Metabolic Role of Vitamins

“Vitamins are naturally occurring organic compounds necessary in small amounts for the
normal growth and function of humans and some animals. They cannot be biosynthesized;
they must be consumed in the diet”. They are not a source of calories.
Vitamins are necessary components of healthy diets and play important roles in cellular
metabolism. Vitamins are considered “micronutrients.” Although these substances occur in
only very small amounts within cells, they are critically important. Their absence is usually
manifested as some deficiency disease which may ultimately result even in death. Vitamins
are cofactors, they don’t do anything by themselves.
Role of Vitamins in Plants (2007 Smith Research Article)
Plants don’t synthesize vitamins for the benefit of animals, but rather because they play the
same essential roles in plant metabolism. Many of the vitamins that are involved in central
metabolism contain or are associated with nucleotides (Next slide, Table 1), leading to the
proposal that they were present in the so called pre-biotic RNA world, where They might
have carried out diverse metabolic reactions in the absence of proteins. For pantothenate
(vitamin B5), the precursor to coenzyme-A, a route has been proposed for its synthesis by
chemical condensation in conditions that prevailed in the prebiotic environment. This
implies that the vitamins were present in the earliest cells, and that the ability to make them
has been lost during the evolution of animals.
Vitamins are primary metabolites but are usually synthesized in small amounts, making the
study of relevant pathways and enzymes difficult. It is only in the past decade or so that we
have begun to dissect vitamin biosynthesis in plants at the molecular level. This work has
been helped greatly by advent of genomic sequence information, and spurred on by the
interest in increasing vitamin levels in plants to enhance their nutritional value. In many cases
the elucidation of vitamin biosynthesis in plants has been helped enormously by knowledge
of the bacterial pathways. A good example of this is research on biotin, which in bacteria
such as Escherichia coli is synthesized in 04 steps from pimeloyl-CoA. Elucidation of plant
pantothenate biosynthesis relied on information from bacteria.
Metabolic Role of Vitamins and Minerals
Research in the latter half of 20th century has dramatically increased our understanding of
biochemical processes of cellular energy generation and demonstrated the fundamental role
of a large number of vitamins and minerals as coenzyme and cofactors in these processes.
Lack of micronutrients may impair cellular energy production resulting in symptoms of
tiredness and lack of energy.
Plant-derived vitamins are of great interest because of their impact on human health. They are
essential for metabolism because of their redox chemistry and role as enzymatic cofactors,
not only in animals but also in plants. Several vitamins have strong antioxidant potential,
including both water-soluble (vitamins B and C) and lipid-soluble (vitamins A, E and K)
compounds. A deficiency of vitamins is a major health problem in low-resource countries,
putting an estimated 125–130 million children at increased risk of morbidity and mortality
from infectious diseases. Morbidity: Unhealthy way or patients' manner.
As the site of many essential biosynthetic pathways in plants, including those for chlorophyll,
fatty acids and many amino acids, chloroplasts might be expected to play a role in vitamin
biosynthesis. Indeed, spinach chloroplasts were found to make the thiazole moiety of
thiamine, and the maizeTHI1 protein was immunolocalised to plastid membrane fractions.
Thiamine biosynthesis also occurs in mitochondria. What is known is that the mitochondrion
is key to the biosynthesis of several other vitamins. By contrast, the first 03 enzymes of the
biotin pathway are cytosolic, whereas the terminal enzyme, biotin synthase, is mitochondrial.

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Regulation of vitamin biosynthesis
As essential primary metabolites, vitamins must be produced in all cells and appropriate
levels of vitamins must be maintained for the correct functioning of central metabolism.
Nevertheless, vitamins are not simply made constitutively but rather their production is
subject to regulation. The bio synthesis of vitamins has clear developmental control in many
cases. During seed germination and seedling establishment, the levels of folate biosynthesis
enzymes increase steadily as there is a general resumption of active cell metabolism. In many
cases, light is an important regulator of vitamin biosynthesis, presumably reflecting the need
for higher levels of metabolic activity in photosynthetic tissues.

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Ascorbate biosynthesis in particular is responsive to light levels. Indeed, it is exquisitely
sensitive to environmental stress, not surprising given the key role of ascorbate as an
antioxidant. Plants that are grown in high light have much more ascorbate, and light has been
shown to influence the expression of the last gene in the pathway. Ascorbate influences
nearly every aspect of plant biology, including modulation of the expression of genes that are
involved in the plant defence response to biotic and abiotic stress, such as excess light, water
deficit and ozone. Ascorbate deficiency response of plant could relate to involvement of
ascorbate as a cofactor for the biosynthesis of gibberellic acid and abscisic acid. They
Prevents disease – unlike “supplements” which may promote “some thing” or have general
metabolic effect (ex. Omega 3s, fibers). Humans must consume at least 12 vitamins in their
diet. A well-balanced diet from a variety of food sources usually provides all these vitamins.
Most vitamins are chemically altered in some way so they can function in the body.
• General Functions
– Vitamins are absorbed intact.
– Vitamins perform numerous essential functions.
– Regulate metabolism
– Help convert energy in fat, carbohydrate, and protein into ATP
– Promote growth and reproduction
Vitamins in plant-derived foods can also be increased either through an optimization of
growth conditions, conventional plant breeding or through use of transgenic techniques, a
process known as Biofortification. Plants contain a wide range of vitamins that are essential
not only for human metabolism but also for plants, because of their redox chemistry and role
as cofactors, and some of them also have strong antioxidant potential. The antioxidant
vitamins that have been the focus of most attention in plants are Carotenoids (pro-vitamin A),
Ascorbate (vitamin C) and Tocochromanols (vitamin E, including both tocopherols and
tocotrienols). However, recent evidence indicates that vitamin-B compounds could also play
a significant role as antioxidants in plants.
Biochemical function of Vitamin-A
Vitamin-A in Vision
- Helps to maintain the cornea.
- Conversion of light energy into nerve impulses at the retina.
- Rhodopsin (visual purple) is a light-sensitive pigment of the retina that is combination of
retinene and a protein called opsin. Vitamin-A involve in Protein Synthesis and cell
differentiation.
Vitamin A in Reproduction and Growth
-Sperm development in men
-Normal fetal development in women
-Growth in children
-Remodeling of the bone involves ostoeclasts, osteoblasts, and lysosomes.
•Osteoclasts are cells that destroy bone growth.
•Osteoblasts are cells that build bones.
•Lysosomes are sacs of degradative enzymes that destroy bones.
Roles in the Body of Vitamin-D
Vitamin D in Bone Growth
Helps to maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorus. Works in combination with other
nutrients and hormones: Vitamin-A, vitamin-C, vitamin-K, Calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, and fluoride. Parathormone and calcitonin, Collagen Vitamin D in Other Roles
Immune system, Brain and nervous system, Pancreas, skin, muscles, cartilage, and
reproductive organs. Vit-D increases Ca and P absorption from small intestine. Calcitriol

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affects maturation and differentiation of mononuclear cells and also affects formation of
lymphokines.
Vitamins A and D are Hormone Precursors
Vitamin-D3 is not itself biologically active, but it is converted by enzymes in the liver and
kidney to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, a hormone that regulates calcium uptake in the
intestine and calcium levels in kidney and bone. Deficiency of vitamin-D leads to defective
bone formation and the disease rickets, for which administration of vitamin-D produces a
dramatic cure. Vitamin-D2 (ergocalciferol) is a commercial product formed by UV
irradiation of the ergosterol of yeast. Vitamin-D2 is structurally similar to D3, with slight
modification to the side chain attached to the sterol-D ring.
Vitamin-A (retinol) in its various forms functions as a hormone and as the visual pigment of
the vertebrate eye (Next slide Fig. 10–21). Acting through receptor proteins in the cell ucleus,
the vitamin-A derivative retinoic acid regulates gene expression in the development of
epithelial tissue, including skin. Retinoic acid is the active ingredient in the drug tretinoin
(Retin-A), used in the treatment of severe acne and wrinkled skin. The vitamin-A derivative
retinal is the pigment that initiates the response of rod and cone cells of the retina to light,
producing a neuronal signal to the brain.

Biochemical role of Vitamin-C

(1) ) Ascorbic acid helps in reducing Fe+3 to Fe+2 and helps in absorption of iron
and utilization.
2) ) It takes part in oxidation-reduction system coupled with glutathione,

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 cytochrome, NAD+, NADP+ and FAD
(3) ) It is involved in tyrosine metabolism.
(4) ) It takes part in reducing reactions involved in synthesis of steroid hormones.
(5) On injecting adrenocorticoid hormone (ACTH), Vit-C of adrenal cortex
reduced and in stressful conditions, Vit-C is utilized by biosynthesis of
steroid hormone.
(6) It takes part in processing of polypeptide hormones e.g. oxytocin,
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and cholecystokinin (CCK) by promoting
activity of amidating enzymes.
7) Presence of Vit-C is necessary for conversion of
Folic acid → Tetrahydrofolic acid
• It also inhibits oxidation of tetrahydrofolic acid
8) It is involved in hydroxylation of
Dopamine → Noradrenaline
9) It is involved in synthesis of Carnitine by providing hydroxytrimethyllysine.
Deficiency of Ascorbic acid
Scurvy (Scorbutus): Disruption of adventitia, media and basal laminae of blood vessels.
Hemorrhages occur from mucuos membrane of nose, mouth and GIT, urinary tract, skin,
muscles and subtropical tissues. Most frequent site of lesions is gums which become spongy
and show swelling, redness, ulceration etc. which may lead to gangrene and loss of teeth.
Capillaries of teeth show increased fragility. Anemia, weakness and Emaciation; there is
tendency to remain motionless. Anemia may be Normocytic and Macrocytic. Life span of
RBCs may be shortened due to increase in rate of hemolysis. Skin shows hemorrhages in the
form of petechiae and ecchymosis; follicular hyperkeratosis with coiled hairs and
perifollicular hemorrhages. At the growing ends of long bones osteoblastic function is
arrested. Characteristic hemorrhages occur beneath periosteum of long bones; hematomas
may become calcified. There is pain in joints. Acute tenderness of limbs causes the infant to
cry with pain when limbs are touched. Sternum may sink inward, leaving a sharp elevation at
the rib margins (Scorbutic rosary).

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Vitamins E and K and the Lipid Quinones are Oxidation- Reduction Cofactors
Higher plants neither synthesize nor require vitamin B 12 because they contain cobalamin-
independent methionine synthase (MetE). The absence of vitamin-B 12 from higher plants
means that the major source of vitamin B 12 (unlike other vitamins) in our diets is from
animal-derived products. Vitamin biosynthesis in plants is a rapidly expanding field and, as
well as providing information about these essential pathways, is opening up several new and
exciting areas. For example many vitamin biosynthesis enzymes catalyse novel or unusual
reactions, and their characterization could provide new biotransformation systems for
industry. These reactions are also key targets for novel pesticides because they are absent
from animals; The folate pathway has been identified as a target for antimalarials and the
pantothenate pathway might be useful in drugs against tuberculosis.

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 Metabolic role of Minerals
Minerals are inorganic elements that come from the earth. Animals & humans absorb
minerals from plants they eat. Positive Mineral balance (intake and retention exceed urinary
and intestinal losses) during skeletal growth during childhood and adolescence and during
pregnancy and lactation. Negative Mineral balance (Gastrointestinal and/or urinary losses
exceed intake and retention) may occur during high rates of bone remodelling during
estrogen deficiency, with aging, and with diseases such as hyperthyroidism and primary
hyperparathyroidism. The adjustment or adaptation of the homeostatic system to maintain
balance is mediated by PTH and 1,25(OH)2D3 through changes in intestinal and renal tubule
mineral transport.
Two Groups: Major and Trace Minerals
Major Minerals (macrominerals). Need more than 100 mg/day. Minimum of 5 grams in the
body.
These Include: Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium and Chloride. The major
minerals are the 6 dietary minerals your body needs in the largest amounts.
Calcium
Calcium forms about 1% of adult body weight. - It is the most abundant electrolyte in human
body due to its structural function for the skeleton. - More than 99% of calcium in body
occurs in bones as its phosphates and carbonates. Only 0.03% of total body calcium occurs
in blood. Normal serum calcium level is 9-11 mg/dL. Bone calcium is constantly exchanged
with calcium of interstitial fluid and this process is regulated primarily by parathyroid
hormone, active Vit-D and also by calcitonin.
Function in Plants: Aids in the movement of carbohydrates in plants, essential to healthy
cell walls and root structure. Ca2+ often does not act directly as a signal component but by
binding to calmodulin. Calmodulin is present mainly in the cytosol. It consists of a flexible
helix connecting the two loops of both ends. Each loop possesses a binding site for a Ca2+
ion and contains glutamate (E) and phenylalanine (F). Ca2+ -calmodulin also binds to other
proteins, thus changing their activity, and is therefore an important component of signal
transduction chains. Protein kinases are termed Ca2+ dependent protein kinases (CDPK).
CDPK kinases are involved in the phosphorylation of sucrose phosphate synthase and Nitrate
reductase, Pathogen defense reaction, and the response to various abiotic stresses.
Symptoms: Terminal bud dies under severe deficiency, margins of younger leaves
scalloped, blossoms shed prematurely, weak stalk or stem structure.
Sources of Calcium
Milk (120 mg/dL) and milk products are best sources of calcium. Other good sources are egg
yolk, leafy vegetables and hard drinking water. Some vegetable foods such as spinach contain
also oxalates and benzoates and are poor source of calcium because calcium oxalate and
benzoates thus formed are insoluble and are not absorbed. Calcium is also ingested as
Ca(OH)2 on betel leaves (i.e. paans) so often chewed in Pakistan and India.
Biochemical Function of Calcium
1. Clotting of blood needs calcium ions.
2. Calcium salts take part in bone and tooth development.
3. By regulating membrane permeability, calcium control excitability of nerves
Muscle contraction, Cell signaling, Enzyme cofactor, Blood clotting Mineralization,
Morphogenesis and Gene regulation.
Deficiency Symptoms
Muscle cramps, dry skin, increased PMS symptoms, bone breakage, late signs of puberty,
bone fracture, weak nails, insomnia, poor bone density, tooth decay and brittle nails are some
known symptoms of calcium deficiency.

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Effects of soft drinks
Intake of carbonated beverages has been associated with increased excretion and loss of
calcium. 25 years ago teenagers drank twice as much milk as soda pop. Today they drink
more than twice as much soda pop as milk. Another significant consideration is obesity and
increased risk for diabetes. Excessive intake of sodium may cause renal hypercalciuria by
impairing calcium reabsorption resulting in compensatory increase in PTH secretion. Post-
menopausal women at greater risk for bone loss due to excessive sodium intake due to
impaired vitamin-D synthesis which accompanies estrogen deficiency.
Magnesium
Although Mg is a major constituent of bone, it is not a consistent component of the
hydroxyapatite crystal structure. Mg is primarily on the crystal surface, and a portion is in
equilibrium with ECF Magnesium. Mg is the most abundant divalent cation in the
intracellular compartment, where it serves as a co-factor in a number of biological systems
that regulate enzymatic activities and neuromuscular functions. The concentration of
cytosolic Mg of about 5 x 10-4 M is very close to the concentration in the extracellular fluid.
Function: Chlorophyll consists of a tetrapyrrole ring with magnesium as the central atom and
with a phytol side chain as a hydrophobic membrane anchor. An ingredient of chlorophyll,
aids in the translocation of starch within the plant, essential for formation of oils and fats.

Symptoms: Yellowing of leaves between veins starting with lower leaves, leaves abnormally
thin, tissue may dry and die, leaves have tendency to curve upward.

Food Sources
Green vegetables such as spinach because the center of the chlorophyll molecule(which gives
green vegetables their color), Legumes (beans and peas). Nuts and seeds, Unrefined grains
Tap water (varies according to the water supply).
RDA
ADULT MEN 19 to 30 400mg
31 yrs and older 420mg
ADULT WOMEN 19 to 30 310mg
31 yrs and older 320mg

• Increased Tubular reabsorption

• ECF volume depletion Hypomagnesemia

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• Hypocalcemia Metabolic alkalosis
• Parathyroid hormone
• DecreasedTubular reabsorption
• ECF volume expansion Hypermagnesemia
• Phosphate depletion Hypercalcemia
• Loop diuretics Aminoglycoside antibiotics
• Cisplantin Cyclosporin A
• Ethanol Gitelman’s syndrome
Mg2+ Deficiency
Some medications cause deficiency. Poorly controlled diabetes and alcohol abuse.
Symptoms: Muscle weakness, seizures, fatigue, depression, and irregular heart beats.
Muscular cramps, tremors, respiratory problems, dizziness, Poor memory, confusion, nausea,
Anxiety and high blood pressure.
Sulfur (S)
Function: Aids in the formation of oils and parts of protein molecules. Iron-sulfur (Fe-S)
centers have a central function as redox carriers. The bound iron atom can change between
the oxidation states Fe+++ and Fe++ so that cytochromes function as a one-electron-carrier,
in contrast to quinones, NAD(P) and FAD, which transfer 02 electrons together with protons.
Iron-Sulfur center is also involved in photosynthetic electron transport.
Sulfur is present in plastocyanin (in Figure below). Plastocyanin is a protein with a molecular
mass of 10.5 kDa, containing a copper atom, which is coordinatively bound to 01 cysteine, 01
methionine, and 02 histidine residues of the protein (Fig. 3.27). This copper atom alternates
between the oxidation states Cu+ and Cu++ and thus is able to take up and transfer one
electron.
Plastocyanin is soluble in water and is located in the thylakoid lumen.

Plastocyanin
• Plastocyanin is a copper-containing protein involved in electron-transfer. The protein
is a monomer, with a molecular weight around 10,500 Daltons, and 99 amino acids in
most vascular plants. It is a member of the plastocyanin family of copper-binding
proteins.
• Function: In photosynthesis, plastocyanin functions as an electron transfer agent
between cytochrome f of the cytochrome b6f complex from photosystem-II and
P700+ from photosystem-I. Cytochrome b6f complex and P700+ are both membrane-
bound proteins with exposed residues on the lumen-side of the thylakoid membrane
of chloroplasts. Cytochrome f acts as an electron donor while P700+ accepts
electrons from reduced plastocyanin.
The nitrate reductase of higher plants consists of 02 identical subunits, Each subunit
comprises an electron transport chain consisting of 01 FAD, 01 heme of the cytochrome-b
type (cyt-b557), and 01 cofactor containing molybdenum (Fig. below 10.3). This cofactor is a

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pterin with a side chain to which the molybdenum is attached by 02 sulfur bonds and is
abbreviated MoCo.

Sulfate assimilation enables the synthesis of sulfur containing compounds. Sulfate is an

essential constituent of living matter. In the oxidation state-II, it is present in the two amino
acids cysteine and methionine, In the detoxifying agent glutathione, In various Fe-S redox
clusters, in Peroxiredoxins, and in Thioredoxins. Plants, bacteria, and fungi are able to
synthesize these compounds by assimilating sulfate taken up from the environment. Synthesis
of methionine is in conjunction with sulfur metabolism. Chlorsulfurone are very strong
inhibitors of ALS (acetolactate synthase), is inhibited by valine and leucine. Herbicides:
Chlorsulfurone inhibit acetolactate synthase. Acetolactate synthase involves synthesis of
alanine, valine from Pyruvic acid.
• Deficiency Symptoms of Sulfur:
• Young leaves light green to yellowish in color.
• In some plants older tissue may be affected also.
• Small spindly plants, retarded growth and delayed maturity.
• Interveinal chlorosis on corn leaves.
Copper
Copper is absorbed by a specific intestinal transport mechanism. It is carried to the liver
where it is bound to ceruloplasmin, which circulates systemically and delivers copper to
target tissues in the body. Excretion of copper is largely through bile, and then into the feces.
Absorptive and excretory processes vary with the levels of dietary copper, providing a means
of copper homeostasis. Copper serves as a component of many enzymes, including Amine
oxidases, ferroxidases, Cytochrome-c oxidase, dopamine β-hydroxylase, Superoxide
dismutase, and tyrosinase.
Copper has two ionic forms: Cu+1 and Cu+2. After absorption copper is transported to the
liver and kidneys for storage.Transported while bound to protein called ceruloplasmin.
Excess copper is excreted in bile.
Functions of Copper
Used as a cofactor for enzymes. Required for: Iron transport from liver to tissues
(ceruloplasmin).Helps Fe+3 bind to transferrin in blood, Superoxide dismutase function.
Cytochrome-C, Immune function. Formation of cross-links in collagen and elastin.
Function in Plants: Plastocyanin is a protein, containing a copper atom,Promotes formation
of Vitamin A, excess is very toxic. During oxidation of cyt-c the electrons are transferred to a
copper sulfur cluster containing two Cu atoms called CuA. These two Cu atoms are linked by
two S-atoms of cysteine side chains (Next slide Fig. 5.17). This copper-sulfur cluster
probably takes up one electron and transfers it via cyt-a to a binuclear center, consisting of
cyt-a3 and a Cu atom (CuB), bound to histidine. This binuclear center functions as a redox
unit .

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 • Deficiency Symptoms in Plants: Stunted growth, dieback of terminal shoots in trees,
poor pigmentation, wilting and eventual death of leaf tips, formation of gum
pockets around central pith in oranges.
Copper needs and Foods
• RDA for copper is 0.9 mg/day, Usual intake is 1.1 to 1.6 mg/day
• Copper is high in liver, seafood, cocoa, mushrooms, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole
grains.
Copper Deficiency
• Usually caused by high doses of zinc supplementation.
• Symptoms similar to iron deficiency anemia (hypochromic anemia).
• Sometimes of heart disease and osteoperosis to marginal copper deficiency.
• Clinical manifestations of copper include depigmentation of skin and hair,
neurologic disturbances, leukopenia, hypochromic microcytic anemia, and skeletal
abnormalities.
Anemia arises from impaired utilization of iron and is therefore a conditioned form of iron
deficiency anemia. The deficiency syndrome, except the anemia and leukopenia, is also
observed in Menkes’ disease, A rare inherited condition associated with impaired copper
utilization. [900 μg]. Copper Toxicity Upper limit (UL) is 10 mg/day. Toxicity Caused by:
Wilson’s disease-genetic disorder. Copper accumulates in brain, cornea, liver and kidneys.
Manganese (Mn)
Function: Mn cluster minimizes the formation of oxygen radicals in photosystem-II. In the
transport of electrons from water to chlorophyll manganese cations and a tyrosine residue are
involved. Mn serves as an activator for enzymes in growth processes, assist iron in
chlorophyll formation, generally required with zinc in foliar spraying of citrus.
Symptoms: Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves, gradation of pale color next to veins,
development of gray specks (oats), interveinal white streaks (wheat) or interveinal brown
spots or streaks (barley).

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Manganese is a component of several metalloenzymes. Most manganese is in mitochondria,
where it is a component of manganese superoxide dismutase. It acts a cofactor with many
enzymes, including ones involved in carbohydrate metabolism and antioxidant pathways.
Also involved in bone formation. Animals with low Mn diets show changes in brain function,
bone formation, and reproductive problems. AI is 2.3 mg/day in men, and 1.8 mg/day in
women, UL is 11 mg/day, based on people working in Manganese mines. Excess manganese
causes psychiatric abnormalities, irritability, hallucinations, and violence.
Zinc (Zn)
Function: An essential constituent of several enzymes, controls synthesis of indoleacetic acid
- an important growth regulator. Zinc activates enzymes that are responsible for the synthesis
of certain proteins. It is used in the formation of chlorophyll and some carbohydrates,
conversion of starches to sugars and its presence in plant tissue helps the plant to withstand
cold temperatures. Zinc is essential in the formation of auxins, which help with growth
regulation and stem elongation. This micronutrient most often needed by western crops -
trees, grapes, beans, onions, tomatoes, cotton & rice. Zinc is absorbed in small intestine.
Absorption and transport processes are similar to those for iron but use different proteins
Greater bioavailability from animal sources. High calcium levels and phytic acid; some
proteins in milk decrease absorption of zinc. Zinc is a component of more than 100 enzymes,
among which are DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase, and transfer RNA synthetase.
Functions of Zinc:
Zinc is needed for: DNA & RNA synthesis, Alcohol metabolism Growth and development,
Antioxidant activity (superoxide dismutase). Cell membrane structure and Regulation of
transcription (zinc fingers).
Symptoms: Decreased stem length and rosetting of terminal leaves. Reduced fruit bud
formation, mottled leaves and stripping of corn leaves.
Zinc Needs and Zinc in Foods
• RDA for Zinc is 11 mg/day for men, 8 mg/day for women.
• Zinc is more in animal foods (beef, red meats and shellfish).
• Highest ND foods are oyster, wheat germ, crab, shrimp, beef, pork, liver, turkey, and
legumes.
• Zinc Deficiency
• Some decreases in cellular functions are seen with mild deficiency, while Severe
deficiency causes:
• Severe diarrhea, Poor growth, Impaired Vitamin-A function and

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 • High risk of pneumonia
• Abnormal brain development, skin lesions, poor immune system, slow healing of
wounds, eye lesions and skin problems

Molybdenum (Mo)
Functions:
Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in the cytosol: The nitrate reductase of higher plants consists of
two identical subunits. Each subunit comprises an electron transport chain (Fig. 10.2)
consisting of one FAD, one heme of cytochrome-b type (cyt-b557), and one cofactor
containing molybdenum.
This cofactor is a pterin with a side chain to which the molybdenum is attached by 02 sulfur
bonds and is called the molybdenum cofactor, abbreviated MoCo (Next slide Fig 10.3).
Required for N utilization, needed to transform NPN into amino acids, and legumes cannot
fix atmospheric N2 symbiotically without Mo. Its mechanism is on next slide (Fig 11.7).

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Deficiency Symptoms in Plants:
- Stunting and lack of vigor, very similar to N deficiency due to the key role Mo plays
in N utilization.
- Marginal cupping and scorching of leaves.
- Whiptail in cauliflower and yellow spotting in citrus.
Molybdenum in humans
A cofactor in several enzymes, most prominently xanthine oxidase and sulfite oxidase
(xanthine dehydrogenase- used in tissue regeneration). Molybdenum interacts heavily with
copper and iron. RDA is 45 ug/day. High in milk, beans, liver, whole grains, and nuts.
Deficiency seen as increased breathing and HR, night blindness, edema, confusion, weakness
and coma. A probable case of human deficiency is described as being secondary to parenteral
administration of sulfite and resulted in hyperoxypurinemia, hypouricemia, and low sulfate
excretion. [45 μg]. Toxicity at UL of 2 mg/day manifested as anemia, weight loss,
reproductive problems, and decreased growth.
Deficiency Symptoms of Molybdenum
• Liver problems,
• Jaundice,
• Nausea,
• Fatigue,
• Headache,
• Tachypnea
• tachycardia
• vomiting,
• Coma,
• Seizures,
• lens dislocation
Iron
Heme, with iron as the central atom, is a constituent of cytochromes and catalase.
(Incorporation of an iron ion into protoporphyrin-IX by a ferro-chelatase results in the
formation of heme). By assembling the heme with apoproteins, chloroplasts are able to
synthesize their own cytochromes and phytochromes. The synthesized stearoyl ACP (18:0) in
plant is desaturated to oleoyl ACP (18:1) in the plastid stroma (Fig. 15.15A) (Incorporation of
double bond in fatty acids). This reaction can be regarded as a monooxygenation, in which

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one O atom from an O2 molecule is reduced to water and the other is incorporated into the
hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acid as hydroxyl group (Next silde). In stearoyl ACP
desaturase, O2 molecule is activated with a di-iron-oxo cluster. Essential for formation of
chlorophyll, releases energy from sugars and starches.

Function: Essential for formation of chlorophyll, releases energy from sugars and starches.
Symptoms: Leaves yellowish or white (young leaves first), veins green, affected leaves curl
up. Leaves yellowish or white (young leaves first), veins green, affected leaves curl up.
Acetolactate synthase: participates in the synthesis of hydrophobic amino acids (Pyruvate
can be converted by transamination to alanine).

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16