks of material misstatement of the financial statements;
♦ Determining materiality in accordance with SA 320;
♦ Considering the appropriateness of the selection and application of
accounting policies;
♦ Identifying areas where special audit consideration may be necessary, for
example, related party transactions, the appropriateness of management’s
use of the going concern assumption, or considering the business purpose
of transactions;
♦ Developing expectations for use when performing analytical procedures;
♦ Evaluating the sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence obtained,
such as the appropriateness of assumptions and of management’s oral and
written representations.
ILLUSTRATION 3
The auditor of ABC Textiles Ltd chalks out an audit plan without understanding the
entity’s business. Since he has carried out many audits of textile companies, there is
no need to understand the nature of business of ABC Ltd. Advise the auditor how he
should proceed.
SOLUTION
Obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment, including the
entity’s internal control (referred to hereafter as an “understanding of the entity”), is a
continuous, dynamic process of gathering, updating and analysing information
throughout the audit. The auditor should proceed accordingly.
ILLUSTRATION 4
While auditing the books of accounts of Heavy Material Limited for the financial
year 2020-21, a team member of the auditor of Heavy Material Limited showed no
inclination towards understanding the business and the business environment of
the above mentioned company. Is the approach of team member of the auditor of
Heavy Material Limited correct or incorrect? Also give reason for your answer.
SOLUTION
The approach of team member of the auditor of Heavy Material Limited is

incorrect because understanding the business and the business environment of

company whose audit is to be conducted is very important, as it helps in planning
the audit and identifying areas requiring special attention during the course of
audit of that company.
2.3 The Required Understanding of the Entity and Its

Environment, Including the Entity’s Internal Control
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the following:
(a) Relevant industry, regulatory, and other external factors including the
(b) The nature of the entity, including:
(i) its operations;
(ii) its ownership and governance structures;
(iii) the types of investments that the entity is making and plans to make,
including investments in special-purpose entities; and
(iv) the way that the entity is structured and how it is financed;
to enable the auditor to understand the classes of transactions, account
balances, and disclosures to be expected in the financial statements.
(c) The entity’s selection and application of accounting policies, including the
reasons for changes thereto. The auditor shall evaluate whether the entity’s
accounting policies are appropriate for its business and consistent with the
applicable financial reporting framework and accounting policies used in the
relevant industry.
(d) The entity’s objectives and strategies, and those related business risks that
may result in risks of material misstatement.
(e) The measurement and review of the entity’s financial performance.
ILLUSTRATION 5
Prince Blankets is engaged in business of blankets. Its major portion of sales is
taking place through internet. Advise the auditor how he would proceed in this
regard as to understanding the entity and its environment.
SOLUTION
While understanding entity and its environment, internet sales is being perceived
as risky area by the auditor and thereby would be spending substantial time and

extensive audit procedures on this particular area.
3. INTERNAL CONTROL
Meaning of Internal Control
As per SA-315, “Identifying and Assessing the Risk of Material Misstatement
Through Understanding the Entity and its Environment”, the internal control may
be defined as “the process designed, implemented and maintained by those
charged with governance, management and other personnel to provide
reasonable assurance about the achievement of an entity’s objectives with regard
to reliability of financial reporting, effectiveness and efficiency of operations,
safeguarding of assets, and compliance with applicable laws and regulations. The
term “controls” refers to any aspects of one or more of the components of
internal control.”
Objectives of Internal Control

(i) transactions are executed in accordance with managements general or
specific authorization;
(ii) all transactions are promptly recorded in the correct amount in the
appropriate accounts and in the accounting period in which executed so as
to permit preparation of financial information within a framework of
recognized accounting policies and practices and relevant statutory
requirements, if any, and to maintain accountability for assets;
(iii) assets are safeguarded from unauthorised access, use or disposition; and
(iv) the recorded assets are compared with the existing assets at reasonable
intervals and appropriate action is taken with regard to any differences.
The Entity’s Internal Control
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of internal control relevant to the audit.
Although most controls relevant to the audit are likely to relate to financial
reporting, not all controls that relate to financial reporting are relevant to the
audit. It is a matter of the auditor’s professional judgment whether a control,
individually or in combination with others, is relevant to the audit.
Benefits of Understanding of Internal Control
An understanding of internal control assists the auditor in :
(i) identifying types of potential misstatements ;

(ii) identifying factors that affect the risks of material misstatement, and
(iii) designing the nature, timing, and extent of further audit procedures.
ILLUSTRATION 6
Auditor GR and Associates, appointed for audit of PNG Ltd, a manufacturing
company engaged in manufacturing of various food items. While planning an audit,
the auditor does not think that it would be necessary to understand internal
controls. Advise the auditor in this regard.
SOLUTION
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of internal control relevant to the audit.
Although most controls relevant to the audit are likely to relate to financial
reporting, not all controls that relate to financial reporting are relevant to the
audit. It is a matter of the auditor’s professional judgment whether a control,
individually or in combination with others, is relevant to the audit.
ILLUSTRATION 7
The team member of the auditor of Simple and Easy Limited was of the view that
understanding the internal control of the company would not help them in any
manner in relation to audit procedures to be applied while conducting the audit.
SOLUTION
The view of the team member of the auditor is incorrect because understanding
the internal control of the company would help the auditor and his team
members in designing the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures to be
applied while conducting the audit of the company.
Study of various aspects of internal control is divided into four sections, as
follows:
(I) General Nature and Characteristics of Internal Control
Purpose of Internal Control: Internal control is designed, implemented and
maintained to address identified business risks that threaten the achievement of

any of the entity’s objectives that concern:

♦ The reliability of the entity’s financial reporting;
♦ The effectiveness and efficiency of its operations;
♦ Its compliance with applicable laws and regulations; and
♦ Safeguarding of assets.
The way in which internal control is designed, implemented and maintained
varies with an entity’s size and complexity.
Limitations of Internal Control
(i) Internal control can provide only reasonable assurance:
Internal control, no matter how effective, can provide an entity with only
reasonable assurance about achieving the entity’s financial reporting
objectives. The likelihood of their achievement is affected by inherent
limitations of internal control.
(ii) Human judgment in decision-making:
Realities that human judgment in decision-making can be faulty and that
breakdowns in internal control can occur because of human error.
Example
There may be an error in the design of, or in the change to, a control.
(iii) Lack of understanding the purpose:

Equally, the operation of a control may not be effective, such as where
information produced for the purposes of internal control (for example, an
exception report) is not effectively used because the individual responsible
for reviewing the information does not understand its purpose or fails to
take appropriate action.
(iv) Collusion among People:
Additionally, controls can be circumvented by the collusion of two or more
people or inappropriate management override of internal control. For
example, management may enter into side agreements with customers that
alter the terms and conditions of the entity’s standard sales contracts, which
may result in improper revenue recognition. Also, edit checks in a software
program that are designed to identify and report transactions that exceed
specified credit limits may be overridden or disabled.

(v) Judgements by Management:

Further, in designing and implementing controls, management may make
judgments on the nature and extent of the controls it chooses to implement,
and the nature and extent of the risks it chooses to assume.
(vi) Limitations in case of Small Entities:
Smaller entities often have fewer employees due to which segregation of
duties is not practicable. However, in a small owner-managed entity, the
owner-manager may be able to exercise more effective oversight than in a
larger entity. This oversight may compensate for the generally more limited
opportunities for segregation of duties.
On the other hand, the owner-manager may be more able to override
controls because the system of internal control is less structured. This is taken
into account by the auditor when identifying the risks of material
misstatement due to fraud.
(II) Controls Relevant to the Audit
There is a direct relationship between an entity’s objectives and the control sit
implements to provide reasonable assurance about their achievement. The
entity’s objectives, and therefore controls, relate to financial reporting, operations
and compliance; however, not all of these objectives and controls are relevant to
the auditor’s risk assessment.
Factors relevant to the auditor’s judgment about whether a control,
individually or in combination with others, is relevant to the audit may
include such matters as the following:
♦ Materiality.
♦ The significance of the related risk.
♦ The size of the entity.
♦ The nature of the entity’s business, including its organisation and ownership
characteristics.
♦ The diversity and complexity of the entity’s operations.
♦ Applicable legal and regulatory requirements.
♦ The circumstances and the applicable component of internal control.
♦ The nature and complexity of the systems that are part of the entity’s
internal control, including the use of service organisations.

♦ Whether, and how, a specific control, individually or in combination with

others, prevents, or detects and corrects, material misstatement.
Controls over the completeness and accuracy of information
Controls over the completeness and accuracy of information produced by the
entity may be relevant to the audit if the auditor intends to make use of the
information in designing and performing further procedures. For example, in
auditing revenue by applying standard prices to records of sales volume, the
auditor considers the accuracy of the price information and the completeness and
accuracy of the sales volume data. Controls relating to operations and compliance
objectives may also be relevant to an audit if they relate to data the auditor
evaluates or uses in applying audit procedures.
Internal control over safeguarding of assets
Internal control over safeguarding of assets against unauthorised acquisition, use,
or disposition may include controls relating to both financial reporting and
operations objectives. The auditor’s consideration of such controls is generally
limited to those relevant to the reliability of financial reporting. For example, use
of access controls, such as passwords, that limit access to the data and programs
that process cash disbursements may be relevant to a financial statement audit.
Conversely, safeguarding controls relating to operations objectives, such as
controls to prevent the excessive use of materials in production, generally are not
relevant to a financial statement audit.
Controls relating to objectives that are not relevant to an audit
An entity generally has controls relating to objectives that are not relevant to an
audit and therefore need not be considered. For example, an entity may rely on a
sophisticated system of automated controls to provide efficient and effective
operations (such as an airline’s system of automated controls to maintain flight
schedules), but these controls ordinarily would not be relevant to the audit. Further,
although internal control applies to the entire entity or to any of its operating units
or business processes, an understanding of internal control relating to each of the
entity’s operating units and business processes may not be relevant to the audit.
The statute may require the auditor to report on compliance with certain
internal controls
In certain circumstances, the statute or the regulation governing the entity may
require the auditor to report on compliance with certain specific aspects of
internal controls as a result, the auditor’s review of internal control may be
broader and more detailed.

(III) Nature and Extent of the Understanding of Relevant Controls.

(i) Evaluating the design of a control involves considering whether the control,
individually or in combination with other controls, is capable of effectively
preventing, or detecting and correcting, material misstatements.
Implementation of a control means that the control exists and that the
entity is using it. There is little point in assessing the implementation of a
control that is not effective, and so the design of a control is considered first
An improperly designed control may represent a significant deficiency in
internal control.
(ii) Risk assessment procedures to obtain audit evidence about the design and
implementation of relevant controls may include-
• Inquiring of entity personnel.
• Observing the application of specific controls.
• Inspecting documents and reports.
• Tracing transactions through the information system relevant to
financial reporting.
Inquiry alone, however, is not sufficient for such purposes.
(iii) Obtaining an understanding of an entity’s controls is not sufficient to test
their operating effectiveness, unless there is some automation that provides
for the consistent operation of the controls.
Example
Obtaining audit evidence about the implementation of a manual control at a

point in time does not provide audit evidence about the operating effectiveness
of the control at other times during the period under audit. However, because of
the inherent consistency of IT processing, performing audit procedures to
determine whether an automated control has been implemented may serve as a
test of that control’s operating effectiveness, depending on the auditor’s
assessment and testing of controls such as those over program changes.
(IV) Components of Internal Control

The division of internal control into the following five components provides a
useful framework for auditors to consider how different aspects of an entity’s
internal control may affect the audit:

(A) The control environment;

(B) The entity’s risk assessment process
(C) The information system, including the related business processes, relevant
to financial reporting, and communication
(D) Control activities
(E) Monitoring of controls.
(A) Control Environment– Component of Internal Control– The auditor shall

obtain an understanding of the control environment. As part of obtaining
this understanding, the auditor shall evaluate whether:
(i) Management has created and maintained a culture of honesty and
ethical behavior; and
(ii) The strengths in the control environment elements collectively provide
an appropriate foundation for the other components of internal
control.
What is included in Control Environment ?
The control environment includes:
(i) the governance and management functions and
(ii) the attitudes, awareness, and actions of those charged with
governance and management .
(iii) the control environment sets the tone of an organization, influencing
the control consciousness of its people.
Elements of the Control Environment– Elements of the control
environment that may be relevant when obtaining an understanding of the
control environment include the following:
(a) Communication and enforcement of integrity and ethical values–
These are essential elements that influence the effectiveness of the
design, administration and monitoring of controls.
(b) Commitment to competence– Matters such as management’s
consideration of the competence levels for particular jobs and how
those levels translate into requisite skills and knowledge.

(c) Participation by those charged with governance– Attributes of

those charged with governance such as:
 Their independence from management.
 Their experience and stature.
 The extent of their involvement and the information they
receive, and the scrutiny of activities.
 The appropriateness of their actions, including the degree to which
difficult questions are raised and pursued with management, and
their interaction with internal and external auditors.
(d) Management’s philosophy and operating style– Characteristics
such as management’s:
 Approach to taking and managing business risks.
 Attitudes and actions toward financial reporting.
 Attitudes toward information processing and accounting
functions and personnel.
(e) Organisational structure– The framework within which an entity’s
activities for achieving its objectives are planned, executed, controlled,
and reviewed.
(f) Assignment of authority and responsibility– Matters such as how
authority and responsibility for operating activities are assigned and
how reporting relationships and authorisation hierarchies are
established.
(g) Human resource policies and practices– Policies and practices that
relate to, for example, recruitment, orientation, training, evaluation,
counselling, promotion, compensation, and remedial actions.
(B) The Entity’s Risk Assessment Process– Component of Control
Environment
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of whether the entity has a process for:
(a) Identifying business risks relevant to financial reporting objectives;
(b) Estimating the significance of the risks;
(c) Assessing the likelihood of their occurrence; and
(d) Deciding about actions to address those risks.

The entity’s risk assessment process forms the basis for the risks to be
managed. If that process is appropriate, it would assists the auditor in
identifying risks of material misstatement. Whether the entity’s risk
assessment process is appropriate to the circumstances is a matter of
judgment.
(C) The information system, including the related business processes,
relevant to financial reporting and communication– Component of
Control Environment
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the information system,
including the related business processes, relevant to financial reporting,
including the following are as:
(a) The classes of transactions in the entity’s operations that are
significant to the financial statements;
(b) The procedures by which those transactions are initiated, recorded,
processed, corrected as necessary, transferred to the general ledger
and reported in the financial statements;
(c ) The related accounting records, supporting information and specific
accounts in the financial statements that are used to initiate, record,
process and report transactions;
(d) How the information system captures events and conditions that are
significant to the financial statements;
(e) The financial reporting process used to prepare the entity’s financial
statements;
(f) Controls surrounding journal entries.
Communicating Financial Roles and Responsibilities– Obtaining an
Understanding by the Auditor: The auditor shall obtain an understanding of
how the entity communicates financial reporting roles and responsibilities
(a) Communications between (b) External communications, such as
management and those charged those with regulatory authorities.
with governance; and

The following points need consideration in this regard:

(i) Understanding of Roles and Responsibilities: Communication by the
entity of the financial reporting roles and responsibilities would involves
providing an understanding of individual roles and responsibilities
pertaining to internal control over financial reporting.
(ii) Understanding regarding Relation of Activities: It includes
understanding by employees as to how their activities relate to the work
of others and the means of reporting exceptions to higher level within the
entity.
(iii) Policy Manuals and Financial Reporting Manuals: Communication may
take such forms as policy manuals and financial reporting manuals.
(iv) Open Communication Channels: Open communication channels help
ensure that exceptions are reported and acted on.
(v) Less structured and easier for Small Entities: Communication may be
less structured and easier to achieve in a small entity than in a larger
entity due to fewer levels of responsibility and management’s greater
visibility and availability.
(D) Control Activities– Component of Internal Control

The auditor shall obtain an understanding of control activities relevant to
the audit, which the auditor considers necessary to assess the risks of
material misstatement. An audit requires an understanding of only those
control activities related to significant class of transactions, account
balance, and disclosure in the financial statements and the assertions
which the auditor finds relevant in his risk assessment process.
Control activities are the policies and procedures that help ensure that
management directives are carried out.
Control activities, whether within IT or manual systems, have various
objectives and are applied at various organisational and functional levels.

Examples of specific control activities include those relating to the
following:
Control activities that are relevant to the audit are:
• Control activities that relate to significant risks and those that relate to
risks for which substantive procedures alone do not provide sufficient
appropriate audit evidence; or
• Those that are considered to be relevant in the judgment of the
auditor;
• As part of the risk assessment, the auditor shall determine whether any
of the risks identified are, in the auditor’s judgment, a significant risk.
In exercising judgment as to which risks are significant risks, the auditor
shall consider at least the following:
(a) Whether the risk is a risk of fraud;
(b) Whether the risk is related to recent significant economic, accounting, or
other developments like changes in regulatory environment, etc., and,
therefore, requires specific attention;
(c) The complexity of transactions;
(d) Whether the risk involves significant transactions with related parties;
(e) The degree of subjectivity in the measurement of financial information
related to the risk, especially those measurements involving a wide range of
measurement uncertainty; and

(f) Whether the risk involves significant transactions that are outside the normal
course of business for the entity, or that otherwise appear to be unusual.
(Note : Student may refer Chapter 5 on for detailed understanding of Fraud Risk)
Identifying Significant Risks: Significant risks often relate to significant non-
routine transactions or judgmental matters. Non-routine transactions are
transactions that are unusual, due to either size or nature, and that therefore occur
infrequently. Judgmental matters may include the development of accounting
estimates for which there is significant measurement uncertainty.
Significant risks are inherent risks with both a higher likelihood of occurrence and
a higher magnitude of potential misstatement. The auditor assess assertions
affected by a significant risk as higher inherent risk. The following are always
significant risks:
♦ Risks of material misstatement due to fraud
♦ Significant transactions with related parties that are outside the normal
course of business for the entity
Risks of Material Misstatement– Greater for Significant Non-Routine

Transactions
Risks of material misstatement may be greater for significant non-routine
transactions arising from matters such as the following:
♦ Greater management intervention to specify the accounting treatment.
♦ Greater manual intervention for data collection and processing.
♦ Complex calculations or accounting principles.
♦ The nature of non-routine transactions, which may make it difficult for the
entity to implement effective controls over the risks.
Risks of material misstatement– Greater for Significant Judgmental Matters
Risks of material misstatement may be greater for significant judgmental matters
that require the development of accounting estimates, arising from matters such
as the following:
♦ Accounting principles for accounting estimates or revenue recognition may
be subject to differing interpretation.
♦ Required judgment may be subjective or complex, or require assumptions
about the effects of future events, for example, judgment about fair value.

(E) Monitoring of Controls – Component of Internal Control

The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the major activities that the
entity uses to monitor internal control over financial reporting.
(i) Monitoring of controls Defined: Monitoring of controls is a process
to assess the effectiveness of internal control performance over time.
(ii) Helps in assessing the effectiveness of controls on a timely basis:
It involves assessing the effectiveness of controls on a timely basis and
taking necessary remedial actions.
(iii) Management accomplishes through ongoing activities, separate
evaluations etc.: Management accomplishes monitoring of controls
through ongoing activities, separate evaluations, or a combination of
the two. Ongoing monitoring activities are often built into the normal
recurring activities of an entity and include regular management and
supervisory activities.
(iv) Management’s monitoring activities include: Management’s
monitoring activities may include using information from
communications from external parties such as customer complaints
and regulator comments that may indicate problems or highlight
areas in need of improvement.
(v) In case of Small Entities: Management’s monitoring of control is
often accomplished by management’s or the owner-manager’s close
involvement in operations. This involvement often will identify
significant variances from expectations and inaccuracies in financial
data leading to remedial action to the control.
Monitoring of Controls– If the entity has an internal audit function
If the entity has an internal audit function, the auditor shall obtain an understanding
of the following :
(a) The internal audit function’s responsibilities and how the internal audit
function fits in the entity’s organisational structure; and
(b) The activities performed, or to be performed, by the internal audit function.
The following points merit consideration in this regard:

(i) Internal Audit Function relevant to the Audit: The entity’s internal audit
function is likely to be relevant to the audit if its activities are related to the
entity’s financial reporting. Also if the auditor expects to use the work of the

internal auditors to modify the audit procedures to be performed. When the

auditor determines that the internal audit function is likely to be relevant to
the audit, SA 610 applies.
(ii) Size and Structure of the Entity: The objectives of an internal audit
function vary widely depending on the size and structure of the entity and
the requirements of management.
(iii) Internal audit function may include: The responsibilities of an internal
audit function may include, for example, monitoring of internal control, risk
management, and review of compliance with laws and regulations.
On the other hand, the responsibilities of the internal audit function may be
limited to the review of the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of
operations, for example, and accordingly, may not relate to the entity’s
financial reporting.
(iv) External auditor’s activities- on the basis of Internal Audit activities: If
the internal audit function’s responsibilities are related to the entity’s financial
reporting, the external auditor’s consideration of the activities performed
may include review of the internal audit function’s audit plan for the period.
Satisfactory Control Environment – not an absolute deterrent to fraud:
The existence of a satisfactory control environment can be a positive factor when
the auditor assesses the risks of material misstatement. However, although it may
help reduce the risk of fraud, a satisfactory control environment is not an absolute
deterrent to fraud. Conversely, deficiencies in the control environment may
undermine the effectiveness of controls, in particular in relation to fraud. For
example, management’s failure to commit sufficient resources to address IT
security risks may adversely affect internal control by allowing improper changes
to be made to computer programs or to data, or unauthorized transactions to be
processed. As explained in SA 330, the control environment also influences the
nature, timing, and extent of the auditor’s further procedures.
The control environment in itself does not prevent, or detect and correct, a
material misstatement. It may, however, influence the auditor’s evaluation of the
effectiveness of other controls (for example, the monitoring of controls and the
operation of specific control activities) and thereby, the auditor’s assessment of
the risks of material misstatement.

4. EVALUATION OF INTERNAL CONTROL BY

THE AUDITOR
So far as the auditor is concerned, the examination and evaluation of the internal
control system is an indispensable part of the overall audit programme. The
auditor needs reasonable assurance that the accounting system is adequate and
that all the accounting information which should be recorded has in fact been
recorded. Internal control normally contributes to such assurance. The auditor
should gain an understanding of the accounting system and related internal
controls and should study and evaluate the operations of these internal controls
upon which he wishes to rely in determining the nature, timing and extent of
other audit procedures.
Benefits of Evaluation of Internal Control to the Auditor
The review of internal controls will enable the auditor to know:
(i) whether errors and frauds are likely to be located in the ordinary course of
operations of the business;
(ii) whether an adequate internal control system is in use and operating as
planned by the management;
(iii) whether an effective internal auditing department is operating;
(iv) whether any administrative control has a bearing on his work (for example,
if the control over worker recruitment and enrolment is weak, there is a
likelihood of dummy names being included in the wages sheet and this is
relevant for the auditor);
(v) whether the controls adequately safeguard the assets;
(vi) how far and how adequately the management is discharging its function in so
far as correct recording of transactions is concerned;
(vii) how reliable the reports, records and the certificates to the management can
be;
(viii) the extent and the depth of the examination that he needs to carry out in
the different areas of accounting;
(ix) what would be appropriate audit technique and the audit procedure in the
given circumstances;
(x) what are the areas where control is weak and where it is excessive; and

(xi) whether some worthwhile suggestions can be given to improve the control
system.
ILLUSTRATION 8
Mr. Y, one of the team member of the auditors of What and Where Limited was very
keen in knowing whether the internal control of the company would safeguard the
company’s assets. Advise Mr. Y.
SOLUTION
The review of internal controls will enable the auditors to know whether the
controls adequately safeguard the assets.
ILLUSTRATION 9
Mr. H, a team member of the auditor of There and Here Limited was of the view
that evaluation of internal control of the company would help in identifying the
areas where internal control is weak. Advise
SOLUTION
The review of internal controls will enable the auditor to know what are the areas
where control is weak and where it is excessive.
Formulate Audit Program after understanding Internal Control
The auditor can formulate his entire audit programme only after he has had a
satisfactory understanding of the internal control systems and their actual
operation. If he does not care to study this aspect, it is very likely that his audit
programme may become unwieldy and unnecessarily heavy and the object of the
audit may be altogether lost in the mass of entries and vouchers. It is also
important for him to know whether the system is actually in operation. Often,
after installation of a system, no proper follow up is there by the management to
ensure compliance. The auditor, in such circumstances, may be led to believe that
a system is in operation which in reality may not be altogether in operation or
may at best operate only partially. This state of affairs is probably the worst that
an auditor may come across and he would be in the midst of confusion, if he does
not take care.
It would be better if the auditor can undertake the review of the internal control
system of client. This will give him enough time to assimilate the controls and
implications and will enable him to be more objective in the framing of the audit
programme. He will also be in a position to bring to the notice of the
management the weaknesses of the system and to suggest measures for

improvement. At a further interim date or in the course of the audit, he may

ascertain how far the weaknesses have been removed.
From the foregoing, it can be concluded that the extent and the nature of the
audit programme is substantially influenced by the internal control system in
operation. In deciding upon a plan of test checking, the existence and operation
of internal control system is of great significance.
A proper understanding of the internal control system in its content and working
also enables an auditor to decide upon the appropriate audit procedure to be
applied in different areas to be covered in the audit programme.
In a situation where the internal controls are considered weak in some areas, the
auditor might choose an auditing procedure or test that otherwise might not be
required; he might extend certain tests to cover a large number of transactions or
other items than he otherwise would examine and at times he may perform
additional tests to bring him the necessary satisfaction.
Example
Normally the distribution of wages is not observed by the auditor. But if the
internal control over wages is so weak that there exists a possibility of dummy
workers being paid, the auditor might include observation of wages distribution
in his programme in order to find out the workers who do not turn up for receipt
of wages.
On the other hand, if he is satisfied with the internal control on sales and trade
receivables, the auditor can get trade receivables’ balances confirmed at almost
any time reasonably close to the balance sheet date. But if the control is weak, he
may feel that he should get the confirmation exactly on the date of the year closing
so that he may eliminate the risk of errors and frauds occurring between the
intervening period. Also, he may in that situation, decide to have a large coverage
of trade receivables by the confirmation procedure.
Evaluation of Internal Control– Methods

A review of the internal control can be done by a process of study, examination
and evaluation of the control system installed by the management.
The first step involves determination of the control and procedures laid down by
the management. By reading company manuals, studying organisation charts and
flow charts and by making suitable enquiries from the officers and employees, the
auditor may ascertain the character, scope and efficacy of the control system. To
acquaint himself about how all the accounting information is collected and

processed and to learn the nature of controls that makes the information reliable
and protect the company’s assets, calls for considerable skill and knowledge. In
many cases, very little of this information is available in writing; the auditor must
ask the right people the right questions if he is to get the information he wants. It
would be better if he makes written notes of the relevant information and
procedures contained in the manual or ascertained on enquiry.
To facilitate the accumulation of the information necessary for the proper review
and evaluation of internal controls, the auditor can use one of the following to
help him to know and assimilate the system and evaluate the same:
(i) Narrative record;
(ii) Check List;
(iii) Questionnaire; and
(iv) Flow chart.
4.1 The Narrative Record

This is a complete and exhaustive description of the system as found in operation
by the auditor. Actual testing and observation are necessary before such a record
can be developed. It may be recommended in cases where no formal control
system is in operation and would be more suited to small business.
The basic disadvantages of narrative records are:
(i) To comprehend the system in operation is quite difficult.
(ii) To identify weaknesses or gaps in the system.
(iii) To incorporate changes arising on account of reshuffling of manpower, etc.
4.2 A Check List

This is a series of instructions and/or questions which a member of the auditing
staff must follow and/or answer. When he completes instruction, he initials the
space against the instruction. Answers to the check list instructions are usually Yes,

No or Not Applicable. This is again an on the job requirement and instructions are
framed having regard to the desirable elements of control.
Example
A few examples of check list instructions are given hereunder:
1. Are tenders called before placing orders?
2. Are the purchases made on the basis of a written order?
3. Is the purchase order form standardised?
4. Are purchase order forms pre-numbered?
5. Are the inventory control accounts maintained by persons who have
nothing to do with custody of work, receipt of inventory, inspection of
inventory and purchase of inventory?
The complete check list is studied by the Principal/Manager/Senior to ascertain
existence of internal control and evaluate its implementation and efficiency.
4.3 Internal Control Questionnaire

This is a comprehensive series of questions concerning internal control. This is the
most widely used form for collecting information about the existence, operation
and efficiency of internal control in an organisation.
An important advantage of the questionnaire approach is that oversight or
omission of significant internal control review procedures is less likely to occur with
this method. With a proper questionnaire, all internal control evaluation can be
completed at one time or in sections. The review can more easily be made on an
interim basis. The questionnaire form also provides an orderly means of
disclosing control defects. It is the general practice to review the internal control
system annually and record the review in detail. In the questionnaire, generally
questions are so framed that a ‘Yes’ answer denotes satisfactory position and a ‘No’
answer suggests weakness. Provision is made for an explanation or further details
of ‘No’ answers. In respect of questions not relevant to the business, ‘Not
Applicable’ reply is given.
The questionnaire is usually issued to the client and the client is requested to get
it filled by the concerned executives and employees. If on a perusal of the
answers, inconsistencies or apparent incongruities are noticed, the matter is
further discussed by auditor’s staff with the client’s employees for a clear picture.
The concerned auditor then prepares a report of deficiencies and
recommendations for improvement.

4.4 Flow Chart

It is a graphic presentation of each part of the company’s system of internal control.
A flow chart is considered to be the most concise way of recording the auditor’s
review of the system. It minimises the amount of narrative explanation and
thereby achieves a consideration or presentation not possible in any other form. It
gives bird’s eye view of the system and the flow of transactions and integration
and in documentation, can be easily spotted and improvements can be
suggested.
It is also necessary for the auditor to study the significant features of the business
carried on by the concern; the nature of its activities and various channels of goods
and materials as well as cash, both inward and outward; and also a comprehensive
study of the entire process of manufacturing, trading and administration. This will
help him to understand and evaluate the internal controls in the correct
perspective.
ILLUSTRATION 10
In order to evaluate the Internal Control of Your and My Limited, a team member of
the auditors used a method according to which, number of questions relating to
internal control of the company were required to be answered by the employees of
the company. After obtaining the answers there was a discussion relating to those
answers between team member of the auditor and employees of the company for a
clear picture. State the method of evaluation of internal control as discussed above.
SOLUTION
The method of evaluation of internal control used in the above question is known
as Internal Control Questionnaire because in questionnaire method, a number of
questions relating to internal control of a company are required to be answered
by employees of that company and when answers to the questions are obtained,
there is a discussion relating to those answers between team members of the
auditors and employees of that company for a clear picture.
ILLUSTRATION 11
Healthy and Useful Limited is into small manufacturing as well as trading
business. For the purpose of evaluating the internal control of Healthy and Useful
Limited, a team member of the auditors of the company used a method according
to which the whole description of internal control that was operating in the said
company was to be recorded. Identify the method of evaluation of internal
control as mentioned above.

SOLUTION
The method of evaluation of internal control referred above is known as Narrative
Record because in Narrative Record method, a whole description of internal
control operating in an entity is recorded. Narrative Record method is also
appropriate for small manufacturing as well as trading business as is mentioned
in the question above case.
5. TESTING OF INTERNAL CONTROL

After assimilating the internal control system, the auditor needs to examine
whether and how far the same is actually in operation. For this, he resorts to
actual testing of the system in operation. This he does on a selective basis: he can
plan this testing in such a manner that all the important areas are covered in a
period of, say, three years. Selective testing is being done by application of
procedural tests and auditing in depth.
Test of Controls:
Test of controls are performed to obtain audit evidence about the effectiveness of
the:
Test of controls include tests of elements of the control environment where

strengths in the control environment are used by auditors to reduce control risk.
Some of the procedures performed to obtain the understanding of the
accounting and internal control systems may not have been specifically planned as
tests of control but may provide audit evidence about the effectiveness of the
design and operation of internal controls relevant to certain assertions and,
consequently, serve as tests of control. For example, in obtaining the
understanding of the accounting and internal control systems pertaining to cash,
the auditor may have obtained audit evidence about the effectiveness of the bank
reconciliation process through inquiry and observation.
When the auditor concludes that procedures performed to obtain the
understanding of the accounting and internal control systems also provide audit

evidence about the suitability of design and operating effectiveness of policies

and procedures relevant to a particular financial statement assertion, the auditor
may use that audit evidence, provided it is sufficient to support a control risk
assessment at less than a high level.
Test of controls may include:

♦ Inspection of documents supporting transactions and other events to gain
audit evidence that internal controls have operated properly, for example,
verifying that a transaction has been authorised.
♦ Inquiries about, and observation of, internal controls which leave no audit
trail, for example, determining who actually performs each function and not
merely who is supposed to perform it.
♦ Re-performance involves the auditor’s independent execution of procedures
or controls that were originally performed as part of the entity’s internal
control, for example, reconciliation of bank accounts, to ensure they were
correctly performed by the entity.
♦ Testing of internal control operating on specific computerised applications
or over the overall information technology function, for example, access or
program change controls.
(Students may note that testing of IT System related controls are discussed
in details in Chapter 6 Audit in an Automated Environment)
While obtaining audit evidence about the effective operation of internal controls,
the auditor considers how they were applied, the consistency with which they were
applied during the period and by whom they were applied. The concept of
effective operation recognises that some deviations may have occurred.
Deviations from prescribed controls may be caused by such factors as changes in
key personnel, significant seasonal fluctuations in volume of transactions and
human error. When deviations are detected the auditor makes specific inquiries
regarding these matters, particularly, the timing of staff changes in key internal
control functions. The auditor then ensures that the tests of control appropriately
cover such a period of change or fluctuation.
Based on the results of the tests of control, the auditor should evaluate whether
the internal controls are designed and operating as contemplated in the
preliminary assessment of control risk. The evaluation of deviations may result in
the auditor concluding that the assessed level of control risk needs to be revised. In
such cases, the auditor would modify the nature, timing and extent of planned
substantive procedures.

Before the conclusion of the audit, based on the results of substantive procedures
and other audit evidence obtained by the auditor, the auditor should consider
whether the assessment of control risk is confirmed. In case of deviations from
the prescribed accounting and internal control systems, the auditor would make
specific inquiries to consider their implications. Where, on the basis of such
inquiries, the auditor concludes that the deviations are such that the preliminary
assessment of control risk is not supported, he would amend the same unless the
audit evidence obtained from other tests of control supports that assessment.
Where the auditor concludes that the assessed level of control risk needs to be
revised, he would modify the nature, timing and extent of his planned substantive
procedures.
It has been suggested that actual operation of the internal control should be tested
by the application of procedural tests and examination in depth. Procedural tests
simply mean testing of the compliance with the procedures laid down by the
management in respect of initiation, authorisation, recording and documentation
of transaction at each stage through which it flows.
Example
For example, the procedure for sales requires the following:

1. Before acceptance of any order the position of inventory of the relevant
article should be known to ascertain whether the order can be executed in
time.
2. An advice under the authorisation of the sales manager should be sent to
the party placing the order, internal reference number, and the acceptance of
the order. This advice should be prepared on a standardised form and copy
thereof should be forwarded to inventory section to enable it to prepare for
the execution of the order in time.
3. The credit period allowed to the party should be the normal credit period.
For any special credit period a special authorisation of the sales manager
would be necessary.
4. The rate at which the order has been accepted and other terms about
transport, insurance, etc., should be clearly specified.
5. Before deciding upon the credit period, a reference should be made to the
credit section to know the creditworthiness of the party and particularly
whether the party has honoured its commitments in the past.

An auditor testing the internal controls on sales should invariably test whether
any of the aforesaid procedures have been omitted. If credit has actually been
granted without a reference to the credit section to know the creditworthiness of
the party, it is possible that the amount may prove bad because of the financial
crisis or deadlock in the management of the party, a fact which could have been
easily gathered from the credit section. Similarly, if an order is received without a
reference to the inventory section, it is likely due to non-availability of the
inventory on the stipulated date; execution of the order may be delayed and the
company may have to compensate the buyer for the damages suffered by him.
6. INTERNAL CONTROL AND IT

ENVIRONMENT
Characteristics of Manual and Automated Elements of Internal Control Relevant to
the Auditor’s Risk Assessment: An entity’s system of internal control contains
manual elements and often contains automated elements. The characteristics of
manual or automated elements relevant to the auditor’s risk assessment and
further audit procedures are explained hereunder-
(i) Controls in Manual and IT System: The use of manual or automated
elements in internal control affects the manner in which transactions are
initiated, recorded, processed, and reported:
(1) Controls in a manual system may include such procedures as
approvals and reviews of transactions, and reconciliations and follow-
up of reconciling items. Alternatively, an entity may use automated
procedures to initiate, record, process, and report transactions, in
which case records in electronic format replace paper documents.
(2) Controls in IT systems consist of a combination of automated controls
(for example, controls embedded in computer programs) and manual
controls. Further, manual controls may be independent of IT, may use
information produced by IT, or may be limited to monitoring the
effective functioning of IT and of automated controls, and to handling
exceptions.
(ii) Use of IT: An entity’s mix of manual and automated elements in internal
control varies with the nature and complexity of the entity’s use of IT.

(iii) Generally, IT benefits an entity’s internal control by enabling an entity

to:
• Consistently apply predefined business rules and perform complex
calculations in processing large volumes of transactions or data;
• Enhance the timeliness, availability, and accuracy of information;
• Facilitate the additional analysis of information;
• Enhance the ability to monitor the performance of the entity’s
activities and its policies and procedures;
• Reduce the risk that controls will be circumvented; and
• Enhance the ability to achieve effective segregation of duties by
implementing security controls in applications, databases, and
operating systems.
Benefits of IT in an Entity’s Internal Control
(iv) IT also poses specific risks to an entity’s internal control, including, for
example:
• Reliance on systems or programs that are inaccurately processing
data, processing inaccurate data, or both.
• Unauthorised access to data that may result in destruction of data or
improper changes to data, including the recording of unauthorised or
non- existent transactions, or inaccurate recording of transactions.
Particular risks may arise where multiple users access a common
database.

• The possibility of IT personnel gaining access privileges beyond those

necessary to perform their assigned duties thereby breaking down
segregation of duties.
• Unauthorised changes to data in master files.
• Unauthorised changes to systems or programs.
• Failure to make necessary changes to systems or programs.
• Inappropriate manual intervention.
• Potential loss of data or inability to access data as required.
(v) Suitability: Manual elements in internal control may be more suitable
where judgment and discretion are required.
(vi) Reliability: Manual elements in internal control may be less reliable than
automated elements because they can be more easily bypassed, ignored, or
overridden and they are also more prone to simple errors and mistakes.
Consistency of application of a manual control element cannot therefore be
assumed.
(vii) Nature of Entity’s Information System: The extent and nature of the risks
to internal control vary depending on the nature and characteristics of the
entity’s information system. The entity responds to the risks arising from the
use of IT or from use of manual elements in internal control by establishing
effective controls in light of the characteristics of the entity’s information
system.
7. MATERIALITY AND AUDIT RISK

The concept of materiality is applied by the
auditor both in planning and performing the
audit, and in evaluating the effect of identified
misstatements on the audit and of uncorrected
misstatements, if any, on the financial statements
and in forming the opinion in the auditor’s
report.
In conducting an audit of financial statements,
the overall objectives of the auditor are to obtain
reasonable assurance about whether the
financial statements as a whole are free from material misstatement, whether

due to fraud or error, thereby enabling the auditor to express an opinion on

whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in
accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework; and to report on the
financial statements, and communicate as required by the SAs, in accordance with
the auditor’s findings. The auditor obtains reasonable assurance by obtaining
sufficient appropriate audit evidence to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low
level.
Audit risk is the risk that the auditor expresses an inappropriate audit opinion
when the financial statements are materially misstated. Audit risk is a function of
the risks of material misstatement and detection risk. Materiality and audit risk
are considered throughout the audit, in particular, when:
(a) Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement;
(b) Determining the nature, timing and extent of further audit procedures; and
(c ) Evaluating the effect of uncorrected misstatements, if any, on the financial
statements and in forming the opinion in the auditor’s report.
ILLUSTRATION 12
One of the team members of auditors of Highly Capable Limited was of the view
that Materiality and Audit Risk are only considered at planning stage of an audit.
Comment as an auditor
SOLUTION
performing the audit, and in evaluating the effect of identified misstatements on
the audit and of uncorrected misstatements, if any, on the financial statements
and in forming the opinion in the auditor’s report.
8. DOCUMENTING THE RISK

The auditor shall document:
(a) The discussion among the engagement team and the significant decisions
reached;
(b) Key elements of the understanding obtained regarding each of the aspects of
the entity and its environment and of each of the internal control
components, the sources of information from which the understanding was
obtained; and the risk assessment procedures performed;

(c) The identified and assessed risks of material misstatement at the financial
statement level and at the assertion level ; and
(d) The risks identified, and related controls about which the auditor has
obtained an understanding.
ILLUSTRATION 13
Mr. N, one of the team members of the auditors of Reasonably Cheerful Limited was
of the view that risks that were identified during the course of audit were not
required to be documented. Explain with a reason whether the viewpoint of Mr. N
is justified.
SOLUTION
The auditor shall document the identified and assessed risks of material
misstatement at the financial statement level and at the assertion level ; and
the risks identified, and related controls about which the auditor has obtained an
understanding.
Keeping in view the above, the viewpoint of Mr. N is not justified because risks
that were identified during the course of audit of Reasonably Cheerful Limited
were required to be documented by the auditors.
9. INTERNAL AUDIT
As defined in scope of the Standards on Internal Audit, Internal Audit means “An
independent management function, which involves a continuous and critical
appraisal of the functioning of an entity with a view to suggest improvements
thereto and add value to and strengthen the overall governance mechanism of the
entity, including the entity’s strategic risk management and internal control
system”.
9.1 Applicability of Provisions of Internal Audit

As per section 138 of the Companies Act, 2013 the following class of companies
(prescribed in rule 13 of Companies (Accounts) Rules, 2014) shall be required to
appoint an internal auditor or a firm of internal auditors, namely-
(a) every listed company;
(b) every unlisted public company having-
(i) paid up share capital of fifty crore rupees or more during the
preceding financial year; or

(ii) turnover of two hundred crore rupees or more during the preceding
financial year; or
(iii) outstanding loans or borrowings from banks or public financial
institutions exceeding one hundred crore rupees or more at any point
of time during the preceding financial year; or
(iv) outstanding deposits of twenty five crore rupees or more at any point of
time during the preceding financial year; and
(c) every private company having-
(i) turnover of two hundred crore rupees or more during the preceding
financial year; or
(ii) outstanding loans or borrowings from banks or public financial
institutions exceeding one hundred crore rupees or more at any point
of time during the preceding financial year:
It is provided that an existing company covered under any of the above criteria
shall comply with the requirements within six months of commencement of such
section.
ILLUSTRATION 14
Windy Limited is an unlisted public limited company. During the financial year
2019-20, the paid up share capital of Windy Limited was ` 60 crore. During the
financial year 2020-21, Board of Directors of the company , in order to comply with
the provisions of Companies Act, 2013 appointed an internal auditor. Give the
justification of this appointment done by Board of Directors of Windy Limited
according to the provisions of Companies Act, 2013.
SOLUTION
The appointment done by Board of Directors of Windy Limited is justified because
according to Section 138 of the Companies Act, 2013, every unlisted public
company having a paid up share capital of ` 50 crore or more during the
preceding financial year is required to appoint an internal auditor.
ILLUSTRATION 15
Extremely Fine Limited is an unlisted public limited company . For the financial year
2019-20, the turnover of the above mentioned company was ` 256 crore. In order
to comply with provisions of Companies Act, 2013 the Board of Directors of
Extremely Fine Limited during the financial year 2020-21, appointed an internal
auditor. Comment on the appointment of Internal Auditor.

SOLUTION
The appointment done by Board of Directors of Extremely Fine Limited is justified
because according to Section 138 of the Companies Act, 2013 every unlisted
public company having a turnover of ` 200 crore or more during the preceding
financial year is required to appoint an internal auditor.
In the above mentioned question, Extremely Fine Limited is an unlisted public
company having a turnover of ` 256 crore for the financial year 2019-20, which is
more than ` 200 crore, therefore during the financial year 2020-21, Extremely
Fine Limited is required to appoint an internal auditor.
9.2 Who can be appointed as Internal Auditor?

As per section 138, the internal auditor shall either be a chartered accountant or a cost
accountant (whether engaged in practice or not), or such other professional as may be
decided by the Board to conduct internal audit of the functions and activities of the
companies. The internal auditor may or may not be an employee of the company.
9.3 Internal audit function

A function of an entity that performs assurance and consulting activities designed
to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of the entity’s governance, risk
management and internal control processes.
9.3.1 The objectives and scope of internal audit functions
As per SA-610, “Using the Work of an Internal Auditor”, the objectives of internal
audit functions vary widely and depend on the size and structure of the entity and
the requirements of management and, where applicable, those charged with
governance.
The objectives and scope of internal audit functions typically include assurance
and consulting activities designed to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of the
entity’s governance processes, risk management and internal control such as the
following:
1. Activities Relating to Governance: The internal audit function may assess
the governance process in its accomplishment of objectives on ethics and
values, performance management and accountability, communicating risk
and control information to appropriate areas of the organization and
effectiveness of communication among those charged with governance,
external and internal auditors, and management.

2. Activities Relating to Risk Management: The internal audit function may

assist the entity by identifying and evaluating significant exposures to risk
and contributing to the improvement of risk management and internal
control (including effectiveness of the financial reporting process). The
internal audit function may perform procedures to assist the entity in the
detection of fraud.
3. Activities Relating to Internal Control:
(i) Evaluation of internal control: The internal audit function may be
assigned specific responsibility for reviewing controls, evaluating their
operation and recommending improvements thereto. In doing so, the
internal audit function provides assurance on the control. For example,
the internal audit function might plan and perform tests or other
procedures to provide assurance to management and those charged
with governance regarding the design, implementation and operating
effectiveness of internal control, including those controls that are
relevant to the audit.
(ii) Examination of financial and operating information: The internal
audit function may be assigned to review the means used to identify,
recognize, measure, classify and report financial and operating
information, and to make specific inquiry into individual items,
including detailed testing of transactions, balances and procedures.
(iii) Review of operating activities: The internal audit function may be
assigned to review the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of
operating activities, including nonfinancial activities of an entity.

(iv) Review of compliance with laws and regulations: The internal audit
function may be assigned to review compliance with laws, regulations
and other external requirements, and with management policies and
directives and other internal requirements.
ILLUSTRATION 16
One of the directors of Stability Establishment Limited was of the view that Internal
Audit has no relation with Internal Control of a company. Comment
SOLUTION
The objectives and scope of internal audit functions typically include assurance
and consulting activities designed to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of the
entity’s governance processes, risk management and internal control such as the
Activities Relating to Internal Control:
(i) Evaluation of internal control: The internal audit function may be assigned
specific responsibility for reviewing controls, evaluating their operation and
recommending improvements thereto. In doing so, the internal audit function
provides assurance on the control. For example, the internal audit function
might plan and perform tests or other procedures to provide assurance to
management and those charged with governance regarding the design,
implementation and operating effectiveness of internal control, including
those controls that are relevant to the audit.
(ii) Examination of financial and operating information: The internal audit
function may be assigned to review the means used to identify, recognize,
measure, classify and report financial and operating information, and to
make specific inquiry into individual items, including detailed testing of
transactions, balances and procedures.
(iii) Review of operating activities: The internal audit function may be assigned
to review the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of operating activities,
including nonfinancial activities of an entity.
(vi) Review of compliance with laws and regulations: The internal audit
function may be assigned to review compliance with laws, regulations and
other external requirements, and with management policies and directives
and other internal requirements.
Keeping in view above, the viewpoint of the director of Stability
Establishment Limited is incorrect because internal audit has a very strong
relation with internal control of a company. Internal Audit analyzes the

effectiveness with which the internal control of a company is operating and

also makes suggestions for improvement in that internal control.
10. BASICS OF STANDARDS ON INTERNAL

AUDIT ISSUED BY ICAI
Considering the increasing importance of internal auditing, the Institute of
Chartered Accountants of India has constituted a Committee on Internal Audit
(CIA) as a non- standing committee on February 5, 2004. The CIA was constituted
with the object of formulating Standards and Guidance Notes on Internal Audit
now it is known as Internal Audit Standard Board.
The Board has, till date, issued thirteen new Standards on Internal Audit (SIAs)
and the list is given below. The SIAs aim to codify the best practices in the area
of internal audit and also serve to provide a benchmark of the performance of the
internal audit services. While formulating SIAs, the Board takes into consideration
the applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment and generally
accepted auditing practices in India.
The following SIAs are recommendatory in nature. The Standards shall become
mandatory from such date as notified by the council:
SIA-110 NATURE OF ASSURANCE
SIA-120 INTERNAL CONTROLS
SIA-210 MANAGING THE INTERNAL AUDIT FUNCTION
SIA-220 CONDUCTING OVERALL INTERNAL AUDIT PLANNING
SIA-230 OBJECTIVES OF INTERNAL AUDIT
SIA-240 USING THE WORK OF AN EXPERT
SIA-310 PLANNING THE INTERNAL AUDIT ASSIGNMENT
SIA-320 INTERNAL AUDIT EVIDENCE
SIA-330 INTERNAL AUDIT DOCUMENTATION
SIA-350 REVIEW AND SUPERVISION OF AUDIT ASSIGNMENTS
SIA-360 COMMUNICATION WITH MANAGEMENT
SIA-370 REPORTING RESULTS
SIA-390 MONITORING AND REPORTING OF PRIOR AUDIT ISSUES

11. BASICS OF INTERNAL FINANCIAL CONTROL

AND REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
Clause (e) of Sub-section 5 of Section 134 explains the meaning of internal
financial controls as, “the policies and procedures adopted by the company for
ensuring the orderly and efficient conduct of its business, including adherence to
company’s policies, the safeguarding of its assets, the prevention and detection of
frauds and errors, the accuracy and completeness of the accounting records, and
the timely preparation of reliable financial information.”
From the above definition, it is clear that internal financial controls are the
policies and procedures adopted by the company for :
1. ensuring the orderly and efficient conduct of its business, including
adherence to company’s policies,
2. the safeguarding of its assets,
3. the prevention and detection of frauds and errors,
4. the accuracy and completeness of the accounting records, and
5. the timely preparation of reliable financial information.”
ILLUSTRATION 17
Mr. T, one of the directors of Over Careful Limited was of the view that internal
financial controls have nothing to do with accounting records of a company.
Comment on the views of Mr T.
SOLUTION
Clause (e) of Sub-section 5 of Section 134 explains the meaning of internal
financial controls as, “the policies and procedures adopted by the company for
ensuring the orderly and efficient conduct of its business, including adherence to
company’s policies, the safeguarding of its assets, the prevention and detection of
frauds and errors, the accuracy and completeness of the accounting records, and
the timely preparation of reliable financial information.”
In view of above, viewpoint of Mr. T is incorrect.

Auditors’ Responsibility for Reporting on Internal Financial Controls over

Financial Reporting in India
Clause (i) of Sub-section 3 of Section 143 of the Act requires the auditors’ report
to state whether the company has adequate internal financial controls system in
place and the operating effectiveness of such controls.
It may be noted that auditor’s reporting on internal financial controls is a

requirement specified in the Act and, therefore, will apply only in case of
reporting on financial statements prepared under the Act and reported under
Section 143.
Accordingly, reporting on internal financial controls will not be applicable with
respect to interim financial statements, such as quarterly or half-yearly financial
statements, unless such reporting is required under any other law or regulation.
Objectives of an auditor in an audit of internal financial controls over financial
reporting: The auditor’s objective in an audit of internal financial controls over
financial reporting is, “ to express an opinion on the effectiveness of the
company’s internal financial controls over financial reporting.” It is carried out
along with an audit of the financial statements.
Reporting under Section 143(3)(i) is dependent on the underlying criteria for
internal financial controls over financial reporting adopted by the management.
However, any system of internal controls provides only a reasonable assurance on
achievement of the objectives for which it has been established. Also, the auditor
shall use the concept of materiality in determining the extent of testing such
controls.
Rule 8(5)(viii) of the Companies (Accounts) Rules, 2014 requires the board
report of all companies to state the details in respect of adequacy of internal
financial controls with reference to the financial statements.
The inclusion of the matters relating to internal financial controls in the directors
responsibility statement is in addition to the requirement of the directors stating
that they have taken proper and sufficient care for the maintenance of adequate
accounting records in accordance with the provisions of the 2013 Act for
safeguarding the assets of the company and for preventing and detecting fraud
and other irregularities.

112. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERNAL

FINANCIAL CONTROL AND INTERNAL
CONTROL OVER FINANCIAL REPORTING
Internal Financial Control as per Section 134(5)(e), “the policies and
procedures adopted by the company for ensuring the orderly and efficient conduct
of its business, including adherence to company’s policies, the safeguarding of its
assets, the prevention and detection of frauds and errors, the accuracy and
completeness of the accounting records, and the timely preparation of reliable
financial information.”
On the other hand, Internal controls over financial reporting-is required
where auditors are required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of an
entity’s internal controls over financial reporting, such opinion is in addition to
and distinct from the opinion expressed by the auditor on the financial
statements.
SUMMARY
Audit risk means the risk that the auditor gives an inappropriate audit opinion
when the financial statement are materially misstated. Audit risk is a function of
the risks of material misstatement and detection risk. Risk of material
misstatement may be defined as the risk that the financial statements are
materially misstated prior to audit. This consists of two components- Inherent risk
and Control risk. Inherent risk is the susceptibility of an assertion to a
misstatement before consideration of any related controls. Control risk is the risk
that a misstatement that could occur in an assertion will not be prevented, or
detected and corrected, on a timely basis by the entity’s internal control.
Misstatement refers to a difference between the amount, classification,
presentation, or disclosure of a reported financial statement item and the amount,
classification, presentation, or disclosure that is required for the item to be in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework.
The assessment of risks is a matter of professional judgment.
Detection risk refers to the risk that the procedures performed by the auditor to
reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level will not detect a misstatement that
exists and that could be material, either individually or when aggregated with
other misstatements.

Audit Risk = Inherent Risk x Control Risk x Detection Risk

Objective of Auditor as per SA 315: As per SA 315 - “Identifying and Assessing the
Risks of Material Misstatement through Understanding the Entity and its
Environment”, the objective of the auditor is to identify and assess the risks of
material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, at the financial statement
and assertion levels, through understanding the entity and its environment,
including the entity’s internal control, thereby providing a basis for designing and
implementing responses to the assessed risks of material misstatement. This will
help the auditor to reduce the risk of material misstatement to an acceptably low
level.
As per SA-315, “Identifying and Assessing the Risk of Material Misstatement
Through Understanding the Entity and its Environment”, the internal control may
be defined as “the process designed, implemented and maintained by those
charged with governance, management and other personnel to provide reasonable
assurance about the achievement of an entity’s objectives with regard to reliability
of financial reporting, effectiveness and efficiency of operations, safeguarding of
assets, and compliance with applicable laws and regulations. The term “controls”
refers to any aspects of one or more of the components of internal control.”
The control environment includes the governance and management functions and
the attitudes, awareness, and actions of those charged with governance and
management. The existence of a satisfactory control environment can be a
positive factor when the auditor assesses the risks of material misstatement.
However, although it may help reduce the risk of fraud, a satisfactory control
environment is not an absolute deterrent to fraud.
So far as the auditor is concerned, the examination and evaluation of the internal
control system is an indispensable part of the overall audit programme. The
auditor needs reasonable assurance that the accounting system is adequate and
that all the accounting information which should be recorded has in fact been
recorded. Internal control normally contributes to such assurance.
The auditor can formulate his entire audit programme only after he has had a
satisfactory understanding of the internal control systems and their actual
operation.
After assimilating the internal control system, the auditor needs to examine
whether and how far the same is actually in operation. Selective testing is done by
application of procedural tests and auditing in depth.


performing the audit, and in evaluating the effect of identified misstatements on
the audit and of uncorrected misstatements, if any, on the financial statements
and in forming the opinion in the auditor’s report
As defined in scope of the Standards on Internal Audit, Internal Audit means “An
independent management function, which involves a continuous and critical
appraisal of the functioning of an entity with a view to suggest improvements
thereto and add value to and strengthen the overall governance mechanism of the
entity, including the entity’s strategic risk management and internal control
system”.
Clause (i) of Sub-section 3 of Section 143 of the Act requires the auditors’ report
to state whether the company has adequate internal financial controls system in
place and the operating effectiveness of such controls. The auditor’s objective in
an audit of internal financial controls over financial reporting is, “to express an
opinion on the effectiveness of the company’s internal financial controls over
financial reporting.” It is carried out along with an audit of the financial
statements.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct/Incorrect
incorrect:
(i) As per section 138 of the Companies Act, 2013 private companies are not
required to appoint internal auditor.
(ii) There is direct relationship between materiality and the degree of audit risk.
(iii) Control risk is the susceptibility of an account balance or class of
transactions to misstatement that could be material either individually or,
when aggregated with misstatements in other balances or classes, assuming
that there were no related internal controls.
(iv) Tests of control are performed to obtain audit evidence about the
effectiveness of Internal Controls Systems.
(v) Maintenance of Internal Control System is the responsibility of the Statutory
Auditor.

(vi) One of the directors of Very Fresh Fruits Limited was of the view that
internal auditor to be appointed must be an employee of Very Fresh Fruits
Limited.
(vii) Mr. W, one of the team members of auditor of Different Limited was of the
view that understanding the Internal Control of Different Limited will not
help in developing an Audit Programme.
(viii) Information obtained by performing risk assessment procedures shall not
be used by the auditor as audit evidence to support assessments of the risks
of material misstatement.
1. “The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the major activities that the
entity uses to monitor internal control over financial reporting” Explain.
2. Risk of material misstatement consists of two components” Explain clearly
defining risk of material misstatement.
3. “The SAs do not ordinarily refer to inherent risk and control risk separately,
but rather to a combined assessment of the “risks of material
misstatement”” Explain
4. “The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the control environment”
Explain stating what is included in control environment.
5. When auditor identifies deficiencies and report on internal controls, he
determines the significant financial statement assertions that are affected by
the ineffective controls in order to evaluate the effect on control risk
assessments and strategy for the audit of the financial statements. Explain
6. Obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment, including
the entity’s internal control, is a continuous, dynamic process of gathering,
updating and analysing information throughout the audit. Analyse and
explain giving examples.
7. Internal control over safeguarding of assets against unauthorised
acquisition, use, or disposition may include controls relating to both
financial reporting and operations objectives. Explain stating clearly the
objectives of Internal Control.
8. It has been suggested that actual operation of the internal control should
be tested by the application of procedural tests and examination in depth.
Explain with the help of example in respect of the procedure for sales.

9. Sweet Fruits Private Limited had a turnover of ` 155 crore for the financial
year 2019-20. Explain whether during the financial year 2020-21, Sweet
Fruits Private Limited would be required or not required to appoint an
internal auditor, keeping in view the provisions of Companies Act, 2013.
ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
(i) Incorrect: Section 138 of the Companies Act, 2013 requires every private
company to appoint an internal auditor having turnover of ` 200 crore or
more during the preceding financial year; or outstanding loans or
borrowings from banks or public financial institutions exceeding ` 100 crore
or more at any point of time during the preceding financial year.
(ii) Incorrect: There is an inverse relationship between materiality and the
degree of audit risk. The higher the materiality level, the lower the audit risk
and vice versa. For example, the risk that a particular account balance or
class of transactions could be misstated by an extremely large amount
might be very low but the risk that itt could be misstated by an extremely
small amount might be very high.
(iii) Incorrect: Inherent risk is the susceptibility of an account balance or class
of transactions to misstatement that could be material either individually or,
when aggregated with misstatements in other balances or classes, assuming
that there were no related internal controls.
(iv) Correct: Tests of Control are performed to obtain audit evidence about the
effectiveness of:
(a) the design of the accounting and internal control systems that is
whether, they are suitably designed to prevent or detect or correct
material misstatements and
(b) the operation of the internal controls throughout the period.
(v) Incorrect: The management is responsible for maintaining an adequate
accounting system incorporating various internal controls to the extent
appropriate to the size and nature of the business. Maintenance of Internal
Control System is responsibility of management because the internal control
is the process designed, implemented and maintained by those charged
with governance/management to provide reasonable assurance about the
achievement of entity’s objectives.

(vi) Incorrect: As per section 138, the internal auditor shall either be a chartered
accountant or a cost accountant (whether engaged in practice or not), or
such other professional as may be decided by the Board to conduct internal
audit of the functions and activities of the companies. The internal auditor
may or may not be an employee of the company.
(vii) Incorrect: Understanding the Internal Control of Different Limited will help
in developing an Audit Programme because it will assist the auditor and his
team to understand as to how much they can rely on internal control of the
company and what audit procedures would be appropriate to be used
during the course of audit.
(viii) Incorrect: Information obtained by performing risk assessment procedures
and related activities may be used by the auditor as audit evidence to
support assessments of the risks of material misstatement.

1. Refer Para 3.
2. Refer Para 1.
3. Refer Para 1.5
4. Refer Para 3.
5. Control risk assessment when control deficiencies are identified: When
auditor identifies deficiencies and report on internal controls, he determines
the significant financial statement assertions that are affected by the
ineffective controls in order to evaluate the effect on control risk
assessments and strategy for the audit of the financial statements.
When control deficiencies are identified and auditor identifies and tests
more than one control for each relevant assertion, he evaluates control risk
considering all of the controls he has tested. If auditor determines that they
support a ‘rely on controls’ risk assessment, or if compensating controls are
identified, tested and evaluated to be effective, he may conclude that the
‘rely on controls’ is still appropriate. Otherwise we change our control risk
assessment to ‘not rely on controls.’
When a deficiency relates to an ineffective control that is the only control
identified for an assertion, he revises risk assessment to ‘not rely on
controls’ for associated assertions, as no other controls have been identified

that mitigate the risk related to the assertion. If the deficiency relates to one
WCGW (what can go wrong) out of several WCGW’s, he can ‘rely on
controls’ but performs additional substantive procedures to adequately
address the risks related to the deficiency.
6. Obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment, including
the entity’s internal control, is a continuous, dynamic process of gathering,
updating and analysing information throughout the audit. The
understanding establishes a frame of reference within which the auditor
plans the audit and exercises professional judgment throughout the audit,
for example, when:
• Assessing risks of material misstatement of the financial statements;
• Determining materiality in accordance with SA 320;
• Considering the appropriateness of the selection and application of
accounting policies;
• Identifying areas where special audit consideration may be necessary,
for example, related party transactions, the appropriateness of
management’s use of the going concern assumption, or considering
the business purpose of transactions;
• Developing expectations for use when performing analytical
procedures;
• Evaluating the sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence
obtained, such as the appropriateness of assumptions and of
management’s oral and written representations.
7. Objectives of Internal Control
Internal control over safeguarding of assets against unauthorised
acquisition, use, or disposition may include controls relating to both
financial reporting and operations objectives. The auditor’s consideration of
such controls is generally limited to those relevant to the reliability of
financial reporting. For example, use of access controls, such as passwords,
that limit access to the data and programs that process cash disbursements
may be relevant to a financial statement audit. Conversely, safeguarding
controls relating to operations objectives, such as controls to prevent the
excessive use of materials in production, generally are not relevant to a
financial statement audit.

Objectives of Internal Control are :

(i) transactions are executed in accordance with managements general or
specific authorization;
(ii) all transactions are promptly recorded in the correct amount in the
appropriate accounts and in the accounting period in which executed
so as to permit preparation of financial information within a
framework of recognized accounting policies and practices and
relevant statutory requirements, if any, and to maintain accountability
for assets;
(iii) assets are safeguarded from unauthorised access, use or disposition;
and
(iv) the recorded assets are compared with the existing assets at
reasonable intervals and appropriate action is taken with regard to
any differences.
8 It has been suggested that actual operation of the internal control should
be tested by the application of procedural tests and examination in depth.
Procedural tests simply mean testing of the compliance with the procedures
laid down by the management in respect of initiation, authorisation,
recording and documentation of transaction at each stage through which it
flows.
For example, the procedure for sales requires the following:
1. Before acceptance of any order the position of inventory of the
relevant article should be known to ascertain whether the order can
be executed in time.
2. An advice under the authorisation of the sales manager should be
sent to the party placing the order, internal reference number, and the
acceptance of the order. This advice should be prepared on a
standardised form and copy thereof should be forwarded to inventory
section to enable it to prepare for the execution of the order in time.
3. The credit period allowed to the party should be the normal credit
period. For any special credit period a special authorisation of the
sales manager would be necessary.
4. The rate at which the order has been accepted and other terms about
transport, insurance, etc., should be clearly specified.

5. Before deciding upon the credit period, a reference should be made to

the credit section to know the creditworthiness of the party and
particularly whether the party has honoured its commitments in the
past.
9. During the financial year 2020-21, Sweet Fruits Private Limited would not be
required to appoint an internal auditor because according to Section 138 of
the Companies Act, 2013 every private company having a turnover of more
than or equal to ` 200 crore during the preceding financial year is required
to appoint an internal auditor.
It is given in the question that Sweet Fruits Private Limited during the
financial year 2018-19 had a turnover of ` 155 crore which is less than
` 200 crore. Therefore, during the financial year 2020-21, Sweet Fruits
Private Limited will not be required to appoint an internal auditor.

CHAPTER
5
FRAUD AND
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE
AUDITOR IN THIS
REGARD
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand the types of errors and frauds.

 Definition of fraud as given under the Standards on Auditing
and its meaning.
 Understand reasons behind management/ employees
committing fraud/ error.
 Analyse the duty of an auditor regarding detection of fraud and error.
 Determine fraud risk factors and circumstances relating to
possibility of fraud.
 Understand responsibility of an auditor in case of withdrawal from the
engagement if encounter any circumstances that bring into question
his ability to continue due to fraud.

1. MEANING OF FRAUD
The Standard on Auditing (SA) 240 “The Auditor’s Responsibilities Relating to Fraud
in an Audit of Financial Statements” defines the term ‘fraud’ as-
“an intentional act by one or more individuals among management, those charged
with governance, employees, or third parties, involving the use of deception to
obtain an unjust or illegal advantage”.
Although fraud is a broad legal concept, for the purposes of the SAs, the auditor
is concerned with fraud that causes a material misstatement in the financial
statements.
Two types of intentional misstatements are relevant to the auditor–
♦ misstatements resulting from fraudulent financial reporting and
♦ misstatements resulting from misappropriation of assets.

FRAUD AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE AUDITOR 5.3
IN THIS REGARD
Although the auditor may suspect or, in rare cases, identify the occurrence of fraud,
the auditor does not make legal determinations of whether fraud has actually
occurred.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FRAUD
2.1 Fraud is Intentional
Misstatements in the financial statements can arise from either fraud or error. The
distinguishing factor between fraud and error is whether the underlying action that
results in the misstatement of the financial statements is intentional or
unintentional.
2.2 Fraud is a broad legal concept

The auditor is concerned with fraud that causes a material misstatement in the
financial statements.
Fraud, whether fraudulent financial reporting or misappropriation of assets,

involves incentive or pressure to commit fraud, a perceived opportunity to do
so and some rationalization of the act. For example:
♦ Incentive or pressure to commit fraudulent financial reporting may exist when
management is under pressure, from sources outside or inside the entity, to
achieve an expected (and perhaps unrealistic) earnings target or financial
outcome.
♦ A perceived opportunity to commit fraud may exist when an individual
believes internal control can be overridden, for example, because the
individual is in a position of trust or has knowledge of specific deficiencies in
internal control.

♦ Individuals may be able to rationalize committing a fraudulent act. Some

individuals possess an attitude, character or set of ethical values that allow
them knowingly and intentionally to commit a dishonest act. However, even
otherwise, honest individuals can commit fraud in an environment that
imposes sufficient pressure on them.
2.2.1 Fraudulent financial reporting involves intentional misstatements
including omissions of amounts or disclosures in financial
statements to deceive financial statement users.
Fraudulent financial reporting may be accomplished by the following:
Manipulation, falsification (including forgery), or alteration of accounting records

or supporting documentation from which the financial statements are prepared.
Manipulation of Accounts: Detection of manipulation of accounts with a view to
presenting a false state of affairs is a task requiring great tact and intelligence
because generally management personnel in higher management cadre are
associated with this type of fraud and this is perpetrated in methodical way. This
type of fraud is generally committed:
(a) to avoid incidence of income-tax or other taxes;
(b) for declaring a dividend when there are insufficient profits;
(c) to withhold declaration of dividend even when there is adequate profit (this
is often done to manipulate the value of shares in stock market to make it
possible for selected persons to acquire shares at a lower cost); and
(d) for receiving higher remuneration where managerial remuneration is payable
by reference to profits.
There are numerous ways of committing this type of fraud. Some of the methods
are given below:
(i) inflating or suppressing purchases and expenses;

IN THIS REGARD
(ii) inflating or suppressing sales and other items of income,
(iii) inflating or deflating the value of closing inventory;
(iv) failing to adjust outstanding liabilities or prepaid expenses; and
(v) charging items of capital expenditure to revenue or by capitalising revenue
expenses.
Misrepresentation in or intentional omission from, the financial statements of
events, transactions or other significant information.
Intentional misapplication of accounting principles relating to amounts,
classification, manner of presentation, or disclosure.
Fraudulent financial reporting often involves management override of
controls that otherwise may appear to be operating effectively. Fraud can be
committed by management overriding controls using such techniques as:
♦ Recording fictitious journal entries, particularly close to the end of an

accounting period, to manipulate operating results or achieve other objectives.
♦ Inappropriately adjusting assumptions and changing judgments used to
estimate account balances.
♦ Omitting, advancing or delaying recognition in the financial statements of
events and transactions that have occurred during the reporting period.
♦ Concealing, or not disclosing, facts that could affect the amounts recorded in
the financial statements.
♦ Engaging in complex transactions that are structured to misrepresent the
financial position or financial performance of the entity.
♦ Altering records and terms related to significant and unusual transactions.

Why do Management/ Employees commit fraud? What induces Management/

Employees to commit fraud? Following are certain instances which will help to
understand these questions:
♦ Financial obligations/ Pressure.

♦ Management’s unrealistic goals.
♦ Dissatisfied Employees or Lack of motivation among employees.
♦ Name game (eg. management using power of authority by asking employees
to do something illegal).
♦ Opportunity to commit fraud.
2.2.2 Misappropriation of Assets:
It involves the theft of an entity’s assets and is often perpetrated by employees in
relatively small and immaterial amounts. However,
it can also involve management who are usually
more able to disguise or conceal
misappropriations in ways that are difficult to
detect. Misappropriation of assets can be
accomplished in a variety of ways including:
♦ Embezzling receipts (for example, Fig.: Theft of Assets
misappropriating collections on accounts
receivable or diverting receipts in respect of written-off accounts to personal
bank accounts).
♦ Stealing physical assets or intellectual property (for example, stealing
inventory for personal use or for sale, stealing scrap for resale, colluding with
a competitor by disclosing technological data in return for payment).

IN THIS REGARD
♦ Causing an entity to pay for goods and services not received (for example,
payments to fictitious vendors, kickbacks paid by vendors to the entity’s
purchasing agents in return for inflating prices, payments to fictitious
employees).
♦ Using an entity’s assets for personal use (for example, using the entity’s assets
as collateral for a personal loan or a loan to a related party).
Example
Vineet is a manager in Zed Ex Ltd. He is having authority to sign cheques up to `
10,000. While performing the audit, Rajan, the auditor, noticed that there were many
cheques of ` 9,999 which had been signed by Vineet. Further Vineet had split large
payments (amounting to more than ` 10,000 each, into two or more cheques less
than ` 10,000 each so that he may authorize the payments). This raised suspicion
in the auditor’s mind.
The auditor found that the cheques of ` 9,999 were deposited in Vineet’s personal
account i.e. Vineet had misappropriated the amount.
Splitting the cheques into lower amounts involves manipulation of accounts.
The fraud was committed by an employee.
Misappropriation of assets is often accompanied

by false or misleading records or documents in
order to conceal the fact that the assets are missing
or have been pledged without proper
authorization. 1
2.2.2.1 Misappropriation of Goods

Fraud in the form of misappropriation of goods is
still more difficult to detect; for this, management
has to rely on various measures. Apart from the
various requirements of record keeping about the
physical quantities and their periodic checks, there Fig.: Theft of Goods*
must be rules and procedures for allowing persons
inside the area where goods are kept. In addition there should be external security
arrangements to see that no goods are taken out without proper authority. Goods
can be anything in the premises; it may be machinery. It may even be the daily
necessities of the office like stationery. The goods may be removed by subordinate
*
Source of image: www.clipartster.com

employees or even by persons quite higher up in the management. Auditors can

detect this by undertaking a thorough and strenuous checking of records followed
by physical verification process. Also, by resorting to intelligent ratio analysis,
auditors may be able to form an idea whether such fraud exists.
Therefore, it is clear from the above that the ‘fraud’ deals with intentional
misrepresentation but, ‘error’, on the other hand, refers to unintentional mistakes
in financial information.
Intentional errors are most difficult to detect and auditors generally devote greater
attention to this type because out of long and sometimes unfortunate experience,
auditors have developed a point of view that, if they direct their procedures of
discovering the more difficult intentional errors, they are reasonably certain to
locate the more simple and far more common unintentional errors on the way.
2.2.2.2 Defalcation of Cash
Defalcation of cash has been found to perpetrate generally in the following ways:
(a) By inflating cash payments:

Examples of inflation of payments:
(1) Making payments against fictitious vouchers.
(2)Making payments against vouchers, the amounts whereof have been
inflated.
(3) Manipulating totals of wage rolls either by including therein names of
dummy workers or by inflating them in any other manner.
(4) Casting a larger totals for petty cash expenditure and adjusting the excess
in the totals of the detailed columns so that cross totals show agreement.
(b) By suppressing cash receipts:
Few techniques of how receipts are suppressed are:

IN THIS REGARD
(1) Teeming and Lading: Amount received from a customer being
misappropriated; also to prevent its detection the money received from
another customer subsequently being credited to the account of the
customer who has paid earlier. Similarly, moneys received from the
customer who has paid thereafter being credited to the account of the
second customer and such a practice is continued so that no one
account is outstanding for payment for any length of time, which may
lead the management to either send out a statement of account to him
or communicate with him.
(2) Adjusting unauthorised or fictitious rebates, allowances, discounts, etc.
to customer’ accounts and misappropriating amount paid by them.
(3) Writing off as debts in respect of such balances against which cash has
already been received but has been misappropriated.
(4) Not accounting for cash sales fully.
(5) Not accounting for miscellaneous receipts, e.g., sale of scrap, quarters
allotted to the employees, etc.
(6) Writing down asset values in entirety, selling them subsequently and
misappropriating the proceeds.
(c) By casting wrong totals in the cashbook.
3. DETECTION OF FRAUD AND ERROR–DUTY

OF AN AUDITOR
As per SA 240 “The Auditor’s
Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an
Audit of Financial Statements”, the
primary responsibility for the
prevention and detection of fraud rests
with both those charged with
governance of the entity and
management. It is important that
management, with the oversight of Fig.: Meticulous Analysis by Auditor for
those charged with governance, place a detection of Fraud/Error***
strong emphasis on fraud prevention, which may reduce opportunities for fraud to
take place, and fraud deterrence, which could persuade individuals not to commit
fraud because of the likelihood of detection and punishment. This involves a

commitment to creating a culture of honesty and ethical behavior which can be

reinforced by an active oversight by those charged with governance.
Broadly, the general principles laid down in the SA may be noted as under:
1. An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with SAs is responsible for obtaining
reasonable assurance that the financial statements taken as a whole are free from
material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error. As described in SA200,
“Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit
in Accordance with Standards on Auditing,” owing to the inherent limitations
of an audit, there is an unavoidable risk that some material misstatements of the
financial statements will not be detected, even though the audit is properly
planned and performed in accordance with the SAs.
2. The risk of not detecting a material misstatement resulting from fraud is higher
than the risk of not detecting one resulting from error. This is because, fraud may
involve sophisticated and carefully organized schemes designed to conceal it,
such as forgery, deliberate failure to record transactions, or intentional
misrepresentations being made to the auditor. Such attempts at concealment
may be even more difficult to detect when accompanied by collusion. Collusion
may cause the auditor to believe that audit evidence is persuasive when it is, in
fact, false. The auditor’s ability to detect a fraud depends on factors such as the
skillfulness of the perpetrator, the frequency and extent of manipulation, the
degree of collusion involved, the relative size of individual amounts manipulated,
and the seniority of those individuals involved. While the auditor may be able to
identify potential opportunities for fraud to be perpetrated, it is difficult for the
auditor to determine whether misstatements in judgment areas such as
accounting estimates are caused by fraud or error.
3. Furthermore, the risk of the auditor not detecting a material misstatement
resulting from management fraud is greater than for employee fraud, because
management is frequently in a position to directly or indirectly manipulate
accounting records, present fraudulent financial information or override
control procedures designed to prevent similar frauds by other employees.
4. When obtaining reasonable assurance, the auditor is responsible for
maintaining an attitude of professional skepticism throughout the audit,
considering the potential for management override of controls and recognizing
the fact that audit procedures that are effective for detecting error may not be
effective in detecting fraud. The requirements in this SA are designed to assist
the auditor in identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement due
to fraud and in designing procedures to detect such misstatement.

IN THIS REGARD
Case Study 1
While auditing XYZ Ltd., the auditor was told by Mr. Mahesh, the CEO of the
company, that he would be responsible for the fraud & errors, if any, occurring
in the books of accounts of the company.
Auditor’s Responsibilities for Detection of Fraud and Error: As per SA 240 “The
Auditor’s Responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of Financial Statements”, an
auditor conducting an audit in accordance with SAs is responsible for obtaining
material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error.
Owing to the inherent limitations of an audit, there is an unavoidable risk that some
material misstatements of the financial statements will not be detected, even
though the audit is properly planned and performed in accordance with the SAs.
When obtaining reasonable assurance, the auditor is responsible for maintaining an
attitude of professional skepticism throughout the audit, considering the potential
for management override of controls and recognizing the fact that audit procedures
that are effective for detecting error may not be effective in detecting fraud.
An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with SAs is responsible for obtaining
material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error.
The auditor also has the responsibility to communicate the misstatement to the
appropriate level of management on a timely basis and consider the need to report
to it to those charged with governance. He may also obtain legal advice before
reporting on the financial information or before withdrawing from the engagement.
The auditor should satisfy himself that the effect of fraud is properly reflected in
the financial information or the error is corrected in case the modified procedures
performed by the auditor confirms the existence of the fraud.
The auditor should also consider the implications of the frauds and errors, and
frame his report appropriately. In case of a fraud, the same should be disclosed in
the financial statement. If adequate disclosure is not made, there should be a
suitable disclosure in his audit report.
Case Study 2
After the completion of statutory audit of ABC Ltd., a fraud was detected at
the office of the auditee. The management of the company alleged that there
is a failure on the part of the auditor to detect fraud and that auditor would
be responsible for not detecting fraud in the company.

Detection of Fraud after Completion of Statutory Audit: As per SA 240, the

primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud rests with both
those charged with governance of the entity and management. It is important that
management, with the oversight of those charged with governance, place a strong
emphasis on fraud prevention, which may reduce opportunities for fraud to take
place, and fraud deterrence, which could persuade individuals not to commit fraud
because of the likelihood of detection and punishment. Such a system reduces but
does not eliminate the possibility of fraud and error.
An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with SAs is responsible for obtaining
material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error. Owing to the inherent
limitations of an audit, there is an unavoidable risk that some material misstatements
of the financial statements will not be detected, even though the audit is properly
planned and performed in accordance with the SAs.
The risk of not detecting a material misstatement resulting from fraud is higher
than the risk of not detecting one resulting from error. This is because fraud may
involve sophisticated and carefully organized schemes designed to conceal it, such
as forgery, deliberate failure to record transactions, or intentional
misrepresentations being made to the auditor. Such attempts at concealment may
be even more difficult to detect when accompanied by collusion.
The subsequent discovery of material misstatement of the financial information
resulting from fraud or error existing during the period covered by the auditor’s
report does not, in itself, indicate that whether the auditor has adhered to the basic
principles governing an audit. The question of whether the auditor has adhered to
the basic principles governing an audit (such as performance of the audit work with
requisite skills and competence, documentation of important matters, details of the
audit plan and reliance placed on internal controls, nature and extent of compliance
and substantive tests carried out, etc.) is determined by the adequacy of the
procedures undertaken in the circumstances and the suitability of the auditor’s
report based on the results of these procedures.
The liability of the auditor for failure to detect fraud exists only when such failure is clearly
due to not exercising reasonable care and skill. Thus, in the instant case, after the
completion of the statutory audit, if a fraud has been detected, the same by itself can
not mean that the auditor did not perform his duty properly. If the auditor can prove
with the help of his papers (documentation) that he has followed adequate procedures
necessary for the proper conduct of an audit, he cannot be held responsible for the
same. If however, the same cannot be proved, he would be held responsible.

IN THIS REGARD
4. FRAUD RISK FACTORS AND POSSIBILITY OF

FRAUD
SA 240, further, explains by way of examples, certain risk factors and circumstances
relating to possibility of fraud as may be considered by the auditor which are dealt
in the following paragraphs.
4.1 Fraud Risk Factors

Fraud Risk Factors may be defined as events or conditions that indicate an incentive
or pressure to commit fraud or provide an opportunity to commit fraud.
Examples of Fraud Risk Factors: The fraud risk factors identified here are
examples of such factors that may be faced by auditors in a broad range of
situations. Separately presented are examples relating to the two types of fraud
relevant to the auditor’s consideration, i.e.,
(A) fraudulent financial reporting, and
(B) misappropriation of assets.
For each of these types of fraud, the risk factors are further classified based on the
three conditions generally present when material misstatements due to fraud occur:
(a) incentives/pressures,
(b) opportunities, and
(c) attitudes/rationalizations.
Although the risk factors cover a broad range of situations, they are only examples
and, accordingly, the auditor may identify additional or different risk factors. Not

all of these examples are relevant in all circumstances, and some may be of greater
or lesser significance in entities of different size or with different ownership
characteristics or circumstances. Also, the order of the examples of risk factors
provided is not intended to reflect their relative importance or frequency of
occurrence.
(A) Risk Factors Relating to Misstatements Arising from Fraudulent
Financial Reporting: The following are examples of risk factors relating to
misstatements arising from fraudulent financial reporting-
Incentives/Pressures: Financial stability or profitability is threatened by economic,
industry, or entity operating conditions, such as (or as indicated by):
1. High degree of competition or market saturation, accompanied by declining
margins.
2. High vulnerability to rapid changes, such as changes in technology, product
obsolescence, or interest rates.
3. Significant declines in customer demand and increasing business failures in
either the industry or overall economy.
4. Operating losses making the threat of bankruptcy, foreclosure, or hostile
takeover imminent.
5. Recurring negative cash flows from operations or an inability to generate cash
flows from operations while reporting earnings and earnings growth.
6. New accounting, statutory, or regulatory requirements.
Opportunities: The nature of the industry or the entity’s operations provides
opportunities to engage in fraudulent financial reporting that can arise from the
following:
1. Significant related-party transactions not in the ordinary course of business
or with related entities not audited or audited by another firm.
2. A strong financial presence or ability to dominate a certain industry sector
that allows the entity to dictate terms or conditions to suppliers or customers
that may result in inappropriate or non-arm’s-length transactions.
3. Assets, liabilities, revenues, or expenses based on significant estimates that
involve subjective judgments or uncertainties that are difficult to corroborate.
4. Significant, unusual, or highly complex transactions, especially those close to
period end that pose difficult “substance over form” questions.

IN THIS REGARD
5. Significant bank accounts or subsidiary or branch operations in tax-haven
jurisdictions for which there appears to be no clear business justification.
Attitudes/Rationalizations: Communication, implementation, support, or
enforcement of the entity’s values or ethical standards by management, or the
communication of inappropriate values or ethical standards, that are not effective.
1. Known history of violations of securities laws or other laws and regulations.
2. Excessive interest by management in maintaining or increasing the entity’s
inventory price or earnings trend.
3. Management failing to remedy known significant deficiencies in internal
control on a timely basis.
4. An interest by management in employing inappropriate means to minimize
reported earnings for tax-motivated reasons.
5. The owner-manager makes no distinction between personal and business
transactions.
6. The relationship between management and the current or predecessor
auditor is strained, as exhibited by the following:
• Frequent disputes with the current or predecessor auditor on
accounting, auditing, or reporting matters.
• Unreasonable demands on the auditor, such as unrealistic time
constraints regarding the completion of the audit or the issuance of the
auditor’s report.
• Restrictions on the auditor that inappropriately limit access to people
or information or the ability to communicate effectively with those
• Domineering management behavior in dealing with the auditor,
especially involving attempts to influence the scope of the auditor’s
work or the selection or continuance of personnel assigned to or
consulted on the audit engagement.
(B) Risk Factors Arising from Misstatements Arising from Misappropriation
of Assets: Risk factors that relate to misstatements arising from misappropriation
of assets are also classified according to the three conditions generally present
when fraud exists: incentives/ pressures, opportunities, and attitudes/
rationalization. Some of the risk factors related to misstatements arising from
fraudulent financial reporting also may be present when misstatements arising
from misappropriation of assets occur.

The following are examples of risk factors related to misstatements arising

from misappropriation of assets-
Incentives/Pressures: Personal financial obligations may create pressure on
management or employees with access to cash or other assets susceptible to theft
to misappropriate those assets.
Adverse relationships between the entity and employees with access to cash or
other assets susceptible to theft may motivate those employees to misappropriate
those assets. For example, adverse relationships may be created by the following:
1. Known or anticipated future employee layoffs.
2. Recent or anticipated changes to employee compensation or benefit plans.
3. Promotions, compensation, or other rewards inconsistent with expectations.
Opportunities: Certain characteristics or circumstances may increase the
susceptibility of assets to misappropriation. For example, opportunities to
misappropriate assets increase when there are the following:
1. Large amounts of cash on hand or processed.
2. Inventory items that are small in size, of high value, or in high demand.
3. Easily convertible assets, such as bearer bonds, diamonds, or computer chips.
4. Fixed assets which are small in size, marketable, or lacking observable
identification of ownership.
Inadequate internal control over assets may increase the susceptibility of
misappropriation of those assets. For example, misappropriation of assets may
occur because there is the following:
♦ Inadequate segregation of duties or independent checks.
♦ Inadequate oversight of senior management expenditures, such as travel and
other reimbursements.
♦ Inadequate record keeping with respect to assets.
♦ Inadequate system of authorization and approval of transactions (for
example, in purchasing).
♦ Inadequate physical safeguards over cash, investments, inventory, or fixed
assets.
♦ Lack of complete and timely reconciliations of assets.

IN THIS REGARD
♦ Lack of timely and appropriate documentation of transactions, for example,
credits for merchandise returns.
♦ Lack of mandatory vacations for employees performing key control functions.
♦ Inadequate management understanding of information technology, which
enables information technology employees to perpetrate a misappropriation.
♦ Inadequate access controls over automated records, including controls over
and review of computer systems event logs.
Attitudes/Rationalizations: Disregard for the need for monitoring or reducing
risks related to misappropriations of assets.
♦ Disregard for internal control over misappropriation of assets by overriding
existing controls or by failing to take appropriate remedial action on known
deficiencies in internal control.
♦ Behavior indicating displeasure or dissatisfaction with the entity or its
treatment of the employee.
♦ Changes in behavior or lifestyle that may indicate assets have been
misappropriated
♦ Tolerance of petty theft.
4.2 Circumstances Relating to Possibility of Fraud

Examples of circumstances that indicate the possibility of fraud: The following
are examples of circumstances that may indicate the possibility that the financial
statements may contain a material misstatement resulting from fraud-

(A) Discrepancies in the accounting records, including:

• Transactions that are not recorded in a complete or timely manner or
are improperly recorded as to amount, accounting period, classification,
or entity policy.
• Unsupported or unauthorized balances or transactions.
• Last-minute adjustments that significantly affect financial results.
• Evidence of employees’ access to systems and records inconsistent with
that necessary to perform their authorized duties.
• Tips or complaints to the auditor about alleged fraud.
(B) Conflicting or missing evidence, including:
• Missing documents.
• Documents that appear to have been altered.
• Significant unexplained items on reconciliations.
• Unusual discrepancies between the entity’s records and confirmation
replies.
• Large numbers of credit entries and other adjustments made to
accounts receivable records.
• Missing or non-existent cancelled cheques in circumstances where
cancelled cheques are ordinarily returned to the entity with the bank
statement.
• Missing inventory or physical assets of significant magnitude.
• Unavailable or missing electronic evidence, inconsistent with the
entity’s record retention practices or policies.
Example
Raj is the auditor of XYZ Ltd. Raj is analysing the financial statements of the company
by studying significant ratios. Some of the ratios that he studied were the gross profit
ratio and net profit ratio. The gross profit ratio for the current year 2019-20 is 19%
and for the previous year 2018-19 was 25%. Similarly, net profit ratio for the current
year 2019-20 is 7%, where as in previous year 2018- 19 it was 11%.
There is a large variation in the gross profit ratio and net profit ratio over the two
years. Hence, the auditor has reason to believe that there may be something
unusual. He will consider the results of such analytical procedures while drawing
up his audit plan and allot more time to studying purchases.

IN THIS REGARD
Example
Analytical procedures exhibiting unusual ratios and trend e.g. unusually large trans-
actions reported in the last month of the reporting period.
(C) Problematic or unusual relationships between the auditor and

management, including:
• Denial of access to records, facilities, certain employees, customers,
vendors, or others from whom audit evidence might be sought.
• Undue time pressures imposed by management to resolve complex or
contentious issues.
• Unusual delays by the entity in providing requested information.
• Unwillingness to facilitate auditor access to key electronic files for
testing through the use of computer-assisted audit techniques.
• Denial of access to key IT operations staff and facilities, including
security, operations, and systems development personnel.
• An unwillingness to add or revise disclosures in the financial statements
to make them more complete and understandable.
• An un willingness to address identified deficiencies in internal control
on a timely basis.
(D) Other
• Unwillingness by management to permit the auditor to meet privately
with those charged with governance.
• Accounting policies that appear to be at variance with industry norms.
• Frequent changes in accounting estimates that do not appear to result
from changed circumstances.
• Tolerance of violations of the entity’s Code of Conduct.
5. FRAUD REPORTING
Reporting to the Central Government: As per sub-section (12) of section 143 of
the Companies Act, 2013, if an auditor of a company in the course of the
performance of his duties as auditor, has reason to believe that an offence of fraud
involving such amount or amounts as may be prescribed, is being or has been

committed in the company by its officers or employees, the auditor shall report the
matter to the Central Government within such time and in such manner as may be
prescribed.
In this regard, Rule 13 of the Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules, 2014 has been
prescribed. Sub-rule (1) of the said rule states that if an auditor of a company, in
the course of the performance of his duties as statutory auditor, has reason to
believe that an offence of fraud, which involves or is expected to involve individually
an amount of ` 1 crore or above, is being or has been committed against the
company by its officers or employees, the auditor shall report the matter to the
Central Government.
The manner of reporting the matter to the Central Government is as follows:
(a) the auditor shall report the matter to the Board or the Audit Committee, as
the case may be, immediately but not later than 2 days of his knowledge of
the fraud, seeking their reply or observations within 45 days;
(b) on receipt of such reply or observations, the auditor shall forward his report
and the reply or observations of the Board or the Audit Committee along with
his comments (on such reply or observations of the Board or the Audit
Committee) to the Central Government within 15 days from the date of
receipt of such reply or observations;
(c) in case the auditor fails to get any reply or observations from the Board or
the Audit Committee within the stipulated period of 45 days, he shall forward
his report to the Central Government along with a note containing the details
of his report that was earlier forwarded to the Board or the Audit Committee
for which he has not received any reply or observations;
(d) the report shall be sent to the Secretary, Ministry of Corporate Affairs in a
sealed cover by Registered Post with Acknowledgement Due or by Speed Post
followed by an e-mail in confirmation of the same;
(e) the report shall be on the letter-head of the auditor containing postal
address, e-mail address and contact telephone number or mobile number
and be signed by the auditor with his seal and shall indicate his Membership
Number; and
(f) the report shall be in the form of a statement as specified in Form ADT-4.

IN THIS REGARD
II. Reporting to the Audit Committee or Board: Sub-section (12) of section
143 of the Companies Act, 2013 further prescribes that in case of a fraud involving
lesser than the specified amount [i.e. less than ` 1 crore], the auditor shall report
the matter to the audit committee constituted under section 177 or to the Board in
other cases within such time and in such manner as may be prescribed.
In this regard, sub-rule (3) of Rule 13 of the Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules,
2014 states that in case of a fraud involving lesser than the amount specified in
sub- rule (1) [i.e. less than ` 1 crore], the auditor shall report the matter to Audit
Committee constituted under section 177 or to the Board immediately but not later
than 2 days of his knowledge of the fraud and he shall report the matter specifying
the following:
(a) Nature of Fraud with description;
(b) Approximate amount involved; and
(c) Parties involved.
III Disclosure in the Board’s Report: Sub-section (12) of section 143 of the
Companies Act, 2013 furthermore prescribes that the companies, whose auditors
have reported frauds under this sub-section (12) to the audit committee or the
Board, but not reported to the Central Government, shall disclose the details about
such frauds in the Board’s report in such manner as may be prescribed.
In this regard, sub-rule (4) of Rule 13 of the Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules,
2014 states that the auditor is also required to disclose in the Board’s Report the
following details of each of the fraud reported to the Audit Committee or the Board
under sub- rule (3) during the year:
(a) Nature of Fraud with description;
(b) Approximate Amount involved;
(c) Parties involved, if remedial action not taken; and
(d) Remedial actions taken.

Sub-section (13) of section 143 of the Companies Act, 2013 safeguards the act of
fraud reporting by the auditor if it is done in good faith. It states that no duty to
which an auditor of a company may be subject to shall be regarded as having been
contravened by reason of his reporting the matter above if it is done in good faith.
It is very important to note that these provisions shall also apply,
mutatis mutandis, to a cost auditor and a secretarial auditor during the
performance of his duties under section 148 and section 204
respectively. If any auditor, Cost Accountant, or company secretary in
practice does not comply with the provisions of sub-section (12), he shall,—
(a) in case of a listed company, be liable to a penalty of five lakh rupees;
and
(b) in case of any other company, be liable to a penalty of one lakh rupees.

IN THIS REGARD
Reporting on Frauds already detected and reported: The auditor should apply
professional skepticism to evaluate/verify that the fraud was indeed
identified/detected in all aspects by the management or through the company’s
vigil/whistle blower mechanism so that distinction can be clearly made with respect
to frauds identified/detected due to matters raised by the auditor vis-à-vis those
identified/detected by the company through its internal control mechanism.
Since reporting on fraud under section 143(12) is required even by the cost auditor
and the secretarial auditor of the company, it is possible that a suspected offence
involving fraud may have been reported by them even before the auditor became
aware of the fraud. Here too, if a suspected offence of fraud has already been
reported under section 143(12) by such other person, and the auditor becomes
aware of such suspected offence involving fraud, he need not report the same since
he has not per se identified the suspected offence of fraud.
However, in case of a fraud which involves or is expected to involve individually, an
amount of ` 1 crore or more, the auditor should review the steps taken by the
management/those charged with governance with respect to the reported instance
of suspected offence of fraud stated above, and if he is not satisfied with such steps,
he should state the reasons for his dissatisfaction in writing and request the
management/ those charged with governance to perform additional procedures to
enable the auditor to satisfy himself that the matter has been appropriately
addressed. If the management/those charged with governance fail to undertake
appropriate additional procedures within 45 days of his request, the auditor would
need to evaluate if he should report the matter to the Central Government in
accordance with Rule 13 of the Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules, 2014.
Reporting under Companies (Auditor’s Report) Order, 2020 [CARO, 2020]: The
auditor is also required to report under clause (xi) of paragraph 3 of
Companies (Auditor’s Report) Order,2020, whether any fraud by the company
or any fraud on the Company has been noticed or reported during the year. If
yes, the nature and the amount involved is to be indicated.
The auditor is also require to report whether any report under sub-section (12)
of section 143 of the Companies Act has been filed by the auditors in Form
ADT-4 as prescribed under rule 13 of Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules,
2014 with the Central Government; and whether the auditor has considered
whistle-blower complaints, if any, received during the year by the company
The scope of auditor’s inquiry under this clause is restricted to following:
(a) frauds ‘noticed or reported’ during the year;

(b) reporting on filing of any report in Form ADT–4 during the year; and
(c) whistle-blower complaints, if any, received during the year
It may be noted that this clause of the Order, by requiring the auditor to report
whether any fraud by the company or on the company has been noticed or
reported, does not relieve the auditor from his responsibility to consider fraud
and error in an audit of financial statements. In other words, irrespective of
the auditor’s comments under this clause, the auditor is also required to
comply with the requirements of SA 240, “The Auditor’s Responsibility
Relating to Fraud in an Audit of Financial Statements”.
Audit Procedures and Reporting under CARO:
(1) While planning the audit, the auditor should discuss with other members of
the audit team, the susceptibility of the company to material misstatements
in the financial statements resulting from fraud. While planning, the auditor
should also make inquiries of management to determine whether
management is aware of any known fraud or suspected fraud that the
company is investigating.
(2) The auditor should examine the reports of the internal auditor with a view to
ascertain whether any fraud has been reported or noticed by the
management. The auditor should examine the minutes of the audit
committee, if available, to ascertain whether any instance of fraud pertaining
to the company has been reported and actions taken thereon.
The auditor should enquire from the management about any frauds on the
company that it has noticed or that have been reported to it. The auditor
should also discuss the matter with other employees including officers of the
company. The auditor should also examine the minute book of the board
meeting of the company in this regard.
The auditor should also enquire from the management about any whistle-
blower complaints received during the year by the company or that have been
reported to it during the year. The auditor should also discuss the matter with
other employees including officers of the company. The auditor should also
examine the minute book of the board meeting of the company in this regard.
(3) The auditor should obtain written representations from management that:
(i) it acknowledges its responsibility for the implementation and operation
of accounting and internal control systems that are designed to prevent
and detect fraud and error;

IN THIS REGARD
(ii) it believes the effects of those uncorrected misstatements in financial
statements, aggregated by the auditor during the audit are immaterial,
both individually and in the aggregate, to the financial statements taken
as a whole. A summary of such items should be included in or attached
to the written representation;
(iii) it has
(a) disclosed to the auditor all significant facts relating to any frauds
or suspected frauds known to management that may have
affected the entity; and
(b) it has disclosed to the auditor the results of its assessment of the
risk that the financial statements may be materially misstated as
a result of fraud.
4. Because management is responsible for adjusting the financial statements to
correct material misstatements, it is important that the auditor obtains written
representation from management that any uncorrected misstatements
resulting from fraud are, in management’s opinion, immaterial, both
individually and in the aggregate. Such representations are not a substitute
for obtaining sufficient appropriate audit evidence. In some circumstances,
management may not believe that certain of the uncorrected financial
statement misstatements aggregated by the auditor during the audit are
misstatements. For that reason, management may want to add to their written
representation words such as, “We do not agree that items constitute
misstatements because [description of reasons].”
The auditor should consider if any fraud has been reported by them during
the year under section 143(12) of the Act and if so whether that same would
be reported under this Clause. It may be mentioned here that section 143(12)
of the Act requires the auditor to have reasons to believe that a fraud is
being committed or has been committed by an employee or officer. In such
a case the, auditor needs to report to the Central Government or the Audit
Committee. However, this Clause will include only the reported frauds and
not suspected fraud.
5. Where the auditor notices that any fraud by the company or on the company
by its officers or employees has been noticed by or reported during the year,
the auditor should, apart from reporting the existence of fraud, also required
to report, the nature of fraud and amount involved. For reporting under this
clause, the auditor may consider the following:

(i) This clause requires all frauds noticed or reported during the year shall
be reported indicating the nature and amount involved. As specified the
fraud by the company or on the company by its officers or employees
are only covered.
(ii) Of the frauds covered under section 143(12) of the Act, only noticed
frauds shall be included here and not the suspected frauds.
(iii) While reporting under this clause with regard to the nature and the
amount involved of the frauds noticed or reported, the auditor may also
consider the principles of materiality outlined in Standards on Auditing.
6. AUDITOR UNABLE TO CONTINUE THE

ENGAGEMENT
If, as a result of a misstatement resulting from fraud or suspected fraud, the auditor
encounters exceptional circumstances that bring into question the auditor’s ability
to continue performing the audit, the auditor shall:
(a) Determine the professional and legal responsibilities applicable in the
circumstances, including whether there is a requirement for the auditor to
report to the person or persons who made the audit appointment or, in some
cases, to regulatory authorities;
(b) Consider whether it is appropriate to withdraw from the engagement, where
withdrawal is possible under applicable law or regulation; and
(c) If the auditor withdraws:
(i) Discuss with the appropriate level of management and those charged
with governance the auditor’s withdrawal from the engagement and the
reasons for the withdrawal; and
(ii) Determine whether there is a professional or legal requirement to
report to the person or persons who made the audit appointment or, in
some cases, to regulatory authorities, the auditor’s withdrawal from the
engagement and the reasons for the withdrawal.

IN THIS REGARD
SUMMARY
SA 240 “The Auditor’s Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of Financial
Statements” defines the term ‘fraud’ as “an intentional act by one or more
individuals among management, those charged with governance, employees, or
third parties, involving the use of deception to obtain an unjust or illegal
advantage”.
Two types of intentional misstatements are relevant to the auditor–misstatements
resulting from fraudulent financial reporting and misstatements resulting from
misappropriation of assets. Misstatements in the financial statements can arise
from either fraud or error. The distinguishing factor between fraud and error is
whether the underlying action that results in the misstatement of the financial
statements is intentional or unintentional.
Fraud, whether fraudulent financial reporting or misappropriation of assets,
involves incentive or pressure to commit fraud, a perceived opportunity to do so
and some rationalization of the act. Fraudulent financial reporting involves
intentional misstatements including omissions of amounts or disclosures in
financial statements to deceive financial statement users. Misappropriation of
Assets involves the theft of an entity’s assets and is often perpetrated by employees
in relatively small and immaterial amounts.
As per SA 240 the primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud
rests with management. An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with SAs is
responsible for obtaining reasonable assurance that the financial statements are
free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error.
Fraud Risk Factors may be defined as events or conditions that indicate an incentive
or pressure to commit fraud or provide an opportunity to commit fraud.
Fraud Reporting [Section 143(12) of Companies Act, 2013 & Rule 13 of CAAR, 2014]
A. Reporting of Fraud involving amount of less than 1 crore rupees: Auditor to
Report Board/Audit Committee within 2 days of knowledge of fraud.
The auditor should Report the following matters:
(a) Nature of Fraud with description; (b) Approximate amount involved; and (c)
Parties involved.
Company is bound to disclose certain specified details in Board’s Report as (a)
Nature of Fraud with description; (b) Approximate amount involved; (c) Parties
involved, if remedial action not taken; and (d) Remedial actions taken.

B. Reporting of Fraud involving amount of rupees 1 crore or above: The auditor

shall report the matter to the Board or the Audit Committee, as the case may be,
immediately but not later than 2 days of his knowledge of the fraud, seeking their
reply or observations within 45 days;
♦ In case reply/observations received within stipulated time, the auditor is
required to forward report along with reply/observations and comments to
Central Government within 15 days of receipt of such reply/observations.
♦ Incase reply/observations not received within stipulated time (within45days)
the auditor should forward the report along with note containing details of
report for which failed to receive any reply/observations to Central
Government.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct/Incorrect
State with reasons (in short) whether the following statement is correct or
incorrect:
(i) Teeming and lading is one of the techniques of inflating cash payments.
(i) Fraud can be termed as intentional error.
(iii) Auditor needs to report to Central Government in case of fraud involving 20
lakhs rupees.
(iv) The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud rests with
both those charged with governance of the entity and management.
(v) Fraudulent financial reporting only involves manipulation, falsification or
alteration of accounting records or supporting documents from which
financial statements are prepared.
(vi) Unusual delays by the entity in providing requested information shows
problematic or unusual relationships between the auditor and
management.
(vii) In comparing management fraud with employee fraud, the auditor’s risk of
failing to discover the fraud is less for management fraud.
(viii) Excessive interest by management in maintaining or increasing the entity’s
inventory price or earnings trend is an example of Fraud Risk Factor related
to Opportunities.

IN THIS REGARD
(ix) Misstatements in the financial statements can arise from fraud only.
(x) Misappropriation of Assets involves the theft of an entity’s assets and is often
perpetrated by employees in relatively large and material amounts.
(xi) An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with SAs is responsible for
obtaining absolute assurance that the financial statements taken as a whole
are free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error.
1. What do you understand by the term ‘fraud’? Provide its meaning as given as
under the Standard on Auditing (SA) 240.
2. Briefly explain self-revealing errors with the help of some illustration.
3. There are many ways for cash defalcation, one of which is suppressing cash
receipts. List out few techniques of how the receipts are suppressed.
4. Fraud Risk Factors are the events or conditions that indicate an incentive or
pressure to commit fraud or provide an opportunity to commit fraud.
Further, the nature of the industry or the entity’s operations also provides
opportunities to engage in fraudulent financial reporting. List out some of
the cases from where these opportunities may arise.
5. You notice a misstatement resulting from fraud or suspected fraud during the
audit and conclude that it is not possible to continue the performance of
audit. As a statutory Auditor, how would you deal?
6. Explain the scope of a Company Auditor’s enquiry on Fraud matters as
enshrined in the Companies (Auditor’s Report) Order, 2020.
7. During the Statutory Audit of a Public Limited Company , XYZ Ltd. its auditor,
Mr. Bajaj , the engagement partner of Bajaj Chopra & Associates , encounters
some exceptional circumstances that bring into question his ability to
continue performing the audit while suspecting a fraud arising from material
misstatements. Explain the steps to be taken in such a case.
8. Inadequate internal control over assets may increase the susceptibility of
misappropriation of those assets. Enlist some examples of such
circumstances.
9. In an audit of Financial statements of PQR Ltd., CA Vikas Khemka finds that
the Cash receipts have been suppressed. Give examples of such techniques
which may have led him suspect this.

10. Enlist the instances which induce Management/Employees to commit fraud?

11. Fraudulent financial reporting often involves management override of
controls that otherwise may appear to be operating effectively. Explain some
techniques by which fraud can be committed by management overriding
controls.
ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
(i) Incorrect: Teeming and Lading is one of the techniques of suppressing cash
receipts and not of inflating cash payments. Money received from one
customer is misappropriated and the account is adjusted with the subsequent
receipt from another customer and so on.
(ii) Correct: Fraud is the word used to mean intentional error. This is done
deliberately which implies that there is intent to deceive, to mislead or at least
to conceal the truth. It follows that other things being equal they are more
serious than unintentional errors because of the implication of dishonestly
which accompanies them.
(iii) Incorrect: As per section 143(12) of the Companies Act, 2013, if an auditor of
a company, in the course of the performance of his duties as auditor, has
reason to believe that an offence involving fraud is being or has been
committed against the company by officers or employees of the company, he
shall immediately report the matter to the Central Government (in case
amount of fraud is ` 1 crore or above) or Audit Committee or Board in other
cases (in case the amount of fraud involved is less than 1 crore) within such
time and in such manner as may be prescribed.
Thus, fraud involving amount of 20 lakh rupees should be reported to Audit
Committee.
(iv) Correct: As per SA 240 “The Auditor’s Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an
Audit of Financial Statements’. It is important that management, with the
oversight of those charged with governance place a strong emphasis on fraud
prevention, which may reduce opportunities for fraud to take place, and fraud
deterrence, which could persuade individuals not to commit fraud because of
the likelihood of detention and punishment. This involves a commitment to
create a culture of honesty and ethical behavior which can be reinforced by
an active oversight by those charged with governance.

IN THIS REGARD
(v) Incorrect: As per SA 240, ”The Auditor’s Responsibilities Relating to fraud in
an Audit of Financial Statements’, fraudulent financial reporting may involve
manipulation, falsification or alteration of accounting records or supporting
documents from which financial statements are prepared, misrepresentation
in or intentional omission from, financial statements of events, transaction or
other significant information or intentional misapplication of accounting
principles relating to amounts, classification, manner of presentation or
disclosure.
(vi) Correct: It is a strong example of circumstances that indicate the possibility
of fraud. This happiness only because of the Management’s intolerance
towards the auditor’s Professional skepticism
(vii) Incorrect: In comparing management fraud with employee fraud, the
auditor’s risk of failing to discover the fraud is greater for management fraud
because of management’s ability to override existing internal controls
(viii) Incorrect: Excessive interest by management in maintaining or increasing the
entity’s inventory price or earnings trend is an example of Fraud Risk Factor
related to Rationalization.
(ix) Incorrect: Misstatements in the financial statements can arise from either
fraud or error. The distinguishing factor between fraud and error is whether
the underlying action that results in the misstatement of the financial
statements is intentional or unintentional.
(x) Incorrect:- Misappropriation of Assets involves the theft of an entity’s assets
and is often perpetrated by employees in relatively small and immaterial
amounts.
(xi) Incorrect:- An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with SAs is
responsible for obtaining reasonable assurance that the financial statements
taken as a whole are free from material misstatement, whether caused by
fraud or error. As described in SA200, “Overall Objectives of the
Independent Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with
Standards on Auditing,” owing to the inherent limitations of an audit, there
is an unavoidable risk that some material misstatements of the financial
statements will not be detected, even though the audit is properly planned
and performed in accordance with the SAs.

Answer to Theoretical Questions

1. Meaning of Fraud: The SA 240 ‘The Auditor’s Responsibilities Relating to
Fraud in an Audit of Financial Statements; defines the term fraud as an
intentional act by one or more individuals among management, those
charged with governance, employees, or third parties, involving the use of
deception to obtain an unjust or illegal advantage.
2. Self Revealing Errors: These are such errors the existence of which becomes
apparent in the process of compilation of account. A few illustrations of such
errors are given hereunder, showing how they become apparent.
(i) Omission to post a part of Trial balance is thrown out of
a journal entry to the agreement
ledger.
(ii) Wrong totaling of the Control Account [e.g. the Sundry
Purchase Register Trade payables Account) balances and
the aggregate of the balance in the
personal ledger will disagree.
(iii) A failure to record in the Bank reconciliation statement will
cash book amounts paid show up error.
into or withdrawn from the
bank.
(iv) A mistake in recording Statements of account of parties will
amount received from X in reveal mistake.
the account of Y.
From the above, it is clear that certain apparent errors balance almost
automatically by double entry accounting procedure and by following
established practices that lie within the accounting system but not being
generally considered to be a part of it, like bank reconciliation or sending
monthly statements of account for confirmation.
3. Declaration of Cash by Supporting Cash Receipts: Refer Para 2.2.2.2
4. Fraud Risk Factors-Opportunities. Refer 4.1
5. Impossible to Continue the Performance of Audit: Refer Para 6.

IN THIS REGARD
6. The auditor is required to report under clause (xi) of paragraph 3 of
Companies (Auditor’s Report) Order,2020, whether any fraud by the company
or any fraud on the Company has been noticed or reported during the year.
If yes, the nature and the amount involved is to be indicated.
The scope of auditor’s inquiry under this clause includes :-
(a) Frauds ‘noticed or reported’ during the year :-

 While planning, the auditor should also make inquiries of
management to determine whether management is aware of any
known fraud or suspected fraud that the company is investigating.
 The auditor should examine the reports of the internal auditor
with a view to ascertain whether any fraud has been reported or
noticed by the management.
 The auditor should also discuss the matter with other employees
including officers of the company. The auditor should also
examine the minute book of the board meeting of the company
in this regard.
(b) Reporting on filing of any report in Form ADT–4 during the year:- The
auditor should check all the compliances made and various returns filed
with the Registrar of Companies to get facts stated on this matter. He
should thoroughly all such Audit forms filed with Registrar during the
year.
(c) Whistle-blower complaints, if any, received during the year :-
The auditor should also enquire from the management about any
whistle-blower complaints received during the year by the company or
that have been reported to it during the year.
7. If, as a result of a misstatement resulting from fraud or suspected fraud, the
auditor encounters exceptional circumstances that bring into question the
auditor’s ability to continue performing the audit, the auditor shall:
(a) Determine the professional and legal responsibilities applicable in the
circumstances, including whether there is a requirement for the auditor
to report to the person or persons who made the audit appointment or,
in some cases, to regulatory authorities;

(b) Consider whether it is appropriate to withdraw from the engagement,

where withdrawal is possible under applicable law or regulation; and
(c) If the auditor withdraws:
(i) Discuss with the appropriate level of management and those
charged with governance the auditor’s withdrawal from the
engagement and the reasons for the withdrawal; and
(ii) Determine whether there is a professional or legal requirement to

report to the person or persons who made the audit appointment
or, in some cases, to regulatory authorities, the auditor’s
withdrawal from the engagement and the reasons for the
withdrawal.
8. Inadequate internal control over assets may increase the susceptibility of
misappropriation of those assets. For example, misappropriation of assets
may occur because there is the following:
• Inadequate segregation of duties or independent checks.
• Inadequate oversight of senior management expenditures, such as
travel and other reimbursements.
• Inadequate record keeping with respect to assets.
• Inadequate system of authorization and approval of transactions (for
example, in purchasing).
• Inadequate physical safeguards over cash, investments, inventory, or
fixed assets.
• Lack of complete and timely reconciliations of assets.
• Lack of timely and appropriate documentation of transactions, for
example, credits for merchandise returns.
• Lack of mandatory vacations for employees performing key control
functions.
• Inadequate management understanding of information technology,
which enables information technology employees to perpetrate a
misappropriation.

IN THIS REGARD
• Inadequate access controls over automated records, including controls
over and review of computer systems event logs.
9. (1) Teeming and Lading: Amount received from a customer being
misappropriated; also to prevent its detection the money received from
another customer subsequently being credited to the account of the
customer who has paid earlier. Similarly, moneys received from the
customer who has paid thereafter being credited to the account of the
second customer and such a practice is continued so that no one
account is outstanding for payment for any length of time, which may
lead the management to either send out a statement of account to him
or communicate with him.
(2) Adjusting unauthorised or fictitious rebates, allowances, discounts, etc.

to customer’ accounts and misappropriating amount paid by them.
(3) Writing off as debts in respect of such balances against which cash has
already been received but has been misappropriated.
(4) Not accounting for cash sales fully.
(5) Not accounting for miscellaneous receipts, e.g., sale of scrap, quarters
allotted to the employees, etc.
(6) Writing down asset values in entirety, selling them subsequently and
misappropriating the proceeds.
10. Following are such certain instances:-
• Financial obligations/ Pressure.
• Management’s unrealistic goals.
• Dissatisfied Employees or Lack of motivation among employees.
• Name game (e.g management using power of authority by asking

employees to do something illegal).
• Opportunity to commit fraud.

11. Fraud can be committed by management overriding controls using such

techniques as:
• Recording fictitious journal entries, particularly close to the end of an
accounting period, to manipulate operating results or achieve other
objectives.
• Inappropriately adjusting assumptions and changing judgments used
to estimate account balances.
• Omitting, advancing or delaying recognition in the financial statements
of events and transactions that have occurred during the reporting
period.
• Concealing, or not disclosing, facts that could affect the amounts
recorded in the financial statements.
• Engaging in complex transactions that are structured to misrepresent
the financial position or financial performance of the entity.
• Altering records and terms related to significant and unusual
transactions.

CHAPTER
6
AUDIT IN AN AUTOMATED
ENVIRONMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand the meaning of an Automated environment.
 Understand the relevance of IT in an audit.
 Learn how to perform an understanding of an Automated environment and
documenting the same.
 Identify the various risks in Automated environment and the corresponding
controls.
 Gain knowledge of internal financial controls as per regulatory
requirements.
 Recognize the way data analytics can be used in an audit.
 Learn to assess and report audit findings.

Think on the following:

Confirmation of a Movie ticket online
Online payment of taxes or bills
Internet Banking & use of Debit & Credit Cards
Using an ATM to withdraw cash
Office meetings through Video-conferencing
All these are the fruits we reap from “Modern Technology and Automated
Computer Systems”. With the increasing adoption of information technology,
business today rely on software systems and applications more than ever. Many of
these IT systems generate and process data that is used in the preparation of
financial statements of a company. The auditors also often rely on the data and
reports that are generated from these systems. In this context, it is critical to
understand the IT specific risks that could potentially impact the integrity and
reliability of financial transactions and data flowing through a company’s systems.
In this chapter, we will learn about the need, relevance and approach to be
adopted when performing an audit in an Automated environment that is driven
by IT systems and applications that are used in the preparation of financial
statements of a company. We will see how the work performed with respect to
Automated environment fits into the overall financial statement audit process. We
will also understand how data analytics can become useful in an audit.
Finally, we will look at how to assess audit findings and report them to the
stakeholders.
1. WHAT IS AN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT?

Let us first understand what the term “Automated Environment” means. An
automated environment basically refers to a business environment where the
processes, operations, accounting and even decisions are carried out by using
computer systems – also known as Information Systems (IS) or Information
Technology (IT) systems. Nowadays, it is very common to see computer systems
being used in almost every type of business.

AUDIT IN AN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT 6.3
Example
Think about how banking transactions are carried out using ATMs (Automated
Teller Machines), or how tickets can be purchased using “apps” on mobile phones,
etc. In these examples, you can see how these computer systems enable us to
transact business at any time and any day.
Some of the key features of an automated environment are as follows:
1.1 Key features of an Automated Environment

The fundamental principle of an automated environment is the ability to carry out
business with less manual intervention and more system driven. The complexity of
a business environment depends on the level of automation i.e., if a business
environment is more automated, it is likely to be more complex.
If a company uses an integrated enterprise resource planning system (ERP) viz.,

SAP, Oracle etc., then it is considered more complex to audit. On the other hand,
if a company is using an off-the-shelf accounting software, then it is likely to be
less automated and hence less complex environment.
Example
Similarly, there are several other aspects that an auditor should consider to
determine the level of automation and complexity of a business environment
which we will look at in the following sections.

2. RELEVANCE OF ‘IT’ IN AN AUDIT

When a business operates in a more automated environment it is likely that we will
see several business functions and activities happening within the systems.
Consider the following aspects instead of:
♦ Computation and Calculations are automatically carried out (for example,
bank interest computation and inventory valuation).
♦ Accounting entries are posted automatically (for example, sub-ledger to GL
postings are automatic).
♦ Business policies and procedures, including internal controls, are applied
automatically (for example, delegation of authority for journal approvals,
customer credit limit checks are performed automatically).
♦ Reports used in business are produced from systems. Management and
other stakeholders rely on these reports and information produced (for
example, debtors ageing report).
♦ User access and security are controlled by assigning system roles to users
(for example, segregation of duties can be enforced effectively).
Companies derive benefit from the use of IT systems as an enabler to support
various business operations and activities. Auditors need to understand the
relevance of these IT systems to an audit of financial statements.
While it is true that the use of IT systems and automation benefit the business by
making operations more accurate, reliable, effective and efficient, such systems
also introduce certain new risks, including IT specific risks, which need to be
considered, assessed and addressed by management.
To the extent that it is relevant to an audit of financial statements, even auditors
are required to understand, assess and respond to such risks that arise from the
use of IT systems.
[Note: Students may refer SA 315 – Identifying and assessing the risks of
material misstatement through understanding the entity and its environment
for detailed understanding]
In an audit of financial statements, the primary focus is around those risks that are
relevant to financial reporting. However, there could be other non-audit assurance
engagements that auditors maybe involved wherein the area of focus could
include those IT risks relevant to company’s compliance and business operations in

addition to financial reporting risks.
Examples of such non-audit assurance engagements are internal audits, IT audits,

pre-implementation reviews, data migration audits, third party assurance.
With the introduction of the Companies Act 2013, there is greater emphasis given to
internal financial controls (IFC) from a regulatory point of view. Directors and those
charged with governance (including Board of directors, Audit committee) are responsible
for the implementation of internal controls framework within the company. The auditors’
responsibilities now include reporting on Internal Financial Controls over Financial
Reporting which include and understanding IT environment of the company and
relevant risks & controls. We will learn more about IFC in further sections of this chapter.
Given below are some situations in which IT will be relevant to an audit,

♦ Increased use of Systems and Application software in Business (for example,
use of ERPs)
♦ Complexity of transactions has increased (multiple systems, network of
systems)
♦ Hi-tech nature of business (Telecom, e-Commerce).
♦ Volume of transactions are high (Insurance, Banking, Railways ticketing).
♦ Company Policy (Compliance).
♦ Regulatory requirements - Companies Act 2013 IFC, IT Act 2008.
♦ Required by Indian and International Standards - ISO, PCI-DSS, SA 315, SOC,
ISAE.
♦ Increases efficiency and effectiveness of audit.
In some of the above situations it is likely that carrying out audit using traditional
substantive audit procedures may be difficult or even not feasible if the company
prepares, records and conducts majority of business activities through IT systems
only.
On the other hand, many companies may use less complex IT systems including
desktop based accounting or spreadsheets. In such situations, the relevance of IT
to an audit could be less. However, the auditor is still required to carry out at
least an understanding the IT environment of the company and document the
same.
Another area where IT can be relevant to audit is by using data analytics using
computer assisted audit techniques (CAATs). By using data analytics, it is possible

to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of an audit. We will learn more about
data analytics in the later sections of this chapter.
From the above, we can see how IT is relevant to an audit under different
situations viz., audit, non-audit and meeting regulatory compliance requirements.
We will learn more about understanding risks, controls and documentation in
further sections of this chapter.
3. RISKS & CONTROLS IN AN AUTOMATED

ENVIRONMENT
3.1 Understanding and Documenting Automated
Environment
In the previous section, we have learnt that, in an audit of financial statements, an
auditor is required to understand the entity and its business, including IT as per
SA 315. Understanding the entity and its automated environment involves
understanding how IT department is organised, IT activities, the IT dependencies,
relevant risks and controls.
Given below are some of the points that an auditor should consider to obtain an
understanding of the company’s automated environment:
♦ Information systems being used (one or more application systems and what
they are).
♦ Their purpose (financial and non-financial).
♦ Location of IT systems - local vs global.
♦ Architecture (desktop based, client-server, web application, cloud based).
♦ Version (functions and risks could vary in different versions of same
application).
♦ Interfaces within systems (in case multiple systems exist).
♦ In-house vs Packaged.
♦ Outsourced activities (IT maintenance and support).
♦ Key persons (CIO, CISO, Administrators).
The understanding of a company’s IT environment that is obtained should be
documented [Ref. SA 230 – Audit Documentation] using any standard format or
template.

An example of one such template that can be used to document our

understanding is illustrated below.
Informa- Verion Purpose Location- Architecture Interfaces In- Outsource Key Persons In-
tion Local vs within House d Activities Scope
Systems global systems vs.
being Pack-
used aged
SAP ECC 6.0, Accounting, Texas, USA Client/Server, Paymaster Package CIO, Yes
EHPS Supply chain, Unix AIX 5.3, MS- d Administrator
Production SQL s
Server 2008
PayMaster 5.3 Payroll Gurgaon, Web-based, SAP, Package Payroll Yes

India Windows, Accent d processed
Apache, Oracle at ADP
11g
Accent 2 Appraisal Hyderabad, Lotus Notes, Paymaster In-house No
India Windows
Budget 1 Management Hyderabad, Web-based, None In-house No

King MIS India Windows,
Budgeting Apache, Oracle
11 g
Having a summarized document helps the auditor in determining the areas

considered in scope of audit as can be seen from the last column. In this
illustration, it can be seen that two applications have been considered as in scope
for audit based on the purpose and financial relevance to the audit.
Having obtained an understanding of the IT systems and the automated
environment of a company, the auditor should now understand the risks that
arise from the use of IT systems.
Given below are some such risks that should be considered:
♦ Inaccurate processing of data, processing inaccurate data, or both.
♦ Unauthorized access to data.
♦ Direct data changes (backend changes).
♦ Excessive access / Privileged access (super users).
♦ Lack of adequate segregation of duties.
♦ Unauthorized changes to systems or programs.
♦ Failure to make necessary changes to systems or programs.
♦ Loss of data.

3.2 Impact of IT related risks i.e. on Substantive Audit,

Controls and Reporting
The above risks, if not mitigated, could have an impact on audit in different ways. Let us
understand how:
♦ First, we may not be able to rely on the data obtained from systems where
such risks exist. This means, all forms of data, information or reports that we
obtain from systems for the purpose of audit has to be thoroughly tested
and corroborated for completeness and accuracy.
♦ Second, we will not be able to rely on automated controls, calculations,
accounting procedures that are built into the applications. Additional audit
work may be required in this case.
♦ Third, due to the regulatory requirement of auditors to report on internal
financial controls of a company, the audit report also may have to be
modified in some instances.
In all the above scenarios, it is likely that the auditor will be required to obtain
more audit evidence and perform additional audit work. The auditor should also
be able to demonstrate how the risks were identified and what audit evidence was
obtained and validated to address these IT risks.

Here, we should remember that as the complexity, automation and dependence

of business operations on IT systems increases, the severity and impact of IT risks
too increases accordingly. The auditor should apply professional judgement in
determining and assessing such risks and plan the audit response appropriately.
To mitigate the above (and more) risks and maintain the confidentiality, integrity,
availability and security of data, companies implement IT controls. Let us learn
about the various types of IT controls in more detail.
3.3 Types of Controls in an Automated Environment

♦ General IT Controls
♦ Application Controls
♦ IT-Dependent Controls
3.3.1 General IT Controls

“General IT controls are policies and procedures that relate to many applications
and support the effective functioning of application controls. They apply to
mainframe, miniframe, and end-user environments.
General IT-controls that maintain the integrity of information and security of
data commonly include controls over the following:” (SA 315)
♦ Data center and network operations

♦ Program change
♦ Access security
♦ Application system acquisition, development, and maintenance (Business
Applications)
These are IT controls generally implemented to mitigate the IT specific risks and
applied commonly across multiple IT systems, applications and business processes.
Hence, General IT controls are known as “pervasive” controls or “indirect” controls.
Let us now learn about each of the General IT controls in more detail.
Data Center and Network Operations

Objective: To ensure that production systems are processed to meet financial
reporting objectives.
Activities:
♦ Overall Management of Computer Operations Activities
♦ Batch jobs – preparing, scheduling and executing
♦ Backups – monitoring, storage & retention
♦ Performance Monitoring – operating system, database and networks
♦ Recovery from Failures – BCP, DRP
♦ Help Desk Functions – recording, monitoring & tracking
♦ Service Level Agreements – monitoring & compliance
♦ Documentation – operations manuals, service reports
Program Change
Objective: To ensure that modified systems continue to meet financial reporting
objectives.
Activities:
♦ Change Management Process – definition, roles & responsibilities
♦ Change Requests – record, manage, track
♦ Making Changes – analyze, design, develop
♦ Test Changes – test plan, test cases, UAT
♦ Apply Changes in Production

♦ Emergency & Minor Changes

♦ Documentation – user/technical manuals
♦ User Training
Access Security
Objective:To ensure that access to programs and data is authenticated and
authorized to meet financial reporting objectives.
Activities:
♦ Security Organization & Management
♦ Security Policies & Procedures
♦ Application Security
♦ Data Security
♦ Operating System Security
♦ Network Security – internal network, perimeter network
♦ Physical Security – access controls, environment controls
♦ System Administration & Privileged Accounts – Sysadmins, DBAs, Super
users
Application system acquisition, development, and maintenance

Objective: To ensure that systems are developed, configured and implemented to
meet financial reporting objectives.
Activities:
♦ Overall Mgmt. of Development Activities
♦ Project Initiation
♦ Analysis & Design
♦ Construction
♦ Testing & Quality Assurance
♦ Data Conversion
♦ Go-Live Decision
♦ Documentation & Training

3.3.2 Application Controls

Application controls include both automated or manual controls that
operate at a business process level. Automated Application controls are
embedded into IT applications viz., ERPs and help in ensuring the completeness,
accuracy and integrity of data in those systems.
Examples of automated applications include edit checks and validation of input

data, sequence number checks, user limit checks, reasonableness checks,
mandatory data fields.
3.3.3 IT dependent Controls

IT dependent controls are basically manual controls that make use of some form
of data or information or report produced from IT systems and applications. In
this case, even though the control is performed manually, the design and
effectiveness of such controls depends on the reliability of source data.
Due to the inherent dependency on IT, the effectiveness and reliability of
Automated application controls and IT dependent controls require the General IT
Controls to be effective.
3.3.4 General IT Controls vs. Application Controls
♦ These two categories of control over IT systems are interrelated.
♦ The relationship between the application controls and the General IT
Controls is such that General IT Controls are needed to support the
functioning of application controls, and both are needed to ensure complete
and accurate information processing through IT systems.
4. TESTING METHODS
Having learnt about the various IT risks and
controls, let us understand the different ways
testing is performed in an automated
environment. There are basically four types of
audit tests that should be used. They are
inquiry, observation, inspection and
performance. As shown in the illustration
reperformance.
below, inquiry is the most efficient audit test
but it also gives the least audit evidence.
Hence, inquiry should always be used in

combination with any one of the other audit testing methods. Inquiry alone is not
sufficient.
Reperformance is most effective as an audit test and gives the best audit
evidence. However, testing by reperformance could be very time consuming and
least efficient most of the time.
Generally, applying inquiry in combination with inspection gives the most effective
and efficient audit evidence. However, which audit test to use, when and in what
combination is a matter of professional judgement and will vary depending on
several factors including risk assessment, control environment, desired level of
evidence required, history of errors/misstatements, complexity of business,
assertions being addressed, etc. The auditor should document the nature of test
(or combination of tests) applied along with the judgements in the audit file as
required by SA 230.
When testing in an automated environment, some of the more common methods
are as follows:
♦ Obtain an understanding of how an automated transaction is processed by
doing a walkthrough of one end-to-end transaction using a combination of
inquiry, observation and inspection.
♦ Observe how a user processes transactions under different scenarios.
♦ Inspect the configuration defined in an application.
Refer below screenshot of configuration for duplicate invoice check in SAP application.
Example
♦ Inspect the system logs to determine any changes made since last audit
testing.

For example, refer below screenshot for the last modified date of depreciation
calculation program in PeopleSoft application
Example
♦ Inspect technical manual / user manual of systems and applications.
♦ Carry out a test check (negative testing) and observe the error message
displayed by the application.
See below an error displayed by an application i.e. JD Edwards, when posting a

transaction in closed period.
Example
Conduct reperformance using raw source data and independently applying
formulae, business rules or validations on the source data using CAATs.

Example
Refer below the screenshot of a query in MS Access for extraction of journal entries for
above rupees 5 crores.
To rely on the system and application based information including data, reports,
automated controls, configurations, calculations and IT dependent it is essential to
first determine the existence and effectiveness of General IT Controls [ref para 3.3
above]. Where the general IT controls are not existing or existing but ineffective,
the auditor should assess the impact of IT risks and complexity of the automated
environment in which the business operations take place and plan alternative
audit procedures in order to rely on the system based information [ref para 3.2
above].
5. INTERNAL FINANCIAL CONTROLS AS PER

REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
The term Internal Financial Controls (IFC) basically refers to the policies and
procedures put in place by companies for ensuring:
♦ reliability of financial reporting
♦ effectiveness and efficiency of operations
♦ compliance with applicable laws and regulations
♦ safeguarding of assets
♦ prevention and detection of frauds
The Companies Act, 2013 has placed a greater emphasis on the effective
implementation and reporting on the internal controls for a company. The table
below gives a summary of the requirements of the Act.

Reference Who is responsible Applicability
Sec 134(5)(e) Board of Directors Listed Companies*
Rule 8 (5) of Companies Board of Directors All Companies

(Accounts) Rules
Sec 149(8) and Schedule IV Independent Directors All companies having
Independent Directors
Sec 177 Audit Committee All companies having Audit
committee
Sec 143(3) (i) Statutory Auditors All Companies#
* IFC is applicable from April 1, 2014 onwards, for companies.

# Auditor’s opinion on IFC is applicable from the financial year 2015-16 onwards wherein the Statutory
Auditors, along with their opinion on financial statements, should also provide an Independent Opinion on the
Design and Operating Effectiveness of Internal Financial Controls over Financial Reporting (IFC-FR) of the
company as at Balance Sheet date.
1. Section 134 In case of Listed Companies, the Directors’ responsibility

(5)(e)of the statement shall state that the Directors had laid down
Act Internal Financial Controls to be followed by the company
and that such Internal Financial Controls are adequate
and were operating effectively.
2. Section The Auditor’s report shall state whether the company has
143(3)(i) of adequate Internal Financial Controls system in place and
the Act also on the operating effectiveness of such controls.
This requirement shall not apply to a private company which –
(i) is One Person Company or a small company; or
(ii) has turnover less than ₹ 50 crore as per latest audited
Financial Statements ; and
Which has aggregate borrowings from banks or financial
institutions or any body corporate at any point of time during
the Financial Year less than ₹ 25 crore.
3. Section Every Audit Committee shall act in accordance with the terms
177(4)(vii) of of reference specified in writing by the Board which shall, inter
the Act alia, include - evaluation of internal financial controls and risk
management systems.

4. As per Section The company and independent directors shall abide by the
149(8) of the provisions specified in Schedule IV which lays down the
Act Code for Independent Directors. As per this code , the role
and functions of Independent directors include that they
shall satisfy themselves on the integrity of financial
information and that financial controls and the systems of risk
management are robust and defensible
The directors and management have primary responsibility of implementing and

maintaining an effective internal controls framework and auditors are expected to
evaluate, validate and report on the design and operating effectiveness of internal
financial controls. The Guidance note on Audit of Internal Financial Controls over
Financial Reporting issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
provides a framework that auditors should follow to fulfil their responsibility. The
below illustration is a summary of this controls based audit approach.
5.1 Audit Approach
6. DATA ANALYTICS FOR AUDIT

In today’s digital age when companies rely on more and more on IT systems and
networks to operate business, the amount of data and information that exists in
these systems is enormous. A famous businessman recently said, “Data is the new
Oil”.

The combination of processes, tools and techniques that are used to tap vast
amounts of electronic data to obtain meaningful information is called data
analytics. While it is true that companies can benefit immensely from the use of
data analytics in terms of increased profitability, better customer service, gaining
competitive advantage, more efficient operations, etc., even auditors can make use
of similar tools and techniques in the audit process and obtain good results. The
tools and techniques that auditors use in applying the principles of data analytics
are known as Computer Assisted Auditing Techniques or CAATs in short.
Data analytics can be used in testing of electronic records and data residing in IT
systems using spreadsheets and specialised audit tools viz., IDEA and ACL to
perform the following:
♦ Check completeness of data and population that is used in either test of
controls or substantive audit tests.
♦ Selection of audit samples – random sampling, systematic sampling.
♦ Re-computation of balances – reconstruction of trial balance from
transaction data.
♦ Reperformance of mathematical calculations – depreciation, bank interest
calculation.
♦ Analysis of journal entries as required by SA 240.
♦ Fraud investigation.
♦ Evaluating impact of control deficiencies.

Source :- jcjones.com
There are several steps that should be followed to achieve success with CAATs and
any of the supporting tools. A suggested approach to benefit from the use of
CAATs is given in the illustration below:
7. ASSESS AND REPORT AUDIT FINDINGS

At the conclusion of each audit, it is possible that there will be certain findings or
exceptions in IT environment and IT controls of the company that need to be
assessed and reported to relevant stakeholders including management and those
charged with governance viz., Board of directors, Audit committee [Students may
refer SA 260 (Revised) – Communication with Those Charged with Governance for
more details].
Some points to consider are as follows:
♦ Are there any weaknesses in IT controls?
♦ What is the impact of these weaknesses on overall audit?
♦ Report deficiencies to management – Internal Controls Memo or
Management Letter.

♦ Communicate in writing any significant deficiencies to Those Charged With

Governance.
The auditor needs to assess each finding or exception to determine impact on the
audit and evaluate if the exception results in a deficiency in internal control. Refer
to the flowchart to learn how this assessment should be carried out. This
approach and thought process is the same when auditing in an automated
environment or when auditing in a more manual environment.
A deficiency in internal control exits if a control is designed, implemented or

operated in such a way that it is unable to prevent, or detect and correct,
misstatements in the financial statements on a timely basis; or the control is
missing.
Evaluation and assessment of audit findings and control deficiencies involves
applying professional judgement that include considerations for quantitative and
qualitative measures. Each finding should be looked at individually and in the
aggregate by combining with other findings/deficiencies.

The illustration below is an example of a control deficiency in General IT Controls

and how this audit finding is reported to management.
7.1 Reporting Audit Findings – An Illustration

Password resets should be supported with proper request.
Observation As per Information Security Policy User Access changes
should be initiated and approved. However, we observed
that there is no formal process being followed for
password reset in SAP.
Password reset requests are presently communicated over
phone and there is no supporting documentation being
maintained for password reset requests.
[Ref Information Security policy sub-section no.........]
Exposure Passwords of User ID with critical privileges may be reset
and misused.
Non-compliance with Information Security Policy.
Recommendations It is recommended that all password resets should be
requested through a formal process.
Adequate supporting documentation should be
maintained for user changes in SAP, including password
resets, and reviewed periodically.
Management Comments
Response
GLOSSARY
Applications These are computer software programs that provide a
medium for recording, storage and retrieval of business
operations or transactions in electronic format.
Audit evidence This is the data, information, reports that an auditor
obtains during audit and forms the basis for an audit
opinion.
Automated A task or activity that is routinely performed by a
computer system and does not require manual effort.
CAATs Short form for Computer Assisted Audit Techniques, are a
collection of computer based tools and techniques that

are used in an audit for analysing data in electronic form to

obtain audit evidence.
Control Deficiency Exists when an internal control is either missing or not
operating effectively to prevent or detect a misstatement
in a timely manner by management.
Data Refers to the digital content that is stored in electronic
form within computer systems.
Data Analytics A combination of processes, tools and techniques that
are used to tap vast amounts of electronic data to obtain
meaningful information.
Data Processing Refers to the systematic recording, storage, retrieval,
modification and transformation of electronic data using
information systems.
Database A logical subsystem within a larger information system
where electronic data is stored in a predefined form and
retrieved for use.
Direct Data Change A backend modification that is made directly to data that
is stored in a database bypassing business rules built-in to
a business application software.
ERP Enterprise A type of business application software that provides an
Resource Planning integrated platform to automate multiple interrelated
business processes and operations.
Financial Reporting Refers to the process of preparation, presentation and
disclosure of financial statements in accordance with a
specified reporting framework.
General (IT) Controls Are a type of internal controls that help in mitigating risks
that arise due to use of information technology and
information systems in a business.
Information Electronic data residing in computer systems that is
organised in a logical and meaningful manner that is easy
to read, understand and analyse.
Information Systems Refers to a collection of electronic hardware, software,
networks and processes that are used in a business to
carry out operations and transactions.
Information The branch of science and engineering that involves

Technology designing, building, implementing and maintaining

computer systems and networks that can be used in a
variety of ways including operating businesses and setting
up information systems.
Internal Controls Are the policies and procedures that a company implements
to ensure efficiency of business operations, reliability of
financial reporting, compliance with laws & regulations,
safeguarding of assets and prevention of frauds.
Mainframe A term that is used to describe a very large computer
with high computing power, memory and storage that are
required for running large business operations. In
addition to business operations, Mainframes are also
used in fields of Research & Development, Space,
Healthcare, Weather, etc.
Material Weakness A control deficiency or a combination of deficiencies in
internal controls that is important enough to merit the
attention of those charged with governance since there
is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement
will not be prevented or detected in a timely manner by
management.
Operating System Refers to a system software that is installed in a
computer to convert high level user instructions or
commands into low level machine understandable
format and enable interaction with a computer.
Privileged access A type of super user access to information systems that
enforces less or no limits on using that system.
Risk A possibility of something that can go wrong in a
business process, transaction or operation and could
result in a loss.
Segregation of A type of internal control that is implemented in a
duties company to prevent two or more conflicting functions
from being assigned to or being carried out by the
same person.
Significant A control deficiency or a combination of deficiencies in
Deficiency internal controls that is important enough to merit the
attention of those charged with governance since there

is a reasonable possibility that a misstatement will not

be prevented or detected in a timely manner by
management.
Software A computer program or a collection of computer
programs that provides an interface to a user for
performing a specific activity, task, operation or
transaction in electronic form through a computer or
information system.
System Refers to a collection of electronic hardware, software,
networks and processes that are used in a business to
carry out operations and transactions.
ABBREVIATION
IS Information System
ATM Automated Teller Machine
SA Standards on Auditing
CIO Chief Information Officer
CISO Chief Information Security Officer
ELC Entity Level Controls
FSLI Financial Statement Line Item
GITC General Information Technology Controls
IPE Information Produced by Entity
FSA Financial Statement Assertion
RCM Risk & Control Matrix
NTE Nature, Timing & Extent
ICM Internal Controls Memorandum
SOD Segregation of Duties
ERM Enterprise Risk Management
COSO Committee of Sponsoring Organisations

CAATS Computer Assisted Auditing Techniques

ACL Audit Command Language (CAAT Tool)
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IFC Internal Financial Controls
IFC-FR Internal Financial Controls over Financial Reporting
ICFR Internal Controls over Financial Reporting
SOX Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002
PCI - DSS Payment Card Industry - Data Security Standard
ITIL Information Technology Infrastructure Library
COBIT Control Objectives for Information and Related
SOC Service Organisation Controls
SSAE Statement on Standards for Attest Engagements
ISAE International Standards for Assurance Engagements
UAT User Acceptance Testing
BCP Business Continuity Plan
DRP Disaster Recovery Plan
DBA Data Base Administrator
Sysadmin Systems Administrator
SUMMARY
An automated environment basically refers to a business environment where the
processes, operations, accounting and even decisions are carried out by using
computer systems – also known as Information Systems (IS) or Information
Technology (IT) systems.
The fundamental principle of an automated environment is the ability carry out
business with less manual intervention and more system driven. The complexity of
a business environment depends on the level of automation.As the complexity,
automation and dependence of business operations on IT systems increases, the
severity and impact of IT risks too increases accordingly.

The auditor should apply professional judgement in determining and assessing

such risks and plan the audit response appropriately. To mitigate the above (and
more) risks and maintain the confidentiality, integrity, availability and security of
data, companies implement IT controls.
Three types of controls in automated environment are (i)General IT Controls (ii)
Application Controls and (iii) IT-Dependent Controls.
There are basically four types of audit tests that should be used. They are inquiry,
observation, inspection and reperformance. Data analytics can be used in testing
of electronic records and data residing in IT systems using spreadsheets and
specialised audit tools.
A deficiency in internal control exits if a control is designed, implemented or
operated in such a way that it is unable to prevent, or detect and correct,
misstatements in the financial statements on a timely basis; or the control is
missing. Evaluation and assessment of audit findings and control deficiencies
involves applying professional judgement that include considerations for
quantitative and qualitative measures.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct/Incorrect
incorrect:
(i) All automated environments are complex.
(ii) In an audit of financial statements, the auditor should plan response to all IT
risks.
(iii) General IT controls support the functioning of Application controls.
(iv) Inquiry is often the most efficient audit testing method, but least effective.
(v) Specialised audit tools like IDEA, ACL are required to perform data analytics.
(vi) A combination of processes, tools and techniques that are used to tap
vast amounts of electronic data to obtain meaningful information is known
as meaningful data.
(vii) During the assessment of Internal Controls , if the auditor can test
Compensating controls , he should obtain evidence of other mitigating
factors.

(viii) An automated environment basically refers to a business environment

where the processes, operations, accounting except the decisions are
carried out by using computer systems.
(ix) The Company auditor need not report on the efficacy of Internal Financial
controls in his Audit Report in the case of a One Person Company .
(x) Generally, applying inquiry in combination with reperformance as audit
testing method gives the most effective and efficient audit evidence
1. Briefly mention three reasons why IT should be considered relevant to an
audit of financial statements.
2. Describe how risks in IT systems, if not mitigated, could have an impact on
audit
3. What are the different testing methods used when auditing in an automated
environment. Which is the most effective and efficient method of testing?
4. List any five points that an auditor should consider to obtain an
understanding of the Company's automated environment.
5. The auditor should understand and consider the risks that may arise from
the use of Information Technology (IT) Systems.
6. With respect to audit in an automated environment, explain the following:
(i) CAATs
(ii) Data Analytics
(iii) Database
(iv) Information Systems
(v) Privileged access
7. Explain the objective and enlist the activities involved in the General IT
Controls over “Program Change”.
8. ´The directors and management have primary responsibility of
implementing and maintaining an effective internal controls framework and
auditors are expected to evaluate, validate and report on the design and
operating effectiveness of internal financial controls.
Explain the framework which helps the auditors in fulfilling this
responsibility.

9. Explain the following terms in context of the audit of an Automated

Environment :-
(a) Information Systems
(b) Material Weakness
(c) Privileged Access
(d) Segregation of Duties
(e) Significant Deficiency
ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
(i) Incorrect: The complexity of an automated environment depends on
various factors including the nature of business, level of automation, volume
of transactions, use of ERP and so on. There could be environment where
dependence on IT and automation is relatively less or minimal and hence,
considered less complex or even non-complex.
(ii) Incorrect. The auditor should plan response to those IT risks that are
relevant to financial reporting and not “all” IT risks.
(iii) Correct. General IT controls support the functioning of automated
application controls and IT dependent controls.
(iv) Correct. Inquiry is the most efficient but least effective. Moreover, testing
through inquiry alone is not sufficient. Inquiry should be corroborated by
applying any one or a combination of observation, inspection or
reperformance.
(v) Incorrect. Even though specialised audit tools are very useful, such tools
are not always required or necessary to carry out data analytics. More
commonly available spreadsheet applications like MS-Excel can also be
effectively used for carrying out data analytics.
(vi) Incorrect. A combination of processes, tools and techniques that are
used to tap vast amounts of electronic data to obtain meaningful
information is known as Data Analytics.
(vii) Incorrect. If the auditor can test Compensating controls , he should obtain
additional evidence that may be required. Obtaining evidence of other

mitigating factors is required when he can’t test compensating controls

during his assessment of the Internal Controls.
(viii) Incorrect. An automated environment basically refers to a business
environment where the processes, operations, accounting and even
decisions are carried out by using computer systems
(ix) Correct. A One Person Company and Small Company are exempted frpm
this requirement as per proviso to Section 143(3)(i).
(x) Incorrect. Generally, applying inquiry in combination with inspection gives
the most effective and efficient audit evidence

1. The auditor should consider relevance of IT in an audit of financial statements
for the following reasons:
(a) Since auditors rely on the reports and information generated by IT
systems, there could be risk in the IT systems that could have an
impact on audit.
(b) Standards on auditing SA 315 and SA 330 require auditors to
understand, assess and respond to risks that arise from the use of IT
systems.
(c) By relying on automated controls and using data analytics in an audit,
it is possible to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the audit
process.
2. When risks in IT systems are not mitigated the audit impact could be as
follows:
(i) The auditor may not be able rely on the reports, data obtained,
automated controls, calculations and accounting procedures in the IT
system.
(ii) The auditor has to perform additional audit work by spending more time
and efforts.
(iii) The auditor may have to issue a modified opinion, if necessary.
3. When auditing in an automated environment, the following testing methods
are used:
(a) Inquiry

(b) Observation
(c) Inspection
(d) Reperformance
A combination of inquiry and inspection is generally the most effective and
efficient testing method. However, determining the most effective and
efficient testing method is a matter of professional judgement and depends
on the several factors including risk assessment, control environment,
desired level of evidence required, history of errors /misstatements,
complexity of business, assertions being addressed.
4. Understanding of the Company’s Automated Environment: Given below
are some of the points that an auditor should consider to obtain an
understanding of the company’s automated environment
• Information systems being used (one or more application systems and
what they are)
• their purpose (financial and non-financial)
• Location of IT systems - local vs global
• Architecture (desktop based, client-server, web application, cloud
based)
• Version (functions and risks could vary in different versions of same
application)
• Interfaces within systems (in case multiple systems exist)
• In-house vs Packaged
• Outsourced activities (IT maintenance and support)
• Key persons (CIO, CISO, Administrators)
5. Having obtained an understanding of the IT systems and the automated
environment of a company, the auditor should now understand the risks
that arise from the use of IT systems.
Given below are some such risks that should be considered,
• Inaccurate processing of data, processing inaccurate data, or both
• Unauthorized access to data
• Direct data changes (backend changes)

• Excessive access / Privileged access (super users)

• Lack of adequate segregation of duties
• Unauthorized changes to systems or programs
• Failure to make necessary changes to systems or programs
• Loss of data
6. (i) CAATs: Short form for Computer Assisted Audit Techniques, are a
collection of computer based tools and techniques that are used in an
audit for analysing data in electronic form to obtain audit evidence.
(ii) Data Analytics: A combination of processes, tools and techniques
that are used to tap vast amounts of electronic data to obtain
meaningful information
(iii) Database: A logical subsystem within a larger information system
where electronic data is stored in a predefined form and retrieved for
use.
(iv) Information Systems: Refers to a collection of electronic hardware,
software, networks and processes that are used in a business to carry
out operations and transactions.
(v) Privileged access: A type of super user access to information systems
that enforces less or no limits on using that system.
7.
Program Change
Objective: To ensure that modified systems continue to meet financial
reporting objectives.
Activities:
• Change Management Process – definition, roles & responsibilities
• Change Requests – record, manage, track
• Making Changes – analyze, design, develop
• Test Changes – test plan, test cases, UAT
• Apply Changes in Production
• Emergency & Minor Changes
• Documentation – user/technical manuals

• User Training
8. The Guidance note on Audit of Internal Financial Controls over Financial

Reporting issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India provides a
framework that auditors should follow to fulfil their responsibility.
The below is a summary of this controls based audit approach :-
9. Refer GLOSSARY at the end of the Chapter for the definition of these terms.

CHAPTER
7
AUDIT SAMPLING
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Define Audit Sampling as per Standards on Auditing 530 and its importance.
 Identify the Approaches to Audit Sampling and Sample Selection Methods.
 Gain the knowledge of sample design, size and selection of items for testing and
Sampling Risk.
 Understand the sampling techniques and how/when to apply them to audit
procedures.

1. SAMPLING: AN AUDIT PROCEDURE

No conscious effort in human society is divested of economic considerations and
auditing is no exception. There is a growing realisation that the traditional approach
to audit is economically wasteful because all the efforts are directed to check all
transactions without any exception. This invariably leads to more emphasis on
routine checking, which often is not necessary in view of the time and the cost
involved. With the shift in favour of formal internal controls in the management of
affairs of organisations, the possibilities of routine errors and frauds have greatly
diminished i.e the internal controls as designed by the management are for the
very purpose of Prevention, Detection and Correction of Frauds and Erros. Thus the
auditors often find extensive routine checking as nothing more than a ritual
because it seldom reveals anything material Now the approach to audit and the
extent of checking are undergoing a progressive change in favour of more attention
towards the questions of principles and controls with a curtailment of non-
consequential routine checking. By routine checking we traditionally think of
extensive checking and vouching of all the entries, disregarding the concept of
materiality.
The extent of the checking to be undertaken is primarily a matter of judgment of
the auditor, there is nothing statutorily stated anywhere which specifies what work is
to be done, how it is to be done and to what extent it has to be done. It is also not
obligatory that the auditor must adopt the sampling technique. What he is to do as
an auditor is to express his opinion on the financial statements and become bound
by that.
To ensure good and reasonable standard of work, he should adopt standards and
techniques that can lead him to an informed professional opinion. On consideration of
this fact, it can be said that it is in the interest of the auditor that if he decides to form his
opinion on the basis of a part checking ( i.e sampling), he should adopt standards and
techniques which are widely followed and which have a recognised basis.
Since statistical theory of sampling is based on a scientific law, it can be relied upon to a
greater extent than any arbitrary technique which lacks in basis and acceptability.
This enables the auditor to make conclusions and express fair opinion without
having to check all of the items within the financial statements.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.3
2. MEANING OF AUDIT SAMPLING

According to SA 530 “Audit sampling”, ‘audit sampling’
refers to the application of audit procedures to less
than 100% of items within a population relevant under
the audit, such that all sampling units (i.e all the items
in the population) have a equal chance of selection.
This is to ensure that the items selected represent the
entire population which enables the auditor to draw
conclusions and express his opinion based on a pre-determined objective..
The objective of the auditor when using audit sampling is to provide a reasonable
basis for the auditor to draw conclusions about the population from which the
sample is selected.
Scope of SA-530
SA 530 becomes applicable when the auditor has decided to use audit sampling in
performing audit procedures. This standard deals with the auditor’s use of -
♦ Statistical and
♦ Non-statistical sampling
when designing and selecting the-
(i) audit sample,
(ii) performing tests of controls and tests of details, and
(iii) evaluating the results from the sample.
SA 500 “Audit Evidence”, deals with the auditor’s responsibility to design and
perform audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to be able
to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base the audit opinion.
SA 500 lays down the means available to the auditor for selecting the items for
testing. One of those is Audit Sampling. Hence SA 530 complement SA 500.
2.1 Population
Population refers to the entire set of data from which a sample is selected and
about which the auditor wishes to draw conclusions.
The auditor should select sample items in such a way that the sample can be
expected to be representative of the population. This requires that all items in the
population have an opportunity of being selected.

2.1.1 Characteristics of Population

1. Appropriateness: The auditor will need to determine that the population
from which the sample is drawn is appropriate for the specific audit objective.
Appropriate means population from which the samples are drawn shall be relevant
for the specific objective under audit this is because when the samples are drawn,
the audit procedures are applied on the sample and the conclusions are projected
on the population.
It is important for the auditor to ensure that the population is appropriate to the
objective of the audit procedure, which will include consideration of the direction
of testing
Example
If the auditor’s objective were to test for overstatement of accounts receivable, the
population could be defined as the accounts receivable listing. On the other hand,
when testing for understatement of accounts payable, the population would not be
the accounts payable listing, but rather subsequent disbursements, unpaid invoices,
suppliers’ statements, unmatched receiving reports, or other populations that
would provide audit evidence of understatement of accounts payable.
2. Completeness: The population also needs to be complete, which means that

if the auditor intends to use the sample to draw conclusions about whether a
control activity is operated effectively during the financial reporting period, the
population needs to include all relevant items i.e all the activities that form part of
that relevant internal control, throughout the entire period. If population is
complete in all respects, the conclusions drawn on the population will be
considered to be reasonable.
3. Reliable: When performing the audit sampling, the auditor performs audit
procedures to ensure that the information upon which the audit sampling is performed
is sufficiently complete and accurate. Auditor should obtain evidence about the
reliability of population. If population is not reliable with respect to accuracy and
source, the sample drawn will definitely not be relevant for the specific audit objective.
Sampling Unit
The individual items that make up the population are known as sampling units. The
population can be divided into sampling units in a variety of ways. It is a selection
from the population that is used as an extrapolation of the population. Audit
procedures are applied on these units and the conclusions drawn from them are
projected on the population.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.5
In simple words, conclusions drawn on the sample becomes the conclusion of the
population from where it is drawn.
Example: If the auditor’s objective were to test the validity of accounts receivables,
the sampling unit could be defined as customer balances or individual customer
invoices. The auditor defines the sampling unit in order to obtain an efficient and
effective sample to achieve the particular audit objectives. The conclusion on the
population is based on the audit procedures applied on the sampling unit.
Sample must be representative

Whatever may be the approach non-statistical or statistical sampling, the
sample must be representative. This means that it must be closely similar to the
whole population although not necessarily exactly the same. The sample must be
large enough to provide statistically meaningful results.
SAMPLING PROCESS
is performed on
Test of controls Test of details

to identify deviations from to identify misstatements of
expected internal controls account balances and class of
transactions
3. APPROACHES TO SAMPLING
Audit sampling enables the auditor to obtain and
evaluate audit evidence about some characteristic
of the items selected in order to form or assist in
forming a conclusion about the population ,from
which the sample is drawn. Audit sampling can be
applied using either
♦ non-statistical or
♦ statistical sampling approaches.
Statistical sampling is an approach to sampling that has the random selection of
the sample units; and the use of probability theory to evaluate sample results,
including measurement of sampling risk characteristics.

Sample is chosen by applying certain mathematical and statistical methods. A sampling

approach that does not have the above features s considered as non-statistical
sampling.
3.1 Statistical Sampling- More Scientific

♦ Audit testing done through this approach is more scientific than testing based
entirely on the auditor’s own judgment because it involves use of
mathematical laws of probability in determining the appropriate sample
size in varying circumstances.
♦ Statistical sampling has reasonably wide application where a population to
be tested consists of a large number of similar items and more in the case of
transactions involving compliance testing, trade receivables’ confirmation,
payroll checking, vouching of invoices and petty cash vouchers.
♦ There Is no personal bias of the auditor in case of statistical sampling. Since
it is scientific, the results of sample can be evaluated and projected on the
whole population in a more reliable manner.
In larger organisations, with huge transactions, statistical sampling is always
recommended as it is unbiased and the samples selected are not prejudged.
For Example: An auditor while verifying the Purchases during the year realised that
the purchase transactions in that year are more than 45000 in number, then in such
case, statistical sampling will be highly recommended in the audit program.
Random Sampling (discussed ahead in this topic) is the method you decide to
choose sample in such a situation.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.7
3.2 Non-Statistical Sampling

Under this approach, the sample size and its composition are determined on the
basis of the personal experience and knowledge of the auditor.
This approach has been in common application for many years because of its
simplicity in operation. Traditionally, the auditor on the basis of his personal
experience will determine the size of the sample and express it in terms that number
of pages or personal accounts in the purchases or sales ledger to be checked. For
example, March, June and September may be selected in year one and different
months would be selected in the next year, On basis of value of items, top 10 highest value.
Etc.
An attempt would be made to avoid establishing a pattern of selection year after
year, i.e the way of selecting samples, to maintain an element of surprise as to what
the auditor is going to check. It is a common practice to check large number of
items towards the close of the year so that the adequacy of cut-off procedures can
also be determined. Also, because year end transaction are prone to high risk of
misappropriation.
The non-statistical sampling is criticized on the grounds that it is neither objective
nor scientific. The expected degree of objectivity cannot be assured in non-
statistical sampling because the risk of personal bias in selection of sample items
cannot be eliminated.
The closeness of the qualities projected by the sample results with that of the
whole population cannot be measured because the sample has not been selected
in accordance with the mathematically based statistical techniques. However, it may
be stated that the auditor with his experience and knowledge of the client’s
business can evaluate accurately enough the sample findings to make audit
decision and the mathematical proof of accuracy in some cases may be a luxury
which the auditor cannot afford.
This method is simple to operate but sometimes the sample may not be a true
representative of the total population because of personal bias and no scientific
method of selection.
Sampling Vs Traditional method of Auditing

In most of the circumstances, the evidence available is not conclusive and the auditor
always takes a calculated risk in giving his opinion. Even by undertaking hundred
percent checking of the transactions, the auditor does not derive absolute satisfaction.

This state of uneasiness led pragmatic auditors to adopt the statistical theory of
sampling to derive the necessary satisfaction about the state of affairs by checking
only a part of the total population of entries.
Auditors realised that they can derive good satisfaction by undertaking a much lesser
checking by adoption of this technique in the auditing process. It is a mathematical
truth that the sample, if picked purely on a random basis would reveal the features and
characteristics of the population.
By adopting the sampling technique, the auditor only checks a part of the whole mass of
transactions. The satisfaction he used to derive earlier, by checking all the transactions, can
be derived by a sample checking provided he can put reliance on the internal controls and
checks within the client’s organisation because they provide the reliability of the records.
Sampling is used as a part of Test of controls. Auditor will check few internal controls and
their operating effectiveness. Based on the conclusion derived, he can then design the
sample size for test of details (i.e checking of transactions and balances)
If the internal control is satisfactory in its design and implementation, a much smaller
sample can give the auditor the necessary reliability of the result he obtains.
On the other hand, if in certain areas controls are slack or not properly implemented,
the auditor may have to take a much larger sample for getting satisfactory result.
Another truth about the sampling technique should be noted. It can never bring
complete reliability; it cannot give precisely accurate results. It is a process of
estimation. It may have some error. What error is tolerable for a particular matter under
examination is a matter of the individual’s judgment in that particular case.
Example
Mr. X may consider that in his estimation of stores valuation, an error of 2% may
not be material; he also decides that he needs at least 98% reliability of the result.
He is to pick up the requisite number of items of the stores for reliability of the
result. The requisite number he can get from the random number table. The
question of reliability of the result is directly linked with the reliability of the internal
control and of the books and records; when these are satisfactory, lesser degree of
reliability of the sampling estimation may suffice – if these are not satisfactory, the
auditor may have to decide upon a higher degree of reliability which can only be
obtained from a larger sample.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.9
Very often we come across this term when an audit is conducted on the basis of a part
checking. This, it is said, owes its origin to the statistical theory of sampling.
The decision whether to use a statistical or non-statistical sampling approach is a matter

for the auditor’s judgement. However, sample size is not a valid criterion to distinguish
between statistical and non-statistical approaches.
The factors that should be considered for deciding upon the extent of checking on
a sampling plan are following:
(i) Size of the organisation under audit.
(ii) State of the internal control.
(iii) Adequacy and reliability of books and records.
(iv) Tolerable error range.
(v) Degree of the desired confidence.
3.3 Appropriateness of Sampling Approaches

In statistical sampling, the sample results are measurable as to the adequacy and
reliability of the audit objectives whereas in non-statistical sampling the auditor’s
opinion determines the sample size but it cannot be measured how far the sample
size would fulfill the audit objective.
The advantages of statistical sampling may be summarized as follows -
(1) The amount of testing (sample size) does not increase in proportion to the
increase in the size of the area (universe) tested.
(2) The sample selection is more objective and thereby more defensible.
(3) The method provides a means of estimating the minimum sample size
associated with a specified risk and precision.
(4) It provides a means for deriving a “calculated risk” and corresponding
precision (sampling error) i.e. the probable difference in result due to the use
of a sample in lieu of examining all the records in the group (universe), using
the same audit procedures.
(5) It may provide a better description of a large mass of data than a complete
examination of all the data, since non-sampling errors such as processing and
clerical mistakes are not as large.

(6) It is widely accepted way of sampling as it is more scientific, without personal

bias and the result of sample can be evaluated and projected in more reliable
way.
Under some audit circumstances, statistical sampling methods may not be
appropriate. The auditor should not attempt to use statistical sampling when
another approach is either necessary or will provide satisfactory information in less
time or with less effort. For instance, when exact accuracy is required or in case of
legal requirements etc.
Sometimes the audit staff has no knowledge about sampling technique used, in
such circumstances using statistical sampling becomes complex and inappropriate.
SAMPLING PROCESS
SAMPLE DESIGN
SAMPLE SIZE
SAMPLE SELECTION METHOD
AUDIT PROCEDURES
NATURE AND CAUSE OF DEVIATION AND MISSTATEMENT
PROJECTING MISTATEMENTS
EVALUATING RESULTS OF AUDIT SAMPLING

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.11
4. SAMPLE DESIGN, SIZE AND SELECTION OF

ITEMS FOR TESTING
When designing an audit sample, the auditor shall consider the purpose of the
audit procedures and the characteristics of the population from which the sample
will be drawn. The auditor shall determine a sample size sufficient to reduce
sampling risk to an acceptably low level. The auditor shall select items for the sample
in such a way that each sampling unit in the population has a chance of selection.
Sample selected must be representative of the population.
4.1 Sample Design

When designing an audit sample,
♦ the auditor’s consideration includes the specific purpose to be achieved and the
combination of audit procedures that is likely to best achieve that purpose.
♦ Consideration of the nature of the audit evidence sought and possible
deviation or misstatement conditions or other characteristics relating to that
audit evidence will assist the auditor in defining what constitutes a deviation
or misstatement and what population to use for sampling.
♦ In fulfilling the requirement of SA 500 “Audit Evidence”, when performing
audit sampling, the auditor performs audit procedures to obtain evidence
that the population from which the audit sample is drawn is complete.
The auditor’s consideration of the purpose of the audit procedure includes a clear
understanding of what constitutes a deviation or misstatement so that all, and only,
those conditions that are relevant to the purpose of the audit procedure are
included in the evaluation of deviations or projection of misstatements.
Example
In a test of details relating to the existence of accounts receivable, such as

confirmation, payments made by the customer before the confirmation date but
received shortly after that date by the client, are not considered a misstatement.
Also, a wrong posting between customer accounts does not affect the total
accounts receivable balance.
Therefore, it may not be appropriate to consider this a misstatement in evaluating

the sample results of this particular audit procedure, even though it may have an
important effect on other areas of the audit, such as the assessment of the risk of
fraud or the adequacy of the allowance for doubtful accounts.

In considering the characteristics of a population, for tests of controls, the auditor

makes an assessment of the expected rate of deviation based on the auditor’s
understanding of the relevant controls or on the examination of a small number of
items from the population. This assessment is made in order to design an audit
sample and to determine sample size.
Example
If the expected rate of deviation is unacceptably high, the auditor will normally decide
not to perform tests of controls.
Similarly, for tests of details, the auditor makes an assessment of the expected
misstatement in the population. If the expected misstatement is high, 100%
examination or use of a large sample size may be appropriate when performing
tests of details.
In considering the characteristics of the population from which the sample
will be drawn, the auditor may determine that stratification or value-weighted
selection is appropriate.
4.1.1 Stratification and Value-Weighted Selection
In considering the characteristics of the population from which the sample will be
drawn, the auditor may determine that stratification or value-weighted selection
technique is appropriate. SA 530 provides guidance to the auditor on the use of
stratification and value-weighted sampling techniques.
Stratification: Audit efficiency may be improved if the auditor stratifies a
population by dividing it into discrete sub-populations which have an identifying
characteristic.
The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of items within each
stratum and therefore allow sample size to be reduced without increasing sampling
risk.
When performing tests of details, the population is often stratified by monetary
value. This allows greater audit effort to be directed to the larger value items, as
these items may contain the greatest potential misstatement in terms of
overstatement.
Similarly, a population may be stratified according to a particular characteristic
that indicates a higher risk of misstatement, for example, when testing the
allowance for doubtful accounts in the valuation of accounts receivable, balances
may be stratified by age.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.13
Stratification: Dividing a population into discrete sub population which have

identifying characteristics is called as Stratification. Each Sub population is called
as Stratum and units under those sub population are referred to as Strata.
The results of audit procedures applied to a sample of items within a stratum can
only be projected to the items that make up that stratum. To draw a conclusion on
the entire population, the auditor will need to consider the risk of material
misstatement in relation to whatever other strata make up the entire population.
The results of samples from the units drawn under each sub population are
projected to that respective stratum. In order to draw an opinion on the overall
population, the auditor needs to combine the results of all the stratum to check for
possible deviation or risk of material misstatement.
Projected misstatements of each stratum will be combined together to consider the
possible effect of misstatement in the account balances and class of transactions.
Example
20% of the items in a population may make up 90% of the value of an account
balance. The auditor may decide to examine a sample of these items. The auditor
evaluates the results of this sample and reaches a conclusion on the 90% of value
separately from the remaining 10% (on which a further sample or other means of
gathering audit evidence will be used, or which may be considered immaterial).
Value-Weighted Selection: When performing tests of details it may be efficient to

identify the sampling unit as the individual monetary units that make up the
population. Having selected specific monetary units from within the population, for
example, the accounts receivable balance, the auditor may then examine the
particular items, for example, individual balances, that contain those monetary
units.
One benefit of this approach to defining the sampling unit is that audit effort is
directed to the larger value items because they have a greater chance of selection,
and can result in smaller sample sizes.
This approach may be used in conjunction with the systematic method of sample
selection and is most efficient when selecting items using random selection.
In value weighted selection, the sample size, its selection and evaluation will
result in a conclusion in monetary amounts.

4.2 Sample Size

The auditor shall determine a sample size sufficient to reduce sampling risk to an
acceptably low level.
The level of sampling risk that the auditor is willing to accept affects the sample
size required.
The lower the risk the auditor is willing to accept, the greater the sample size
will need to be.
The sample size can be determined by the application of a statistically-based
formula or through the exercise of professional judgment. There are various factors
typically have on the determination of sample size. When circumstances are similar,
the effect on sample size of factors will be similar regardless of whether a statistical
or non- statistical approach is chosen.
4.2.1 Examples of Factors Influencing Sample Size for Tests of Controls
The following are factors that the auditor may consider when determining the
sample size for tests of controls. These factors, which need to be considered
together, assume the auditor does not modify the nature or timing of tests of
controls or otherwise modify the approach to substantive procedures in response
to assessed risks.
♦ When there is an increase in the extent to which the auditor’s risk assessment
takes into account relevant controls. The more assurance the auditor intends
to obtain from the operating effectiveness of controls, the lower the auditor’s
assessment of the risk of material misstatement will be, and the larger the
sample size will need to be. When the auditor’s assessment of the risk of
material misstatement at the assertion level includes an expectation of the
operating effectiveness of controls, the auditor is required to perform tests
of controls. Other things being equal, the greater the reliance the auditor
places on the operating effectiveness of controls in the risk assessment,
the greater is the extent of the auditor’s tests of controls (and therefore,
the sample size is increased).Thus, sample size will increase.
♦ If there is an increase in the tolerable rate of deviation. Then sample size will
decrease, as lower the tolerable rate of deviation, larger the sample size needs
to be. Tolerable error is the maximum error in the population that auditor is
ready to accept in a given sample size. Smaller the tolerable error, larger will
be the sample size.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.15
♦ When there is an increase in the expected rate of deviation of the population

to be tested then sample size will increase, as higher the expected rate of
deviation, larger the sample size needs to be so that the auditor is in a
position to make a reasonable estimate of the actual rate of deviation. Factors
relevant to the auditor’s consideration of the expected rate of deviation include
the auditor’s understanding of the business (in particular, risk assessment
procedures undertaken to obtain an understanding of internal control),
changes in personnel or in internal control, the results of audit procedures
applied in prior periods and the results of other audit procedures. High
expected control deviation rates ordinarily warrant little, if any, reduction of
the assessed risk of material misstatement.
♦ An increase in the auditor’s desired level of assurance that the tolerable rate of
deviation is not exceeded by the actual rate of deviation in the population will
increase the sample size. Thus, the greater the level of assurance that the auditor
desires that the results of the sample are in fact indicative of the actual incidence
of deviation in the population, the larger the sample size needs to be.
♦ In case of large populations, the actual size of the population has little, if any,
effect on sample size. For small populations however, audit sampling may not
be as efficient as alternative means of obtaining sufficient appropriate audit
evidence. Therefore, there will be negligible effect on sample size due to
increase in the number of sampling units in the population.
4.2.2 Examples of Factors Influencing Sample Size for Tests of Details
The following are factors that the auditor may consider when determining the
sample size for tests of details. These factors, which need to be considered together,
assume the auditor does not modify the approach to tests of controls or otherwise
modify the nature or timing of substantive procedures in response to the assessed
risks.
♦ The higher the auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatement,
the larger the sample size needs to be. The auditor’s assessment of the risk
of material misstatement is affected by inherent risk and control risk. For
example, if the auditor does not perform tests of controls, the auditor’s risk
assessment cannot be reduced for the effective operation of internal controls
with respect to the particular assertion. Therefore, in order to reduce audit
risk to an acceptably low level, the auditor needs a low detection risk and will
rely more on substantive procedures. The more audit evidence that is
obtained from tests of details (that is, the lower the detection risk), the larger
the sample size will need to be. Thus we can say that there will be an increase

in sample size in case of an increase in the auditor’s assessment of the risk of

♦ The more the auditor is relying on other substantive procedures (tests of
details or substantive analytical procedures) to reduce to an acceptable level
the detection risk regarding a particular population, the less assurance the
auditor will require from sampling and, therefore, the smaller the sample
size can be. Hence, if there is an increase in the use of other substantive
procedures directed at the same assertion, the size of sample will decrease.
♦ An increase in the auditor’s desired level of assurance that tolerable
misstatement is not exceeded by actual misstatement in the population will
increase the sample size. Hence, greater the level of assurance that the auditor
requires that the results of the sample are in fact indicative of the actual
amount of misstatement in the population, the larger the sample size needs
to be.
♦ An increase in tolerable misstatement will decrease the sample size as
lower the tolerable misstatement, the larger the sample size needs to be.
♦ The greater the amount of misstatement the auditor expects to find in
the population, the larger the sample size needs to be in order to make a
reasonable estimate of the actual amount of misstatement in the population.
Factors relevant to the auditor’s consideration of the expected misstatement
amount include the extent, to which item values are determined subjectively,
the results of risk assessment procedures, the results of tests of control, the
results of audit procedures applied in prior periods, and the results of other
substantive procedures. So sample size will increase in case of an increase in
the amount of misstatement the auditor expects to find in the population.
♦ When stratification of the population is appropriate then sample size will
decrease as when there is a wide range (variability) in the monetary size of
items in the population, it may be useful to stratify the population. When a
population can be appropriately stratified, the aggregate of the sample sizes
from the strata generally will be less than the sample size that would have
been required to attain a given level of sampling risk, had one sample been
drawn from the whole population.
♦ There will be negligible effect on sample size due to number of sampling
units in the population. For large populations, the actual size of the
population has little, if any, effect on sample size. Thus, for small populations,
audit sampling is often not as efficient as alternative means of obtaining

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.17
sufficient appropriate audit evidence. (However, when using monetary unit

sampling, an increase in the monetary value of the population increases
sample size, unless this is offset by a proportional increase in materiality for
the financial statements as a whole (and, if applicable, materiality level or levels
for particular classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures.)
4.3 Selection of Items for Testing

The auditor shall select items for the sample in such a way that each sampling unit
in the population has a chance of selection.
With statistical sampling, sample items are selected in a way that each sampling
unit has a known probability of being selected. With non-statistical sampling,
judgment is used to select sample items. Because the purpose of sampling is to
provide a reasonable basis for the auditor to draw conclusions about the population
from which the sample is selected, it is important that the auditor selects a
representative sample, so that bias is avoided, by choosing sample items which have
characteristics typical of the population.
The principal methods of selecting samples are the use of random

selection, systematic selection and haphazard selection.
4.4 Sample Selection Methods

Sample should be selected in such a manner that it is representative of the
population from which the sample is being selected. It will necessitate that each
item in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Some of the important methods of selecting the sample are discussed below -
(1) Random Sampling: Random selection ensures that all items in the
population or within each stratum have a known chance of selection. It may involve
use of random number tables. Random sampling includes two very popular
methods which are discussed below–
(i) Simple Random Sampling: Under this method each unit of the whole
population e.g. purchase or sales invoice has an equal chance of being selected.
It is considered that random number tables are simple and easy to use and
also provide assurance that the auditors’ bias does not affect the selection.
Each item in a population is selected by use of random number table
either with a help of computer or picking up a number in a random way
(may be randomly from a drum). Today random numbers are also
generated using various applications on the cellphones like the random
number generator.
This method is considered appropriate provided the population to be
sampled consists of reasonably similar units and fall within a reasonable
range i.e it is suitable for a homogeneous population having a similar
range. Example
The population can be considered homogeneous, if say, trade receivables

balances fall within the range of ` 55,000 to ` 2,25,000 and not in the range
between ` 525 to ` 10,50,000.
(ii) Stratified Sampling: This method involves dividing the whole population
to be tested in a few separate groups called strata and taking a sample from
each of them. Each stratum is treated as if it was a separate population and if
proportionate of items are selected from each of these stratum. The number
of groups into which the whole population has to be divided is determined
on the basis of auditor judgment.
Example
1. In the above case, trade receivables balances may be divided into four groups
as follows:-
(a) balances in excess of ` 10,00,000;
(b) balances in the range of ` 7,75,001 to ` 10,00,000;
(c) balances in the range of ` 5,50,001 to ` 7,75,000;

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.19
(d) balances in the range of ` 2,25,001 to ` 5,50,000; and

(e) balances ` 2,25,000 and below.
From these above groups the auditor may pick up different percentage of items
from each of the group. From the top group i.e. balances in excess of ` 10,00,000,
the auditor may examine all the items; from the second group 25 per cent of the
items; from the third group 10 per cent of the items; and from the lowest group 2
per cent of the items may be selected. Random sample is chosen from each stratum
using random number tables.
The reasoning behind the stratified sampling is that for a highly diversified
population, weights should be allocated to reflect these differences. This is
achieved by selecting different proportions from each strata. It can be seen that the
stratified sampling is simply an extension of simple random sampling.
Stratification means dividing heterogeneous (Diversified)

population into Homogeneous (having similar characteristics) sub
population, where samples are drawn from each sub population.
Therefore, we can say that random selection method is applied through random
number generators, for example, random number tables
(2) Interval Sampling or Systematic Sampling: Systematic selection is a
selection method in which the number of sampling units in the population is
divided by the sample size to give a sampling interval, for example 50, and having
determined a starting point within the first 50, each 50th sampling unit thereafter is
selected. Although the starting point may be determined haphazardly, the sample
is more likely to be truly random if it is determined by use of a computerized
random number generator or random number tables.
When using systematic selection, the auditor would need to determine that
sampling units within the population are not structured in such a way that the
sampling interval corresponds with a particular pattern in the population.
Example
If in a population of branch sales, particular branch sales occur only as every 100th
item and the sampling interval selected is 100. The result would be that either the
auditor would have selected all or none of the sales of that particular branch.
If Accountant A is responsible to record all transaction in a particular month and
Acountant B for next month ; if this structure is same throughout the year, and the

auditor determines as his sample to check every transaction of alternate months,

then only one accountant’s work is checked by the auditor i.e either Accountant A
or B depending upon which month the checking started from. The work of other
is overlooked and there could be a possibility of material misstatement in the
transactions recorded by him.
Therefore, systematic sampling when chosen as a method should be carefully
applied to bring together every type of transaction within its purview. More than
one starting point can be considered to minimize such risk.
To minimise the effect of the possible known buyers through a pattern in the
population, more than one starting point may be taken. The multiple random starting
point is taken because it minimises the risk of interval sampling pattern with that of
the population being sampled.
(3) Monetary Unit Sampling: It is a type of value-weighted selection in which
sample size, selection and evaluation results in a conclusion in monetary amounts.
(4) Haphazard sampling: Haphazard selection, in which the auditor selects the
sample without following a structured technique. Although no structured technique
is used, the auditor would nonetheless avoid any conscious bias or predictability (for
example, avoiding difficult to locate items, or always choosing or avoiding the
first or last entries on a page) and thus attempt to ensure that all items in the
population have a chance of selection. Haphazard selection is not appropriate when
using statistical sampling.
Haphazard sampling has no structured approach, does not involve

judgement and does not even use the random number tables.
(5) Block Sampling: This method involves selection of a block(s) of contiguous

items from within the population. Block selection cannot ordinarily be used in audit
sampling because most populations are structured such that items in a sequence can
be expected to have similar characteristics to each other, but different
characteristics from items elsewhere in the population. Although in some
circumstances it may be an appropriate audit procedure to examine a block of items,
it would rarely be an appropriate sample selection technique when the auditor
intends to draw valid inferences about the entire population based on the sample.
Usually a range of continuous transaction shall have similar characteristics,
therefore, selection of a group at one time will not give a reasonable basis for
opinion on the overall population as different types of transactions and unusual
transactions may not be covered in the group taken all at once. Further, if the client

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.21
has the idea of the block selection pattern of the auditor, then material
misstatements and deviations can be easily overlooked by management’s practice
of recording them.
Example
Take the first 200 sales invoices from the sales day book in the month of September;
alternatively take any four blocks of 50 sales invoices. Therefore, once the first item
in the block is selected, the rest of the block follows items to the completion.
There is a close similarity between this method and non-statistical sampling.

Consequently it has similar characteristics, namely, simplicity and economy. On the
other hand there is a risk of bias and of establishing a pattern of selection which
may be noted by the auditees.
4.5 Sampling and Non-Sampling Risk

Sampling Risk. The risk that the auditor’s conclusion based on a sample may be
different from the conclusion if the entire population were subjected to the same
audit procedure. This risk will always be in existence when auditor uses sampling
technique in conducting his audit.
IF THE ACCEPTABLE SAMPLING RISK IS LOW, LARGER SAMPLE SIZE IS NEEDED.
Sampling risk can lead to two types of erroneous conclusions:

(i) In the case of a test of controls, that controls are more effective than they
actually are, or in the case of a test of details, that a material misstatement
does not exist when in fact it does. The auditor is primarily concerned with
this type of erroneous conclusion because it affects audit effectiveness and is
more likely to lead to an inappropriate audit opinion. This is because of over
reliance on the internal controls.
(ii) In the case of a test of controls, that controls are less effective than they
actually are, or in the case of a test of details, that a material misstatement
exists when in fact it does not. This type of erroneous conclusion affects audit
efficiency as it would usually lead to additional work to establish that initial
conclusions were incorrect. This is because of under reliance on the test of
controls and detailed substantive procedures performed by the auditor. Here
risk of giving wrong opinion is minimum but it will lead to more detailed
checking which is time consuming.

Risk of under reliance on Test on Risk of over reliance on Test of

Controls Controls
Risk of incorrect rejection in Risk of incorrect acceptance in case of

Substantive Procedures substantive procedures
Leads to inefficiency in the conduct Effects the effectiveneness of audit. It

of audit. leads to erroneous audit opinion.
Non-Sampling Risk
The risk that the auditor reaches an erroneous conclusion for any reason not related
to sampling risk.
Example
Examples of non-sampling risk include use of inappropriate audit procedures, or

misinterpretation of audit evidence and failure to recognize a misstatement or
deviation.
Sources of Non Sampling risk are:
Human Mistakes Misinterpreting the sample results

Applying audit procedures not appropriate to the objectives of audit
Relying on erroneous information e.g. erroneous confirmation
Non sampling risk can never be mathematically measured.
5. PERFORMING AUDIT PROCEDURES

♦ The auditor shall perform audit procedures,
appropriate to the purpose, on each item
selected.
♦ If the audit procedure is not applicable to
the selected item, the auditor shall perform
the procedure on a replacement item.
♦ If the auditor is unable to apply the
designed audit procedures, or suitable FIG. 2: Performing Audit Procedures
*
alternative procedures, to a selected item, the auditor shall treat that item

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.23
as a deviation from the prescribed control, in the case of tests of controls, or a

misstatement, in the case of tests of details.
♦ An example of when it is necessary to perform the procedure on a
replacement item is when a voided check (Cancelled cheque) is selected while
testing for evidence of payment authorization. If the auditor is satisfied that
the check has been properly cancelled such that it does not constitute a
deviation, an appropriately chosen replacement is examined. A replacement
would then mean a proper and valid cheque through which payment has been
made.
♦ An example of when the auditor is unable to apply the designed audit
procedures to a selected item is when documentation relating to that item
has been lost. If the documentation of a sales is lost, like the sales order
record, sales invoice, document for dispatch etc, then confirmation can be
sought from the debtor as per SA 505. If it is a cash sale, the cash book can
be cross verified for the existence of such transactions.
♦ An example of a suitable alternative procedure might be the examination of
subsequent cash receipts together with evidence of their source and the items
they are intended to settle when no reply has been received in response to a
positive confirmation request.
♦ Another example for replacement of a sample could be, if all transactions of
computerized sales are being checked, for example sales recorded through a
bar code scanner, and incidentally a sample of manual billing gets selected,
then such item can be replaced after adequately checking the correctness of
the manual bill with the supporting documents available. If replacement is
not possible or reasonable, alternative audit procedure can be applied.
6. NATURE AND CAUSE OF DEVIATIONS AND

MISSTATEMENTS
♦ In analyzing the deviations and misstatements identified, the auditor may
observe that many have a common feature, for example, type of transaction,
location, product line or period of time.
♦ In such circumstances, the auditor may decide to identify all items in the
population that possess the common feature, and extend audit procedures
to those items. In addition, such deviations or misstatements may be
intentional, and may indicate the possibility of fraud.

♦ Therefore, the auditor shall investigate the nature and causes of any
deviations or misstatements identified, and evaluate their possible effect on
the purpose of the audit procedure and on other areas of the audit.
♦ In the extremely rare circumstances when the auditor considers a
misstatement or deviation discovered in a sample to be an anomaly, the
auditor shall obtain a high degree of certainty that such misstatement or
deviation is not representative of the population.
♦ The auditor shall obtain this degree of certainty by performing additional
audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that the
misstatement or deviation does not affect the remainder of the population.
Anomaly may be defined as a misstatement or deviation that is

demonstrably not representative of misstatements or deviations
in a population.
7. PROJECTING MISSTATEMENTS
♦ The auditor is required to project misstatements for the population to obtain
a broad view of the scale of misstatement but this projection may not be
sufficient to determine an amount to be recorded.
♦ When a misstatement has been established as an anomaly, it may be
excluded when projecting misstatements to the population. However, the
effect of any such misstatement, if uncorrected, still needs to be considered in
addition to the projection of the non-anomalous misstatements.
♦ For tests of details, the auditor shall project misstatements found in the
sample to the population whereas for tests of controls, no explicit
projection of deviations is necessary since the sample deviation rate is also
the projected deviation rate for the population as a whole.
8. EVALUATING RESULTS OF AUDIT SAMPLING

The auditor shall evaluate-
(a) The results of the sample; and
(b) Whether the use of audit sampling has provided a reasonable basis for
conclusions about the population that has been tested.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.25
For tests of controls, an unexpectedly high sample deviation rate may lead to an
increase in the assessed risk of material misstatement, unless further audit evidence
substantiating the initial assessment is obtained.
♦ For tests of details, an unexpectedly high misstatement amount in a sample
may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balance
is materially misstated, in the absence of further audit evidence that no
material misstatement exists.
♦ In the case of tests of details, the projected misstatement plus anomalous
misstatement, if any, is the auditor’s best estimate of misstatement in the
population.
♦ When the projected misstatement plus anomalous misstatement, if any,
exceeds tolerable misstatement, the sample does not provide a reasonable
basis for conclusions about the population that has been tested. The closer the
projected misstatement plus anomalous misstatement is to tolerable
misstatement, the more likely that actual misstatement in the population may
exceed tolerable misstatement.
♦ Also if the projected misstatement is greater than the auditor’s expectations
of misstatement used to determine the sample size, the auditor may conclude
that there is an unacceptable sampling risk that the actual misstatement in
the population exceeds the tolerable misstatement.
♦ Considering the results of other audit procedures helps the auditor to assess
the risk that actual misstatement in the population exceeds tolerable
misstatement, and the risk may be reduced if additional audit evidence is
obtained.
In case the auditor concludes that audit sampling has not provided a reasonable
basis for conclusions about the population that has been tested, the auditor may
request management
I. to investigate misstatements that have been identified and the potential for
further misstatements and
II. to make any necessary adjustments; or tailor the nature, timing and extent of
those further audit procedures to best achieve the required assurance.
For example, in the case of tests of controls, the auditor might extend the sample
size, test an alternative control or modify related substantive procedures.

Few Important terms to make the understanding better

Stratification – The process of dividing a population into sub-populations, each of
which is a group of sampling units which have similar characteristics (often
monetary value).
Tolerable misstatement – A monetary amount set by the auditor in respect of
which the auditor seeks to obtain an appropriate level of assurance that the
monetary amount set by the auditor is not exceeded by the actual misstatement in
the population.
Tolerable rate of deviation – A rate of deviation from prescribed internal control
procedures set by the auditor in respect of which the auditor seeks to obtain an
appropriate level of assurance that the rate of deviation set by the auditor is not
exceeded by the actual rate of deviation in the population.
SUMMARY
SA 530 “Audit Sampling”, defines ‘audit sampling’ as application of audit procedures
to less than 100% of items within a population of audit relevance such that all
sampling units have a chance of selection in order to provide the auditor with a
reasonable basis on which to draw conclusions about the entire population.
sample is selected.
Audit sampling can be applied using either non-statistical or statistical sampling
approaches.
The factors that should be considered for deciding upon the extent of checking on
a sampling plan are size of the organisation under audit, state of the internal
control., adequacy and reliability of books and records, tolerable error range and
degree of the desired confidence.
Sample should be selected in such a manner that it is representative of the
population from which the sample is being selected. Some of the sample selection
methods are Random Sampling (Simple/Stratified), Systematic Sampling, Monetary
Unit Sampling, Haphazard Sampling, Block Sampling etc.
The auditor shall perform audit procedures, appropriate to the purpose, on each
item selected. The auditor is also required to project misstatements for the
population to obtain a broad view of the scale of misstatement but this projection
may not be sufficient to determine an amount to be recorded.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.27
The auditor shall evaluate the results of the sample; and whether the use of audit
sampling has provided a reasonable basis for conclusions about the population
that has been tested.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct/Incorrect
incorrect:
(i) The method which involves dividing the population into groups of items is
knows as block sampling.
(ii) Universe refers to the entire set of data from which a sample is selected and
about which the auditor wishes to draw conclusions.
(iii) Non Statistical sampling is an approach to sampling that has the random
selection of the sample items; and the use of probability theory to evaluate
sample results, including measurement of sampling risk characteristics.
(iv) Sample need not be representative
(v) The objective of stratification is to increase the variability of items within each
stratum and therefore allow sample size to be reduced without increasing
sampling risk.
(vi) When statistical sampling is used to select a sample, sample need not be
representative because the statistical sampling takes care of the
representation.
(vii) Stratified Sampling is used for homogeneous population.
(viii) Non statistical sampling is considered to be more scientific than the statistical
sampling.
(ix) In case of Statistical sampling, auditor’s bias in choosing sample is involved.
(x) In stratified sampling, the conclusion drawn on each stratum can be directly
projected to the whole population.
(xi) Low acceptable sampling risk requires larger sample size.
1. What is the meaning of Sampling? Also discuss the methods of Sampling.
Explain in the light of SA 530 “Audit Sampling”.

2. With reference to Standard on Auditing 530, state the requirements relating to

audit sampling, sample design, sample size and selection of items for testing.
3. While planning the audit of S Ltd. you want to apply sampling techniques.
What are the risk factors you should keep in mind?
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Advantages of Statistical sampling in Auditing.
(b) Stratified sampling
5. What precautions should be taken by the auditor while applying test check
techniques?
6. Explain the factors to be considered while determining the extent of checking
on a sampling plan.
ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
(i) Incorrect: The method which involves dividing the population into groups
of items is known as cluster sampling whereas block sampling involves the
selection of a defined block of consecutive items.
(ii) Incorrect: Population refers to the entire set of data from which a sample is
selected and about which the auditor wishes to draw conclusions.
(iii) Incorrect: Statistical sampling is an approach to sampling that has the random
selection of the sample items; and the use of probability theory to evaluate
sample results, including measurement of sampling risk characteristics.
(iv) Incorrect: Whatever may be the approach non-statistical or statistical sampling,
the sample must be representative. This means that it must be closely similar to
the whole population although not necessarily exactly the same. The sample
must be large enough to provide statistically meaningful results.
(v) Incorrect: The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of items
within each stratum and therefore allow sample size to be reduced without
increasing sampling risk.
(vi) Incorrect: Whatever may be the approach non-statistical or statistical
sampling, the sample must be representative. This means that it must be
closely similar to the whole population although not necessarily exactly the
same. The sample must be large enough to provide statistically meaningful
results.

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.29
(vii) Incorrect: Stratified sampling is used when the population is diversified i.e
heterogeneous. The population is divided into sub population having similar
characteristics. Sample are then chosen from these sub populations which are
called as Stratum. Therefore, stratified sampling is not useful in case of
homogeneous population.
(viii) Incorrect: Statistical sampling uses scientific method of choosing samples
from a given population. The use of probability theory is involved in statistical
sampling so that every sampling unit has an equal chance of getting selected.
In the non statistical sampling, auditors’ judgment and past experience is
used to choose samples without any scientific method.
(ix) Incorrect: Statistical sampling uses scientific method choosing samples from
a given population. The use of probability theory is involved in statistical
sampling so that every sampling unit has an equal chance of getting selected.
In the non statistical sampling, auditor’s judgment and past experience is
used to choose samples without and scientific method. Hence, personal bias
is involved in Non statistical sampling and not Statistical.
(x) Incorrect: In case of stratified sampling, the conclusions are drawn on the
stratum. The combination of all the conclusions on stratum together will be
used to determine the possible effect of misstatement or deviation. Hence
the samples are used to derive conclusion only on the respective stratum
from where they are drawn and not the whole population.
(xi) Correct: Sampling risk arises from possibility that the auditor’s conclusion
based upon sample may be different from conclusion that would have been
reached if same audit procedures were applied on the entire population. If
acceptable sampling risk is low, large sample size is needed.

1. Meaning of Audit Sampling: “Audit Sampling” means the application of audit
procedures to less than 100% of items within a population of audit relevance such
that all sampling units have a chance of selection in order to provide the auditor
with a reasonable basis on which to draw conclusions about the entire population.
sample is selected.
Refer Para 4.4 for methods of selecting samples.

2. Audit Sampling: As per SA 530 on “Audit Sampling”, the meaning of the term
Audit Sampling is – the application of audit procedures to less than 100% of
items within a population of audit relevance such that all sampling units have
a chance of selection in order to provide the auditor with a reasonable basis
on which to draw conclusions about the entire population.
The requirements relating to sample design, sample size and selection of
items for testing are explained below-
Sample design - When designing an audit sample, the auditor shall consider
the purpose of the audit procedure and the characteristics of the population
from which the sample will be drawn.
Sample Size- The auditor shall determine a sample size sufficient to reduce
sampling risk to an acceptably low level.
Selection of Items for Testing- The auditor shall select items for the sample in
such a way that each sampling unit in the population has a chance of selection.
3. Risk Factors while applying Sampling Techniques: As per SA 530 “Audit
Sampling”, sampling risk is the risk that the auditor’s conclusion based on a
sample may be different from the conclusion if the entire population were
subjected to the same audit procedure. Sampling risk can lead to two types
of erroneous conclusions-
(i) In the case of a test of controls, that controls are more effective than they
actually are, or in the case of tests of details, that a material misstatement
does not exists when in fact it does. The auditor is primarily concerned with
this type of erroneous conclusion because it affects audit effectiveness and
is more likely to lead to an inappropriate audit opinion.
(ii) In the case of test of controls, the controls are less effective than they
actually are, or in the case of tests of details, that a material misstatements
exists when in fact it does not. This type of erroneous conclusion affects
audit efficiency as it would usually lead to additional work to establish
that initial conclusions were incorrect.
4. (a) Advantages of Statistical Sampling in Auditing: Refer Para 3.3.
(b) Stratified Sampling: Refer Para 4.4.
5. Precautions to be taken while applying test check techniques are
• Thorough study of accounting system should be done before adopting
sampling

AUDIT SAMPLING 7.31
• Proper study of internal control systems.

• Areas which are not suitable for sampling should be carefully
considered. Eg: compliance with statutory provisions, transactions of
unusual nature etc.
• Proper planning for Sampling methods to be used and explaining the
staff,
• Transactions and balances have to be properly classified (stratified)
• Sample size should be appropriately determined.
• Sample should be chosen in unbiased way,
• Errors located in the sample should be analysed properly.
6. The factors that should be considered for deciding upon the extent of
checking on a sampling plan are following:
(i) Size of the organisation under audit.
(ii) State of the internal control.
(iii) Adequacy and reliability of books and records.
(iv) Tolerable error range.
(v) Degree of the desired confidence.

CHAPTER
8
ANALYTICAL
PROCEDURES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand the meaning of analytical procedures as per Standards on
Auditing.
 State the purposes and timing of analytical procedures.
 Deal with the auditor’s use of analytical procedures as substantive procedures
(“substantive analytical procedures”).
 Identifying risk of material misstatement through preliminary Analytical review
procedures.
 Properly designing, documenting and evaluating the results of substantive
analytic review procedures.

1. MEANING OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

Since routine checks cannot be depended upon to disclose all
the mistakes or manipulation that may exist in accounts,
certain other procedures also have to be applied like
comparisons, trend and ratio analysis in addition to
reasonable tests. These collectively are known as overall tests.
With the passage of tests, analytical procedures have acquired
lot of significance as substantive audit procedure. SA-520 on
Analytical Procedures discusses the application of analytical
procedures during an audit. Let us try to understand the
concept discussed above with the help of the following illustration:
ILLUSTRATION 1:
CA Amar wants to verify the payments made by XYZ Ltd. on account of building
rent during the FY 2020-21. The rent amounts to Rs.50,000/- per month for the
year. The monthly rent payments are consistent with the rent agreement. However,
the other companies in the similar industry are paying rent of Rs. 10,000/- per
month for a similar location. How will applying the analytical procedures impact
the verification process of such rental payments by XYZ Ltd.?
SOLUTION
If CA Amar checks in detail the monthly rent payments, he may find that such
payments are consistent with the rent agreement i.e. XYZ Ltd. paid Rs. 50,000/- per
month as rent and the same is getting reflected in the rent agreement. Here, CA
Amar may not be able to find out the inconsistency in the rent payment with respect
to rent payment prevalent in the similar industry for rent of the similar location.
If CA Amar applies analytical procedure i.e. compares the rent payment by XYZ Ltd.
with the similar payments made by companies in similar industry and similar area,
he will notice an inconsistency in such rent payments as the other companies are
paying a very less monthly rent in similar industry for similar area.
However, if CA Amar does not make such comparison and only checks the monthly
payments and rent agreement of XYZ Ltd., he would not have found such
inconsistency and as such the misstatement may remain undetected.
Meaning of Analytical Procedures. As per the Standard on Auditing (SA) 520
“Analytical Procedures”, the term “analytical procedures” means evaluations of
financial information through analysis of plausible relationships among both
financial and non-financial data. Analytical procedures also encompass such

ANALYTICAL PRCEDURES 8.3
investigation as is necessary of identified fluctuations or relationships that are

inconsistent with other relevant information or that differ from expected values by
a significant amount.
through among both

Analytical evaluations of
analysis of financial and
Procedures financial
plausible non-financial
means information
relationships data.
ILLUSTRATION 2:
Analytical procedure involves analysis of relationship among financial and non
financial data. Explain with the help of an example as to how, the statutory auditor
of ABC Ltd. will analyse such relationship with respect to the total wages paid by
ABC Ltd. during the FY 2020-21.
SOLUTION:
As per SA 520, Analytical Procedures means evaluations of financial information
through analysis of plausible relationships among both financial and non-financial
data. The following example explains the analysis of relationship between financial
and non financial data while applying analytical procedures.
The statutory auditor of ABC Ltd. has to verify the total wages paid by the company
having factories in various states. He can verify the same by analyzing the
relationship between wages per worker and total number of workers across all the
factories.
i.e. Total wages = Wages per worker x Total number of workers.
Here wages per worker is financial data i.e. in Rs. and total number of workers is a
number which is a non financial data. Thus, the statutory auditor of ABC Ltd. is
evaluating financial information i.e. total wages paid (in Rs.) by analyzing the
relationship between wages per worker (in Rs.) which is financial data and number
of workers which is a non financial data.
Analytical procedures include the consideration of comparisons of the entity’s
financial information with as well as consideration of relationships.

Examples of Analytical Procedures having consideration of comparisons of the

entity’s financial information are:
♦ Comparable information for prior periods.
Example:
CA Brijesh, while verifying the travelling expenses of PRT Ltd., may compare the
travelling expenses of current year amounting to Rs. 2.50 lakhs with previous year
travelling expense of PRT Ltd. amounting to Rs. 2 lakhs and infer that there has
been an increase of 25% in the travelling expense incurred by the company. CA
Brijesh may compare such percentage increase with the trend of the earlier several
years.
Thus, CA Brijesh, can use comparable information for prior periods of PRT Ltd. while
applying analytical procedure with respect to the expenses incurred by the
company.
♦ Anticipated results of the entity, such as budgets or forecasts, or expectations
of the auditor, such as an estimation of depreciation.
♦ Similar industry information, such as a comparison of the entity’s ratio of sales
to accounts receivable with industry averages or with other entities of
comparable size in the same industry.
Examples of Analytical Procedures having consideration of relationships are:
♦ Among elements of financial information that would be expected to conform
to a predictable pattern based on the entity’s experience, such as gross
margin percentages.
♦ Between financial information and relevant non-financial information, such as
payroll costs to number of employees.
ILLUSTRATION-3
Particulars Client Industry

Year 2019-20 2020-21 2019-20 2020-21
Inventory 2.8 2.9 3.1 2.8
Turnover
Gross Margin 22.5% 22.7% 23.6% 22.2%
♦ Various methods may be used to perform analytical procedures.

♦ These methods range from performing simple comparisons to performing

complex analyses using advanced statistical techniques.
♦ Analytical procedures may be applied to consolidated financial statements,
components and individual elements of information.
Thus, we can say that Analytical Procedures may be segregated into the following
major types:
♦ as comparison of client and industry data,
♦ comparison of client data with similar prior period data,
♦ comparison of client data with client-determined expected results,
♦ comparison of client data with auditor-determined expected results and
♦ comparison of client data with expected results, using non financial data.
1.1 SA – 520, “Analytical Procedures”

Scope of SA 520
SA 520 deals with the auditor’s use of analytical procedures as substantive
procedures (“substantive analytical procedures”), and as procedures near the end
of the audit that assist the auditor when forming an overall conclusion on the
The use of analytical procedures as risk assessment procedures is dealt with in SA 315.
SA 330 includes requirements and guidance regarding the nature, timing and
extent of audit procedures in response to assessed risks; these audit procedures
may include substantive analytical procedures.
Objectives
(a) To obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence when using substantive
analytical procedures; and
(b) To design and perform analytical procedures near the end of the audit that
assist the auditor when forming an overall conclusion as to whether the
financial statements are consistent with the auditor’s understanding of the
entity.

2. PURPOSE AND TIMING OF ANALYTICAL

PROCEDURES
2.1 Purpose of Analytical Procedures
Analytical procedures use comparisons and relationships to assess whether account
balances or other data appear reasonable.
For instance, establishing the relationship that exists between certain balances
included in the Balance Sheet and the Statement of Profit and Loss and comparing
them with those that existed between the same set of balances in the previous year,
reconciling the physical balances of assets with the relevant financial record;
obtaining of account from the bankers, account receivables and account payables
and reconciling with relevant balances in books of account; confirming amounts of
outstanding income and expenses by preparing reconciliation statements, etc. These
are helpful in the detection of unusual state of affairs and mistakes in accounts.
Example
In XYZ Ltd., after applying analytical procedures as comparison of the gross profit ratio
with that of the previous year, it is discovered that there has been fall in the ratio.
Therefore, it became necessary for the auditor to make further enquiries as it may be
due to pilferage of inventories/ misappropriation of a part of the sale proceeds/ a change
in the cost of sales without a corresponding increase in the sales price.
On verifying the balances of sundry account receivables by obtaining the
confirmation of their statements of account, it will be possible for the auditor to find
out whether the discrepancy in the balance of an account receivable is due to the
failure to debit his account with the cost of goods supplied to him or is the result
of non-adjustment of a remittance received from him.
Also whether in the case of account payable, the discrepancy is due to failure to
afford him credit for one or more consignments of goods supplied by him or failure
to debit him with an amount of remittance.
In case of inventories of raw materials and stores at the end of the year any excesses
or shortages therein shall be detected. The investigation of their causes might disclose
that the shortages were the result of a misappropriation of inventory or that the excess
were due to requisitions having been entered before the inventories were issued.
By reconciling the amounts of interest and dividends collected with the amounts
which had accrued due and that which are outstanding for payment, the mistake,
if any, in the adjustment of such an income would be detected.

The overall tests can be extended for making inter-firm and intra-firm
comparison of trading results.
Example
If balances included in the Statement of Profit and Loss of an entity are compared
with those contained in the Statement of Profit and Loss for the same period of
another entity engaged in the same trade and working under similar circumstances,
it would be possible to find out the cause of the variation in the rate of profitability
that exists.
♦ Similarly, it would also be possible to compare the balances on the

Statement of Profit and Loss with that of the previous period, it would be
possible to find out the reasons for increase or decrease in the amount of
profits of those years.
♦ By setting up certain expenses ratios on the basis of balances included in the
Statement of Profit and Loss, for the year under audit, comparing them with
the same ratios for the previous year, it is possible to ascertain the extent of
increase or decrease in various items of expenditure in relation to sales and
that of trading profit in relation to sales.
♦ If differences are found to be material, the auditor would ascertain the
reasons thereof and assess whether the accounts have been manipulated to
inflate or suppress profits.
An abnormal fall in the cost of manufacture or that in the
administrative cost, apart from economy in expenses,
there could be no provision or less provision for expenses
incurred in the year. When it is suspected, the auditor should
compare the entries in the outstanding book with those in
the previous year. He must also check the vouchers for one
month immediately before the close of the following years. To verify that none of
the expenses in the accounts under audit have been charged to the accounts of the
following years.
Often it is possible to independently verify the correctness of some of the items of
expenses included in the Statement of Profit and Loss.
For instance, the cost of importing goods which are subjected to an ad-valorem
duty at uniform rate can be verified from the amount of duty paid. Similarly, a
quantity of sugar sold by sugar mill can be verified independently from the amount
of GST paid.

Similarly, the amount of any income or expenses which has a direct relationship
with the amount of profits or that of sales can be verified independently, e.g.,
commission paid to a manager calculated on the basis of net profits, commission
paid to a selling agent as percentage of sales, etc. Such calculation of ratios, trends
and comparisons is also termed as analytical review.
Thus, it is important to note that Analytical procedures may help identify the
existence of unusual transactions or events, and amounts, ratios, and trends that
might indicate matters that have audit implications . Unusual or unexpected
relationships that are identified may assist the auditor in identifying risks of material
misstatement, especially risks of material misstatement due to fraud.
2.2 Timing of Analytical Procedures

Experienced auditors use analytical procedures in all stages of the audit. Analytical
Procedures are required in the planning phase and it is often done during the
testing phase. In addition these are also required during the completion phase.
Timing of Analytical
Procedures
Planning Testing Completion

Phase Phase Phase
2.3 Analytical Procedures in Planning the Audit

In the planning stage, analytical procedures assist the auditor in understanding the
client’s business and in identifying areas of potential risk by indicating aspects of
and developments in the entity’s business of which he was previously unaware. This
information will assist the auditor in determining the nature, timing and extent of
his other audit procedures. Analytical procedures in planning the audit use both
financial data and non-financial information, such as number of employees, square
feet of selling space, volume of goods produced and similar information.
For example: Analytical procedures may help the auditor during the planning
stage to determine the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures that will be
used to obtain audit evidence for specific account balances or classes of
transactions.

3. SUBSTANTIVE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

The auditor’s substantive procedures at the assertion level may be tests of details,
substantive analytical procedures, or a combination of both. The decision about
which audit procedures to perform, including whether to use substantive analytical
procedures, is based on the auditor’s judgment about the expected effectiveness
and efficiency of the available audit procedures to reduce audit risk at the assertion
level to an acceptably low level.
The auditor may inquire of management as to the availability and reliability of
information needed to apply substantive analytical procedures, and the results of
any such analytical procedures performed by the entity. It may be effective to use
analytical data prepared by management, provided the auditor is satisfied that such
data is properly prepared.
3.1 Factors to be considered for Substantive Audit

Procedures
Availability of Data
Disaggregation
Account type
Source
Predictability
Nature of Assertion
Inherent Risk or "What can go Wrong"
The auditor should consider the following factors for Substantive Audit Procedures:
Availability of Data – The availability of reliable and relevant data will facilitate
effective analytical procedures.
Disaggregation – The degree of disaggregation in available data can directly affect
the degree of its usefulness in detecting misstatements.
Account Type – Substantive analytical procedures are more useful for certain types
of accounts than for others. Income statement accounts tend to be more
predictable because they reflect accumulated transactions over a period, whereas

balance sheet accounts represent the net effect of transactions at a point in time
or are subject to greater management judgment.
Example
We can analyze data to understand the relationship to another account and through this,
disaggregate the transactions flowing to and from the balance sheet account (e.g., sales
and cash receipts flowing through trade receivables), or to compare ratios over time as
this enhances our ability to obtain audit evidence for balance sheet accounts.
Source – Some classes of transactions tend to be more predictable because they

consist of numerous, similar transactions, (e.g., through routine processes).
Whereas the transactions recorded by non-routine and estimation SCOTs
(Significant Classes of Transactions) are often subject to management judgment
and therefore more difficult to predict.
Example
Transactions of routine nature like transactions related to sales and purchases are
predictable and repetitive in nature. Therefore, on such data analytical procedures
can be efficiently applied.
However, Significant Classes Transactions are those classes of transactions in a
company’s operations that are key to the financial statements and are not frequent
in nature. Example: Expenditure on Research & Advertisement is not of routine
nature and are subject to management judgement and therefore more difficult to
predict.
Predictability – Substantive analytical procedures are more appropriate when an

account balance or relationships between items of data are predictable (e.g.,
between sales and cost of sales or between trade receivables and cash receipts). A
predictable relationship is one that may reasonably be expected to exist and
continue over time.
Nature of Assertion – Substantive analytical procedures may be more effective in
providing evidence for some assertions (e.g., completeness or valuation) than for
others (e.g., rights and obligations). Predictive analytical procedures using data
analytics can be used to address completeness, valuation/measurement and
occurrence.
Inherent Risk or “What Can Go Wrong” – When we are designing audit
procedures to address an inherent risk or “what can go wrong”, we consider the
nature of the risk of material misstatement in order to determine if a substantive
analytical procedure can be used to obtain audit evidence. When inherent risk is

higher, we may design tests of details to address the higher inherent risk. When
significant risks have been identified, audit evidence obtained solely from
substantive analytical procedures is unlikely to be sufficient.
Example
When side agreements with respect to revenue recognition have been identified as
a significant or fraud risk, it is unlikely that an analysis of sales compared to cash
receipts or cost of sales would be appropriate to respond to that risk.
3.2 Techniques Available as Substantive Analytical

Procedures
Trend Ratio
Analysis Analysis
Reasonable Structural
ness tests modelling
The design of a substantive analytical procedure is limited only by the availability

of reliable data and the experience and creativity of the audit team. Substantive
analytical procedures generally take one of the following forms:
Trend analysis – Trend analysis is a commonly used technique. It is the comparison
of current data with the prior period balance or with a trend in two or more prior
period balances. The auditor evaluates whether the current balance of an account
moves in line with the trend established with previous balances for that account, or
based on an understanding of factors that may cause the account to change.
In other words, trend analysis implies analysing account fluctuations by comparing
current year to prior year information and, also, to information derived over several
years.

Example
The auditor may compare the salary paid by the company during the year under
audit with the salary paid by the company for several earlier years. There may be
some percentage increase in the salary expense over the years. However, an
unusual increase in such expense amount may indicate that fraudulent payments
are being made to fake employees.
Ratio analysis – Ratio analysis is useful for analysing asset and liability accounts as
well as revenue and expense accounts. An individual balance sheet account is
difficult to predict on its own, but its relationship to another account is often more
predictable (e.g., the trade receivables balance related to sales). Ratios can also be
compared over time or to the ratios of separate entities within the group, or with
the ratios of other companies in the same industry.
Example
Financial ratios may include:
♦ Trade receivables or inventory turnover
♦ Freight expense as a percentage of sales revenue
Example
The statutory auditor can review the Gross profit ratio of the company for the year
under audit. The auditor can further compare such GP ratio with the GP ratio of the
company in the earlier years or the GP ratio of the other companies in the same
industry for the year under audit.
Reasonableness tests – Unlike trend analysis, this analytical procedure does not
rely on events of prior periods, but upon non-financial data for the audit period
under consideration (e.g., occupancy rates to estimate rental income or interest
rates to estimate interest income or expense). These tests are generally more
applicable to income statement accounts and certain accrual or prepayment
accounts. In other words these tests are made by reviewing the relationship of
certain account balances to other balances for reasonableness of amounts.
Example
♦ Interest expense against interest bearing obligations
♦ Raw Material Consumption to Production (quantity)
♦ Wastage & Scrap % against production & raw material consumption
(quantity)

♦ Work-in-Progress based on issued of materials & Sales (quantity)

♦ Sales discounts and commissions against sales volume
♦ Rental revenues based on occupancy of premises
Structural modelling – A modelling tool constructs a statistical model from

financial and/or non-financial data of prior accounting periods to predict current
account balances (e.g., linear regression).
3.3 Analytical Procedures used as Substantive Tests

When designing and performing substantive analytical procedures, either alone or
in combination with tests of details, as substantive procedures in accordance with
SA 330, the auditor shall:
Determine suitability of analytical procedure
Evaluate reliability of data
Develop an expectation
Determine acceptable difference
(i) Determine the suitability of particular substantive analytical procedures for

given assertions, taking account of the assessed risks of material
misstatement and tests of details, if any, for these assertions;
(ii) Evaluate the reliability of data from which the auditor’s expectation of
recorded amounts or ratios is developed, taking account of source,
comparability, and nature and relevance of information available, and
controls over preparation;
(iii) Develop an expectation of recorded amounts or ratios and evaluate whether
the expectation is sufficiently precise to identify a misstatement that,
individually or when aggregated with other misstatements, may cause the
financial statements to be materially misstated; and

(iv) Determine the amount of any difference of recorded amounts from expected
values that is acceptable without further investigation.
4. SUITABILITY OF PARTICULAR ANALYTICAL

PROCEDURES FOR GIVEN ASSERTIONS
♦ Substantive analytical procedures are generally more applicable to large
volumes of transactions that tend to be predictable over time.
♦ The application of planned analytical procedures is based on the expectation
that relationships among data exist and continue in the absence of known
conditions to the contrary.
♦ However, the suitability of a particular analytical procedure will depend upon
the auditor’s assessment of how effective it will be in detecting a
misstatement that, individually or when aggregated with other misstatements,
may cause the financial statements to be materially misstated.
♦ In some cases, even an unsophisticated predictive model may be effective as
an analytical procedure.
Example
If an entity has a known number of employees at fixed rates of pay throughout
the period, it may be possible for the auditor to use this data to estimate the total
payroll costs for the period with a high degree of accuracy, thereby providing audit
evidence for a significant item in the financial statements and reducing the need
to perform tests of details on the payroll. The use of widely recognized trade ratios
(such as profit margins for different types of retail entities) can often be used
effectively in substantive analytical procedures to provide evidence to support the
reasonableness of recorded amounts.
Different types of analytical procedures provide different levels of assurance.

Analytical procedures involving, for example, the prediction of total rental income
on a building divided into apartments, taking the rental rates, the number of
apartments and vacancy rates into consideration, can provide persuasive evidence
and may eliminate the need for further verification by means of tests of details,
provided the elements are appropriately verified. In contrast, calculation and
comparison of gross margin percentages as a means of confirming a revenue figure
may provide less persuasive evidence, but may provide useful corroboration if used
in combination with other audit procedures.

The determination of the suitability of particular substantive analytical procedure

is influenced by the nature of the assertion and the auditor’s assessment of the risk
of material misstatement. For example, if controls over sales order processing
are weak, the auditor may place more reliance on tests of details rather than
on substantive analytical procedures for assertions related to receivables.
Particular substantive analytical procedures may also be considered suitable when

tests of details are performed on the same assertion. For example, when
obtaining audit evidence regarding the valuation assertion for accounts
receivable balances, the auditor may apply analytical procedures to an aging
of customers’ accounts in addition to performing tests of details on
subsequent cash receipts to determine the collectability of the receivables.
5. THE RELIABILITY OF DATA

The reliability of data is influenced by its source and nature and is dependent on
the circumstances under which it is obtained. Accordingly, the following are relevant
when determining whether data is reliable for purposes of designing substantive
analytical procedures:
(i)
• Source of Information
(ii)
• Comparability of the information
(iii)
• Nature & Relevance of Information
(iv)
• Controls over the preparation of the information

(i) Source of the information available. For example, information may be more
reliable when it is obtained from independent sources outside the entity;
(ii) Comparability of the information available. For example, broad industry data
may need to be supplemented to be comparable to that of an entity that
produces and sells specialised products;
(iii) Nature and relevance of the information available. For example, whether
budgets have been established as results to be expected rather than as goals
to be achieved; and
(iv) Controls over the preparation of the information that are designed to ensure
its completeness, accuracy and validity. For example, controls over the
preparation, review and maintenance of budgets.
The auditor may consider testing the operating effectiveness of controls, if any,
over the entity’s preparation of information used by the auditor in performing
substantive analytical procedures in response to assessed risks. When such controls
are effective, the auditor generally has greater confidence in the reliability of the
information and, therefore, in the results of analytical procedures. The operating
effectiveness of controls over non-financial information may often be tested in
conjunction with other tests of controls.
For example, in establishing controls over the processing of sales invoices, an entity
may include controls over the recording of unit sales. In these circumstances, the
auditor may test the operating effectiveness of controls over the recording of unit
sales in conjunction with tests of the operating effectiveness of controls over the
processing of sales invoices. Alternatively, the auditor may consider whether the
information was subjected to audit testing. SA 500 establishes requirements and
provides guidance in determining the audit procedures to be performed on the
information to be used for substantive analytical procedures.
6. EVALUATION OF WHETHER THE

EXPECTATION IS SUFFICIENTLY PRECISE
Matters relevant to the auditor’s evaluation of whether the expectation can be
developed sufficiently precisely to identify a misstatement that, when aggregated
with other misstatements, may cause the financial statements to be materially
misstated, include:
(i) The accuracy with which the expected results of substantive analytical
procedures can be predicted.

For example, the auditor may expect greater consistency in comparing gross
profit margins from one period to another than in comparing discretionary
expenses, such as research or advertising.
(ii) The degree to which information can be disaggregated.
For example, substantive analytical procedures may be more effective when
applied to financial information on individual sections of an operation or to
financial statements of components of a diversified entity, than when applied
to the financial statements of the entity as a whole.
(iii) The availability of the information, both financial and non-financial.
For example, the auditor may consider whether financial information, such
as budgets or forecasts, and non-financial information, such as the number
of units produced or sold, is available to design substantive analytical
procedures. If the information is available, the auditor may also consider the
reliability of the information.
7. AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE OF RECORDED

AMOUNTS FROM EXPECTED VALUES THAT
IS ACCEPTABLE
The auditor’s determination of the amount of difference from the expectation that
can be accepted without further investigation is influenced by materiality and the
consistency with the desired level of assurance, taking account of the possibility
that a misstatement, individually or when aggregated with other misstatements,
may cause the financial statements to be materially misstated.
SA 330 requires the auditor to obtain more persuasive audit evidence the higher
the auditor’s assessment of risk. Accordingly, as the assessed risk increases, the
amount of difference considered acceptable without investigation decreases in
order to achieve the desired level of persuasive evidence
8. INVESTIGATING RESULTS OF ANALYTICAL

PROCEDURES
If analytical procedures performed in accordance with SA 520 identify fluctuations
or relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant information or that differ
from expected values by a significant amount, the auditor shall investigate such
differences by:

(i) Inquiring of management and obtaining appropriate audit evidence

relevant to management’s responses: Audit evidence relevant to
management’s responses may be obtained by evaluating those responses
taking into account the auditor’s understanding of the entity and its
environment, and with other audit evidence obtained during the course of
the audit.
(ii) Performing other audit procedures as necessary in the circumstances:
The need to perform other audit procedures may arise when, for example,
management is unable to provide an explanation, or the explanation,
together with the audit evidence obtained relevant to management’s
response, is not considered adequate.
9. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES THAT ASSIST

WHEN FORMING AN OVERALL CONCLUSION
The conclusions drawn from the results of analytical procedures designed and
performed in accordance with, are intended to corroborate conclusions formed
during the audit of individual components or elements of the financial statements.
This assists the auditor to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base the
auditor’s opinion.
The results of such analytical procedures may identify a previously unrecognised
risk of material misstatement. In such circumstances, SA 315 requires the auditor
to revise the auditor’s assessment of the risks of material misstatement and modify
the further planned audit procedures accordingly
Students may note that Analytical Procedures assisting for forming an overall
conclusion will be discussed in details at Final level.
10. CONSIDERATIONS SPECIFIC TO PUBLIC

SECTOR ENTITIES
The relationships between individual financial statements items traditionally
considered in the audit of business entities may not always be relevant in the audit of
governments or other non-business public sector entities; for example, in many
public sector entities there may be little direct relationship between revenue and
expenditure. In addition, because expenditure on the acquisition of assets may not
be capitalized, there may be no relationship between expenditures on, for example,
inventories and fixed assets and the amount of those assets reported in the financial

statements. Also, industry data or statistics for comparative purposes may not be
available in the public sector. However, other relationships may be relevant, for
example, variations in the cost per kilometer of road construction or the number of
vehicles acquired compared with vehicles retired.
SUMMARY
As per “SA 520 Analytical Procedures”, the term “analytical procedures” means
evaluations of financial information through analysis of plausible relationships among
both financial and non-financial data.
Analytical procedures use comparisons and relationships to assess whether account
balances or other data appear reasonable. Analytical Procedures are required in the
planning phase, testing phase and during the completion phase.
These Analytical procedures are used to obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence
when using substantive analytical procedures; and to design and perform analytical
procedures near the end of the audit that assist the auditor when forming an overall
conclusion as to whether the financial statements are consistent with the auditor’s
understanding of the entity.
The auditor’s substantive procedures at the assertion level may be tests of details,
substantive analytical procedures, or a combination of both.
The reliability of data is influenced by its source and nature and is dependent on the
circumstances under which it is obtained.
Matters relevant to the auditor’s evaluation of whether the expectation can be
developed sufficiently precisely to identify a misstatement that, when aggregated with
other misstatements, may cause the financial statements to be materially misstated.
If analytical procedures performed in accordance with SA 520 identify fluctuations or
relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant information or that differ from
expected values by a significant amount, the auditor shall investigate such differences
by inquiring with management or by performing audit procedures.
The conclusions drawn from the results of analytical procedures designed and
performed are intended to corroborate conclusions formed during the audit of
individual components or elements of the financial statements. This assists the auditor
to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base the auditor’s opinion.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Correct/Incorrect
incorrect:
1. As per the Standard on Auditing (SA) 520 “Analytical Procedures” ‘the term
“analytical procedures” means evaluations of financial information through
analysis of plausible relationships among financial data only.
2. Auditor can depend on routine checks to disclose all the mistakes or
manipulation that may exist in accounts.
3. Only purpose of analytical procedures is to obtain relevant and reliable audit
evidence when using substantive analytical procedures.
4. Analytical Procedures are required in the planning phase only.
5. Substantive analytical procedures are generally less applicable to large
volumes of transactions that tend to be predictable over time
6. Ratio analysis is useful in analyzing revenue and expense account only.
7. Reasonableness test rely only on the events of the prior period like other
analytical procedures.
8. The statutory auditor of the company can apply analytical procedures to the
standalone financial statements of a company only and not to the
consolidated financial statements.
1. Define Analytical Procedures.
2. What are the factors that determine the extent of reliance that the auditor
places on results of analytical procedures? Explain with reference to SA-520 on
“Analytical procedures”.
3. The statutory auditor of MNO Ltd., CA Kishore identifies certain
inconsistencies while applying analytical procedures to the financial and non
financial data of MNO Ltd. What should CA Kishore do in this case with
reference to SA 520 on “Analytical Procedures”?
4. While applying the Substantive Analytical Procedures what techniques can be
used by the statutory auditor of a company to obtain sufficient and
appropriate audit evidence?

5. Explain how a statutory auditor of a company can apply analytical procedures

at the planning phase of audit.
ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS
1. Incorrect. As per the Standard on Auditing (SA) 520 “Analytical Procedures”
the term “analytical procedures” means evaluations of financial information
through analysis of plausible relationships among both financial and non-
financial data.
2. Incorrect. Routine checks cannot be depended upon to disclose all the
mistakes or manipulation that may exist in accounts, certain other procedures
also have to be applied like trend and ratio analysis in addition to reasonable
tests.
3. Incorrect. Analytical procedures use comparisons and relationships to assess
whether account balances or other data appear reasonable. Analytical
procedures are used for the following purposes:
(i) To obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence when using substantive
analytical procedures; and
(ii) To design and perform analytical procedures near the end of the audit
that assist the auditor when forming an overall conclusion as to whether
the financial statements are consistent with the auditor’s understanding
of the entity.
4. Incorrect. Analytical Procedures are required in the planning phase and it is
often done during the testing phase. In addition these are also required
during the completion phase.
5. Incorrect. Substantive analytical procedures are generally more applicable to
large volumes of transactions that tend to be predictable over time.
6. Incorrect: Ratio analysis is useful for analysing asset and liability accounts as
well as revenue and expense accounts
7. Incorrect: Unlike trend analysis, Reasonableness test does not rely on events
of prior periods, but upon non-financial data for the audit period under
consideration.
8. Incorrect: Analytical procedures may be applied to consolidated financial
statements, components and individual elements of information.


1. Meaning of Analytical Procedures: As per the Standard on Auditing (SA)
520 “Analytical Procedures” ‘the term “analytical procedures” means
evaluations of financial information through analysis of plausible
relationships among both financial and non-financial data. Analytical
procedures also encompass such investigation as is necessary of identified
fluctuations or relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant
information or that differ from expected values by a significant amount.
Thus, analytical procedures include the consideration of comparisons of the
entity’s financial information with as well as consideration of relationships.
2. The reliability of data (SA-520): Refer Para 5
3. As per SA 520- “Analytical Procedures” If while applying analytical
procedures in accordance with SA 520, the statutory auditor identifies
fluctuations or relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant
information or that differ from expected values by a significant amount, the
auditor shall investigate such differences by:
(i) Inquiring of management and obtaining appropriate audit
evidence relevant to management’s responses: Audit evidence
relevant to management’s responses may be obtained by evaluating
those responses taking into account the auditor’s understanding of the
entity and its environment, and with other audit evidence obtained
during the course of the audit.
(ii) Performing other audit procedures as necessary in the
circumstances: The need to perform other audit procedures may arise
when, for example, management is unable to provide an explanation,
or the explanation, together with the audit evidence obtained relevant
to management’s response, is not considered adequate.
In the present case, CA Kishore identifies certain inconsistencies while applying
analytical procedures to the financial and non financial data of MNO Ltd. CA
Kishore should inquire the management of MNO Ltd. and obtain sufficient
and appropriate audit evidence relevant to management response. Further,
CA Kishore should also perform other audit procedures if required in the
circumstances of the case to obtain further sufficient and appropriate audit
evidence.

4. While applying the Substantive Analytical Procedures the statutory auditor of

a company may use the following techniques to obtain sufficient and
appropriate audit evidence
Trend analysis – Trend analysis is a commonly used technique. It is the
comparison of current data with the prior period balance or with a trend in
two or more prior period balances. We evaluate whether the current balance
of an account moves in line with the trend established with previous balances
for that account, or based on an understanding of factors that may cause the
account to change.
Ratio analysis – Ratio analysis is useful for analysing asset and liability
accounts as well as revenue and expense accounts. An individual balance
sheet account is difficult to predict on its own, but its relationship to another
account is often more predictable (e.g., the trade receivables balance related
to sales). Ratios can also be compared over time or to the ratios of separate
entities within the group, or with the ratios of other companies in the same
industry.
Reasonableness tests – Unlike trend analysis, this analytical procedure does
not rely on events of prior periods, but upon non-financial data for the audit
period under consideration (e.g., occupancy rates to estimate rental income
or interest rates to estimate interest income or expense). These tests are
generally more applicable to income statement accounts and certain accrual
or prepayment accounts. In other words these tests are made by reviewing
the relationship of certain account balances to other balances for
reasonableness of amounts.
Structural modelling – A modelling tool constructs a statistical model from
financial and/or non-financial data of prior accounting periods to predict
current account balances (e.g., linear regression).
The statutory auditor may use any of the above mentioned techniques while
applying substantive analytical procedures depensing upon the availability of
data and requirements of the case.
5. Analytical Procedures are required in the planning phase and it is often done
during the testing phase. In addition these are also required during the
completion phase.
Analytical Procedures in Planning the Audit
In the planning stage, analytical procedures assist the auditor in
understanding the client’s business and in identifying areas of potential risk

by indicating aspects of and developments in the entity’s business of which

he was previously unaware. This information will assist the auditor in
determining the nature, timing and extent of his other audit procedures.
Analytical procedures in planning the audit use both financial data and non-
financial information, such as number of employees, square feet of selling
space, volume of goods produced and similar information.
For example, analytical procedures may help the auditor during the planning
stage to determine the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures that will
be used to obtain audit evidence for specific account balances or classes of
transactions.

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What is the purpose of the study material provided?

What is the purpose of the study material provided?

What are the evolving roles of a Chartered Accountant according to the passage?

What are the evolving roles of a Chartered Accountant according to the passage?

Intermediate Course

AUDITING AND ASSURANCE

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Edition : September, 2021

Committee/Department : Board of Studies

Published by : The Publication Department on behalf of

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Evolving role of a CA - Shift towards strategic decision making

The traditional role of a chartered accountant restricted to accounting and auditing,

Skill requirements at Intermediate Level

Auditing – Core and Practical subject

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Know your Syllabus

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Chapter-8 deals with analytical procedures.

Components of each About the component

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

eﬀect, it would sharpen your application skills and test

Happy Reading and Best Wishes!

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

PAPER 6: AUDITING AND ASSURANCE (100 MARKS)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

3. Audit Documentation and Audit Evidence: Concept of Audit

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

5. Fraud and Responsibilities of the Auditor in this Regard: Responsibility

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

requirements under the Companies Act, 2013 including CARO; Other

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

SIGNIFICANT UPDATIONS IN 2021 EDITION

Chapter Name Sections/Sub Sections wherein Page

TOPIC 6 (ii) The Nature of Audit 1.11-1.12

Chapter 1: Nature, Topic 8.2-About SAs, SREs, SAEs 1.21-1.23

Topic 10.2.2 Threats to 1.30-1.31

Topic 12- AUDIT PLANNING AND

Chapter 5-Fraud Amendment related to 5.22

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Changes related to disclosure Throughout

Chapter 10: The Amendment in Rule 11 10.36-10.37

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

MODULE – 1: DETAILED CONTENTS

CHAPTER – 1: NATURE, OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF AUDIT

Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................................... 1.1

2. Objectives of Audit ................................................................................................. 1.3

3. Scope of Audit ........................................................................................................ 1.4

3.1 Aspects to be covered in Audit .........................................................1.5

4 Types of Audit .................................................................................................1.7

5. Advantages of Audit of Financial Statements ..................................................... 1.9

6. Inherent Limitations of Audit .............................................................................. 1.10

7. Relationship of Auditing with other disciplines ................................................ 1.14

7.1 Auditing and Accounting ....................................................................... 1.15

7.2 Auditing and Law ..................................................................................... 1.15

7.3 Auditing and Economics ......................................................................... 1.15

7.4 Auditing and Behavioural Science ......................................................... 1.16

7.5 Auditing and Statistics & Mathematics ................................................ 1.16