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Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12, vitamin B12 or vitamin B-12, also called cobalamin, is a water-

soluble vitamin with a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system,
and for the formation of blood. It is one of the eight B vitamins. It is normally involved in
themetabolism of every cell of the human body, especially affecting DNA synthesis and
regulation, but also fatty acid metabolism andamino acid metabolism. Neither fungi, plants,
nor animals are capable of producing vitamin B12. Only bacteria and archaea have the
enzymes required for its synthesis, although many foods are a natural source of
B12 because of bacterial symbiosis. The vitamin is the largest and most structurally
complicated vitamin and can be produced industrially only through bacterial fermentation-
synthesis.
Vitamin B12 consists of a class of chemically related compounds (vitamers), all of

which have vitamin activity. It contains the biochemically rare element cobalt sitting in the
center of planar tetra-pyrrole ring called a Corrin ring. Biosynthesis of the basic structure of
the vitamin is accomplished only by bacteria and archaea (which usually
produce hydroxocobalamin), but conversion between different forms of the vitamin can be
accomplished in the human body. A common semi-synthetic form of the vitamin,
cyanocobalamin, does not occur in nature, but is produced from bacterial
hydroxocobalamin and then used in many pharmaceuticals and supplements, and as a food
additive, because of its stability and lower production cost. In the body it is converted to the
human physiological forms methylcobalamin and 5'-deoxyadenosylcobalamin, leaving
behind the cyanide, albeit in minimal concentration. More recently, hydroxocobalamin,
methylcobalamin, and adenosylcobalamin can be found in more expensive pharmacological
products and food supplements. The extra utility of these is currently debated.
Vitamin B12 was discovered from its relationship to disease pernicious anemia,

which is an autoimmune disease in which parietal cellsof the stomach responsible for
secreting intrinsic factor are destroyed; the same cells are responsible for secreting acid in
the stomach. Intrinsic factor is crucial for the normal absorption of B12, so a lack of intrinsic
factor, as seen in pernicious anemia, causes avitamin B12 deficiency. Many other subtler
kinds of vitamin B12 deficiency and their biochemical effects have since been elucidated.
Vitamin B12, disebut juga kobalamin, adalah sebuah vitamin larut air yang berperan penting
dalam berfungsi normalnya otak dan sistem saraf, serta dalam pembentukan darah. Vitamin
ini merupakan salah satu dari delapan vitamin B. Umumnya, vitamin ini terlibat
dalam metabolisme setiap sel dalam tubuh, terutama pengaruhnya pada sintesis dan
regulasi DNA serta pada sintesis asam lemakdan produksi energi.
Vitamin B12 merupakan kumpulan senyawa-senyawa yang terhubung secara kimia, yang
semuanya memiliki aktivitas sebagai vitamin. Secara struktur, vitamin B12 adalah vitamin
yang paling kompleks dan mengandung elemen kobal yang jarang tersedia secara
biokimia. Biosintesis dari struktur dasar vitamin ini hanya dapat dilakukan oleh bakteri,
namun konversi antara bentuk-bentuknya yang berbeda dapat terjadi dalam tubuh. Suatu
bentuk sintesis yang umum dari vitamin ini, sianokobalamin, tidak terjadi di alam, namun
digunakan dalam banyak sediaan farmasi dan suplemen, dan juga sebagai bahan tambahan
makanan karena kestabilannya dan harganya yang lebih murah. Dalam tubuh, vitamin ini
diubah menjadi bentuk fisiologisnya, metilkobalamin danadenosilkobalamin, dengan
membuang gugus sianida nya walaupun dalam konsentrasi minimal. Baru-baru
ini, hidroksokobalamin(suatu bentuk kobalamin yang dihasilkan dari bakteri),
metilkobalamin, dan adenosilkobalamin juga dapat ditemukan pada produk farmakologi dan
suplemen makanan yang mahal. Kegunaaan dari zat-zat ini masih diperdebatkan.
Dalam sejarahnya, vitamin B12 ditemukan dari hubungannya dengan penyakit anemia

pernisius, sebuah penyakit otoimun yang menghancurkan sel-sel parietal dalam perut yang
mensekresi faktor intrinsik. Faktor intrinsik ini sangat penting dalam absorpsi normal
vitamin B12, sehingga kekurangan faktor intrinsik, yang tampak pada anemia pernisius,
disebabkan oleh kekurangan vitamin B12. Sejak saat itu, banyak jenis-jenis kekurangan
vitamin B12 lain yang lebih tidak kentara, berikut efek biokimianya, telah berhasil diuraikan.
Iron
Iron is an absolute requirement for most forms of life, including humans and most
bacterial species. Plants and animals all use iron; hence, iron can be found in a wide variety
of food sources. Iron is essential to life due to its unusual flexibility to serve as both
an electron donor and acceptor.
Iron can also be potentially toxic. Its ability to donate and accept electrons means
that if iron is free within the cell, it can catalyze the conversion of hydrogen
peroxide into free radicals. Free radicals can cause damage to a wide variety of cellular
structures, and ultimately kill the cell. To prevent that kind of damage, all life forms that use
iron bind the iron atoms to proteins. This binding allows cells to benefit from iron while also
limiting its ability to do harm.
The most important group of iron-binding proteins contain the heme molecules, all
of which contain iron at their centers. Humans and most bacteria use variants of to carry
out redox reactions and electron transport processes. These reactions and processes are
required foroxidative phosphorylation. That process is the principal source of energy for
human cells; without it, most types of cells would die.
The iron-sulfur proteins are another important group of iron-containing proteins.
Some of these proteins are also essential parts of oxidative phosphorylation.
Humans also use iron in the hemoglobin of red blood cells, in order to transport
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Iron is also an essential component of myoglobin to
store and diffuse oxygen in muscle cells.
The human body needs iron for oxygen transport. That oxygen is required for the
production and survival of almost all cells in our bodies (mature erythrocytes being one
exception). Human bodies tightly regulate iron absorption and recycling. Iron is such an
essential element of human life, in fact, that humans have no physiologic regulatory
mechanism for excreting iron. Most humans prevent iron overload solely by regulating iron
absorption. Those who cannot regulate absorption well enough get disorders of iron
overload. In these diseases, the toxicity of iron starts overwhelming the body's ability to
bind and store it.
Zat besi adalah suatu zat dalam tubuh manusia yang erat dengan ketersediaan
jumlah darah yang diperlukan. Dalam tubuhmanusia zat besi memiliki fungsi yang sangat
penting, yaitu untuk mengangkut oksigen dari paru-paru ke jaringan dan
mengangkutelectron di dalam proses pembentukan energi di dalam sel. Untuk mengangkut
oksigen, zat besi harus bergabung dengan proteinmembentuk hemoglobin di dalam sel
darah merah dan myoglobin di dalam serabut otot. Bila bergabung dengan protein di dalam
sel zat besi membentuk enzim yang berperan di dalam pembentukan energi di dalam sel.
Laki-laki dewasa (berat badan 75 kg) mengandung ± 4000 mg zat besi,

sementara wanita dewasa (berat badan 55 kg) mengandung ± 2100 mg zat besi. Laki-laki
memiliki cadangan zat besi di dalam limpa dan sumsum tulang sebanyak 500-1500 mg,
itulah sebabnya kekurangan darah (anemia) jarang dijumpai pada laki-laki. Sebaliknya,
wanita hanya mempunyai cadangan zat besi 0 – 300 mg sehingga rentan terhadap anemia,
apalagi pada usia subur wanita mengalami menstruasi.
Kebutuhan zat besi tergantung kepada jenis kelamin dan umur. Kecukupan yang dianjurkan

untuk anak 2-6 tahun 4,7 mg/hari, usia 6-12 tahun 7,8 mg/hari, laki-laki 12-16 tahun 12,1
mg/hari, gadis 12-16 tahun 21,4 mg/hari, laki-laki dewasa 8,5 mg/hari, wanita dewasa usia
subur 18,9 mg/hari, menopause 6,7 mg/hari, dan menyusui 8,7 mg/hari. [1] Angka kecukupan
ini dihitung berdasarkan ketersediaan hayati (bioavailability) sebesar 15%.[2] Zat besi dalam
makanan dapat berasal dari sumber nabati dengan ketersediaan hayati 2-3% dan sumber
hewani dengan ketersediaan hayati 20-23%.[2] Untuk meningkatkan ketersediaan hayati, zat
besi yag berasal dari tumbuh-tumbuhan dapat ditambahkan denganvitamin C dan asam
organik lainnya.[2]

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Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12, vitamin B12 or vitamin B-12, also called cobalamin, is a water-

Vitamin B12 consists of a class of chemically related compounds (vitamers), all of

Vitamin B12 was discovered from its relationship to disease pernicious anemia,

Dalam sejarahnya, vitamin B12 ditemukan dari hubungannya dengan penyakit anemia

Laki-laki dewasa (berat badan 75 kg) mengandung ± 4000 mg zat besi,

Kebutuhan zat besi tergantung kepada jenis kelamin dan umur. Kecukupan yang dianjurkan

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