India's Ambitious Renewable Energy Targets

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India’s ambitious Renewable Energy Targets
Introduction
 The ambitious target of achieving 175GW of renewable energy capacity by

2022 needs a clear strategy roadmap, integrated planning, and a whole-of-
system approach that factors in domestic developmental and environmental
considerations.
 India has committed that 40 per cent of its total power capacity by 2030 will
be based on renewable sources
 India's aim to add 175,000 Mw of capacity from clean energy sources by 2022:
60 per cent from solar energy, 30 per cent from wind and the balance from
biomass and small hydro.
 Considering where India started from in 2010 (JNNSM), the growth of solar
power in India has been phenomenal.
Progress in Renewable Energy
 Such ambition has been central to changing the perception about India's
willingness to contribute to the global effort to reduce carbon pollution
 India is an interesting and inspiring example. The ambition is amazing
 While the targets appear daunting, the increased pace of capacity addition
shows the government's serious intent.
 India's RE capacity has gone from 33.8gw to 43gw, overtaking hydroelectric
capacity
 Unlike before, there is political support for the renewable energy programme
at the highest level
 Renewable energy tariffs have hit record lows—an all-time low price of Rs
4.34/unit was achieved for solar energy capacity
 REN21, the global renewable energy multi-stakeholder network, in its 2016
Global Status Report listed India among the top five countries for investment
in renewable power and fuels in 2015, behind China, the US, Japan and the
UK.
 The government and the electricity regulator have taken some steps to
encourage state participation in the renewable energy programme.
 Discoms are now mandated to source 8% of electricity from RE sources
 Interstate transmission charges have been waived for solar and wind
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www.OnlineIAS.com Kalyannuguri@gmail.com
 Ujwal Discom Assurance Yojana (UDAY), will help distribution companies

become financially healthier
 The states of Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu will see the largest solar
capacity additions
 The Green Energy Corridor (GEC)— will commission new transmission
infrastructure to allow more renewable to be put on the grid.
 Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) has issued supportive
regulations to increase transmission capacity, that will support more
renewable energy on the grid
 Policy and regulatory framework for the promotion of renewable energy is in
place
 There is a push for wind solar hybrid systems by using an optimum
combination of wind-turbines and solar-PV
 Since wind energy is already competitive with imported coal-based power, it
can be deployed very quickly without any policy support
 Several Indian as well as international banks have already sanctioned large
sums of funding for solar power projects.
 India is also in talks with development banks like the Asian Development
Bank, International Finance Corporation, and the New Development Bank to
access cheap debt finance for setting up solar power projects.
 India also signed a MoU with Germany to promote solar energy.
 India also launched the International Solar Alliance (ISA), a coalition of solar
resource-rich countries, to address energy needs and common concerns.
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)
• IREDA is a Mini Ratna (Category – I) Government of India Enterprise.
• It is under the administrative control of MNRE.
• IREDA is Public Limited Government Company established as a Non-
Banking Financial
Institution in 1987 engaged in promoting, developing and extending financial
assistance for setting up projects relating to new and renewable sources of
energy and energy efficiency/conservation with the motto: “Energy For Ever”.
Objectives
To give financial support to specific projects and schemes for generating
electricity and / or energy through new and renewable sources and conserving
energy through energy efficiency.
To increase IREDA’s share in the renewable energy sector by way of
innovative financing.
Challenges:
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 Accessing affordable finance, the poor financial health of state electricity

distribution companies
 Poor transmission infrastructure and technological challenges — be it grid
stability or storage is a "big barrier"
 Financing is available, but the terms are unattractive— high cost of debt,
short-tenor loans, variable interest rates, adding up to as much as 30% of the
cost.
 Currency hedging in India is expensive, making foreign financing as
expensive as domestic
 Renewable energy, which, given the nature of the source, is periodic — unlike
coal, gas or hydro
 Sophisticated operational mechanisms which make renewable energy
integration on a large scale very difficult
 Foreign investors also cite the financial ill-health of discoms as a concern
 Another factor that could impact the rise of solar energy: a disruption in the
manufacturing ecosystem on account of the slowing Chinese economy
What is the Alliance?
On the first day of the COP-21 summit, the International Solar Alliance was
launched by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French President Francois
Hollande as a union of countries with abundant sunlight. Under this alliance, 121
countries that fall within the tropics {i.e. between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn} have been invited to make collaborative efforts to harness solar
energy to generate the electricity. Most of these countries fall within Asia, Africa
and South America.
Objectives of ISA:
There are three objectives behind the International Solar Alliance.
Firstly, to force down prices by driving demand;

Secondly, to bring standardization in solar technologies and
Thirdly, to foster research and development.
Forcing down prices:
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Currently, the global installed capacity of solar power is around 180 GW at

present. It has grown around tenfold in last one decade only. The prices of solar
panels and other related equipments have gradually become very competitive, but
still India and world are far from reaching the grid parity. {Grid Parity is when
cost of per unit energy produced via solar or any other alternative method is equal
to cost of purchasing the same from an existing electricity grid}. To achieve the
grid parity, it is a prerequisite to bring down the cost of generation of solar power.
The idea behind an international alliance is that the countries can come together
to collaborate in installation of solar plants and thus can drive up the demand for
solar technologies manifold. This would force down the prices around the world
and will make generation of solar energy rather cheap.
Standardization:
The second rationale of this alliance is to bring standardization in the

manufacturing of the solar panels and other solar technologies, so that the prices
can fall substantially. The countries can also come together in technological
innovation also to bring down the prices.
Research and Development:
One of the key objectives of ISA is to foster research and development in solar
technologies. Currently, a technology breakthrough is awaited in the field of
storage of energy. Currently, there is no way to store the electricity being
produced by solar systems due to which it has not established itself as reliable
energy source.
Details of Alliance:
1. The Sunshine Countries {Suryaputra} :
Our Prime Minister was the leading force behind this alliance. He coined the new
term “Surya Putra” for all the nations which fall between Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn, and which have been invited to join the alliance. The other
term used for these countries is “Sunshine Countries”.
2. International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (IASPA) :

 International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (IASPA) will be the
formal name of International Solar Alliance. Its secretariat will be set up in
India with an investment of initial funding of $30 million from India. It
will raise around $400 million as fees from international agencies. Initially
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The ISA secretariat will be set up in National Institute of Solar Energy,

New Delhi.
3. Among the tasks that the Alliance would pursue are, cooperation in training,
building institutions, regulatory issues, common standards, and investment
including joint ventures.
4. To achieve its fixed objective, the Alliance needs between $1,000 and $1,200
billion over the next 15 years, of which 70% could be provided by the private
sector. Public bodies are prepared to put up the balance. Both France and the
Netherlands have also agreed to contribute, and other rich countries are set to
follow suit.
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Solar energy is the most readily available source of energy. It does not belong to
anybody and is, therefore, free. It is also the most important of the non-
conventional sources of energy because it is non-polluting and, therefore, helps
in lessening the greenhouse effect.
Solar power in India is a fast-growing industry and as of 30 September 2016, the

country's solar grid had a cumulative capacity of 8.63 gigawatts (GW). In January
2015, the government expanded its solar plans, targeting US$100 billion of
investment and 100 GW of solar capacity, including 40 GW's directly from
rooftop solar, by 2022. India being a tropical country has huge potential for solar
energy generation.
Solar energy use can be classified as:

i) Direct use of solar energy through the capture of sunlight and it can be used for
heating, generating electricity and cooling.
ii) Indirect use of solar energy derived from natural processes driven by the sun,
for example wind, biomass, waves, hydroelectric power.
Under Direct use, Sunlight can be converted into

1. Heat as Solar Thermal Energy
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2. Electricity as Solar Electric Energy

3. Chemical Energy as Solar Fuels
1. Solar thermal energy:
It can be used to heat water or air. It is most often used for heating water in
buildings and in swimming pools. Solar thermal energy is also used to heat
the insides of buildings. Solar heating systems can be classified as
Passive
Active
Passive solar space heating happens in a car on a hot summer day. The sun's rays
pass through the windows and heat up the inside of the car. In passive solar heated
buildings, air is circulated past a solar heat-absorbing surface and through the
building by natural convection. No mechanical equipment is used for passive
solar heating. Solar thermal energy devices include solar cookers, solar water
heating systems, solar air heating, crop drying, refrigeration, water pumping,
timber seasoning and water desalination
Active solar heating systems use collector and a fluid to collect and absorb solar
radiation. Fans or pumps circulate air or heat-absorbing liquids through collectors
and then transfer the heated fluid directly to a room or to a heat storage system.
Active water heating systems usually include a tank for storing water heated by
the system.
2. Solar Electricity:
Solar energy can also be used to produce electricity. Two ways to make
electricity from solar energy are Photovoltaic’s and Solar thermal systems. ƒ
Photovoltaic Electricity:
Photovoltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and volt, a
measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV cells or
solar cells for short. You are probably familiar with photovoltaic cells. Solar-
powered toys, calculators, and roadside telephone call boxes all use solar cells to
convert sunlight into electricity. Solar cells are made up of silicon, the same
substance that makes up sand. Silicon is the second most common substance on
Earth. Solar cells can supply energy to anything that is powered by batteries or
electric power. Electricity is produced when radiant energy from the sun strikes
the solar cell, causing the electrons to move around. The action of the electrons
starts an electric current. The conversion of sunlight into electricity takes place
silently and instantly. There are no mechanical parts to wear out.
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Solar Thermal Electricity Like solar cells, solar thermal systems, also called
concentrated solar power (CSP), use solar energy to produce electricity, but in a
different way. Most solar thermal systems use a solar collector with a mirrored
surface to focus sunlight onto a receiver that heats a liquid. Solar energy has great
potential for the future. Solar energy is free, and its supplies are unlimited. It does
not pollute or otherwise damage the environment. It cannot be controlled by any
one nation or industry. If we can improve the technology to harness the sun’s
enormous power, we may never face energy shortages again.
3) Solar Chemical Energy (Solar Fuel):
The biggest obstacle to renewable energy is not the generation of sustainable
energy sources but the storage of renewable energy.
Solar fuels refer to the process where energy from the sun is captured and stored
in the chemical bonds of a material. Photosynthesis is the blueprint for this
procedure.
There are three main approaches for producing Solar fuels:
1. Artificial photosynthesis
2. Natural photosynthesis
3. Thermo-chemical approaches
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY:

Advantages:
1. Solar energy is free although there is a cost in the building of ‘collectors’ and
other equipment required to convert solar energy into electricity or hot water.
2. Solar energy does not cause pollution. However, solar collectors and other
associated equipment / machines are manufactured in factories that in turn cause
some pollution.
3. Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend
the electricity power grid.
4. Many everyday items such as calculators and other low power consuming
devices can be powered by solar energy effectively.
5. It is estimated that the worlds oil reserves will last for 30 to 40 years. On the
other hand, solar energy is infinite (forever).
Disdvantages of Solar Energy:

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1. Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime and sunny.

2. Solar collectors, panels and cells are relatively expensive to manufacture
although prices are falling rapidly.
3. Solar power stations can be built but they do not match the power output of
similar sized conventional power stations. They are also very expensive.
4. Large areas of land are required to capture the suns energy. Collectors are
usually arranged together especially when electricity is to be produced and used
in the same location.
5. Solar power is used to charge batteries so that solar powered devices can be
used at night. However, the batteries are large and heavy and need storage space.
They also need replacing from time to time.
India's Solar Energy Potential
According to the government-developed India Energy Security Scenarios, India
can achieve 479GW of solar power by 2047
 Solar Energy may eventually drive India's economic growth.
 Solar represents 2.5% of net installed power generation capacity in India, up
from 1.4 % a year ago.
 With around 300 days of sunshine every year, India has among the best
conditions in the world to harness solar energy.
Financial Assistance
 The World Bank Group has committed to provide US$ 1 billion for India’s
solar energy projects
 The SBI has signed an agreement with The World Bank for Rs 4,200 crore
credit facility, aimed at financing Grid Connected Rooftop Solar Photovoltaic
projects in India.
 The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has signed an
agreement with Germany- based Development Bank to fund the Rs 300 crore
floating solar project
 SunEdison, world’s largest renewable energy company, plans to continue its
focus on ‘Make in India’ by developing solar projects in the country by 2022.
Government Initiatives
 Wider adoption of roof-top solar power generation.
 The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), which provides 30 per
cent subsidy to most solar powered items such as solar lamps and solar heating
systems, has further extended its subsidy scheme to solar-powered cold
storages.
 The Ministry of Shipping plans to install solar based power systems at all the
major ports across the country by 2017
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 The Government of India announced a massive renewable power production

target of 175,000 MW by 2022 of which 100,000 MW is from solar power
 The Government of India is taking a number of steps and initiatives like 10-
year tax exemption for solar energy projects.
 The National Solar Mission aims to promote the development and use of solar
energy for power generation
 Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) that provide an incentive to those who
generate green power by providing financial incentives for every unit of power
they generate.
Challenges
 Lack of easy and cheap funding, and increasing cheap imports from China and
Taiwan is hurting the domestic industry.
 The fundamental re-structuring of the country’s power and energy
infrastructure will be its biggest challenge.
 Cost associated with solar power generation is more when compared to coal.
 Transmission & Distribution losses that at approximately 40 percent make
generation through solar energy sources highly unfeasible
 Per capita land availability is very low in India, and land is a scarce resource.
 Manufacturers are mostly focused on export markets that buy Solar PV cells.
This could result in reduced supplies for the local market.
 Competition from Ultra Super Critical Coal Power Generation Plants which
Recent Developments
 Huge advances have been made in the past few years—in terms of solar energy
specifically and renewable energy in general.
 Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) called for bids to install 1GW of
rooftop solar power projects on central government buildings
 India is already home to the world’s largest single-location solar power plant
which has been set up by the Adani Group at Kamuthi in Tamil Nadu.
 According to a Bloomberg New Energy Finance report, the solar sector has
had an impressive compound annual growth rate of 59% in the last four fiscal
years
 India seems to be on track to achieve its INDCs, promised at Paris summit, to
get at least 40% of its total installed power from non-fossil fuel sources by
2030.
 The solar power tariff rates have been consistently falling since 2010 is now
on track to compete with cheap fossil fuels.
 International Solar Alliance is a right move for realizing solar dream of our
nation are cheaper, lesser emissions and higher efficiency.
www.OnlineIAS.com
What is the Alliance?
On the first day of the COP-21 summit, the International Solar Alliance was
launched by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French President Francois
Hollande as a union of countries with abundant sunlight. Under this alliance, 121
countries that fall within the tropics {i.e. between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn} have been invited to make collaborative efforts to harness solar
energy to generate the electricity. Most of these countries fall within Asia, Africa
and South America.
Objectives of ISA:
There are three objectives behind the International Solar Alliance.
Firstly, to force down prices by driving demand;

Secondly, to bring standardization in solar technologies and
Thirdly, to foster research and development.
Forcing down prices:
Currently, the global installed capacity of solar power is around 180 GW at

present. It has grown around tenfold in last one decade only. The prices of solar
panels and other related equipments have gradually become very competitive, but
still India and world are far from reaching the grid parity. {Grid Parity is when
cost of per unit energy produced via solar or any other alternative method is equal
to cost of purchasing the same from an existing electricity grid}. To achieve the
grid parity, it is a prerequisite to bring down the cost of generation of solar power.
The idea behind an international alliance is that the countries can come together
to collaborate in installation of solar plants and thus can drive up the demand for
solar technologies manifold. This would force down the prices around the world
and will make generation of solar energy rather cheap.
Standardization:
The second rationale of this alliance is to bring standardization in the

manufacturing of the solar panels and other solar technologies, so that the prices
can fall substantially. The countries can also come together in technological
innovation also to bring down the prices.
www.OnlineIAS.com
Research and Development:
One of the key objectives of ISA is to foster research and development in solar
technologies. Currently, a technology breakthrough is awaited in the field of
storage of energy. Currently, there is no way to store the electricity being
produced by solar systems due to which it has not established itself as reliable
energy source.
Details of Alliance:
5. The Sunshine Countries {Suryaputra} :
Our Prime Minister was the leading force behind this alliance. He coined the new
term “Surya Putra” for all the nations which fall between Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn, and which have been invited to join the alliance. The other
term used for these countries is “Sunshine Countries”.
6. International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (IASPA) :

 International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (IASPA) will be the
formal name of International Solar Alliance. Its secretariat will be set up in
India with an investment of initial funding of $30 million from India. It
will raise around $400 million as fees from international agencies. Initially
The ISA secretariat will be set up in National Institute of Solar Energy,
New Delhi.
7. Among the tasks that the Alliance would pursue are, cooperation in training,
building institutions, regulatory issues, common standards, and investment
including joint ventures.
8. To achieve its fixed objective, the Alliance needs between $1,000 and $1,200
billion over the next 15 years, of which 70% could be provided by the private
sector. Public bodies are prepared to put up the balance. Both France and the
Netherlands have also agreed to contribute, and other rich countries are set to
follow suit.
India’s ambitious Renewable Energy Targets
Introduction
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 The ambitious target of achieving 175GW of renewable energy capacity by

2022 needs a clear strategy roadmap, integrated planning, and a whole-of-
system approach that factors in domestic developmental and environmental
considerations.
 India has committed that 40 per cent of its total power capacity by 2030 will
be based on renewable sources
 India's aim to add 175,000 Mw of capacity from clean energy sources by 2022:
60 per cent from solar energy, 30 per cent from wind and the balance from
biomass and small hydro.
 Considering where India started from in 2010 (JNNSM), the growth of solar
power in India has been phenomenal.
Progress in Renewable Energy
 Such ambition has been central to changing the perception about India's
willingness to contribute to the global effort to reduce carbon pollution
 India is an interesting and inspiring example. The ambition is amazing
 While the targets appear daunting, the increased pace of capacity addition
shows the government's serious intent.
 India's RE capacity has gone from 33.8gw to 43gw, overtaking hydroelectric
capacity
 Unlike before, there is political support for the renewable energy programme
at the highest level
 Renewable energy tariffs have hit record lows—an all-time low price of Rs
4.34/unit was achieved for solar energy capacity
 REN21, the global renewable energy multi-stakeholder network, in its 2016
Global Status Report listed India among the top five countries for investment
in renewable power and fuels in 2015, behind China, the US, Japan and the
UK.
 The government and the electricity regulator have taken some steps to
encourage state participation in the renewable energy programme.
 Discoms are now mandated to source 8% of electricity from RE sources
 Interstate transmission charges have been waived for solar and wind
 Ujwal Discom Assurance Yojana (UDAY), will help distribution companies
become financially healthier
 The states of Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu will see the largest solar
capacity additions
 The Green Energy Corridor (GEC)— will commission new transmission
infrastructure to allow more renewable to be put on the grid.
 Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) has issued supportive
regulations to increase transmission capacity, that will support more
renewable energy on the grid
www.OnlineIAS.com
 Policy and regulatory framework for the promotion of renewable energy is in

place
 There is a push for wind solar hybrid systems by using an optimum
combination of wind-turbines and solar-PV
 Since wind energy is already competitive with imported coal-based power, it
can be deployed very quickly without any policy support
 Several Indian as well as international banks have already sanctioned large
sums of funding for solar power projects.
 India is also in talks with development banks like the Asian Development
Bank, International Finance Corporation, and the New Development Bank to
access cheap debt finance for setting up solar power projects.
 India also signed a MoU with Germany to promote solar energy.
 India also launched the International Solar Alliance (ISA), a coalition of solar
resource-rich countries, to address energy needs and common concerns.
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)
• IREDA is a Mini Ratna (Category – I) Government of India Enterprise.
• It is under the administrative control of MNRE.
• IREDA is Public Limited Government Company established as a Non-
Banking Financial
Institution in 1987 engaged in promoting, developing and extending financial
assistance for setting up projects relating to new and renewable sources of
energy and energy efficiency/conservation with the motto: “Energy For Ever”.
Objectives
To give financial support to specific projects and schemes for generating
electricity and / or energy through new and renewable sources and conserving
energy through energy efficiency.
To increase IREDA’s share in the renewable energy sector by way of
innovative financing.
Challenges:
 Accessing affordable finance, the poor financial health of state electricity
distribution companies
 Poor transmission infrastructure and technological challenges — be it grid
stability or storage is a "big barrier"
 Financing is available, but the terms are unattractive— high cost of debt,
short-tenor loans, variable interest rates, adding up to as much as 30% of the
cost.
 Currency hedging in India is expensive, making foreign financing as
expensive as domestic
www.OnlineIAS.com
 Renewable energy, which, given the nature of the source, is periodic — unlike
coal, gas or hydro
 Sophisticated operational mechanisms which make renewable energy
integration on a large scale very difficult
 Foreign investors also cite the financial ill-health of discoms as a concern
 Another factor that could impact the rise of solar energy: a disruption in the
manufacturing ecosystem on account of the slowing Chinese economy
Wind Power
 About 2% of the sunlight striking the earth is converted into the kinetic energy
of moving air called wind. The uneven absorption of the solar radiation by the
earth’s surface causes differences of temperature, density and pressure which
produce air movements at local, regional and global levels powered by wind
energy.
 The kinetic energy of the wind can be harnessed by converting it into
mechanical energy or electrical energy using suitable devices. Wind speed
typically increases with altitude and increases over open areas without
windbreaks.
 Good sites for wind turbines include the tops of smooth, rounded hills, open
plains or shorelines, and mountain gaps that funnel and intensify wind. Wind
is concentrated in certain regions and is variable with time at any given
location.
 The minimum wind speed required for satisfactory working of a wind
generated is 15 km/hr.
 Wind energy production in India is categorized into two types based on the
site of location.
 Onshore wind energy
 Offshore Wind Energy
The offshore wind farming is of two types viz.

 Shallow water
 Deep sea farming.
Merits and Demerits of wind energy:

Merits:
1. Free and readily available energy supply on a windy day
2. Technology fairly well developed
3. Very low environmental impact
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4. Decreases heat buildup in the atmosphere from energy use

5. Moderate net useful energy yield
6. Lowest gestation period and capacity addition can be in modular form.
7. Wind farms can revitalize the economy of rural communities, providing steady
incomes through lease to the land owners.
8. It can be generated and supplied even in remote rural areas.
Demerits:
1. Insufficient wind in many places, hence it is intermittent source of energy
production.
2. Requires conventional backup electrical system or fairly expensive storage
system.
3. Production and installation costs are high (but should decrease with mass
production).
4. Cannot be used to power vehicles unless electricity is used to produce
hydrogen gas or to recharge batteries.
5. It may affect TV receptions nearby.
6. Wind turbines acts as barrier in the routes of birds and aeroplanes.
7. The noise made by rotating wind machine blades can be annoying to nearby
residents.
8. Wind turbines and its blades are subjects to damage from high winds and
lightening. Rotating parts, which are located high off the ground can be
difficult and expensive to repair.
9. Delays of state government and utilities to sign power purchase agreement are
affecting the growth of the sector.
Advantages common to offshore and onshore wind energy

 No Pollution and Global Warming Effects
 Low Costs
 Big Industrial Base
 No Fuel
Advantages of Offshore Wind over Onshore Wind:
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1) No Noise Pollution – Wind Turbines emit a slight whirring noise which has
led to problems with people living nearby. Some farmers have also complained
that the livestock like sheep get affected by the moving of the Wind Blades.
Offshore Wind Farms are located far off the coast cause no such noise problems
for humans or wildlife
2) No Injuries to Birds – Older Wind Farms on Land frequently cause deaths
and injuries to birds though newer wind turbines don’t cause too much problems.
Offshore Wind Farms do away with this problem entirely as they are located in
the Ocean where birds don’t fly frequently if at all. There is research being
conducted to see if there is an impact on sea life by Cowries.
3) No loss in scenery though near shore offshore wind farms have come into
controversy because of this, the Cape Wind Project is attracting a lot of protests
particularly from the Kennedy’s who say that it will destroy the view from their
house near the ocean
Disadvantages of Offshore Wind over Onshore Wind
Cost – This is the biggest disadvantage of offshore wind power over onshore
wind energy. Note it can cost between 2.5-3.5 times more to generate electricity
from offshore wind turbines than the wind farms built on land. There are a number
of factors that determine the price such as wind speeds etc. However offshore
wind industry is still in a novice state compared to the relatively mature level of
the land based wind industry.
National Offshore Wind Power Policy: India is making significant progress

in the development of the onshore wind power plants. However, so far progress
in the offshore wind power generation has been almost nil. A 100MW offshore
wind power plant was started in Gujarat for demonstration purpose only. Since
India has more than 7600 Kilometres of coast, the prospects of development of
offshore wind power are very bright. In September 2015, the Union Cabinet has
approved the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy. With this, the Ministry of
New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been authorized as the Nodal Ministry
for use of offshore areas within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the
country and the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) has been authorized
as the Nodal Agency for development of offshore wind energy. Government
has paved way for development of the offshore wind farms up to the seaward
distance of 200 Nautical Miles (within its Exclusive Economic Zone) from the
base line. With the introduction of the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy,
India would try to replicate the success of the onshore wind power development
in the offshore wind power development.
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Wind Power
 About 2% of the sunlight striking the earth is converted into the kinetic energy
of moving air called wind. The uneven absorption of the solar radiation by the
earth’s surface causes differences of temperature, density and pressure which
produce air movements at local, regional and global levels powered by wind
energy.
 The kinetic energy of the wind can be harnessed by converting it into
mechanical energy or electrical energy using suitable devices. Wind speed
typically increases with altitude and increases over open areas without
windbreaks.
 Good sites for wind turbines include the tops of smooth, rounded hills, open
plains or shorelines, and mountain gaps that funnel and intensify wind. Wind
is concentrated in certain regions and is variable with time at any given
location.
 The minimum wind speed required for satisfactory working of a wind
generated is 15 km/hr.
 Wind energy production in India is categorized into two types based on the
site of location.
 Onshore wind energy
 Offshore Wind Energy
The offshore wind farming is of two types viz.

 Shallow water
 Deep sea farming.
Merits and Demerits of wind energy:

Merits:
9. Free and readily available energy supply on a windy day
10.Technology fairly well developed
11.Very low environmental impact
12.Decreases heat buildup in the atmosphere from energy use
13.Moderate net useful energy yield
14.Lowest gestation period and capacity addition can be in modular form.
15.Wind farms can revitalize the economy of rural communities, providing steady
incomes through lease to the land owners.
16.It can be generated and supplied even in remote rural areas.
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Demerits:
10.Insufficient wind in many places, hence it is intermittent source of energy
production.
11.Requires conventional backup electrical system or fairly expensive storage
system.
12.Production and installation costs are high (but should decrease with mass
production).
13.Cannot be used to power vehicles unless electricity is used to produce
hydrogen gas or to recharge batteries.
14.It may affect TV receptions nearby.
15.Wind turbines acts as barrier in the routes of birds and aeroplanes.
16.The noise made by rotating wind machine blades can be annoying to nearby
residents.
17.Wind turbines and its blades are subjects to damage from high winds and
lightening. Rotating parts, which are located high off the ground can be
difficult and expensive to repair.
18.Delays of state government and utilities to sign power purchase agreement are
affecting the growth of the sector.
Advantages common to offshore and onshore wind energy

 No Pollution and Global Warming Effects
 Low Costs
 Big Industrial Base
 No Fuel
Advantages of Offshore Wind over Onshore Wind:
1) No Noise Pollution – Wind Turbines emit a slight whirring noise which has
led to problems with people living nearby. Some farmers have also complained
that the livestock like sheep get affected by the moving of the Wind Blades.
Offshore Wind Farms are located far off the coast cause no such noise problems
for humans or wildlife
2) No Injuries to Birds – Older Wind Farms on Land frequently cause deaths
and injuries to birds though newer wind turbines don’t cause too much problems.
Offshore Wind Farms do away with this problem entirely as they are located in
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the Ocean where birds don’t fly frequently if at all. There is research being
conducted to see if there is an impact on sea life by Cowries.
3) No loss in scenery though near shore offshore wind farms have come into
controversy because of this, the Cape Wind Project is attracting a lot of protests
particularly from the Kennedy’s who say that it will destroy the view from their
house near the ocean
Disadvantages of Offshore Wind over Onshore Wind
Cost – This is the biggest disadvantage of offshore wind power over onshore
wind energy. Note it can cost between 2.5-3.5 times more to generate electricity
from offshore wind turbines than the wind farms built on land. There are a number
of factors that determine the price such as wind speeds etc. However offshore
wind industry is still in a novice state compared to the relatively mature level of
the land based wind industry.
National Offshore Wind Power Policy: India is making significant progress

in the development of the onshore wind power plants. However, so far progress
in the offshore wind power generation has been almost nil. A 100MW offshore
wind power plant was started in Gujarat for demonstration purpose only. Since
India has more than 7600 Kilometres of coast, the prospects of development of
offshore wind power are very bright. In September 2015, the Union Cabinet has
approved the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy. With this, the Ministry of
New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been authorized as the Nodal Ministry
for use of offshore areas within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the
country and the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) has been authorized
as the Nodal Agency for development of offshore wind energy. Government
has paved way for development of the offshore wind farms up to the seaward
distance of 200 Nautical Miles (within its Exclusive Economic Zone) from the
base line. With the introduction of the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy,
India would try to replicate the success of the onshore wind power development
in the offshore wind power development.
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What is Biomass?
Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of

various human and natural activities. It is derived from numerous sources,
including the by-products from the timber industry, agricultural crops, raw
material from the forest, major parts of household waste and wood.
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Ex: bagasse, rice husk, straw, cotton stalk, coconut shells, soya husk, de-oiled
cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, groundnut shells, saw dust etc.
Biomass has always been an important energy source for the country considering
the benefits it offers. It is renewable, widely available, carbon-neutral and has
the potential to provide significant employment in the rural areas. Biomass is
also capable of providing firm energy. About 32% of the total primary energy
use in the country is still derived from biomass and more than 70% of the
country’s population depends upon it for its energy needs.
Overview of biomass energy in India:
Biomass has always been an important energy source for the country considering
the benefits and promises it offers. It is a carbon neutral fuel source for the
generation of electricity; and apart from providing the much needed relief from
power shortages, biomass power projects could generate employment in rural
areas.
About 32% of the total primary energy use in the country is derived from biomass
and more than 70% of the country’s population depends upon it for their energy
needs. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of
India has realized the potential and role of biomass energy in the Indian context
and has initiated a number of programmes for the promotion of efficient biomass
conversion technologies to be used in various sectors of the economy.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Biomass/ Bioenergy
Advantages:
 It makes sense to use waste materials where we can.

 The fuel tends to be cheap.
 Less demand on the fossil fuels.
 Waste is disposed of at the same time and in the same operation
 Consumes methane that might otherwise leak into the atmosphere and increase
the greenhouse effect.
Disadvantages:
 Collecting or growing the fuel in sufficient quantities can be difficult.

 We burn the biofuel, so it makes greenhouse gases just like fossil fuels do.
 Some waste materials are not available all year round.
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 The main disadvantage is the loss of the organic waste for compost or fertilizer
Pros of Biomass Energy
1. Renewable: Biomass energy is a renewable resource. The principal positive

about biomass energy is that it creates power by utilizing renewable assets. These
assets may be wood waste, tree buildup, handled wood pellets or urban waste. As
a rule, biomass energy plants utilize leftover wood that comes from existing
logging or sawmill ventures.
2. Dependency on Fossil Fuels is Reduced: It replaces other fuel sources. In all

cases, the fuel might be immediately replaced. By utilizing natural materials to
deliver power, there is less interest for power created by non-renewable assets,
for example, coal and gas. The entire purpose of utilizing renewable energy is to
facilitate the reliance on sources that are harming nature’s domain in such a large
number of ways.
3. Carbon Neutral: It doesn’t produce carbon. The distinction between using

biomass fuel rather than coal or gas is that the carbon that is discharged was
already part of nature because of the plant. At the point when coal or gas is
utilized it is expelled starting from the earliest stage it has been sequestered for a
large number of years.
4. Widely Available: Biomass energy is widely available all over the world.
Organic waste in the form of dead leaves, grass and trees, animal carcasses are
available in abundance and can be used to produce biomass energy. This in
another way is good as the amount of waste that could have gone to landfills can
be used as a source of energy. As long as organic matter from plants and animals
is going to exist, we are never going to run out of biomass energy.
5. Can be Used in Many Forms: Biomass can be used to create different

products from different forms of organic matter. It can be used to produce
methane gas, biodiesel and other biofuels. It can also be used directly as heat or
to generate electricity using a steam turbine.
6. Helps Reduce Waste: It helps with waste management. Consistently we create

huge amounts of solid waste. This waste involves biodegradable waste,
recyclable waste, along with dangerous toxic waste. Biomass energy uses this
waste so that it’s no longer sitting in landfills.
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Cons of Biomass Energy
1. Not Totally Clean When Burned: The biggest contention against biomass as
a clean energy is the pollution that is created from burning the wood and other
natural materials. Sometimes, they’re as bad as the pollution that comes from coal
and other types of energy resources. There are a number of different compounds
that come from burning biomass. Even though biomass energy is considered to
be renewable, it is hard to claim it is a clean or efficient power energy.
2. Can Lead to Deforestation: Wood is a major source of biomass energy. To

produce considerable amount of power, large amount of wood and other waste
products have to be burned. The desire to produce energy on a large scale can
lead to deforestation that would destroy the homes of large number of plants and
animals.
3. In-efficient: Biodiesel product like Ethanol which is produced by biomass is

relatively inefficient as compared to gasoline. It has to be mixed with gasoline so
that it can be used in combustion engines. Apart from that, long term usage of
Ethanol can be harmful to the engines.
4. Requires Lot of Space: It’s hard to find a plant that is in a convenient place.
Many times, biomass energy plants are found in urban areas, which means that
they are causing more traffic in those areas and they are causing more pollution,
which seems to be more of a problem than an actual help.
5. Expensive: The last problem that often comes up is how expensive this process
is. The production of biomass plants is incredibly expensive and, in some cases,
the costs are not worth the benefits. Transport and resource gathering expenses
are high and will be continually needed every day. When you compare the process
of biomass energy to fossil fuels, you find that the cost is actually much higher.
CURRENT SCENARIO OF BIOMASS ENERGY:
 India has a biomass power potential of 17538 MW and a potential of another

5000 MW from bagasse based cogeneration in sugar mills.
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 Biomass power constitutes 12.66% of the total installed renewable based

power generation capacity
 India has a cumulative installation of off grid/decentralised bio mass energy
systems of over 500 MWs
 India has over 5,940 MW biomass based power plants comprising 4,946 MW
grid connected and 994 MW off-grid power plants. Out of the total grid
connected capacity, major share comes from bagasse cogeneration and around
115 MW is from waste to energy power plants. Whereas off-grid capacity
comprises 652 MW non bagasse cogeneration, mainly as captive power plants,
about 18 MW biomass gasifier systems being used for meeting electricity
needs in rural areas, and 164 MW equivalent biomass gasifier systems
deployed for thermal applications in industries.
 Installed capacity of biomass power and cogeneration projects is more in
Maharashtra (1,112.78MW), Uttar Pradesh (936.70MW), Karnataka
(737.28MW) and Tamilnadu (662.30 MW)
 Government of India is taking various steps to increase the Bio Gas facilities
Major Barriers and Challenges in India:
Some of the major barriers faced in faster realization of available biomass power
potential for a variety of end user applications are
(i) inadequate information on biomass availability,

(ii) absence of organized formal biomass markets,
(iii) problems associated with management of biomass collection,
transportation, processing and storage; problems associated with setting
up large size biomass plants,
(iv) non-availability of cost effective sub megawatt systems for conversion
of biomass to energy in a decentralized manner, and
(v) Lack of capability to generate bankable projects on account of financial
and liquidity problems, etc.
The major challenges in ensuring sustained biomass supply at reasonable prices

are:
 Increasing competing usage of biomass resources,

 Leading to higher opportunity costs;
 Unorganized nature of biomass market,
 lack of mechanization in agriculture sector,
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 defragmented land holdings,

 Vast number of small or marginal farmers.
Another major challenge is the cost of biomass storage and transportation to

power plants, which is consistently rising rapidly with time.
SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY OF BIOMASS THROUH SOCIAL FORESTRY:
To promote efficient use of the biomass energy source— Promotion of Social

Forestry in the country through Acts such as Indian forest Act 1927, the Forest
Conservation Act 1980, The Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest
Dwellers Act 2006 emphasize on the role of forest conservation and rights of the
forest dwelling communities, national afforestation programme, joint forest
management and the Green India Mission focusing on enhancing the green cover
and the quality of forests in India by involving the communities, panchayats and
civil society in the process. At household level, government is providing chullahs
for efficient usage of biomass. At present, the government is implementing Unnat
chulha Abhiyan during 12th five year plan period. This scheme has an overall
target of 24 lakh family type cook stoves and over 3 lakh community cook stoves.
The term 'Biofuel' refer to liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector that are
predominantly produced from biomass. A variety of fuels can be produced from
biomass resources including liquid fuels such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel,
Fisher-Tropsch diesel, and gaseous fuels such as hydrogen and methane.
Biofuels are energy sources made from recently grown biomass (plant or animal
matter). Biofuels have been around for a long time, but petroleum and coal have
been used primarily as energy sources due to their high abundance, high energy
value, and cheap prices. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum also come from
biomass but the difference is that they took millions of years to produce. Biofuels
are making resurgence due to increasing oil prices, dwindling fossil fuel reserves,
and the desire to have a renewable, reliable source of energy and as a way to
mitigate the effects of climate change. Biofuels are a renewable resource because
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they are continually replenished. Fossil fuels on the other hand are not renewable
since they require millions of years to form.
There are three types of biofuels:
 1st generation,
 2nd generation,
 3rd generation biofuels.
They are characterized by their sources of biomass, their limitations as a
renewable source of energy, and their technological progress. The main drawback
of
First Generation Biofuels:
These liquid biofuels are made from sugar, starch, vegetable oils or animal fats
using conventional technology. The basic feedstocks for the production of first-
generation biofuels come from agriculture and food processing.
First generation biofuels symbolize a step towards energy independence and

weaning off fossil fuels for energy demands. These biofuels also support
agricultural industries and rural communities through increased demand for
crops.
Dis advantages:
 They pose a threat to food prices since the biomass used are food crops such
as corn and sugar beet.
 Its production has contributed to recent increases in world prices for food and
animal feeds.
 They also have the potential to have a negative impact on biodiversity and
competition for water in some regions.
 Additionally, biomass for first generation biofuels requires lots of land to
grow, and this provides only limited greenhouse gases reduction.
 They also only provide a small benefit over fossil fuels in regards to
greenhouse gases since they still require high amounts of energy to grow,
collect, and process.
 Current production practices use fossil fuels for power. First generation
biofuels are also a more expensive option than gasoline, making it
economically unfavorable. Finally, biodiesel almost always comes from
recycled oils from restaurants, as opposed to virgin oils, so the supply is
limited by restaurants’ oil use.
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Second Generation Biofuels
Second Generation biofuels have been developed to overcome the limitations of

first generation biofuels. They are produced from non-food crops such as wood,
organic waste, food crop waste and specific biomass crops, therefore eliminating
the main problem with first generation biofuels. Second Generation biofuels are
also aimed at being more cost competitive in relation to existing fossil fuels. Life
cycle assessments of second-generation biofuels have also indicated that they will
increase ‘net energy gains’ over coming another of the main limitations of first
generation biofuels.
st
 Second generation biofuels address many issues associated with 1 generation
biofuels. They don’t compete between fuels and food crops since they come
from distinct biomass.
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 Second generation biofuels also generate higher energy yields per acre than
st
1 generation fuels. They allow for use of poorer quality land where food crops
may not be able to grow.
 The technology is fairly immature, so it still has potential of cost reductions
and increased production efficiency as scientific advances occur. However,
some biomasses for second-generation biofuels still compete with land use
since some of the biomass grows in the same climate as food crops.
 This leaves farmers and policy makers with the hard decision of which crop
to grow. Cellulosic sources that grow alongside food crops could be used for
biomass, such as corn stover (leaves, stalk, and stem of corn).
 However, this would take away too many nutrients from the soil and would
need to be replenished through fertilizer. In addition, the process to produce
nd st
2 generation fuels is more elaborate than 1 generation biofuels because it
requires pretreating the biomass to release the trapped sugars. This requires
more energy and materials.
3rd generation biofuels:
It presents the best possibility for alternative fuel because they don’t compete
with food. However, there are still some challenges in making them economically
feasible.
These are more energy dense than 1st and 2nd generation biofuels per area of
harvest. They are cultured as low-cost, high-energy, and completely renewable
sources of energy. Algae are advantageous in that it can grow in areas unsuitable
for 1st and 2nd generation crops, which would relieve stress on water and arable
land used. It can be grown using sewage, wastewater, and saltwater, such as
oceans or salt lakes. Because of this, there wouldn't be a need to use water that
would otherwise be used for human consumption. However, further research still
needs to be done to further the extraction process in order to make it financially
competitive to petrodiesel and other petroleum-based fuels.
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st nd
Third generation biofuels are more energy dense than 1 and 2 generation
biofuels per area of harvest. They are cultured as low-cost, high-energy, and
completely renewable sources of energy. Algae are advantageous in that it can
st nd
grow in areas unsuitable for 1 and 2 generation crops, which would relieve
stress on water and arable land used. It can be grown using sewage, wastewater,
and saltwater, such as oceans or salt lakes. Because of this, there wouldn't be a
need to use water that would otherwise be used for human consumption.
However, further research still needs to be done to further the extraction process
in order to make it financially competitive to petrodiesel and other petroleum-
based fuels.
The term 'Biofuel' refer to liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector that are
predominantly produced from biomass. A variety of fuels can be produced from
biomass resources including liquid fuels such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel,
Fisher-Tropsch diesel, and gaseous fuels such as hydrogen and methane.
Biofuels are energy sources made from recently grown biomass (plant or animal
matter). Biofuels have been around for a long time, but petroleum and coal have
been used primarily as energy sources due to their high abundance, high energy
value, and cheap prices. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum also come from
biomass but the difference is that they took millions of years to produce. Biofuels
are making resurgence due to increasing oil prices, dwindling fossil fuel reserves,
and the desire to have a renewable, reliable source of energy and as a way to
mitigate the effects of climate change. Biofuels are a renewable resource because
they are continually replenished. Fossil fuels on the other hand are not renewable
since they require millions of years to form.
www.OnlineIAS.com
There are three types of biofuels:
 1st generation,
 2nd generation,
 3rd generation biofuels.
They are characterized by their sources of biomass, their limitations as a
renewable source of energy, and their technological progress. The main drawback
of
First Generation Biofuels:
These liquid biofuels are made from sugar, starch, vegetable oils or animal fats
using conventional technology. The basic feedstocks for the production of first-
generation biofuels come from agriculture and food processing.
First generation biofuels symbolize a step towards energy independence and

weaning off fossil fuels for energy demands. These biofuels also support
agricultural industries and rural communities through increased demand for
crops.
Dis advantages:
 They pose a threat to food prices since the biomass used are food crops such
as corn and sugar beet.
 Its production has contributed to recent increases in world prices for food and
animal feeds.
 They also have the potential to have a negative impact on biodiversity and
competition for water in some regions.
 Additionally, biomass for first generation biofuels requires lots of land to
grow, and this provides only limited greenhouse gases reduction.
 They also only provide a small benefit over fossil fuels in regards to
greenhouse gases since they still require high amounts of energy to grow,
collect, and process.
 Current production practices use fossil fuels for power. First generation
biofuels are also a more expensive option than gasoline, making it
economically unfavorable. Finally, biodiesel almost always comes from
recycled oils from restaurants, as opposed to virgin oils, so the supply is
limited by restaurants’ oil use.
www.OnlineIAS.com
Second Generation Biofuels
Second Generation biofuels have been developed to overcome the limitations of

first generation biofuels. They are produced from non-food crops such as wood,
organic waste, food crop waste and specific biomass crops, therefore eliminating
the main problem with first generation biofuels. Second Generation biofuels are
also aimed at being more cost competitive in relation to existing fossil fuels. Life
cycle assessments of second-generation biofuels have also indicated that they will
increase ‘net energy gains’ over coming another of the main limitations of first
generation biofuels.
st
 Second generation biofuels address many issues associated with 1 generation
biofuels. They don’t compete between fuels and food crops since they come
from distinct biomass.
www.OnlineIAS.com
 Second generation biofuels also generate higher energy yields per acre than
st
1 generation fuels. They allow for use of poorer quality land where food crops
may not be able to grow.
 The technology is fairly immature, so it still has potential of cost reductions
and increased production efficiency as scientific advances occur. However,
some biomasses for second-generation biofuels still compete with land use
since some of the biomass grows in the same climate as food crops.
 This leaves farmers and policy makers with the hard decision of which crop
to grow. Cellulosic sources that grow alongside food crops could be used for
biomass, such as corn stover (leaves, stalk, and stem of corn).
 However, this would take away too many nutrients from the soil and would
need to be replenished through fertilizer. In addition, the process to produce
nd st
2 generation fuels is more elaborate than 1 generation biofuels because it
requires pretreating the biomass to release the trapped sugars. This requires
more energy and materials.
3rd generation biofuels:
It presents the best possibility for alternative fuel because they don’t compete
with food. However, there are still some challenges in making them economically
feasible.
These are more energy dense than 1st and 2nd generation biofuels per area of
harvest. They are cultured as low-cost, high-energy, and completely renewable
sources of energy. Algae are advantageous in that it can grow in areas unsuitable
for 1st and 2nd generation crops, which would relieve stress on water and arable
land used. It can be grown using sewage, wastewater, and saltwater, such as
oceans or salt lakes. Because of this, there wouldn't be a need to use water that
would otherwise be used for human consumption. However, further research still
needs to be done to further the extraction process in order to make it financially
competitive to petrodiesel and other petroleum-based fuels.
www.OnlineIAS.com
st nd
Third generation biofuels are more energy dense than 1 and 2 generation
biofuels per area of harvest. They are cultured as low-cost, high-energy, and
completely renewable sources of energy. Algae are advantageous in that it can
st nd
grow in areas unsuitable for 1 and 2 generation crops, which would relieve
stress on water and arable land used. It can be grown using sewage, wastewater,
and saltwater, such as oceans or salt lakes. Because of this, there wouldn't be a
need to use water that would otherwise be used for human consumption.
However, further research still needs to be done to further the extraction process
in order to make it financially competitive to petrodiesel and other petroleum-
based fuels.
Biogas: A clean Energy Alternative
Biogas is produced from anaerobic digestion (without oxygen) of any organic

material. Generally, biogas consists of methane (50-70%), carbon dioxide (30-
40%), traces of water vapor and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Biogas can be utilized
for cooking, lighting, power generation and automotive fuel. For automotive fuel
application, raw biogas needs to be upgraded to natural gas quality. This means
carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ammonia, particles and water
(and sometimes other trace compounds) have to be removed so that the product
gas has a methane content of more than 90% by volume. This upgraded gas is
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generally referred to as Biomethane. This upgraded gas or Biomethane is bottled

at pressure of 200 bar, referred as Bio-CNG.
Biogas production from various available biomass resources, is a viable option

for out country as it is environment friendly, clean, cheap and versatile fuel.
Harnessing such a resource will promote rural industries, agriculture, dairy and
animal farming in a sustainable way Also it will help regulate environmental
cycles effectively as nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are
conserved in the process in the slurry and can be returned to the soil. Digested
slurry is also a good source for several micronutrients like zinc, iron, manganese
and copper. It has been observed that use of slurry as fertilizer has many
advantages as compared to farm manure. Weed seeds in the substrates are
destroyed completely during the digestion process and is richer in nutrients
compared to farm yard manure.
Uses of Biomethanation:
 The energy from waste is a crucial element of waste management because it
reduces the volume of waste for disposal and also helps in converting the
waste into renewable energy and organic manure.
 Decentralised plants provide a major energy saving from reduced
transportation and also generate additional annual revenue from electricity
generation besides meeting their own demand for electricity.
 The gas that is obtained can be used as an alternate fuel for natural gas vehicles
or can replace other fossil fuels such as LPG/CNG and diesel.
 Organic Manure generated by it can be utilised for regenerating soil health &
will also provide additional income to municipalities by sale of manure.
 Reduction in waste volume also reduces land requirements for dumping of
wastes.
 Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Stopping release of Methane in to the
atmosphere per day per plant which is 22 times danger than CO2 for Global
Warming.
 Modular construction of plant and closed treatment needs less land area
Challenges:
 Energy generation though this process is less economical & efficient.
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 Process requires maintenance which may increase financial burden on

municipalities.
 Segregation of wastes at households is highly neglected practice.
 Maintaining adequate safety standards is important failing which can lead to
dangerous effects because leakage of methane gas will boost global warming
 It is more capital intensive compared to composting and landfill
 Not suitable for wastes containing less biodegradable matter.
Biogas Scenario in India:
1. National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP):

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) introduced the National
Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP) in 1981. It's a
Central Sector Scheme, which provides for setting up on Family Type Biogas
Plant mainly for rural semi-urban households.
The aim of the NBMMP is to specifically utilize biogas energy in order to address
the deficiency in adequate cooking energy sources in India. The government
views biogas technology as a vehicle to reduce rural poverty and as a tool in it's
drive for rural development. The most important instrument in the promotion of
biogas technology is the provision of allowances paid towards the investment
costs which benefit the farmers directly.
2. Biogas based Distributed/Grid Power Generation Programme:
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy had also started a scheme "Biogas
based Distributed/Grid Power Generation Programme" from 2005-06 with a view
to promote biogas based power generation, especially in the small capacity range.
In order to promote this route of power generation, specifically in the small
capacity range (3 kW to 250 kW), based on the availability of large quantity of
animal wastes and wastes from forestry, rural based industrial (agro/food
processing0, kitchen wastes, etc. The central financial assistances for such
projects will be limited to a maximum of Rs. 30000 to Rs. 40000 kW depending
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upon capacity of the power generating projects in the range of 3 kW to 250 kW

of different rating limited to 40% of the plant cost.
3. National biogas mission:
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India is contemplating
National Biogas Mission for setting up of 1 crore biogas plant by 2022. Already
a task force has been constituted by the Ministry, which is working on preparation
of Mission Document. This will an initiative for utilizing all king of bio-waste for
biogas production for cooking, power generation and automotive fuel, for
providing energy security and promoting organic agriculture in the country.
Small Hydro-Power: Lighting Remote Villages

Water is not just a liquid, essential for our survival but a good source of
environment friendly, affordable and clean energy as well. The water flowing
down a natural gradient can be used to turn turbines to generate electricity known
as 'hydroelectric power'.
Hydro power projects are generally categorized in two segments i.e., small (less
than 25 MW) and large hydro (more than 25 MW). While Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy is responsible for small hydro projects, the large hydro power
is dealt by Ministry of Power. Small hydro power projects are further classified
as.
Class Station Capacity in kW

Micro Hydro Up to 100
Mini Hydro 101 to 2000
Small Hydro 2001 to 25000
Advantages of Small Hydro Projects (SHPs)
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The small hydro projects normally do not encounter the problems associated
with large hydro projects such as-
 Small hydro projects are normally run-of-river and no dam is constructed
 These projects do not encounter the issues associated with large scale hydro
projects of deforestation, resettlement and rehabilitation
 The projects have potential to meet power requirements of remote and
isolated areas
 The plants have long useful life and the generation cost is almost inflation
free
 The plants are beneficial to environment as they substitute thermal power
thereby reducing carbon emissions
 These projects have the potential to turn around economic activities in local
areas, villages and remote areas
These factors make small hydro power as one of the most attractive renewable
source of grid quality power generation. With the advancement of technology, it
is now possible to set up economically viable low head small hydro projects on
existing canals and fall structures, dam outlets and small streams spread through
the country.
Constraints in setting up SHP Projects:

Growth in the SHP sector is relatively slow. The reasons for the slow progress
may be-
 The difficult locations where SHP projects are normally set up
 Short working season in hilly areas
 Involvement of private and forest land in setting up of SHP projects
 The risks due to natural calamities in setting up SHP projects are high
 Sometimes the developments face resistance from local residents
 The SHP projects are governed by the State policies and the potential sites are
allotted by the State Governments to private developers. Often there are delays
in land allocations.
 Delay in clearances including land acquisition, forest clearance, irrigation
clearance etc
 Inadequate evacuation facilities for power generated from SHPs
Indian scenario:
 India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power, with an installed
capacity of 42,783 MW. This is 14.35 per cent of total utility electricity
generation in India.
 In addition 4,274 MW small hydro power units are installed as on 31 March
2016. In this article we will deal with small hydro power only.
www.OnlineIAS.com
 The estimated potential for power generation in the country from small hydro
power plants is about 20,000 MW. Most of this potential is in Himalayan
States as river-based projects and in other States on irrigation canals.
Government is trying to promote this sector through various schemes and
incentives, which are listed below.
 Target set by govt of India for small hydro power projects is 10000Mw or
10Gw
 Small-Hydro Power Programme:
It has been recognized that small hydropower projects can play a critical role
in improving the overall energy scenario of country and in particular for
remote and inaccessible areas. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
is encouraging development of small hydro projects both in the public as well
as private sector. Through, the SHP programme is now essentially private
investment driven. Projects are normally economically viable and private
sector is showing lot of interest in investing ins SHP projects. The viability
of these projects improves with increase in the project capacity.
The focus of the SHP programme is to lower the cost of equipment, increase
its reliability and set p projects at the most promising locations. The
Ministry's aim is that at least 50 per cent of the potential in the country is
harnessed in the next 10 years.
 National Mission on Small Hydro:
A draft was released last year on National Mission on Small Hydro by the
Govt of India. The Mission will be a joint initiative of the Government of India
and State Governments to enrich remote and rural areas in power generation.
It would give unique opportunity of entrepreneurship development, livelihood
opportunities in rural areas and would be an effective tool to achieve round the
clock power to all. Mission recognises that small/micro hydro projects and
watermills have the potential to provide sustainable economic growth to village
community along with livelihood and agro/cottage/small industrial activities.
www.OnlineIAS.com
What is wave energy?
Wave energy describes energy generated from the power of waves near their
surface. Several different types of wave energy conversion devices extract power
from motion of waves. These include single point absorbers. The power take off
device within these systems converts the motion of the waves into electrical
energy. Wave power can also be captured through oscillating water columns,
which trap waves in a column and change the air pressure in the upper portion
which drives a turbine. Wave power can also be captured through an overtopping
device, which traps waves in a floating pool, which is then released through
turbines to generate power
The wave energy is suited for countries with vast coast line and high waves
approaching the shore. It is free from environmental pollution and continuous as
waves are never going to cease. The extraction of energy from the waves can be
a viable solution to the enormous power requirements of a country like India
having a vast coast line of 6000 km. The present technology of wave energy
conversion may be economically not encouraging when compared to the
conventional energy sources like Hydal power. But wave power could be
economically viable for remote islands and for main land, wave power could only
be made attractive by incorporating other aspects like integrated breakwater,
desalination etc.
The wave energy research in India was started in 1983 at the Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras on funding provided by Department of Ocean Development,
Government of India. This lead to the commissioning of a pilot plant of 150 kw
capacity installed on a caisson during the end of 1991. The realization of the
concept of multi-purpose breakwater consisting series of wave energy caissons is
under progress.
What is the expected potential of Wave energy in India?
Ans: India is expected to have 40,000 MW of Wave energy potential
Merits of Wave Energy

(i) It is free, renewable and pollution-free energy resource.
(ii) Unlike tidal energy (which is very site-specific), some potential for the
extraction of wave energy exists on almost any coastline.
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(iii) Energy has been naturally concentrated in waves. Therefore, the energy
density of ocean waves is greater than that of wind as well as solar (the
natural processes that generate them).
(i) Wave power devices do not require large land masses like solar or wind
power devices.
(ii) Wave power devices are relatively pollution free. After removing energy
from the waves, the water is left in a relatively calm state.
Limitations of Wave Energy

(i) Wave energy extraction equipment must be capable of operating in a marine
environment and withstand very severe peak stresses in storms.
(ii) A variety of working fluids and prime movers are required to convert the
slow-acting, reversing wave forces into high-speed, unidirectional rotation
of a generator shaft. That is, the wave energy conversion devices are
relatively complicated.
(iii) With present state of technologies, wave power is expensive
(iv) Relative scarcity of accessible sites of large wave activity.
(v) The geographic distribution and temporal variability of wave energy
resources are governed by the major wind systems that generate ocean
waves-extra tropical storms and trade winds. In some area, notably India,
local monsoons can also influence the wave climate.
(vi) Various natural processes might be affected if significant amounts of wave
energy are removed from the coastal ecosystem, including sediment
transport and the functioning of nearshore biological communities. Marine
mammal and seabird populations could also be affected by the physical
presence of wave energy structures.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal
energy is energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth’s geothermal
energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from radioactive
decay of minerals, from volcanic activity, and from solar energy absorbed at the
surface. The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between
the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal
energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface.
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From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic
times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known
for electricity generation.
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally

friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries.
Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of
viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a
potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases
trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit
than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help
mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.
The Earth’s geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply
humanity’s energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably
exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive.
Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about
technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates.
Generally speaking, the further down one drills, the hotter the temperatures. Most
of the commercial-grade production geothermal energy is harvested along
localized “geothermal systems”, where the heat flow is near enough to the surface
that hot water or steam is able to rise either to the surface, or to depths that we
can reach by drilling. Many of these regions occur within the “ring of fire“, a
ring of geothermal sites.
Indian Scenario
 India has reasonably good potential for geothermal; the potential geothermal
provinces can produce 10,600 MW of power.
 Though India has been one of the earliest countries to begin geothermal
projects way back in the 1970s, but at present there are no operational
geothermal plants in India. There is also no installed geothermal electricity
generating capacity as of now and only direct uses (eg.Drying) have been
detailed.
 Thermax, a capital goods manufacturer based in Pune, has entered
an agreement with Icelandic firm Reykjavík Geothermal. Thermax is planning
to set up a 3 MW pilot project in Puga Valley, Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir).
Reykjavík Geothermal will assist Thermax in exploration and drilling of the
site.
 India’s Gujarat state is drafting a policy to promote geothermal energy
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Merits of Geothermal Energy

1. Geothermal energy is the most versatile and least polluting renewable energy
resource.
2. Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive.
3. It is not subject to the same safety, political, price and operating cost
uncertainties as imported oil, natural gas or nuclear fuel use.
4. Geothermal power plants could be brought on line more quickly than most
other energy sources incase of an extended national emergency.
5. Hydrothermal power plants with modern emission controls have shown that
they have relatively benign environmental impacts.
6. Within the electric supply system, geothermal sources could provide steady
base load power with very low variable costs.
7. The power generation level is higher for geothermal than for solar and wind.
(High thermal efficiency)
8. Geothermal energy can be used effectively and efficiently for direct uses such
as space and district heating, geothermal heat pumps (GHP), hot water bath
resorts, aquaculture, greenhouses, industrial processes and enhanced oil
recovery. Unlike solar energy, it is not dependent on the weather conditions.
(weather proof)
Demerits of Geothermal Energy

1. Geothermal hot spots are sparsely distributed and usually some distance away
from the area needing energy. Only few sites have the potential of
Geothermal Energy.
2. The minimum temperature of steam required for the efficient production of
electricity is about 100C. As a result, many reservoirs of hot waters can be
used only for direct heating (as in Iceland), because thermal energy cannot be
efficiently transported very far from the source.
3. Though geothermal energy, as a whole, can be treated as an inexhaustible
resource, a single bore will have a limited life of 10 years or so in economic
terms.
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4. Withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water from a geothermal source may

result in surface subsidence.
5. Air pollution results in case of release of gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 with traces
of silica, toxic heavy metals including mercury, arsenic and boron present in
the steam and hot water coming out of the geothermal source. The SO 2
pollution from a geothermal power plant may be as much as that of a high-
sulphur-coal based thermal power plant.
6. Hot brine discharged into surface water bodies may be ecologically hazardous.
7. Construction of geothermal power plants can affect the stability of land. In
fact, geothermal power plants have lead to subsidence in many places. It
causes Surface Instability and may result in Earthquakes.
8. Drilling operations at geothermal sites cause noise pollution.
Positive Environmental effects of geothermal energy:

1. The environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how geothermal
energy is used or on how it is converted to useful energy. Direct use
applications and geothermal heat pumps have almost no negative impact on
the environment. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps can
actually have a positive effect because they may reduce the use of other types
of energy that may have greater negative impacts on the environment.
2. Geothermal power plants release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions
released by a fossil fuel power plant. Geothermal power plants further limit
air pollution through the use of scrubber systems that remove hydrogen
sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is naturally found in the steam and in the hot water
used to generate geothermal power.
3. Geothermal plants emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds than are
emitted by fossil fuel power plants. After the steam and water from a
geothermal reservoir are used, they are injected back into the earth.
Small Hydro-Power: Lighting Remote Villages

Water is not just a liquid, essential for our survival but a good source of
environment friendly, affordable and clean energy as well. The water flowing
down a natural gradient can be used to turn turbines to generate electricity known
as 'hydroelectric power'.
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Hydro power projects are generally categorized in two segments i.e., small (less
than 25 MW) and large hydro (more than 25 MW). While Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy is responsible for small hydro projects, the large hydro power
is dealt by Ministry of Power. Small hydro power projects are further classified
as.
Class Station Capacity in kW

Micro Hydro Up to 100
Mini Hydro 101 to 2000
Small Hydro 2001 to 25000
Advantages of Small Hydro Projects (SHPs)

The small hydro projects normally do not encounter the problems associated
with large hydro projects such as-
 Small hydro projects are normally run-of-river and no dam is constructed
 These projects do not encounter the issues associated with large scale hydro
projects of deforestation, resettlement and rehabilitation
 The projects have potential to meet power requirements of remote and
isolated areas
 The plants have long useful life and the generation cost is almost inflation
free
 The plants are beneficial to environment as they substitute thermal power
thereby reducing carbon emissions
 These projects have the potential to turn around economic activities in local
areas, villages and remote areas
These factors make small hydro power as one of the most attractive renewable
source of grid quality power generation. With the advancement of technology, it
is now possible to set up economically viable low head small hydro projects on
existing canals and fall structures, dam outlets and small streams spread through
the country.
Constraints in setting up SHP Projects:

Growth in the SHP sector is relatively slow. The reasons for the slow progress
may be-
 The difficult locations where SHP projects are normally set up
 Short working season in hilly areas
www.OnlineIAS.com
 Involvement of private and forest land in setting up of SHP projects

 The risks due to natural calamities in setting up SHP projects are high
 Sometimes the developments face resistance from local residents
 The SHP projects are governed by the State policies and the potential sites are
allotted by the State Governments to private developers. Often there are delays
in land allocations.
 Delay in clearances including land acquisition, forest clearance, irrigation
clearance etc
 Inadequate evacuation facilities for power generated from SHPs
Indian scenario:
 India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power, with an installed
capacity of 42,783 MW. This is 14.35 per cent of total utility electricity
generation in India.
 In addition 4,274 MW small hydro power units are installed as on 31 March
2016. In this article we will deal with small hydro power only.
 The estimated potential for power generation in the country from small hydro
power plants is about 20,000 MW. Most of this potential is in Himalayan
States as river-based projects and in other States on irrigation canals.
Government is trying to promote this sector through various schemes and
incentives, which are listed below.
 Target set by govt of India for small hydro power projects is 10000Mw or
10Gw
 Small-Hydro Power Programme:
It has been recognized that small hydropower projects can play a critical role
in improving the overall energy scenario of country and in particular for
remote and inaccessible areas. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
is encouraging development of small hydro projects both in the public as well
as private sector. Through, the SHP programme is now essentially private
investment driven. Projects are normally economically viable and private
sector is showing lot of interest in investing ins SHP projects. The viability
of these projects improves with increase in the project capacity.
The focus of the SHP programme is to lower the cost of equipment, increase
its reliability and set p projects at the most promising locations. The
www.OnlineIAS.com
Ministry's aim is that at least 50 per cent of the potential in the country is
harnessed in the next 10 years.
 National Mission on Small Hydro:
A draft was released last year on National Mission on Small Hydro by the
Govt of India. The Mission will be a joint initiative of the Government of India
and State Governments to enrich remote and rural areas in power generation.
It would give unique opportunity of entrepreneurship development, livelihood
opportunities in rural areas and would be an effective tool to achieve round the
clock power to all. Mission recognises that small/micro hydro projects and
watermills have the potential to provide sustainable economic growth to village
community along with livelihood and agro/cottage/small industrial activities.
Tidal Energy
Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative
motions of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent from the Earth–
Sun system. The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination
with Earth’s rotation, are responsible for the generation of the tides. Tidal
power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative
motions of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent from the Earth–
Sun system. The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination
with Earth’s rotation, are responsible for the generation of the tides.
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the
energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity
generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among
sources of renewable energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from
relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal
ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However, many
recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g.
dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial
turbines, crossflow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may
be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and environmental
costs may be brought down to competitive levels.
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Because the Earth’s tides are caused by the tidal forces due to gravitational
interaction with the Moon and Sun, and the Earth’s rotation, tidal power is
practically inexhaustible and classified as a renewable energy source. This can
be harnessed in two forms:
Tidal Range
Tidal Range is the vertical difference in height between the high tide and the
succeeding low tide.
Artificial tidal barrages or lagoons may be constructed to capture the tide.
Turbines in the barrier or lagoon generate electricity as the tide floods into the
reservoir; water thus retained can then be released through turbines, again
generating electricity once the tide outside the barrier has receded.
Tidal Stream
Tidal Stream is the flow of water as the tide ebbs and floods, and manifests itself
as tidal current. Tidal Stream devices seek to extract energy from this kinetic
movement of water, much as wind turbines extract energy from the movement of
air.
Location:
Historically, tidal mills were usually built on inlets branching off tidal estuaries.
An estuary is a wide part of a river where it meets the sea. It creates a unique
environment because both freshwater and saltwater are present. Tidal estuaries
are characterized by narrow, shallow channels with a relatively constant width
and depth. Tides are greatly amplified in these areas of smaller volume, which
causes the tide to travel up the river. Tidal ranges vary greatly from once place to
another because of the geography of the land, but the most suitable tidal ranges
are between five and ten meters.
Indian scenario:
 Total identified potential of Tidal Energy is about 9000 MW in West Coast
Gulf of Cambay (7000 MW), Gulf of Kutch (1200 MW) and in East Coast the
Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans in West Bengal for small scale tidal power
development estimates the potential in this region to be about 100 MW.
 The total available potential of wave energy in India along the 6000 Km of
India’s coast is estimated to be about 40,000 MW – these are preliminary
estimates. This energy is however less intensive than what is available in more
northern and southern latitudes.
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MERITS AND DEMERITS:

Advantages
 Once you’ve built it, tidal power is free.
 It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.
 It needs no fuel.
 It produces electricity reliably.
 Not expensive to maintain.
 Tides are totally predictable.
 Offshore turbines and vertical-axis turbines are not ruinously expensive to
build and do not have a large environmental impact.
 To capture sufficient power from the tidal energy potential, the height of high
tide must be at least five meters (16 feet) greater than low tide.
Disadvantages
 A barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very
wide area – the environment is changed for many miles upstream and
downstream. Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that
they can feed. Fish can’t migrate, unless “fish ladders” are installed.
 Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually
moving in or out.
 There are few suitable sites for tidal barrages.
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Ultra-Supercritical Coal-fired Power Plant (USC)
Introduction
 Environment friendly and economical power generation is of paramount

importance to cope with the challenges imposed by an increasing demand of
energy throughout the world.
 Larger CO2 emissions increase the need for more efficient coal-based power
generation.
 Ultra-Supercritical Coal-fired Power Plants meet notably the requirements for
high efficiencies to reduce both fuel costs and emissions as well as for a
reliable supply of electrical energy at low cost.
Background
 India has set a renewable energy capacity target of 175 gig watts (GW) by
2022, but has maintained that coal will continue to play a leading role in the
energy basket as it is abundantly available in the country
 At present, about 60% of the country’s over 307 GW of power generation
capacity is based on coal.
Advantages
 high-end coal-based power plants using advanced technology will be as

environmentally friendly as a renewable power project of similar investments
 Help in achieving India’s goal of reducing carbon emissions and supplying
affordable electricity to nearly 237 million people with no access to power
 Compared to an older inefficient coal-based power plant, a new high-end
ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant can bring significant emission
reduction at about 20-30%
 helps in lowering the use of fuel over the life of the plant and in recovering
the extra cost
 USC technology requires less fuel than other coal-fired processes to produce
the same amount of electricity
 Reduce fuel requirements also mean: Reduced emissions of sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxide(NOx), mercury(Hg), carbon dioxide(CO2) and
particulate (PM-10)
 Reduced production of solid waste products such as fly ash
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Alternative to Renewable Energy
 high-end coal-based power plants are alternative to renewable energy projects

which are less reliable and have huge additional costs
 They produce about four times more power than renewable power.
 solar and wind power projects are intermittent due to weather conditions, these
sources of energy need systems to manage this unpredictability, which will
add to the actual cost of power generation.
 Solar power will help in emission reduction, but generates a lot less
electricity at the same level of investments
How it is different from Conventional coal fired power plant?
 Conventional coal-fired power plants, which make water boil to generate
steam that activates a turbine, have efficiency of about 32%.
 Ultra-supercritical (USC) power plants operate at temperatures and
pressures above the critical point of water, where the liquid and gas phases
of water co-exist in equilibrium.
 This results in higher efficiencies – above 45%.
 Ultra -supercritical (USC) power plants require less coal per megawatt-
hour, leading to lower emissions (including carbon dioxide and mercury),
higher efficiency and lower fuel costs per megawatt.
What is OTEC?
The sun warms the oceans at the surface and wave motion mixes the warmed
water downward to depths about 100m. This mixed layer is separated from the
deep cold water formed at high latitudes by a thermocline. This boundary is
sometimes marked by an abrupt change in temperature but more often the change
the change is gradual. The vertical temperature distribution consisting of two
layers with thermal gradient ranging 100-300c with higher values found in
equatorial waters.
OTEC makes use of the difference in temperature between the two layers of the
sea to extract energy. This energy is used to drive the turbines for generating
electricity.
Ocean thermal energy conversion, or OTEC, uses ocean temperature differences
from the surface to depths lower than 1,000 meters, to extract energy. A
temperature difference of only 20°C can yield usable energy.
OTEC has a potential installed capacity of 1, 80,000 MW in India.

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How does OTEC compare to other base load power sources?
Due to its high (94 percent) capacity factor, OTEC’s consistent power source is
best compared to other base load (firm) power generators such as oil, coal,
nuclear, integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC), and gas/oil combined
cycle. Although OTEC has a higher initial capital cost, its “free” fuel and very
low operating expenses make it attractive over the plant’s life.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) project is coming up in Kavaratti,

capital of the Lakshadweep archipelago, off the south-western coast after
almost three and a half decades of initial plans.
The plant in Lakshadweep is a land-based, since deep water is available close-

by. For mainland, 'we need to have an offshore platform mounted plant moored
in deep waters'. She said, the Kavaratti plant is entirely an indigenous one.
the cost estimates of ocean energy as against conventional energy is still being
worked out, as the country is still in a nascent stage of development of
the technology and start generation.
How does OTEC compare to other renewable technologies?
OTEC is fueled by an infinite supply of solar energy stored in the ocean’s top
layer. Even after the sun goes down, OTEC can tap the stored solar energy and
generate power 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Energy supplies from renewable
sources such as solar and wind are not consistent and predictable. Geothermal
energy is very site specific, and biomass renewable energy consumes precious
agricultural resources.
What emissions are associated with OTEC?
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There are no emissions associated with OTEC. Therefore, OTI’s OTEC power
plants will not impact air quality.
Merits of OTEC
(i) Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable and pollution free.
(ii) OTEC offers one of the most benign power production technologies, since
the handling of hazardous substances is limited to the working fluid (e.g.
ammonia) and no noxious by-products are generated.
(iii) Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to
the thermo cline, could be accomplished with minimal environmental
impact.
(iv) An unexpected bonus of OTEC systems might be the enrichment of fishing
grounds due to the transfer of nutrients from the unproductive deep waters
to the warmer surface waters.
(v) Unlike other sources of solar electricity, the output of an OTEC system
would show very little daily or seasonal variation, and would be very easy
to integrate into a wider electricity supply system.
(vi) It might also be possible to use the OTEC systems for on-site manufacture
of energy-intensive products, such as NH3 and aluminum.
(vii) The use of the cold deep water as the chiller fluid in air-conditioning has also
been proposed.
(viii) A floating OTEC plant can generate power even at mid-sea and can be used
to provide power for operations like off-shore mining and processing of
manganese nodules.
(ix) Electric power generated by OTEC could be used to produce hydrogen.
(x) Tropical and sub-tropical island sites could be made independent of
conventional fuels for the production of electricity and fresh water by using
plants of appropriate size.
Limitations of OTEC
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(iii) One principal difficulty with OTEC is not of technological order. OTEC is
capital intensive, and the very first plants will most likely be small requiring
a substantial capital investment.
(iv) Due to small temperature difference between the surface water, the
conversion efficiency is as low as 3-4%. This value is low as compared to
the efficiencies obtained for conventional power plants;
(v) The low efficiency coupled with high capital costs, large sized floating
vessels and water pipes, maintenance of pumps and pipes, operational snags,
etc. make the OTEC power uneconomical for small at the present state of the
technology.
A sustained flow of cold, nutrient-rich, bacteria-free deep ocean water could
cause sea surface temperature anomalies and bio-stimulation if resident times in
the mixed layer and the euphotic- zone (upper layer in which there is sufficient
light for photo-synthesis) respectively are long enough (i.e., Marine Upwelling).
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What is micro grid?
A microgrid is a local energy grid with control capability, which means it can
disconnect from the traditional grid and operate autonomously.
How does Microgrid connect to the grid?
 A microgrid connects to the grid at a point of common coupling that maintains

voltage at the same level as the main grid unless there is some sort of problem
on the grid or other reason to disconnect.
 A switch can separate the microgrid from the main grid automatically or
manually, and it then functions independently.
Why microgrid is necessary?
 A microgrid not only provides backup for the grid in case of emergencies, but
can also be used to cut costs, or connect to a local resource that is too small or
unreliable for traditional grid use.
 A microgrid allows communities to be more energy independent and, in some
cases, more environmentally friendly.
How does Microgrid works?
 To understand how a microgrid works, we first have to understand how the
grid works.
 The grid connects homes, businesses and other buildings to central power
sources, which allow us to use appliances, heating/cooling systems and
electronics.
 But this interconnectedness means that when part of the grid needs to be
repaired, everyone is affected.
 This is where a microgrid can help. A microgrid generally operates while
connected to the grid, but importantly, it can break off and operate on its own
using local energy generation in times of crisis like storms or power outages,
or for other reasons.
 A microgrid can be powered by distributed generators, batteries, and/or
renewable resources like solar panels. Depending on how it’s fueled and how
its requirements are managed, a microgrid might run indefinitely.
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What is Smart grid?
A smart grid is an electrical grid with automation, communication and IT systems

that can monitor power flows from points of generation to points of consumption
and control the power flow or curtail the load to match generation on real-time
basis. It involves two-way communication among the generating units, the
control centres of distribution utilities and the consumers.
The smart grid enables increased, predictability and control of generation and
demand through consumer involvement, thus bringing flexibility in both
generation and consumption, enabling the utility to better integrate intermittent
renewable generation and reducing costs of peak power. A smart grid is cost-
effective, responsive, and engineered for reliability of operations.
About the Smart Grid project:
 The project is a part of the smart city initiative.
 The project has been divided into three phases
 Replacing old equipment and cables
 Installing smart meters in households
 Developing software to improve the efficiency of electricity distribution.
 A major highlight of the NDMC’s Smart City proposal is its plan to upgrade
its electricity network into a smart grid system.
 A smart grid network will facilitate two-way communication between the
consumers and the power utilities.
 It will bring synergy between generation, transmission, distribution systems,
consumers and also renewable sources by integrating all into one seamless
system.
 An important aspect of the system is to have 100 per cent Advance Metering
Infrastructure (AMI), which will give the consumers real-time data about
power consumption thereby allowing them to make informed choices about
their usage.
 A basic example of how it will help the consumers is that they will be able to
give commands right in their energy meters including troubleshooting.
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About Smart Grid Mission
NSGM has three tier structures:
1. At the apex level, NSGM has a Governing Council headed by the Minister of
Power. Members of the Governing Council are Secretary level officers of
concerned Ministries and departments. Role of Governing Council is to
approve all policies and programme for smart grid implementation.
2. At the second level, the NSGM has an Empowered Committee headed by
Secretary (Power). Members of the Empowered Committee are Joint
Secretary level officers of concerned Ministries and departments. Role of
Empowered Committee is to provide policy input to Governing Council and
approve, monitor, review specific smart grid projects, guidelines / procedures
etc.
3. In a supportive role, NSGM has a Technical Committee headed by
Chairperson (CEA). Members of the Technical Committee are Director level
officers of concerned Ministries & departments, representatives from
industries and academia. Role of Technical Committee is to support the
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Empowered Committee on technical aspect, standards development,

technology selection guidelines etc.
 For day-to-day operations, NSGM has a NSGM Project Management Unit
(NPMU) headed by the Director NPMU. Director NPMU is a Member of
the Governing Council and Empowered Committee, and Member Secretary
of Technical Committee. NPMU is the implementing agency for
operationalising the Smart Grid activities in the country under the guidance
of Governing Council and Empowered Committee.
 Grant up-to 30% of the project cost is available from NSGM budget. For
selected components such as training & capacity building, consumer
engagement etc, 100% grant is available.
 Corresponding to the NSGM, State Level Mission chaired by the Power
Secretary of the State has also been proposed. Support for training &
capacity building to State Level Project Monitoring Units (SLPMUs) for
smart grid activities is provided by NSGM.
Smart Grid Knowledge Centre
 The Smart Grid Knowledge Center (SGKC) being developed by

POWERGRID with funding from MoP.
 It will act as a Resource Centre for providing technical support to the
Mission in all technical matters, including development of technical
manpower, capacity building, outreach, suggesting curriculum changes in
technical education etc.
 Expenditure on civil works is being borne by POWERGRID. The SGKC
will maintain adequate training infrastructure facilities and a cumulative
support of Rs 10 crore in 12th Plan is proposed to be provided to it from
NSGM budget.
 Possibility will also be explored for bilateral and multi lateral financial
support from various national and international agencies in this regard.
 The SGKC shall undertake programs and activities envisaged for it as per
the guidance from NPMU. The Head of SGKC will report to Director
NPMU.
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1) Introduction
 The WHO defines antibiotic resistance (AMR) as a condition wherein
microbes survive when exposed to the drug which would have normally
caused them to die.
 Antibiotics that once cured ailments across the spectrum are now turning into
a potential source of prolonged illness, disability and death.
2) Reasons for Antibiotic Resistance (ABR)
 ABR in certain cases occurs through the natural evolution of resistance in
bacterial pathogens
 The rising consumption of antibiotics is a major contributor.
 Free movement of ABR across boundaries, with serious consequences.
 Domestic factors such as a weak public health system, cheap antibiotics
available in the market, and their unregulated use, have created ideal
conditions for superbugs.
 Poor regulation of pharmacies and large number of unqualified personnel into
the supply chain.
 Lack of awareness among patients regarding the appropriate use of antibiotics
has led to self-medication
 Non-adherence to the prescribed course of antibiotics, further intensifying the
problem.
 The misuse of high-end antibiotics for treatment of common health conditions
gives rise to these bacteria.
 Other reasons include the use of antibiotics in animals, and environmental
factors.
3) Concerns / Challenges
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 The absence of a good statistical model to show the relationship between

antibiotic consumption and associated resistance makes it difficult to frame
usage guidelines for these antibiotics.
 Absence of any great success even post the Chennai declaration of 2012.
 WHO has published its first ever list of antibiotic-resistant 'priority pathogens'
— a catalogue of 12 families of bacteria that pose the greatest threat to human
health and most of these 12 superbugs have presence in India.
 Anti-microbial resistance threatens the effective prevention and treatment of
an ever-increasing range of infectious diseases like tuberculosis, malaria,
urinary tract infection (UTI) and even HIV.
 Antibiotic-resistant neonatal infections claim the lives of 60,000 newborn
babies each year
 Many hospitals, nursing homes and family doctors continue to over-prescribe
antibiotics, fuelling drug resistant infections
 Recently an American woman who had travelled to India died of a rare
superbug
 Lack of regulatory provisions for the use of antimicrobial in cattle, chickens
and pigs raised for domestic consumption
4) Government Initiatives
 National Programme on Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance was
launched under the 12th Five-year Plan.
 The Union health ministry is set to roll out prescription audits as part of a
multi-pronged strategy against anti-microbial resistance (AMR).
 The health ministry, along with WHO, has worked out a national action plan
to combat antibiotic resistance.
 The campaign — 'Medicines with the Red Line', which involves packs of
certain medicines carrying a 'red line' to differentiate them from other drugs
 Indian Council of Medical Research has issued new national guidelines on the
use of Antibiotics.
 Public awareness messages on state-run radio channels cautioning patients
against taking antibiotics without a prescription.
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Open Defecation in India

1) Introduction
 Open defecation is the practice of people defecating outside and not into a
designated toilet.
 Eliminating Open Defecation in India by 2nd October 2019 – the 150th
birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi – is one of the key aims of the
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan movement
 However, this has only been achieved in 17 of 686 districts so far.
 Eliminating open defecation is the part of sustainable development goals.
2) Status of Open Defecation
 India has far higher open defecation rates than other developing regions
where people are poorer, literacy rates are lower, and water is relatively
more scarce.
 2011 Census found that 70% of rural households do not have a toilet or
latrine
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 As per the most recent Swachhta Status Report in 2015, more than half of
the rural population (52.1 per cent) of the country still defecates in open.
 SQUAT survey conducted by r.i.c.e found that 40 per cent of households
that have a working latrine have at least one person who regularly defecates
in the open.
 Around 60% of Indians do not have access to safe and private toilets
4) Causes for Open Defecation
 A study points out that widespread open defecation in rural India is on
account of beliefs, values, and norms about purity, pollution, and caste that
cause people to reject affordable latrines.
 The most important barrier to the adoption of affordable latrines in rural
India is the unique history of untouchability and its continuing practice.
 Open defecation in urban areas is driven by lack of space to build toilets in
high-density areas, landlords not providing toilets to the tenant
 A toilet is available but is of "low quality"
5) Concerns
 government programmes in rural India have paid little attention in
understanding why so many rural Indians defecate in the open
 Very often, people who receive government latrines do not use them for
defecation at all
 People reject these latrines because of concerns about pit emptying.
 CAG report said that of the constructed toilets, around 30 per cent were
found to be dysfunctional.
 Lesser funds are now being spent on Information, Education and
Communication (IEC) activities.
 The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation says that adequate
availability of water for toilets is also a concern.
6) Consequences
 Poor sanitation is widely recognised as a cause of poor health, especially
in places with high population density.
 Open defecation spreads bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections,
including diarrhoea, polio, cholera and hookworm and is an important
cause of child stunting and infant death
 Open defecation is also a classic example of a “negative externality” in
which one person’s behaviour hurts other people.
 Open defecation makes women vulnerable to sexual assault.
Solution
 Future rural sanitation programmes must address villagers’ ideas about
pollution, pit-emptying, and untouchability, and should do so in ways that
accelerate progress towards social equality for Dalits
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 Rural sanitation policy must address untouchability.

 Behaviour change is a key priority. It involves a change of mindset
amongst people to stop open defecation and to adopt safe sanitation
practices.
Make toilets a status symbol
a) When we say “toilet” people often think of dark, dirty and smelly
places.
b) Instead, we need them to think of toilets as rooms of happiness – clean,
colourful and not smelly.
Change the vocabulary
a) Make the conversation more accessible by saying what we mean.
b) Sanitation, latrine, Wash [water sanitation and hygiene], open
defecation. These words don’t mean anything to the masses
c) Replace words like sanitation and open defecation with toilets and
shitting outside.
Start with health
a) People need to understand the worth of investing in toilets in terms of the
health benefits.
Make the case to governments
a) We need to be better at making the case that it’s a great investment, with
tremendous return, due to the impacts on public health, education, gender,
and dignity.
b) For local governments, it is key they see that delivering on sanitation
might help them win their next elections
Decentralised, community-led approach
a) Excessively centralised planning with subsidy-focussed, construction-
driven approach should be done away with.
b) Micro-planning should be undertaken at the gram panchayat level for
more effective and efficient functioning of Swachh Bharat Mission.
c) The government should focus on using the ‘Community-Led Total
Sanitation’ (CLTS) approach with people building toilets on their own.
d) Trained in participatory approaches as well as facilitation skills, people
will be able to mobilise and inspire the community to expedite change.
e) Post construction of toilets, there should be regular monitoring by the
community of whether people are actually using the toilets.
Use of technology
a) mobile application to track the use of toilets
b) Innovative ideas with successful results should be replicated in other
places.
Spread of technologies across states and to partner with all stakeholders
including researchers, academic institutions and NGOs working on
sanitation.
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Microfinance could be a solution for funding sanitation facilities in

developing countries.
Cryogenic Engine:
 A Cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and provides more thrust for every
kilogram of propellant it burns compared to solid and earth-storable liquid
propellant rocket stages.
 A cryogenic propellant (liquid Hydrogen and liquid Oxygen) is much higher
compared to earth storable liquid and solid propellants, giving it a substantial
payload advantage.
 Cryogenic stage is technically a very complex system compared to solid or
earth-storable liquid propellant stages due to its use of propellants at extremely
low temperatures and the associated thermal and structural problems.
 Oxygen liquifies at -183 deg C and Hydrogen at -253 deg C. The propellants,
at these low temperatures are to be pumped using turbo pumps running at
around 40,000 rpm. It also entails complex ground support systems like
propellant storage and filling systems, cryo engine and stage test facilities,
transportation and handling of cryo fluids and related safety aspects.
History of India’s Cryogenic Mission:
India has so far used six of the seven cryogenic engines procured from Russia and
needs indigenous engines to fly GSLVs to propel its future space missions.
India had developed an indigenous cryogenic stage called CE-7.5 with an engine
thrust of 7.5 tonnes. Compared to this, CE-20 will have a higher thrust of 19
tonnes and will be capable of carrying satellites that weigh up to four tonnes.
The first flight of a GSLV with the indigenous CE-7.5 cryogenic engine on
December 25, 2010 was a failure, but on January 5, 2014 GSLV-D5 (Mk II) used
the engine to successfully put in orbit communication satellite GSAT-14 which
weighed 1,982kg.
Details of CE-20 :
 The engine design was totally in-house effort with experts from different fields
like fluid dynamics, combustion, thermal, structural, metallurgy, fabrication,
rotor dynamics, control components, etc working together.
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 The fabrication of major subsystems of the engine was carried out through
Indian industries. Assembly and integration of the engine and testing were
carried out in ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC), a unit of Isro
 The recent successful endurance hot test of the first high thrust cryogenic
engine was the tenth test.
 The performance of the engine closely matches with the pre-test prediction
made using the in-house developed cryogenic engine mathematical modelling
and simulation software
 This high thrust cryogenic engine produces a nominal thrust of 196.5 kN in
vacuum with a specific impulse of 434 seconds.
 The engine works on “Gas Generator Cycle” which has flexibility for
independent development of each sub-system before the integrated engine
test, thus minimising uncertainty in the final developmental phase and
reducing development time.
 This engine generates nearly 2 MW power as compared to 1 MW generated
by the engine of Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) engine of GSLV.
 The high thrust cryogenic engine is one of the most powerful cryogenic
engines of upper stages in the world.
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR)
What is it?
It is a remote sensing method that uses narrow beam of light instead of
radiowaves in the form of a pulsed laser to build a 3-D image of surrounding
landscape. The narrow beam of laser makes it possible to map objects with high
degree of resolution. It measures and analyses the distance from the sensor to the
object by determining the time between the release of laser pulse to receiving of
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the reflected pulse. For terrestrial mapping LIDAR uses near infrared wavelength
laser (900–1064 nanometers) and water penetration like sea bed mapping it uses
green light (532 nanometers). A typical LIDAR instrument principally consists
of a laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver. There are three ways to
collect LIDAR data – airborne, satellite and ground. Airborne LIDAR data are
the most commonly available LIDAR data.
Utilities of LIDAR
Lidar data has multiple applications. Like:
Urban planning: Helps in creation of large area models in short time. It is also
used to create digital elevation models and surface models of surrounding
buildings.
Coastline management: Producing accurate shoreline maps, detecting coastal
erosion.
Archeology: Help in creation of high resolution digital elevation models to reveal
micro-topography.
Oil and Gas exploration: It is used to trace amount of gases above the
hydrocarbon region. This tracking helps to find exact area which has Oil and Gas
deposits. Thus saves both time and money.
Quarries and Minerals: Helps in quick surveying the mining area to check its
suitability. Give an accurate indication of environment impact. Cellular network
planning: Can be used to provide analysis for determining line of sight for
proposed cellular antenna.
Forestry management and planning: It provides the height of canopy, its
density and ground elevation. It is also increasingly used for managing forest fire
by mapping possible fire area.
Flood modeling: Helps in creation of accurate flood prediction models. Can be
incorporated into relief, rescue and flood simulation software to provide advanced
topographical information.
Pollution modeling:
 Helps in detection of pollutants like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and
methane.
 Detection of noise and light pollution.
Mapping and Cartography:
 Assist in mapping of roads, buildings and vegetations.
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 Useful in developing high-resolution contour maps.

Transport planning: Help in mapping transport corridor facilitating seamless
navigation.
Agriculture: Helps in crop mapping and indicate which areas to need fertilizers
for maximum crop yield. Helps in creating a topographical map of the fields and
reveals the slope and sun exposure of the farm land.
Spaceflight and Astronomy: It may be used in mapping the surface of any
celestial body. It is used for atmospheric studies from space.
Atmospheric remote sensing: It is used to determine cloud profiles, measuring
winds, studying aerosols and quantifying various atmospheric components.
What is DNA PROFILING?
 DNA Profiling is a technology that can be used to identify individuals.

 It is a very sensitive technique which only needs a few skin cells, a hair root
or a tiny amount of blood or saliva.
 DNA profiling is especially useful for solving crimes but can also be used to
confirm if people are related to each other, such as for paternity testing.
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Why DNA Profiling Law is needed?

 At present, DNA testing labs are unregulated and lack uniform testing
protocols and procedures. In the absence of a legal framework, a database can't
be prepared and maintained.
 It depends on the government as to what kind of information it wants included
in the database such as information on only convicted persons, suspects or all
those jailed.
 If the database is to include all those in custody, then the DNA profile of
acquitted individuals will have to be deleted, as done in some countries.
Salient feature of the Bill

A DNA profiling law is supposed to codify everything and set procedures for
collection, safety, use and access of DNA samples and data.
 DNA data to become admissible as evidence in judicial proceedings
 Handling of DNA testing.
 Regulation of use of this information by law enforcement agencies and others.
 Two new bodies will be created — a DNA Profiling Board that will act as the
regulator, and supervise all activities relating to testing, storage and matching
of DNA samples, and a DNA Data Bank, both at the national level and in the
states. All existing and new DNA labs will have to seek accreditation from the
Board. DNA profiles will have to be stored in the data bank.
 Bill legalizes collection and analysis of the DNA samples for Repeat
offenders, suspects, missing persons, unknown deceased persons, volunteers
for forensic purposes.
What are the objections?

 Privacy: Critics say the Bill does not have adequate safeguards against the
collection and storage of more intrusive information such as allergies,
susceptibility to diseases, etc and its misuse. The Bill does not say who can
access the database, and does not provide a guarantee that it would not be used
for anything other than the specified purpose.
 However, the counter argument is that a very limited information is proposed

to be stored, just 17 sets of numbers out of billions that can tell nothing about
the individual except to act as a unique identifier. DNA will be collected from
a very small proportion of people, mainly those “in conflict of law”.
 Misuse of Data: In most countries, the DNA database is used only for
criminal investigations, but India’s bill allows for a lot more. For examples, it
can be used to identify victims of accidents or disasters, to identify missing
persons, and for civil disputes. The bill even allows the creation of population
statistics, identification research, parental disputes, issues relating to
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reproductive technologies and migration. These provisions could one day

allow the government to push civilians to provide DNA data.
 Reliability Issue: There are some circumstances when even DNA data may
not be reliable. for instance, if a person has had blood transfusion or a bone
marrow transplant, they will have someone else’s DNA in their body for some
time. There are also cases of DNA chimeras, where one individual may
possess multiple genomes. Other times, DNA data recovered from a crime
scene may not be enough to produce a correct match for the algorithms.
 Consent Issue: The bill does not clarify under what circumstances someone’s
DNA will be collected for the database with or without consent.
 On data collection and deletion: When DNA data are collected, the person
will also have to provide their name, gender, address, and their caste. Further,
it does not set a limit to how long someone’s DNA will kept on record.
What is vulnerability? Describe the regional vulnerability profile of natural

disasters in India.
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Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community, structure,

services or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of
particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to
hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area.” Vulnerabilities can be categorized
into physical and socio-economic vulnerability. Disasters occur when hazards
meet vulnerability.
Vulnerability profile of India:

Indian sub-continent has unique geo-climatic and socio-political conditions that
make it vulnerable to both the natural as well as manmade disasters. Around 6%
of the population of India is impacted annually by the exposures to disasters. They
Key natural disasters in India include floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes,
landslides and avalanches that have resulted in loss of lives and livelihoods.
According to a Planning Commission report, the key vulnerabilities of India
include the following:
 Coastal States, particularly in the East Coast and Gujarat on west coast, are
vulnerable to cyclones.
 4 crore hectare land mass is vulnerable to floods and river erosion.
 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to drought.
 57 per cent of total area is in Seismic Zones III-V and vulnerable to
earthquakes of moderate to high density.
 Sub-Himalayan/ Western Ghat are vulnerable to landslides.
Vulnerability to disasters or emergencies of Chemical, Biological Radiological
and Nuclear (CBRN) origin has increased on account of socioeconomic
development. The changing climate also exasperates the vulnerabilities. The
occurrence of heat waves, cold waves, floods, droughts, intense cyclones and
flash floods is getting increased due to climate change and global warming.
Further, Disaster vulnerability is function of poverty and poverty is
inextricably linked to disaster vulnerability. Poverty compels the people to
compromise in matters of shelters and dwellings and more and more people live
at unsafe places. Moreover, the low cost material used in making the dwellings
makes them more unsafe to live.
Due to vulnerability of different kinds of disasters, it is said that India is a
disaster prone country, the reasons are:
 85% vulnerable to single or multiple disasters
 12% is flood prone,
 8% is vulnerable to cyclones and
 57% of area lies in high seismic zones
 40 million hectare prone to flood = ~12% of total area
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 8% area vulnerable to cyclone

 68% area is susceptible to drought
 Out of 35 states and UTs- 27 are prone to one or more of these
events
 Some areas are vulnerable to industrial, chemical and biological
disasters
1) Introduction
 The WHO defines antibiotic resistance (AMR) as a condition wherein
microbes survive when exposed to the drug which would have normally
caused them to die.
 Antibiotics that once cured ailments across the spectrum are now turning into
a potential source of prolonged illness, disability and death.
2) Reasons for Antibiotic Resistance (ABR)
 ABR in certain cases occurs through the natural evolution of resistance in
bacterial pathogens
 The rising consumption of antibiotics is a major contributor.
 Free movement of ABR across boundaries, with serious consequences.
 Domestic factors such as a weak public health system, cheap antibiotics
available in the market, and their unregulated use, have created ideal
conditions for superbugs.
 Poor regulation of pharmacies and large number of unqualified personnel into
the supply chain.
 Lack of awareness among patients regarding the appropriate use of antibiotics
has led to self-medication
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 Non-adherence to the prescribed course of antibiotics, further intensifying the

problem.
 The misuse of high-end antibiotics for treatment of common health conditions
gives rise to these bacteria.
 Other reasons include the use of antibiotics in animals, and environmental
factors.
3) Concerns / Challenges
 The absence of a good statistical model to show the relationship between
antibiotic consumption and associated resistance makes it difficult to frame
usage guidelines for these antibiotics.
 Absence of any great success even post the Chennai declaration of 2012.
 WHO has published its first ever list of antibiotic-resistant 'priority pathogens'
— a catalogue of 12 families of bacteria that pose the greatest threat to human
health and most of these 12 superbugs have presence in India.
 Anti-microbial resistance threatens the effective prevention and treatment of
an ever-increasing range of infectious diseases like tuberculosis, malaria,
urinary tract infection (UTI) and even HIV.
 Antibiotic-resistant neonatal infections claim the lives of 60,000 newborn
babies each year
 Many hospitals, nursing homes and family doctors continue to over-prescribe
antibiotics, fuelling drug resistant infections
 Recently an American woman who had travelled to India died of a rare
superbug
 Lack of regulatory provisions for the use of antimicrobial in cattle, chickens
and pigs raised for domestic consumption
4) Government Initiatives
 National Programme on Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance was
launched under the 12th Five-year Plan.
 The Union health ministry is set to roll out prescription audits as part of a
multi-pronged strategy against anti-microbial resistance (AMR).
 The health ministry, along with WHO, has worked out a national action plan
to combat antibiotic resistance.
 The campaign — 'Medicines with the Red Line', which involves packs of
certain medicines carrying a 'red line' to differentiate them from other drugs
 Indian Council of Medical Research has issued new national guidelines on the
use of Antibiotics.
 Public awareness messages on state-run radio channels cautioning patients
against taking antibiotics without a prescription.
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Cyclone Disaster Management
Introduction
 Indian coasts are highly vulnerable to tropical cyclones and the consequent
recurrent loss of life and property.
 Tropical storms are an annual affair, with the more vulnerable eastern coast
with 92 severe cyclones out of a total of 262 between 1891 and 1990, and
several more in the years since.
 Such weather events are a part of the climate system, and their impact in the
form of economic losses could well be greater going forward, as development
creates more assets in coastal cities.
2) Background
 Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area
distinguished by swift and often destructive air circulation.
 Approximately 5700 km out of around 7516 kms of India’s coastline, its flat
coastal terrain and high population density are extremely vulnerable to
cyclones
 Recurrent cyclones account for a large number of deaths, loss of livelihood
opportunities, loss of public and private property, and severe damage to
infrastructure.
 Cyclones are associated with Strong Winds, Torrential rains and inland
flooding and Storm Surge.
Awareness Generation
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 prepare communities to deal with disasters in a manner that people’s lives and
properties are protected, and to ultimately become resilient
 public awareness generation will serve to empower people with knowledge
about the role and responsibilities of the state
 Targeting schools, colleges and all educational institutions is a very important
part of awareness generation.
 It has to be sustained through constant updating, upgrading and mock drills.
 Awareness will also help in induction of the constantly evolving knowledge
of science and technology as well as research and development applications.
Management of Cyclones
structural measures
 a) Construction of cyclone shelters, construction of cyclone resistant
buildings, road links, bridges, canals, drains, saline embankments,
communication and power transmission networks etc.
Non-structural
 a) Early warning dissemination systems, management of coastal zones,
awareness generation and disaster risk management and capacity building
of all the stakeholders involved.
 b) These measures are being adopted and tackled on State to State basis
under National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) being
implemented through World Bank Assistance.
Measures to be taken
Pre disaster
 provide cyclone forecasting, tracking and warning systems
 Construction of cyclone shelters, cyclone resistant buildings, road links,
bridges, canals, drains etc.
 Establishing Early Warning Dissemination System (EWDS), and Capacity
building for coastal communities.
 Mock drills, and training of local population and police by NDRF and SDRF
 Plantations of strong rooted trees, canopies, mangroves and proper vegetation
cover which act as first line of defence.
 Proper drainage system throughout the city to discharge the water as soon as
possible to avoid flood like conditions
 Use of NAVIC and RESOURCESAT-2 for disseminating coastal information
and helping in disaster management.
 Implementation of National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project
During disaster
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 Cautionary advice put out on social platforms urging people to stay safe can
reduce the number of casualties as seen in Chennai during recent cyclone
Vardha.
 Social media and the Internet, speedy official and community messages,
creating online groups and sharing messages offering help and advice.
 Perception of people decides the intensity of disaster. If people take necessary
proactive steps to deal with disaster then even the severe disaster can be dealt
with minimum damage.
 Delivery of food and health care via mobile hospitals, with priorities to women
child & elders.
 Protection of the community and their evacuation and quicker response.
 Post disaster
 It is vital that the learning from each event is shared nationally, and the
capacity of officials and communities to manage disasters built continuously.
 Among the securities available to individuals in many countries is insurance
against property losses. Viable policies should be made available in India too.
 Providing alternative means of communication, energy and transport just after
the disaster.
7) Need of the Hour
 To overcome the power cut it is important to have rooftop solar and battery
storage systems as supplementary power sources for households and
corporates.
 Planting trees with strong root systems and pruning the canopy ahead of
cyclone season could reduce uprooting.
 Government should restore infrastructure and provide priority relief to the
families of those who lost their lives, and the worst-hit communities.
 Efficient use of technology and implementation of the Sendai framework is
the need to the hour
 Collaboration with other countries in the region to strengthen the cooperation
and efforts and to make a common fund for disaster management.
 Construction of multipurpose cyclone shelters, access roads, saline
embankments and underground cabling.
 By taking long and short term mitigation measures, the loss of life and
property can be minimized.
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FLOODS
What is Flood?
Flood is a state of higher water level along a river channel or on coast leading
to inundation of land that is not normally submerge. Flood therefore is a
natural disaster which causes considerable damage to the crops, livestock and
human life.
Causes of floods:
Natural causes
 Heavy rainfall: Heavy rain in the catchment area of a river causes water
to over flow its banks, which results in the flooding of nearby areas.
 Sediment deposition: River beds become shallow due to sedimentation.
The water carrying capacity of such river is reduced. As a result the heavy
rainwater over flow the river banks.
 Cyclone: Cyclone generated seawaves of abnormal height spreads the
water in the adjoining coastal areas. In October 1994 Orissa cyclone
generated severe floods and caused unprecedented loss of life and property.
 Change in the course of the river: Meanders and change in the course of
the river cause floods.
 Tsunami: Large coastal areas are flooded by rising sea water, when a
tsunami strikes the coast.
 Lack of Lakes - Lakes can store the excess water and regulate the flow of
water. When lakes become smaller, their ability to regulate the flow
become less and hence flooding.
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Flood control measures

 Reservoirs: By constructing reservoirs in the courses of rivers could stores
extra water at the time of flood. Such measures adopted till now however,
have not been successful. Dams built to control floods of Damodar could
not control the flood.
 Embankments: By building flood protection embankments, floods water
can be controlled from overflowing the banks and spreading in nearby
areas. Building of embankments on Yamuna, near Delhi, has been
successful in controlling the flood.
 Afforestation: The furry of flood could be minimized by planting trees in
catchment areas of rivers.
 Restoration of original drainage system: Drainage system is generally
choked by the construction of roads, canals railway tracks etc. Floods could
be checked if the original form of drainage system is restored.
Vulnerability
 40 million hectares out of a geographical area of 3290 lakh hectares is
prone to floods.
 Every year 1600 lives are lost and the damage caused to crops, houses
and public utilities is Rs. 1800 crores due to floods.
 This year nearly 160 were dead in Bihar and at least 2,00,000 had to be
rehabilitated.
Institutional Framework
 As per the constitutional provisions, flood management is a state subject.
 The central government has taken various initiatives: enactment of the
National Disaster Management Act, December 2005 and setting up of the
NDMA.
 The National Executive Committee (NEC) with the Secretary of GOI of
the ministry; and State Executive Committees (SECs) will cover the
disaster aspect of flood management.
 FMPs Flood management Plans: The central ministries and departments
concerned and the state governments will prepare their FMPs which will
be holistic, participatory, inclusive, eco-friendly and gender-sensitive in
nature and the implementation of which will result in a flood- resilient
India. The plans will focus on the community and the collective efforts of
the government and NGOs.
 Various programmes like Neeranchal-Watershed, River linking etc., are
discussed below.
Flood Management
I. Minimizing flood risk
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Phase-I: These activities include identification and marking of flood prone

areas on maps, preparation of close contour and flood vulnerability maps by the
Central Water Commission (CWC)/ Ganga Flood Control Commission
(GFCC)/Brahmaputra Board,
Phase-II: These include implementation of the schemes for expansion and
modernisation of the flood forecasting and warning network, execution of flood
protection and drainage improvement schemes,
 The efforts of the CWC, IMD, NRSA and the state governments will be
integrated
Phase-III: Implementation of activities, which include construction of dams
and catchment area treatment (CAT) works in India as well as neighboring
countries.
2. Hard management techniques
 Dams: used to trap and store water, which can be released later.
 Embankments or Artificial levees : these are raised banks which makes the
river's cross section larger and so it can hold more water. They can be
expensive but are effective. In the US they are called levees, some where
breached
 during Hurricane Katrina and flooded large amounts of adjacent land
 Flood walls/ River defences/ Coastal defences are built around settlements
to protect them from floods. They look artificial and are expensive but are
effective.
 Storage areas: Where water can be pumped out of the river and stored in
temporary lakes. It can then be pumped back later.
 Dredging the river basins
 Inter-basin transfers
3. Soft management techniques:
Washlands: are sections of the flood plain which are allowed to flood, therefore
they are usually left as sports fields and nature parks.
Land use zoning/ flood plain zoning: is designed to prevent development in
areas most prone to flooding and developments is only allowed in 'safe' areas.
Afforestation: The planting of trees in a river's catchment to increase
interception, reduces soil runoff and also the uptake of water through the soil.
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Warning systems: issued by flood protection agencies to enable people to react

to the danger.
IV. Capacity Development and Response
 Flood Education
 Emergency search and Rescue
 Emergency relief
Cyclones
Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area
distinguished by swift and often destructive air circulation. Cyclones are usually
accompanied by violent storms and bad weather. The air circulates inward in an
anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
hemisphere. Cyclones are classified as: (i) extra tropical cyclones (also called
temperate cyclones); and (ii) tropical cyclones. The word Cyclone is derived from
the Greek word Cyclos meaning the coils of a snake. It was coined by Henry
Peddington because the tropical storms in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
appear like coiled serpents of the sea.
Classifications
Cyclones are classified as extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate
cyclones); and tropical cyclones.
The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO, 1976) uses the term 'Tropical
Cyclone’ to cover weather systems in which winds exceed ‘Gale Force’
(minimum of 34 knots or 63 kph). Tropical cyclones are the progeny of ocean
and atmosphere, powered by the heat from the sea; and driven by easterly trades
and temperate westerlies, high planetary winds and their own fierce energy.
In India, cyclones are classified by:
 Strength of associated winds,
 Storm surges
 Exceptional rainfall occurrences.
Extra tropical cyclones occur in temperate zones and high latitude regions,
though they are known to originate in the Polar Regions.
Cyclones that developin the regions between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer
are called tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones are large-scale weather systems
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developing over tropical or subtropical waters, where they get organized into
surface wind circulation.
Worldwide terminology
Cyclones are given many names in different regions of the world – They are
known as typhoons in the China Sea and Pacific Ocean; hurricanes in the West
Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean; tornados in the Guinea
lands of West Africa and southern USA.; willy-willies in north-western Australia
and tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
Q) What is the Difference between Natural Hazard and Disaster?
Every disaster is unique in terms of the local socio-environmental factors that

control it, the social response it generates, and the way each social group
negotiates with it. There are three observations on disasters which are as
follows:
 The magnitude, intensity, frequency and damages caused by natural
disasters have increased over the years.
 There is a growing concern among people the world over to deal with the
menace created by these so that the loss of human life and property can be
minimised.
 Significant changes have taken place in the pattern of natural disasters over
the years.
Man has been bearing the brunt of natural disasters since ancient times. There are
many disasters which man in unable to face or prevent from happening. They are
destined to bring their tragic consequences of human destruction. Due to human
intervention in the natural processes, the destructive power and frequency of
natural disasters have increased considerably. According to UN statistics, natural
disasters kill 1,00,000 persons on an average and cause property damage worth
of billions of dollar per year. Among the top ten natural disaster-prone
countries, India stands second after China.
People used to correlate hazards and disasters. Areas prone to natural hazards
were more vulnerable to disasters. Hence, people avoided tampering with the
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delicate balance that existed in a given ecosystem. People avoided intensification

of their activities in such areas and that is how disasters were less damaging.
With the advent of technology and rise in population density in certain parts of
the world, human beings tend to intensify their activities into disaster prone areas
increasing their vulnerability to disasters. Colonization of flood plains and
seaward extension of port cities etc. make them vulnerable to the occurrence of
floods, cyclones, hurricanes and tsunamis.
What is vulnerability? Describe the regional vulnerability profile of natural

disasters in India.
Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community, structure,

services or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of
particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to
hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area.” Vulnerabilities can be categorized
into physical and socio-economic vulnerability. Disasters occur when hazards
meet vulnerability.
Vulnerability profile of India:

Indian sub-continent has unique geo-climatic and socio-political conditions that
make it vulnerable to both the natural as well as manmade disasters. Around 6%
of the population of India is impacted annually by the exposures to disasters. They
Key natural disasters in India include floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes,
landslides and avalanches that have resulted in loss of lives and livelihoods.
According to a Planning Commission report, the key vulnerabilities of India
include the following:
 Coastal States, particularly in the East Coast and Gujarat on west coast, are
vulnerable to cyclones.
 4 crore hectare land mass is vulnerable to floods and river erosion.
 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to drought.
 57 per cent of total area is in Seismic Zones III-V and vulnerable to
earthquakes of moderate to high density.
 Sub-Himalayan/ Western Ghat are vulnerable to landslides.
Vulnerability to disasters or emergencies of Chemical, Biological Radiological
and Nuclear (CBRN) origin has increased on account of socioeconomic
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development. The changing climate also exasperates the vulnerabilities. The

occurrence of heat waves, cold waves, floods, droughts, intense cyclones and
flash floods is getting increased due to climate change and global warming.
Further, Disaster vulnerability is function of poverty and poverty is
inextricably linked to disaster vulnerability. Poverty compels the people to
compromise in matters of shelters and dwellings and more and more people live
at unsafe places. Moreover, the low cost material used in making the dwellings
makes them more unsafe to live.
Due to vulnerability of different kinds of disasters, it is said that India is a
disaster prone country, the reasons are:
 85% vulnerable to single or multiple disasters
 12% is flood prone,
 8% is vulnerable to cyclones and
 57% of area lies in high seismic zones
 40 million hectare prone to flood = ~12% of total area
 8% area vulnerable to cyclone
 68% area is susceptible to drought
 Out of 35 states and UTs- 27 are prone to one or more of these
events
 Some areas are vulnerable to industrial, chemical and biological
disasters
What are antibiotics?

Antibiotics are powerful medicines that fight certain infections and can save lives
when used properly. Antibiotics either stop bacteria from reproducing or destroy
them.
Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms, the body's immune system can
usually kill them. Our white blood cells attack harmful bacteria and, even if
symptoms do occur, our immune system can usually cope and fight off the
infection.
There are occasions, however, when it is all too much, and some help is needed;
this is where antibiotics are useful.
The first antibiotic was penicillin. Such penicillin-related antibiotics as
ampicillin, amoxicillin, and benzylpenicillin are widely used today to treat a
variety of infections - these antibiotics have been around for a long time.
How do antibiotics work?
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Although there are a number of different types of antibiotic, they all work in one
of two ways:
 A bactericidal antibiotic (penicillin, for instance) kills the bacteria; these

drugs usually interfere with either the formation of the bacterium's cell wall
or its cell contents
 A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying
About Resistance
Antibiotic / Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of microbes to resist the effects
of drugs – that is, the germs are not killed, and their growth is not stopped.
Although some people are at greater risk than others, no one can completely avoid
the risk of antibiotic-resistant infections. Infections with resistant organisms are
difficult to treat, requiring costly and sometimes toxic alternatives.
Bacteria will inevitably find ways of resisting the antibiotics developed by
humans, which is why aggressive action is needed now to keep new resistance
from developing and to prevent the resistance that already exists from spreading.
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SUPERBUGS
Why in news?
World Health Organization (WHO) has recently provided a list of twelve

“Superbugs” which pose an enormous threat to human health. WHO further
urged medical experts and pharmaceutical researchers to focus first on fighting
the most dangerous among these pathogens.
Superbugs
 They are a strain of bacteria that has become resistant to battery of antibiotic
drugs after their prolonged exposure to antibiotics.
 Hence, the medicines become ineffective and infections persist in the body,
increasing the risk of spread to others.
 Overuse (consuming more antibiotic than prescribed) and Misuse (taking
prescribed antibiotic incorrectly or taking antibiotic to treat viral infection)
of antibiotics are the major reason for formation of Superbugs. Human
consumption of antibiotic-treated chicken and livestock further increasing
resistance.
 Few prominent superbugs highlighted by WHO are MRSA (methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus), Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Klebsiella, E. coli.
Klebsiella Bacteria has recently developed resistance to a powerful class of
antibiotics called carbapenems.
Open Defecation in India

1) Introduction
 Open defecation is the practice of people defecating outside and not into a
designated toilet.
 Eliminating Open Defecation in India by 2nd October 2019 – the 150th
birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi – is one of the key aims of the
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan movement
 However, this has only been achieved in 17 of 686 districts so far.
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 Eliminating open defecation is the part of sustainable development goals.

2) Status of Open Defecation
 India has far higher open defecation rates than other developing regions
where people are poorer, literacy rates are lower, and water is relatively
more scarce.
 2011 Census found that 70% of rural households do not have a toilet or
latrine
 As per the most recent Swachhta Status Report in 2015, more than half of
the rural population (52.1 per cent) of the country still defecates in open.
 SQUAT survey conducted by r.i.c.e found that 40 per cent of households
that have a working latrine have at least one person who regularly defecates
in the open.
 Around 60% of Indians do not have access to safe and private toilets
4) Causes for Open Defecation
 A study points out that widespread open defecation in rural India is on
account of beliefs, values, and norms about purity, pollution, and caste that
cause people to reject affordable latrines.
 The most important barrier to the adoption of affordable latrines in rural
India is the unique history of untouchability and its continuing practice.
 Open defecation in urban areas is driven by lack of space to build toilets in
high-density areas, landlords not providing toilets to the tenant
 A toilet is available but is of "low quality"
5) Concerns
 government programmes in rural India have paid little attention in
understanding why so many rural Indians defecate in the open
 Very often, people who receive government latrines do not use them for
defecation at all
 People reject these latrines because of concerns about pit emptying.
 CAG report said that of the constructed toilets, around 30 per cent were
found to be dysfunctional.
 Lesser funds are now being spent on Information, Education and
Communication (IEC) activities.
 The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation says that adequate
availability of water for toilets is also a concern.
6) Consequences
 Poor sanitation is widely recognised as a cause of poor health, especially
in places with high population density.
 Open defecation spreads bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections,
including diarrhoea, polio, cholera and hookworm and is an important
cause of child stunting and infant death
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 Open defecation is also a classic example of a “negative externality” in

which one person’s behaviour hurts other people.
 Open defecation makes women vulnerable to sexual assault.
Solution
 Future rural sanitation programmes must address villagers’ ideas about
pollution, pit-emptying, and untouchability, and should do so in ways that
accelerate progress towards social equality for Dalits
 Rural sanitation policy must address untouchability.
 Behaviour change is a key priority. It involves a change of mindset
amongst people to stop open defecation and to adopt safe sanitation
practices.
Make toilets a status symbol
a) When we say “toilet” people often think of dark, dirty and smelly
places.
b) Instead, we need them to think of toilets as rooms of happiness – clean,
colourful and not smelly.
Change the vocabulary
a) Make the conversation more accessible by saying what we mean.
b) Sanitation, latrine, Wash [water sanitation and hygiene], open
defecation. These words don’t mean anything to the masses
c) Replace words like sanitation and open defecation with toilets and
shitting outside.
Start with health
a) People need to understand the worth of investing in toilets in terms of the
health benefits.
Make the case to governments
a) We need to be better at making the case that it’s a great investment, with
tremendous return, due to the impacts on public health, education, gender,
and dignity.
b) For local governments, it is key they see that delivering on sanitation
might help them win their next elections
Decentralised, community-led approach
a) Excessively centralised planning with subsidy-focussed, construction-
driven approach should be done away with.
b) Micro-planning should be undertaken at the gram panchayat level for
more effective and efficient functioning of Swachh Bharat Mission.
c) The government should focus on using the ‘Community-Led Total
Sanitation’ (CLTS) approach with people building toilets on their own.
d) Trained in participatory approaches as well as facilitation skills, people
will be able to mobilise and inspire the community to expedite change.
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e) Post construction of toilets, there should be regular monitoring by the

community of whether people are actually using the toilets.
Use of technology
a) mobile application to track the use of toilets
b) Innovative ideas with successful results should be replicated in other
places.
Spread of technologies across states and to partner with all stakeholders
including researchers, academic institutions and NGOs working on
sanitation.
Microfinance could be a solution for funding sanitation facilities in
developing countries.
Q) What is the Difference between Natural Hazard and Disaster?
Every disaster is unique in terms of the local socio-environmental factors that

control it, the social response it generates, and the way each social group
negotiates with it. There are three observations on disasters which are as
follows:
 The magnitude, intensity, frequency and damages caused by natural
disasters have increased over the years.
 There is a growing concern among people the world over to deal with the
menace created by these so that the loss of human life and property can be
minimised.
 Significant changes have taken place in the pattern of natural disasters over
the years.
Man has been bearing the brunt of natural disasters since ancient times. There are
many disasters which man in unable to face or prevent from happening. They are
destined to bring their tragic consequences of human destruction. Due to human
intervention in the natural processes, the destructive power and frequency of
natural disasters have increased considerably. According to UN statistics, natural
disasters kill 1,00,000 persons on an average and cause property damage worth
of billions of dollar per year. Among the top ten natural disaster-prone
countries, India stands second after China.
People used to correlate hazards and disasters. Areas prone to natural hazards
were more vulnerable to disasters. Hence, people avoided tampering with the
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delicate balance that existed in a given ecosystem. People avoided intensification

of their activities in such areas and that is how disasters were less damaging.
With the advent of technology and rise in population density in certain parts of
the world, human beings tend to intensify their activities into disaster prone areas
increasing their vulnerability to disasters. Colonization of flood plains and
seaward extension of port cities etc. make them vulnerable to the occurrence of
floods, cyclones, hurricanes and tsunamis.
What is a cube sat?
 CubeSats are tiny satellites, usually no more than about 4 inches on each side
that can conduct space research using readily available, off the shelf hardware
plus one of a variety of propulsion devices.
 So far CubeSats reach low-earth-orbit (LEO) only. CubeSats are most
commonly put in orbit by as secondary payloads on a launch vehicle.
Why Cubesats are emerging so fast?
Smartphones and other consumer electronics provide a wealth of ready-made
technologies that can enable a CubeSat to perform many of the functions of a
satellite.
Other advantages
 A nanosat of CubeSat dimensions might cost $150,000-1m, rather than
$200m-1 billion for a full-sized one.
 Ease of construction and less time required to build.
 Once their orbits decay and they burn up on re-entering the atmosphere.
 Because of their size, multiple CubeSats can be launched as secondary
payloads along with a large, primary spacecraft. This makes them ideal
platforms for high-risk, experimental payloads and technology demonstration
missions.
Propulsion in Cubsats?
 A CubeSat cannot carry conventional rocket fuel because of safety issues,
therefore scientists have developed two methods of maneuverability.
These are:
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 1. Using ion drives: An ion drive accelerates charged particles derived

from a liquid propellant to very high speeds. This creates thrust more
efficiently than ejecting heated vapour, but without the explosive
chemical reactions of a conventional rocket.
 2. Using light: A photonic laser thruster that uses the principle that light
exerts pressure when it hits something.
What is Big Data?

 Big data is a term that describes the large volume of data – both
structured and unstructured beyond the ability of commonly used
software tools to capture, curate, manage, and process data within a
tolerable elapsed time.
 It’s what organizations do with the data that matters. Big data can be
analyzed for insights that lead to better decisions and strategic
business moves.
 Big data is characterized by 3Vs.
Applications of Big Data

 Companies use big data to better understand and target customers by
bringing together data from their own transactions as well as social
media data and even weather predictions.
 Businesses optimize their processes by tracking and analyzing their
supply chain delivery routes and combine that data this with live
traffic updates. Others use machine data to optimize the service
cycles of their equipment and predict potential faults.
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 Big Data is used in healthcare to find new cures for cancer, to

optimize treatment and even predict diseases before any physical
symptoms appear.
 Big Data is used to analyze and improve the performance of
individuals (at sports, at home or work) where data from sensors in
equipment and wearable devices can be combined with video
analytics to get insights that traditionally where impossible to see.
 Police forces and security agencies use big data to prevent cyber-
attacks, detect credit card fraud, foil terrorism and even predict
criminal activity.
 Big Data is used to improve our homes, cities and countries by e.g.
optimizing the heating or lighting in our homes, the traffic flow in our
cities, or the energy grit across the country.
What is Industrial Internet?
 IoT’s industrial applications are called as the ‘Industrial Internet’.

 The Industrial Internet closely linked to enterprise IoT is likely to radically
transform and overhaul business segments including manufacturing, oil and
gas, agriculture, defence, mining, transportation and healthcare etc.
Collectively, these sectors account for over two-thirds of the global economy.
How Industrial Internet works?
 The industrial Internet draws together fields such as machine learning, big
data, the Internet of things and machine-to-machine communication to absorb
data from machines, analyze it (in real-time), and use it to adjust operations.
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 It holds great potential for quality control, sustainable and green practices and
overall supply chain efficiency.
 The Industrial Internet also is applied to transportation projects, such as
driverless cars and intelligent railroad systems.
Challenges
 The Industrial Internet is still at an early stage and the full range of
implications of the industrial internet on their industries is still emerging and
not crystal clear.
 But it is said that industrial internet applications in the sectors mentioned
above will grow by leaps and bounds, requiring not just huge amounts of
bandwidth but more importantly, absolutely reliable and real-time responses.
 Consumer internet, i.e. terrestrial internet (through fibre, cable or WiFi) is
not quite the solution as
high speeds, much lower latency, smaller form-factor satellite devices and
satellite mobility.
-
throughput satellites would also be available at a fraction of the cost of
terrestrial broadband.
What is Li-Fi?
Li-Fi, or light fidelity, invented by German physicist and professor Harald Haas,
is a wireless technology that makes use of visible light in place of radio waves to
transmit data at terabits per second speeds—more than 100 times the speed of
Wi-Fi.
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Though it was discovered in the last decade, proofs of concept to test commercial
utilization started emerging only in 2015.
Advantages:
 Li-Fi could make a huge impact on the internet of things too, with data
transferred at much higher levels with even more devices able to connect to
one another.
 Li-Fi offers great promise to overcome the existing limitations of Wi-Fi by
providing for data-heavy communication in short ranges.
 Due to its shorter range, Li-Fi is more secure than Wi-Fi.
 Since it does not pollute, it can be called a green technology for device-to-
device communication in the Internet of Things (IoT).
 Li-Fi systems consume less power.
Limitations of Li-Fi:
 As visual light can’t pass through opaque objects and needs line of sight for
communication, its range will remain very restricted to start with. In order to
enjoy full connectivity, more capable LED bulbs will need to be placed at
various places.
 Li-Fi requires the lightbulb is on at all times to provide connectivity,
meaning that the lights will need to be on during the day.
 Li-Fi is likely to face interference from external light sources, such as
sunlight and bulbs, and obstructions in the path of transmission, and hence
may cause interruptions in communication.
 Also, initially, there will be high installation costs of visual light
communication systems as an add-on to lighting systems.
Potential applications:
 Li-Fi can be used in street and traffic lights. Traffic lights can communicate
to the vehicles and with each other.
 Through the use of Li-Fi, traffic control can be made intelligent and real-
time adaptable. And each traffic and street light post can be converted into
access points to convert roadsides into wireless hot spots.
 Vehicles having LED-based headlights and tail lamps can communicate
with each other and prevent accidents by exchanging information.
 Visible light being safer, they can also be used in places where radio waves
can’t be used such as petrochemical and nuclear plants and hospitals.
 They can also be used in aircraft, where most of the control communication
is performed through radio waves.
 Li-Fi can also easily work underwater, where Wi-Fi fails completely,
thereby throwing open endless opportunities for military and navigational
operations.
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 Also, it presents another unique possibility: transmitting power wirelessly,

wherein the smart phone will not only receive data through Li-Fi, but will
also receive power to charge itself.
Challenges and opportunity in India:

 The lack of ubiquitous broadband access, which thereby restricts data
access, and chaotic traffic management
 Leading to traffic jams and pollution are just two of the many problems in
India. Li-Fi has scope to help with both.
 By converting traffic lights into LED-based access points, traffic
management can be made intelligent, adaptive and real-time—and so,
more efficient and effective.
What is it?
 Optical fibre is made up of semiconducting materials and usually has
a cylindrical structure. In inner core there is material of higher
refractive index than in outer core resulting in Total Internal Reflection
(TIR).
 Thus signal keeps moving along the axis and never passes out from
curved surface while there is almost no loss of energy during
transmission.
Importance of Optical Fibre

 Optical fibre are roots of Digital India as they provide end connectivity
to users in the remotest part of the country and establish G2C and C2C
interface at all levels and almost all spheres of life. Government is
moving towards total e-governance and digital infrastructure is vital to
realize such goals.
 National Optical Fibre Network (NOFN), also known as Bharatnet, is
a project to provide broadband connectivity to 2.5 lakh gram
panchayats across the country. However, laying down optical fibre has
multiple challenges:
 Bharatnet or NOFN is to be executed based on PPP model where a
SPV, Bharat Broadband Network Ltd (BBNL) has been constituted.
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However, the evolution of viable PPP models in various regions is a

problem.
 Problem of autonomy, flexibility and quick decision making of BBNL
has been reported.
 Land acquisition and construction on private lands and populated areas
is an issue.
 Right of Way (RoW) has not been sorted out yet. Some states are
charging exorbitant charges while some are demanding free bandwidth
for government establishments. Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 does not
notify the rules on Right of Way which is a sensitive area involving
centre-state jurisdiction. As per the act, only the Centre can legislate
over such subjects, but provides for reasonable conditions that local
authorities can impose while granting Right of Way permissions.
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Q) Write a short note on work horse of ISRO?
 The PSLV is one of wor1d‘s most reliable launch vehicles. It earned its
title ‘The Workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various
satellites to Low Earth Orbits, particularly the IRS series of satellites.
 PSLV has proved its multi—payload, multi-mission capability in a single

launch and its geosynchronous launch capability.
 PSLV is capable of launching 1600kg satellites in 620km sun- synchronous

polar orbit and 1050 kg satellite in geo-synchronous transfer orbit.
 Number of Stages : 4( solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately). The

first stage is one of the largest solid propellant boosters in the world. PSLV
uses an Earth storable liquid rocket engine for its second stage, known as
the Vikas engine.
 Based on strap-on boosters PSLV has three variants — PSLV —G, PSLV
— CA, PSLV — XL. While the PSLV—G uses 6 HTPB based solid
strap—on motors of 9 tons each and PSLV-XL uses 6 extended strap—ons
of 12 tons each, the PSLV-CA (core alone version) does not use any
strap—on motors.
Q) WRITE a short note on GSLV?
 The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle was primarily developed to

launch INSAT class of satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits.
 GSLV is a three stage launcher that uses one solid rocket motor stage, one
Earth storable liquid stage and one cryogenic stage.
 GSLV's primary payloads are INSAT class of communication satellites

that operate from geostationary orbits and hence are placed in
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.(Payload to GTO: 2,500 kg)
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 Further, GSLV’s capability of placing up to 5 tonnes in Low Earth Orbits

broadens the scope of payloads from heavy satellites to multiple smaller
satellites.[Payload to LEO: 5,000 kg)
 The GSLV uses 4 liquid strap-on motors. The strap—ons are powered by
one Vikas engine each and along with the solid rocket motor core of the
first stage, provide an enormous thrust to the launcher.
Q) What is the difference between PSLV and GSLV?
Both PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) and GSLV (Geosynchronous

Satellite Launch Vehicle) are the satellite—launch vehicles (rockets) developed
by ISRO. PSLV is designed mainly to deliver the “earth-observation” or “remote-
sensing” satellites with lift-off mass of up to about 1750 Kg to Sun- Synchronous
circular polar orbits of 600-900 Km altitude.
The remote sensing satellites orbit the earth from pole-to-pole (at about 98 deg
orbital-plane inclination). An orbit is called sun-synchronous when the angle
between the line joining the centre of the Earth and the satellite and the Sun is
constant throughout the orbit.
Due to their sun-synchronism nature, these orbits are also referred to as “Low
Earth Orbit (LEO)” which enables the on-board camera to take images of the
earth under the same sun—illumination conditions during each of the repeated
visits, the satellite makes over the same area on ground thus making the satellite
useful for earth resources monitoring.
Apart from launching the remote sensing satellites to Sun—synchronous polar

orbits, the PSLV is also used to launch the satellites of lower lift—off mass of up
to about 1400 Kg to the elliptical Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).
PSLV is a four—staged launch vehicle with first and third stage using solid rocket
motors and second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. It also uses
strap—on motors to augment the thrust provided by the first stage, and depending
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on the number of these strap—on boosters, the PSLV is classified into its various
versions like core.—alone version (PSLV-CA), PSLV-G or PSLV-XL variants.
The GSLV is designed mainly to deliver the communication—satellites to the

highly elliptical (typically 250 x 36000 Km) Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
(GTO). The satellite in GTO is further raised to its final destination, viz., Geo-
synchronous Earth orbit (GEO) of about 36000 Km altitude (and zero deg
inclination on equatorial plane) by firing its in-built on-board engines.
Due to their geo-synchronous nature, the satellites in these orbits appear to remain
permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular
location on Earth, thus avoiding the need of a tracking ground antenna and hence
are useful for the communication applications.
Two versions of the GSLV are being developed by ISRO. The first version,
GSLV Mk—II, has the capability to launch satellites of lift—off mass of up to
2,500 kg to the GTO and satellites of up to 5,000 kg lift—off mass to the LEO.
GSLV MK—II is a three—staged vehicle with first stage using solid rocket
motor, second stage using Liquid fuel and the third stage, called Cryogenic Upper
Stage, using cryogenic engine.
What is a cube sat?
 CubeSats are tiny satellites, usually no more than about 4 inches on each side
that can conduct space research using readily available, off the shelf hardware
plus one of a variety of propulsion devices.
 So far CubeSats reach low-earth-orbit (LEO) only. CubeSats are most
commonly put in orbit by as secondary payloads on a launch vehicle.
Why Cubesats are emerging so fast?
Smartphones and other consumer electronics provide a wealth of ready-made
technologies that can enable a CubeSat to perform many of the functions of a
satellite.
Other advantages
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 A nanosat of CubeSat dimensions might cost $150,000-1m, rather than

$200m-1 billion for a full-sized one.
 Ease of construction and less time required to build.
 Once their orbits decay and they burn up on re-entering the atmosphere.
 Because of their size, multiple CubeSats can be launched as secondary
payloads along with a large, primary spacecraft. This makes them ideal
platforms for high-risk, experimental payloads and technology demonstration
missions.
Propulsion in Cubsats?
 A CubeSat cannot carry conventional rocket fuel because of safety issues,
therefore scientists have developed two methods of maneuverability.
These are:
 1. Using ion drives: An ion drive accelerates charged particles derived
from a liquid propellant to very high speeds. This creates thrust more
efficiently than ejecting heated vapour, but without the explosive
chemical reactions of a conventional rocket.
 2. Using light: A photonic laser thruster that uses the principle that light
exerts pressure when it hits something.
1. RESOURCESAT-2A
 It is a remote sensing satellite which will provide information on water bodies,
farm lands, crop extent, forests, mineral deposits, and coasts, rural and urban
spreads for the next five years.
 The satellite was launched into the Sun Synchronous Orbit at 825 km height.
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 Much like its predecessors RESOURCESAT 1 and 2, RESOURCESAT-2A

also has a three tier imaging system.
 It is equipped with an Advanced White Field Sensor (AWiFS) that provides
images of 56 metre resolution, (LISS-3) Linear Imaging Self-scanning Sensor
and LISS-4 provides image of 23.5m and 5.6m resolution respectively.
Significance of the Launch:
 RESOURCESAT-2A will be useful in crop area and production estimation,

drought monitoring, soil mapping, cropping system analysis and farm
advisories generation.
 For the first time ISRO used cameras on-board that showed the separation
stages during the flight and the deployment of solar panels of the satellite.
2. NISAR MISSION COLLABORATION OF ISRO AND NASA

Payload
L-band (24-centimeter wavelength): To be produced by NASA
S-band (12-centimeter wavelength): To be produced by ISRO
Functions of NISAR:
 Observe and take measurements of some of the planet's most complex
processes, including ecosystem disturbances, ice-sheet collapse, and
natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and landslides.
 To Predict changes in Earth’s topography
 To create the world’s largest freely available remote sensing data set
3. Resourcesat satellite:
Resourcesat-2A is a follow on mission to its predecessor remote sensing
satellites Resourcesat-1 and Resourcesat-2, launched in 2003 and 2011
respectively.
It is intended to continue the remote sensing data services to global users
provided by it two predecessors.
Resourcesat-2A weighs 1,235 kg and is placed into an 817 km polar sun

synchronous orbit (i.e. orbiting pole-to-pole). The mission life of Resourcesat-
2A is five years.
It carries three payloads viz.
LISS-4: Linear Imaging Self-Scanner which operates in 3 spectral bands
in the Visible and Near Infrared Region (VNIR).
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LISS-3: It also operates in 3 bands in VNIR and 1 band in SWIR (Short

Wave Infrared) Band.
AWiFS: Advanced Wild Field Sensor operating in 3 VNIR bands and 1
SWIR band.
RESOURCESAT-2A carries two Solid State Recorders with a capacity of 200
Giga Bits each to store the images taken by its cameras which can be read out
later to ground stations.
4. OCEAN SAT: 2
Oceansat-2 satellite mainframe systems derive their heritage from previous IRS
missions and launched by PSLV-C14 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre,
Sriharikota on Sept. 23, 2009.
It carries three payloads:
 Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM)
 Ku-band Pencil Beam scatterometer (SCAT) developed by ISRO
 Radio Occultation Sounder for Atmosphere (ROSA) developed by the
Italian Space Agency.
Oceansat-2 is envisaged to provide continuity of operational services of
Oceansat-1(IRS-P4) with enhanced application potential.
Major Highlights
 Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) Forecast
 Ocean State Forecast
 High-resolution Regional Weather Prediction
 Monsoon Prediction
 Tropical Cyclone & Storm Surge Prediction
 Coral Reef Bleach Alert
Major Benefits
 About 40,000 users are regularly benefited through PFZ forecasts
 Space inputs have improved weather and cyclone track prediction
 Monitoring and conservation of coral reefs
 Ocean state forecast is useful for Indian Navy, Indian Coast Guard, cargo and
passenger shipping agencies, off-shore oil & gas exploration agencies,
fishermen and ports
5. OCENSAT-3 :
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The ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) spacecraft Oceansat-3 and

Oceansat-3A are envisaged to provide service continuity for the operational users
of OCM (Ocean Color Monitor) data from Oceansat 2 as well as to enhance the
application potential in other areas. It is a global mission and is configured to
cover global oceans and provide continuity of ocean colour data with global wind
vector and characterization of lower atmosphere and ionosphere.
The mission objectives are to provide continuity of ocean colour data with
improvements to continue and enhance operational services like potential fishery
zone and primary productivity. To enhance the applications by way of
simultaneous Sea Surface Temperature (SST) measurements, in addition to
chlorophyll, using additional thermal channels, is envisaged in this mission.
Continuity of wind vector data through repeat of Scatterometer for cyclone
forecasting and numerical weather modelling. The mission, in tandem with
Oceansat-2 (on availability), will improve the repetivity of ocean colour
measurements to every 24 hour and wind vector measurements to every 12 hour.
Following instruments are on board:
• An 13-band Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) in VNIR (400-1010 nm range)

with 360 m spatial resolution and 1400 km swath for ocean Colour
monitoring
• 2-band Long Wave Infra Red (LWIR) around 11 and 12 µm for Sea
Surface Temperature (thermal channels) at 1080 m resolution.
• A Ku-Band Pencil beam SCATTEROMETER with a ground resolution of
50 km x 50 km for Continuity of wind vector data for cyclone forecasting
and numerical weather modelling
A second satellite, Oceansat 3A is to be launched in 2020.
6. ScatSat
In order to predict the genesis of cyclones in the oceans, the Ahmedabad-based
Space Applications Centre (SAC) — an arm of ISRO — is developing a new,
miniature weather-forecasting satellite — ScatSat — at the cost of an estimated
Rs 300 crore.
This satellite is expected to take over some of the functions of OCEANSAT-2, a
satellite that had accurately predicted the landfall of cyclone Phailin on the Orissa
coast in October 2013.
Purpose: The indigenously developed weather forecasting satellite will be
equipped with on board instruments to monitor sea surface winds and help predict
the genesis of cyclones. This ScatSat satellite will measure the wind speed and
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it’s direction over the ocean. It can predict the formation of cyclones, about 4-5
days in advance. This time period is very crucial in saving lives
Payload:
The primary payload of ScatSat-1 is a scatterometer to keep a watch on the speed
and direction of ocean winds that indicate the formation and strengthening of
cyclones.
The amazing fact about this satellite, weighing 301 kg, is that it is being built at
60% of the actual cost, and in one-third of the estimated time. About 40% of
satellite is made by recycling the leftover equipment from previous satellite
missions. It will be launched in July 2016 and will have a mission life of five
years.
The data generated by this mini-satellite will be used by NASA, EUMETSAT
(European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites) and
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration).
7. RISAT-1:
Radar Satellite-1 (RISAT-1) is the first indigenous microwave satellite designed
and developed by ISRO. The satellite carried a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Payload operating in C-band (5.35 GHz) with both Co and Cross polarisation as
well as Circular Polarisation. The satellite enables imaging of the surface features
during both day and night under all weather conditions. The payload operates in
Fine Resolution Strip map mode (FRS-1), Fine Resolution Strip map mode-2
(FRS-2), Medium Resolution ScanSAR mode (MRS) and Coarse Resolution
ScanSAR mode (CRS).
The major objectives of RISAT-1:
1. Develop a multimode, agile SAR payload operating in ScanSAR, Strip and
Spot modes to provide images with coarse, fine and high spatial resolutions
respectively.
2. Establish ground segment to receive and process SAR data
3. To develop newer applications using the microwave data.
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What is GSAT?
 A GSAT is a series of geosynchronous satellite placed in geosynchronous

orbit, with an orbital period the same as the Earth's rotation period.
 A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite (36000
KM), which has a geostationary orbit – a circular orbit directly above the
Earth's equator. Such satellites are often used for communication purposes.
GSAT-15
 GSAT-15, India's latest communications satellite, was launched successfully

from Kourou in French Guiana in South America.
 It will be controlled by ISRO's Master Control Facility (MCF) at Hassan in
Karnataka.
 Design life of 12 years and carries a total of 24 communication transponders
as well as a GPS-Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) payload.
 Its 24 transponders will mainly cater to public and private direct-to-home
(DTH) broadcasters, VSAT operators and radio navigation services.
GSAT 18 SATELLITE LAUNCHED:
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 India’s latest communication satellite, GSAT 18 was successfully launched

from the spaceport of Kourou in French Guiana, South America.
 It is been built by ISRO and ISRO’s Master Control Facility at Hassan,
Karnataka is controlling the satellite.
 The Master Facility will also perform the initial raising manoeuvres using the
Liquid Apogee Motor (LAM) of the satellite, placing it in a circular
Geostationary Orbit.
 India does not have any launcher capable of carrying heavier satellites like
GSAT-18. However, Indian scientists are developing GSLV –III to overcome
the challenge.
GSLV F05 AND INSAT 3DR
 ISRO’s GSLV F05 spacecraft has successfully placed INSAT 3DR satellite
into a Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) for eventually stationing in
geosynchronous orbit.
INSAT-3DR
 It is an advanced weather satellite which is expected to provide a variety of
meteorological services to the country.
 It can provide imaging in Middle Infrared band to provide night time pictures
of low clouds and fog.
 It can also provide Imaging in two Thermal Infrared bands for estimation of
Sea Surface Temperature (SST) with better accuracy.
SIGNIFICANCE
 It was the first operational flight of GSLV carrying Cryogenic Upper Stage.
 A successful launch will make ISRO engineers more confident about the
GSLV-MkIII.
 This successful launch will increase ISRO’s market value and confidence in
her satellite capabilities.
 INSAT-3DR satellite continues the mission of the INSAT-3D satellite, which
was launched in 2013.
 INSAT 3DR will be able to map vertical changes of humidity, temperature
and ozone content in Earth’s atmosphere. Thus enhancing nation’s
meteorological capabilities.
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What are exoplanets?

Planets outside our solar system are called exoplanets. Most of these are part of
star systems. There are some “rogue” exoplanets, which are not attached to any
star system.
When was the first exoplanet discovered?
The first exoplanet, 51 Pegasi b, was discovered in 1995 by Michael Mayor and
Didier Queloz.
Which is the latest entrant into the exoplanet league?
In May last year, scientists found three planets passing in front of TRAPPIST-1,
the dwarf star. Based on further monitoring of the star from the ground and space,
scientists have found four more exoplanets orbiting TRAPPIST-1.
Do these exoplanets support life?
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The search for exoplanets is also the search for alien life and habitable spaces
beyond our star system. NASA’s Kepler and K2 missions have identified several
such candidates. One of the factors that must be satisfied in order to be considered
habitable is that exoplanets must orbit within a distance of their stars in which
liquid water can exist on the planet’s surface, receiving about as much sunlight
as Earth. This distance is called the “Goldilocks” zone because it is neither too
far or too close to the star that life becomes impossible.
What is Kuiper belt?
Kuiper belt is flat ring of icy small bodies that revolve around the Sun beyond the
orbit of the planet Neptune. It comprises hundreds of millions of objects
presumed to be leftovers from the formation of the outer planets-whose orbits lie
close to the plane of the solar system. The Kuiper belt is thought to be the source
of most of the observed short-period comets, particularly those that orbit the Sun
in less than 20 years
What is goldilocks zone?
The habitable zone, also known as the “Goldilocks Zone”, is the region around a
star where the average temperature on a planet allows for liquid water with which
to make porridge. It’s that liquid water that we hunt for not only for our future
uses, but as an indicator of where alien life could be in the Universe.
Liquid water is essential for life as we know it. Where we find liquid water on
Earth we also find life.
What is Great Red Spot?
The Great Red Spot is a giant, spinning and persistent storm in Jupiter’s
atmosphere. It is like a hurricane on Earth, and is more than twice the size of our
planet and is observed since 400 years. These are found in southern hemisphere
of Jupiter.
What are blazars?
A blazar is a galaxy which, like a quasar, has an intensely bright central nucleus
containing a supermassive black hole. In a blazar, however, the emitted light
sometimes includes extremely high energy gamma rays, sometimes over a
hundred million times more energetic than the highest energy X-rays. The overall
emission has several other unique properties as well, including that its intensity
can vary dramatically with time.
What is TRAPPIST-1 ?
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 Recently NASA has discovered a new Exoplanet system having seven earth
sized planets orbiting a cool dwarf-star known as TRAPPIST-1, which is 39
light years from Earth.
 TRAPPIST-1 (The Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope) is
named after a robotic telescope in the Atacama Desert of Chile used to study
the star.
 It is a small star with 8 per cent the mass of the sun and only slightly bigger
than the planet Jupiter, lyingin the constellation Aquarius. It is an “ultracool
dwarf planet” with surface temperature much less than sun.
 Six of the planets of the system lie in the habitable or goldilocks zone with
ambient surface temperature to support life.
 Out of these six planets at least three planets classified as TRAPPIST-1 e, 1 f
and 1 g have an ocean.
 All seven planets’ planetary orbits are closer to their host star, than Mercury
is to our sun.
 This is the first time so many habitable-zone planets found around a single star
outside our solar system.
What is space junk?
Space junk is the term used to describe man-made rubbish floating in space –
often litter from space exploration (even natural objects like asteroids are a part
of space debris). The majority of the debris in space is believed to consist of
small particles but some objects are larger They all travel at speeds up to 17,500
mph, fast enough for a relatively small piece of orbital debris to damage a satellite
or a spacecraft.
New initiatives to combat TB
“Ensuring affordable and quality healthcare to the population is a priority for the
government and we are committed to achieving zero TB deaths and therefore we
need to re-strategize, think afresh and have to be aggressive in our approach to
end TB by 2025.” This was stated by Shri J P Nadda, Union Minister of Health
and Family Welfare at a function on the occasion of ‘World TB Day’.
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The Health Minister announced that the National Strategic Program (NSP) will
be finalized in one month and will be rolled out across the country. He further
added that the resources will not be a constraint and the Government will continue
to work with all stakeholders, in devising short term and long term approaches.
Shri Nadda also emphasized on the need for compassion in treatment of TB
patients.
Acknowledging substantial progress made by the Government in combating TB,

Shri Nadda said that TB control and India’s National TB Control Programme has
been recognized as one of the most successful Public Health Programmes. He
further added that TB is a disease which is largely curable and preventable. Still
we are facing this task of high incidence and on top of it Drug Resistant TB.
“Drug resistant TB is a growing threat and the diagnosis and treatment is much
costlier.
“A high proportion, almost 92% of TB patients with HIV has been put on
antiretroviral therapy. The Health Minister further stated that the government has
rolled out more than 500 CBNAAT machines in one year, offering rapid quality
diagnostics, linking at least one such machine for each district and these steps
have led to 35% rise in the Drug Resistant TB case notification in 2016. “New
anti-TB drug Bedaquiline has been introduced under Conditional Access
Programme (CAP) to improve outcomes of drug resistant TB treatment.
E-Nikshay platform have been made user friendly so that Private Doctors find it
easy to notify. The Health Minister reiterated that keeping TB at bay is everyone’s
responsibility, including the private sector to provide quality TB care to all TB
patients. “Every TB patient should be able to access treatment without fear of
stigma or unwarranted retrenchment,”
On the occasion, Shri J P Nadda also released Annual TB Report – TB India 2017,
Guidance document on Nutrition Support for Tuberculosis Patients, National
Framework for Joint TB-Diabetes collaborative activities, Swasth E-Gurukul TB
and TB Awareness Media Campaign featuring Shri Amitabh Bachchan.
“Awareness plays a vital role in enhancing the uptake of services offered by the
government for TB and fighting stigma and discrimination prevalent against the
TB patients,.
At the event, both MoS (Health) highlighted the several notable steps taken by
the Ministry in case finding, formulating standards of care, implementation of
RNTCP, govt. notifications, surveillance tools, advancement of eHealth and
eGovernance needs, counseling for TB patients, etc.
To reach the unreached, the TB programme in the month of January 2017,

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conducted an active case finding campaign targeting specific vulnerable groups

like slum dwellers, miners, migrant workers, tribals and people residing in hard
to reach areas, covering 50 districts in 17 states/ U.T.s. The campaign screened
over 45 lakh people and detected more than 2600 additional cases.
The RNTCP is pro-actively engaging with the private sector to improve

notification and the quality of care it delivers, by using IT enabled tools and
innovative public private partnership models. In the last one year, these efforts
have resulted in 1.5 fold increase in number of case notifications from private
health care providers.
MoHFW will soon be announcing the new National Strategic Plan for TB
Elimination (2017-2025) which will provide a framework to guide all
stakeholders, including state governments, development partners, civil society
organizations, international agencies, research institutions, the private sector, and
many others, to realise the Prime Minister’s vision of achieving TB elimination
by 2025, five years before the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) target.
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HIV self-testing
1) Introduction
 HIV self-testing is defined as a process in which people can collect their
own specimen (saliva or blood), perform a test and interpret the result,
often in private or with someone they trust.
 Results are ready within 20 minutes or less.
 Those with positive results are advised to seek confirmatory tests at health
clinics.
 WHO recommends they receive information and links to counselling as
well as rapid referral to prevention, treatment and care services.
2) Need for HIV self-testing
 The United Nations has set targets to diagnose 90% of all people with HIV
by 2020.
 countries are seeking ways to rapidly increase access to and uptake of HIV
testing services
 HIV self-testing has showed potential to reach people at high risk for HIV
who may not otherwise test
 Today more countries have begun to introduce or develop national HIV
self-testing policies and regulatory frameworks
 Global coverage rates for all HIV testing, prevention, and treatment are
lower among men than women.
 Twenty three countries currently have national policies that support HIV
self-testing.
Present status in India
 There has been a 66 per cent drop in incidence in 2015 in India compared
with 2000
 The number of new HIV infections last year was 86,000; children below
15 years of age alone account for 12 per cent of this number.
 The government has approved in principle the proposal to take HIV testing
closer to those in need by starting community-based testing.
 India is also weighing the option of self-testing.
Benefits of HIV self-testing
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 With the World Health Organisation releasing guidelines on HIV self-

testing, a major obstacle in improving access to diagnosis has been cleared.
 Early diagnosis will help in a prompt start to treatment and enable the
infected to live longer and healthier.
 HIV self-testing reach more people with undiagnosed HIV and represents
a step forward to empower individuals, diagnose people earlier before they
become sick
 This will bring services closer to where people live, and create demand for
HIV testing
 This is particularly important for those people facing barriers to accessing
existing services.
 People with HIV are suspected to face discrimination hence self testing
ensures privacy & confidentiality,
OraQuick HIV self-testing

 The WHO-approved OraQuick HIV self-testing is based on HIV
antibodies present in oral and blood samples.
 The test can detect antibodies developed within three months of getting
infected.
 The OraQuick self-testing makes diagnosis easier and faster, besides
ensuring privacy and confidentiality, thus encouraging more people to get
tested.
 But there are challenges in terms of counselling and sensitivity, with the
accuracy of the tests pegged at around 93 per cent.
 The risk of not getting tested far outweighs the limitations posed by self-
testing.
 Twenty-three countries have in place policies that support HIV self-testing.
Concerns / Challenges
 Though much progress has been achieved in India in making HIV testing
accessible and free of cost, many infected persons remain unaware of their
status.
 Across the world, nearly 40 per cent of people with HIV are unaware of
their infection and run the risk of unknowingly transmitting it.
 Despite greater awareness, people with HIV still face stigma and
discrimination.
 There are challenges related to proper counselling of patients.
 Accuracy of tests is not 100% so it should also to be taken into
consideration.
 Lack of awareness of the method among the illiterates.
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History:
 The bacillus causing tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, was

identified and described by Robert Koch. He received the Nobel Prize
in physiology or medicine in 1905 for this discovery.
 Koch did not believe the bovine (cattle) and human tuberculosis
diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk
as a source of infection. Later, the risk of transmission from this source
was dramatically reduced by the invention of the pasteurization
process.
 Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved the first genuine
success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated
bovine-strain tuberculosis. It was called bacillus of Calmette and
Guérin (BCG). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in
France but only received widespread acceptance in the USA, Great
Britain, and Germany after World War II.
 In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective
treatment and cure of TB a reality. Prior to the introduction of this drug,
the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the
"pneumothorax technique", which involved collapsing an infected lung
to "rest" it and allow tuberculous lesions to heal.
 India has been the highest TB burden sharing country according
to World Health Organization (WHO) statistics (2011).
 The government of India publishes every year a document “TB India
2014”. It is schedule to release on the world TB day on March 24.
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 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a small, aerobic, non-motile, rod shaped

bacteria (bacilli). Hence Mycobacterium tuberculosis is also known as
T.B bacilli.
 Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
that most often affect the lungs.
 The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but TB bacteria can attack any
part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain.
 It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is an extremely slow rate
compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour.
 The M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) includes four other TB-causing
mycobacteria:
 M. bovis,
 M. africanum,
 M. canetti, and
 M. microti
How TB Spreads:
TB is spread through the air from one person to another. The TB bacteria are put
into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes,
speaks, or sings. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become
infected.
TB is NOT spread by:
 shaking someone’s hand

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 sharing food or drink

 touching bed linens or toilet seats
 sharing toothbrushes
 Kissing.
Signs and Symptoms of TB Disease:

Symptoms of TB disease depend on where in the body the TB bacteria are
growing. TB bacteria usually grow in the lungs (pulmonary TB). TB disease
in the lungs may cause symptoms such as
 a bad cough that lasts 3 weeks or longer
 pain in the chest
 coughing up blood or sputum (phlegm from deep inside the lungs)
Other symptoms of TB disease are:
 weakness or fatigue
 weight loss
 no appetite
 chills
 fever
 sweating at night
Symptoms of TB disease in other parts of the body depend on the area affected.
Latent TB Infection and TB Disease:

Not everyone infected with TB bacteria becomes sick. As a result, two TB-related
conditions exist:
 latent TB infection and

 TB disease.
Latent TB Infection:
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TB bacteria can live in the body without making you sick. This is called latent
TB infection. In most people who breathe in TB bacteria and become infected,
the body is able to fight the bacteria tostop them from growing. People with latent
TB infection do not feel sick and do not have any symptoms. People with latent
TB infection are not infectious and cannot spread TB bacteria to others. However,
if TB bacteria become active in the body and multiply, the person will go from
having latent TB infection to being sick with TB disease.
TB Disease:
TB bacteria become active if the immune system can't stop them from growing.
When TB bacteria are active (multiplying in your body), this is called TB disease.
People with TB disease are sick. They may also be able to spread the bacteria to
people they spend time with every day.
Many people who have latent TB infection never develop TB disease. Some
people develop TB disease soon after becoming infected (within weeks) before
their immune system can fight the TB bacteria. Other people may get sick years
later when their immune system becomes weak for another reason.
For people whose immune systems are weak, especially those with HIV infection,
the risk of developing TB disease is much higher than for people with normal
immune systems.
Diagnosis:
It is likely that a health care provider will use a stethoscope to listen to the lungs
during breathing and check the lymph nodes for swelling. They will also ask
about symptoms and medical history.
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TB is most commonly diagnosed via a skin test involving an injection into the
forearm.
The most common diagnostic test for TB is a skin test where a small injection of
PPD tuberculin, an extract of the TB bacterium, is made just below the inside
forearm. The injection site should be checked after 2-3 days, and if a hard, red
bump has swollen up then it is likely that TB is present.
Unfortunately, the skin test is not 100% accurate and has been known to give
incorrect positive and negative readings. However, there are other tests that are
available to diagnose TB.
 Skin test.
 Blood tests,
 Chest X-rays and
 Sputum tests can all be used to test for the presence of TB bacteria,
What is a Gene-Xpert test? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Gene-Xpert/ CBNAAT: CBNAAT (Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid
Amplification Test) or Gene Xpert MTB/RIF assay detects the presence of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli DNA, and also gives the sensitivity profile of
Rifampicin (RIF), a main first-line TB drug, in sputum specimens in just two
hours.
The rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis and detection of RIF resistance would mean
that treatment decisions of patients can be made in a single day.Patients resistant
to RIF can be immediately put on second-line drugs to treat drug-resistant TB.
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Disadvantages
There are a number of disadvantages which include:
 The shelf life of the cartridges is only 18 months;

 A very stable electricity supply is required;
 The instrument needs to be recalibrated annually;
 The cost of the test;
 The temperature ceiling is critical
Advantages
The main advantages of the test are, for diagnosis, reliability when compared to
sputum microscopy and the speed of getting the result when compared with
culture. For diagnosis of TB, although sputum microscopy is both quick and
cheap, it is often unreliable. It is particularly unreliable when people are HIV
positive. Although culture gives a definitive diagnosis, to get the result usually
takes weeks rather than the hours of the Gene x-pert test.
The main advantage in respect of identifying rifampicin resistance is again the

matter of speed. Normally to get any drug resistance result takes weeks rather
than hours.
Drug Resistant TB:
A person with active TB disease has drug resistant TB. If the TB bacteria that the
person is infected with, is not responding to, and are resistant to, at least one of
the main TB drugs.
Drug resistant TB - how you get it?
There are two ways that people get drug resistant TB.
Firstly, people get acquired drug resistant TB when their TB treatment is

inadequate. This can be for a number of reasons, including the fact that patients
fail to keep to proper TB treatment regimes, the wrong TB drugs are prescribed,
or sub standard TB drugs are used for treatment.
Secondly, transmitted or primary drug resistant TB results from the direct

transmission of drug resistant TB from one person to another. The occurrence and
prevention of primary drug resistant TB has largely been neglected during the
development of global TB control programs.
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What are the main types of drug resistant TB?
There are two main types of drug resistant TB,
 MDR TB,
 XDR TB.
Another type of drug resistant TB, variously referred to as totally drug resistant
TB, XXDR TB or TDR TB has also now been detected.
What is the difference between the types MDR TB and XDR TB?
XDR-TB
 Caused by TB bacteria.
“Normal”
 Can be treated with first generation drugs.
TB
 Multi-drug resistant TB. It develops when first line drugs are
not taken properly.
MDR-TB  MDR-TB has to be treated with second line drugs; Patient
takes longer time to recover.
 Develops when second-line drugs are misused. (e.g. patient not

XDR-TB finishing entire course, or doctor giving inappropriate amount
of drug)
Totally drug resistant TB is TB which is believed to be resistant to all the first

and second line TB drugs. It is sometimes referred to as extremely drug resistant,
or XXDR TB and it is extremely difficult, although not always totally impossible
to treat
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INDIAN SCENARIO:
 India pioneered TB control among developing nations. A national TB control

project was launched in 1962. With BCG vaccination as the main intervention.
 It is estimated that about 40% of the Indian population is infected with TB
bacteria, the vast majority of whom have latent rather than active TB.
 BCG manufacturing began in Chennai and an extensive vaccine trial was
launched in Chengalpattu district, Tamil Nadu, to measure its protective
efficacy.
 In 1978, the Expanded Programme on Immunisation took over BCG
vaccination.
 In 1979, preliminary results of a 15-year-long BCG trial showed no protection
against infection by TB bacilli. The disappointing results were much debated,
and ignored by the then TB control leadership.
 In the 1980s, AIDS entered India; HIV infection is a major risk factor of TB.
Diabetes, another factor, is increasing in India. Poverty and nutritional
deficiencies are additional factors.
 In 2000, the Indian Academy of Pediatrics called for a major redesign of TB
control, with alternative tactics to prevent infection and treat infection before
it caused disease. WHO’s 2012 Annual Report on TB confirmed India’s
failure. DOTS saves lives from TB mortality, but has failed to control TB.
 In 2012 India declared TB to be a notifiable disease. Meaning that with
immediate effect all private doctors, caregivers and clinics treating a TB
patient had to report every case of TB to the government.
 In 2012, India’s golden jubilee year of TB control, the World Health
Organization (WHO) named India the worst performer among developing
nations, with 17 per cent of the global population carrying 26 per cent of the
global TB burden.
 The National Tuberculosis Programme of India (NTP) was initiated in
1962 which was revised in 1997 as Revised National Tuberculosis Control
Programme (RNTCP) that used WHO recommended DOTS (Directly
Observed Treatment, Short-course chemotherapy) strategy. Countrywide
coverage was achieved in March, 2006. Since inception till December 2016,
more than 2 crores patients were initiated on treatment and more than 35 lakhs
additional lives have been saved. In March 2016, RNTCP revised its technical
and operational guidelines.
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The major additions reflected in terms of strategies in treatment of TB are:
• Daily regimen for treatment of TB

• Use of Bedaquiline for treatment of drug resistant TB with
Drug susceptibility testing (DST) guided treatment
• ICT based adherence support(NIKSHAY platform is being
used under the RNTCP as an ICT enabled state-of-art
surveillance system to get notification of TB cases at diagnosis
from both public and private sector including drug resistant TB
patients)
• post treatment follow up.
The Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) in India
The Indian government's Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP)

was started in 1997 and was then expanded across India until the entire nation
was covered by March 2006. The program uses the WHO recommended Directly
Observed Treatment Short Course (DOTS) strategy and reaches over a billion
people in 632 districts/reporting units.
Revised RNTCP targets (2012-2017)
 In 2010 the RNTCP made a major policy decision that it would change
focus and adopt the concept of Universal Access to quality diagnosis
and TB treatment for all TB patients in India.
 This involves extending the reach of RNTCP services to all people
diagnosed with TB, as well as improving the quality of existing services.
 The aim is to achieve the following targets by the end of 2015:
 early detection and treatment of at least 90% of estimated TB cases in the
community, including HIV associated TB
 initial screening of all previously treated (retreatment) smear-positive TB
patients for drug resistant TB and the provision of treatment services for
multi drug resistant TB
 the offer of HIV counselling and testing for all TB patients, and linking
HIV infected TB patients to HIV care and support
 successful treatment of at least 90% of all new TB patients, and at least
85% of all previously treated TB patients
 the extension of RNTCP services to patients diagnosed and treated in the
private sector
Activities to achieve these targets:

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The RNTCP plans to achieve these targets by:

 using rapid diagnostics for the diagnosis of TB and drug resistant TB
 expanding services for the management of multi drug resistant TB
 strengthening urban TB control
 strengthening public-private mix initiatives
 improving the quality of basic DOTS services
 Aligning with National Rural Health Mission supervisory structures.
TB Disease Burden in India:
India accounts for one fourth of the global TB burden. In 2015, an estimated 28
lakh cases occurred and 4.8 lakh people died due to TB.
India has highest burden of both TB and MDR TB based on estimates reported in
Global TB Report 2016. An estimated 1.3 lakh incident multi-drug resistant TB
patients emerge annually in India which includes 79000 MDR-TB Patients
estimates among notified pulmonary cases. India bears second highest number of
estimated HIV associated TB in the world.
An estimated 1.1 lakh HIV associated TB occurred in 2015 and 37,000 estimated
number of patients died among them. The estimates of TB for India has been
revised upwards based on the newer evidences gained. This apparent increase in
the disease burden reflects the incorporation of more accurate data. With
backward calculations, both tuberculosis incidence and mortality rates are
decreasing from 2000 to 2015. The incidence of TB has reduced from 289 per
lakh per year in 2000 to 217 per lakh per year in 2015 and the mortality due to
TB has reduced from 56 per lac per year in 2000 to 36 per lac per year in 2015.
Introduction of Daily Regimen for treatment of Drug Sensitive TB:
under RNTCP Revised National TB Control Programme is changing treatment
strategy from Intermittent to Daily Regimen in phased manner. To begin with, it
has been initiated in 5 states – Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra and
Sikkim covering 27 crore population of the country. Subsequently, remaining
states will be covered by October 2017. Features of the daily regimen treatment
strategy will be as follows:
• The drugs will be given daily
• The dose of drugs is according to body weight.It means that the patients will
get appropriate dosages as per body weight.
• Fixed Dose Combination (FDC) tablets will be used which will reduce pill
burden
• Treatment regimen is likely to be more effective with lesser relapses. This is
expected to reduce drug resistance with greater compliance
• For children, child friendly formulations as dispersible tablets
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• Use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) enabled treatment

adherence support system. NIKSHAY platform is being used under the
RNTCP as an ICT enabled state-of-art surveillance system to get notification
of TB cases at diagnosis from both public and private sector including drug
resistant TB patients
• Regimen is acceptable to all health care providers
Programmatic Management of Drug Resistant TB services:
India began services for diagnostic and treatment services for multi-drug resistant
TB (MDR-TB) in 2007 and achieved complete coverage in 2013. Till 2016,
1,39,369 persons with MDR-TB/ RR TB diagnosed and 1,26,136 (91%) patients
were put on treatment under RNTCP.
Introduction of newer anti-TB drug –
Bedaquiline: The new drug Bedaquiline has been introduced at six sites in 5
states in the country in march 2016. The drug has been a novel one introduced
after 40 years. The drug currently is used under RNTCP for MDR/RR-TB patients
with resistance to fluoroquinolone and/or second line injectable, mixed pattern of
drug resistance.
The programme has started planning on expansion of use of this new drug along
with drug susceptibility testing guided treatment in other parts of the country. The
Bedaquilline is used along with optimum background regimen designed based on
drug susceptibility testing. Being a new drug, the RNTCP has established drug
safety monitoring committee at the national level following recommendations of
Global guidelines on use of Bedaquilline. A system of cohort event monitoring
has been established at all sites to systematically report and monitor adverse drug
reactions. Till December 2016, more than 207 drug resistant TB patients have
been initiated on Bedaquiline containing treatment.
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What is GM Mustard?
Hybrid variety of a crop is obtained by crossing of two genetically diverse plants

of same species and it can give higher yields than their parents. But mustard
cannot be naturally hybridised because it is a self-pollinating plant having both
male and female reproductive parts in a single flower. But researchers have
created hybridised mustard using GM technology. The GM hybridised mustard,
as it is claimed, gives up to 30% more yield than the present best varieties.
Researchers have used “barnase / barstar” technology for genetic
modification. A barnase gene is isolated from a soil bacterium called Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens. The gene can code for a protein that impairs the pollen
production in a plant making it male-sterile. This male-sterile variety is crossed
with a parent variety having a gene called ‘barstar’ to block the action of barnase
gene. The resulting variety, having both foreign genes, is a fertile plant and it can
increase yield of the crop.
Why a hybridised mustard variety is required?
Researchers and promoters of GM Mustard argue that India imports Rs.60,000

crore worth of edible oils every year. There is an urgent need to reduce
dependence on imports and raise domestic crop yields of mustard, which in turn
raises production of edible oils domestically. To improve yields, hybridisation is
a potential technique as it is successfully demonstrated with many other crops.
Why there is an objection for its introduction?

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The main reason for its objection is in use of GM technology for hybridisation
involving use of alien genes. Though GM technology is already commercialised
in India through Bt cotton, it is argued that cotton is not a food crop whereas
mustard is largest edible oil yielding crop of India. Its introduction may adversely
affect human and animal health. They also argue that the reason for increased
imports of edible oils is because of reduction in import duties and that in turn
discouraged domestic production by companies. It resulted in reduction of
cultivation of the crop by farmers. There was similar opposition to introduction
of Btbrinjal, another GM crop approved by the GEAC in 2009.
What are arguments in favour of its introduction?
The use of GM technology through Bt cotton has increased the country’s cotton
production by more than 2½ times since it was first planted in 2002. There are no
evidences to show the adverse impact on human and animal health. Cotton-seed
yields not just fibre but also oil and oilcake that are fed to animals. That makes it
no less than a food crop. And also India imports soyabean oil and rapeseed oil
that are mainly GM varieties.
Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne viral disease first described during an

outbreak in southern Tanzania in 1952. It is an RNA virus that belongs to the
alpha virus genus of the family Togaviridae.
The name “chikungunya” derives from a word in the Kimakonde language,
meaning “to become contorted”, and describes the stooped appearance of
sufferers with joint pain (arthralgia).
How is chikungunya spread?
Chikungunya is spread by the bite of an Aedes mosquito, primarily Aedes
aegypti. Humans are thought to be the major source, or reservoir, of chikungunya
virus for mosquitoes. Therefore, the mosquito usually transmits the disease by
biting an infected person and then biting someone else. An infected person cannot
spread the infection directly to other persons (i.e. it is not a contagious disease).
Aedes aegypti mosquitoes bite during the day time.
Signs and symptoms
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Chikungunya is characterized by an abrupt onset of fever frequently

accompanied by joint pain. Other common signs and symptoms include muscle
pain, headache, nausea, fatigue and rash. The joint pain is often very
debilitating, but usually lasts for a few days or may be prolonged to weeks.
Hence the virus can cause acute, subacute or chronic disease.
Transmission
Chikungunya has been identified in over 60 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe
and the Americas.
The virus is transmitted from human to human by the bites of infected female
mosquitoes. Most commonly, the mosquitoes involved are Aedes
aegypti and Aedes albopictus, two species which can also transmit other
mosquito-borne viruses, including dengue. These mosquitoes can be found
biting throughout daylight hours, though there may be peaks of activity in the
early morning and late afternoon. Both species are found biting outdoors,
but Ae. aegypti will also readily feed indoors.
After the bite of an infected mosquito, onset of illness occurs usually between
4 and 8 days but can range from 2 to 12 days.
How is chikungunya diagnosed?

Chikungunya is diagnosed by blood tests (ELISA). Since the clinical appearance
of both chikungunya and dengue are similar, laboratory confirmation is important
especially in areas where dengue is present. Such facilities are, at present,
available at National Institute of Virology (NIV), Pune & National Institute of
Communicable Diseases (NICD), Delhi.
How can chikungunya be prevented?
There is neither chikungunya virus vaccine nor drugs are available to cure the
infection. Prevention, therefore, centers on avoiding mosquito bites. Eliminating
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mosquito breeding sites is another key prevention measure. To prevent mosquito

bites, do the following:
 Use mosquito repellents on skin and clothing

 When indoors, stay in well-screened areas. Use bed nets if sleeping in areas
that are not screened or air-conditioned.
 When working outdoors during day times, wear long-sleeved shirts and
long pants to avoid mosquito bite.
How can Aedes mosquito breeding be controlled?
(a) Source reduction Method
i. By elimination of all potential vector breeding places near the domestic

or peri-domestic areas.
ii. Not allowing the storage of water for more than a week. This could be
achieved by emptying and drying the water containers once in a week.
iii. Straining of the stored water by using a clean cloth once a week to
remove the mosquito larvae from the water and the water can be
reused. The sieved cloth should be dried in the sun to kill immature
stages of mosquitoes.
(b) Use of larvicides
i. Where the water cannot be removed but used for cattle or other
purposes, Temephos can be used once a week at a dose of 1 ppm (parts
per million).
ii. Pyrethrum extract (0.1% ready-to-use emulsion) can be sprayed in
rooms (not outside) to kill the adult mosquitoes hiding in the house.
(c) Biological control
i. Like introduction of larvivorous fish, namely Gambusia and Guppy in

water tanks and other water sources.
DENGUE FEVERis also known as Break bone FeverorDandy

Fever.It is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae.It is
transmitted by the infective bite of Aedes Aegypti or Asian tiger
mosquito and Ae. albopictus
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It occurs in two forms:

1. Dengue Fever,
2. Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever (DHF)
1. Dengue fever: is characterized by an onset of sudden high fever,
severe headache, pain behind the eyes and in the muscles and
joints.
2. Dengue hemorrhagic fever:and in its severe form Dengue
Shock Syndrome (DSS) can threaten the patientís life primarily
through increased vascular permeability and shock.
Symptoms of dengue:
Dengue fever Dengue Haemorrhagic

Fever
 Abrupt onset of high fever  Symptoms similar to

 Severe frontal headache dengue fever
 Pain behind the eyes which  Severe continuous stomach
worsens with eye movement pains
 Muscle and joint pains  Skin becomes pale, cold or
 Loss of sense of taste and clammy
appetite  Bleeding from nose, mouth
 Measles-like rash over chest & gums and skin rashes
and upper limbs  Frequent vomiting with or
 Nausea and vomiting without blood
 Sleepiness and restlessness
 Patient feels thirsty and
mouth becomes dry
 Rapid weak pulse
 Difficulty in breathing
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Transmission:The full life cycle of dengue fever virus involves the

role of mosquito as a transmitter (or vector) and humans as the
main victim and source of infection.
INCUBATION PERIOD:
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The time between the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and
the start of symptoms averages 4 to 6 days, with a range of 3 to 14
days.
BREEDING HABITS
Aedes aegypti mosquito breeds in any type of man made containers
or storage containers having even a small quantity of water
Eggs of Aedes aegypti can live without water for more then one year
FAVOURED BREEDING PLACES:
Desert coolers, Drums, Jars, Pots, Buckets, Flower vases, Plant
saucers, Tanks, Cisterns, Bottles, Tins, Tyres, Roof gutters,
Refrigerator drip pans, Cement blocks, Cemetery urns, Bamboo
stumps, Coconut shells, Tree holes and many more places where
rainwater collects or is stored.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made through blood tests by scanning for antibodies
against dengue viruses. In addition the blood platelets counts also
drastically reduce in the infected person.
CONTROL STRATEGIES
1. personal prophylactic measures
 Use of mosquito repellent creams, liquids, coils, mats etc.

 Wearing of full sleeve shirts and full pants with socks
 Use of bednets for sleeping infants and young children
during day time to prevent mosquito bite
2. Biological control
 Use of larvivorousfishes (Gambusiaaffinis has been in use in

India since 1928.) in ornamental tanks, fountains, etc.
 Use of biocides
3. Chemical control
 Use of chemical larvicides like abate in big breeding

containers
 Aerosol space spray during day time
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4. Environmental management & source reduction methods
 Detection & elimination of mosquito breeding sources

 Management of roof tops, porticos and sunshades
 Proper covering of stored water
 Reliable water supply
 Observation of weekly dry day
5. Health education
 Impart knowledge to common people regarding the disease

and vector through various media sources like T.v., Radio,
Cinema slides, etc.
6. Community participation
 Sensitizing and involving the community for detection of

Aedes breeding places and their elimination
INDIA SCENARIO:
Government of India has taken various steps for prevention and control of
Dengue in the country as detailed below:
 Developed a Long Term Action Plan for Prevention and Control

of Dengue in the country and sent to the State(s) on January
2007 for implementation.
 National guidelines for clinical management of Dengue Fever,
Dengue Hammorragic Fever, Dengue Shock Syndrome has been
sent to the State(s) April 2007 for circulation in all hospitals.
 Established 110 Sentinel Surveillance Hospitals with laboratory
support for augmentation of diagnostic facility for Dengue in
endemic State(s) in 2007 which has been increased to 170 in
2009. All these are linked with 13 Apex Referral Laboratories
with advanced diagnostic facilities for back up support.
 To maintain the uniformity and standard of diagnostics in these
laboratories IgM MAC ELISA test kits are provided through
National Institute of Virology (NIV), Pune. Cost is borne by GOI.
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 Highest number of deaths were reported by Maharashtra (48)

followed by Kerala (29) and Punjab (25). During 2014 (till
November), 33320 cases and 86 deaths have been reported
DIAGNOSIS OF DENGUE AND CHIKUNGUNYA
Researchers have identified specific metabolites that can potentially be used as

biomarkers for distinguishing dengue and chikungunya infections as well as co-
infections by these two viruses.
The research was carried out at Delhi’s International Centre for Genetic
Engineering and Biotechnology and has been published in the journal Scientific
Reports.
Background
 Antigen and Antibody-based diagnostic tools are available for dengue and
the diagnosis can be made within the first few days of infection.
 However, antigen-based diagnostic tools are not approved by the
government and are therefore not used in government hospitals.
 On the other hand, only antibody-based diagnostic tools are available to
detect chikungunya making it difficult to diagnose it early. (Antibodies
take time to develop).
 Both chikungunya and dengue exhibit similar and overlapping symptoms
making it challenging to diagnose and more so in the case of a co-infection.
 Currently, there are no tools for the diagnosis of a co-infection by
chikungunya and dengue.
Significance
 Diagnostics based on metabolites is highly sensitive making it easier to
detect even the minor changes at the molecular level both in case of mono
and co-infection.
 The metabolic clusters can be used for various applications- biomarkers,
studying disease progression,evaluating therapeutic potential of drugs and
disease management.
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What is malaria?
 The word malaria comes from Italian mala meaning "bad" and aria meaning
"air".
 Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire, and was
so pervasive in Rome that it was known as the "Roman fever”.
 Malaria has been a problem in India for centuries. Details of this disease can
be found even in the ancient Indian medical literature like the Atharva Veda
and Charaka Samhita.
 Malaria was the most important health hazard encountered by U.S. troops in
the South Pacific during World War II, where about 500,000 men were
infected.
 By the end of the 18th century, scientists found out that Malaria is transmitted
from person-to-person through the bite of the female mosquito.
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In 1894, a Scottish physician Sir Ronald Ross was

working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta
proved the complete life-cycle of the malaria parasite in
mosquitoes. He thus proved that the mosquito was the
vector for malaria in humans by showing that certain
mosquito species transmit malaria to birds. He isolated
malaria parasites from the salivary glands of
mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds. For this work,
Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine.
 World Malaria Day (WMD) is commemorated every year on 25 April

and recognizes global efforts to control malaria.
There are five types of malaria:
1. Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax) - This type has the widest geographic
distribution globally. About 60% of infections in India are due to P. vivax.
2. Plasmodium malariae (P. malariae)
3. Plasmodium ovale (P. ovale)
4. Plasmodium falciparum (P. faliparum) - It is most common in Africa,
especially sub-Saharan Africa and India.
5. Plasmodium knowlesi (P. knowlesi) - causes malaria in macaques but can
also infect humans.
There are two types of parasites of human malaria, Plasmodium vivax, P.
falciparum, which are commonly reported from India.
Infection with P.Falciparum is the most deadly form of malaria.
Incubation Period:
Man develops disease after 10 to 14 days of being bitten by an infective mosquito.
Symptoms of malaria:
Typically, malaria produces fever, headache, vomiting and other flu-like
symptoms.
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The parasite infects and destroys red blood cells resulting in easy fatigue-ability
due to anemia, fits/convulsions and loss of consciousness.
Parasites are carried by blood to the brain (cerebral malaria) and to other vital
organs.
Malaria in pregnancy poses a substantial risk to the mother, the fetus and the
newborn infant. Pregnant women are less capable of coping with and clearing
malaria infections, adversely affecting the unborn fetus.
Environmental Factors:
India's geographical position and climatic conditions are favourable for
transmission of malaria.
A) Season: Malaria is a seasonal disease. Maximum prevalence from July
to November.
b) Temperature: Optimum temperature for malaria parasite is between
200C to 300C.
c) Humidity: It has a direct effect on the life of the Mosquito not on
parasite. For example of relative humidity of 60% is must for mosquito to
have its normal span of life. So when RH is high, mosquitoes are more
active and they feed more voraciously.
d) Rainfall: Rain provides opportunity for breeding of mosquitoes and
may give rise to epidemics of malaria.
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VECTORS OF MALARIA:
There are many vectors of malaria
Anopheles culicifacies is the main vector of malaria
It is a small to medium sized mosquito with Culex like sitting posture
1. Feeding habits
It is a zoophilic species
When high densities build up relatively large numbers feed on men
2. Resting habits
Rests during daytime in human dwellings and cattlesheds
3. Breeding places
Breeds in rainwater pools and puddles, borrowpits, river bed pools, irrigation
channels, seepages, rice fields, wells, pond margins, sluggish streams with sandy
margins.
Extensive breeding is generally encountered following monsoon rains.
4. Biting time
Biting time of each vector species is determined by its generic character, but can
be readily influenced by environmental conditions.
Most of the vectors, including Anopheles culicifacies, start biting soon after dusk.
Therefore, biting starts much earlier in winter than in summer but the peak time
varies from species to species.
How does a human become infected with Malaria?
 It is a Protozoal disease
 The female Anopheles mosquito transmits the parasite to a human when it
takes a blood meal - it bites the human in order to feed on blood.
 Only the female Anopheles mosquito can transmit malaria, and it must have
been infected through a previous blood meal taken from an infected human.
 When the mosquito bites an infected person a minute quantity of the
malaria (plasmodium) parasite in the blood is taken.
 Approximately one week later that same infected mosquito takes its next
blood meal. The plasmodium parasites mix with the mosquito's saliva and
are injected into the host (human being).
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Human-to-human transmission of Malaria:

 As the parasite exists in human red blood cells, malaria can be passed on
from one person to the next through organ transplant, shared use of
needles/syringes, and blood transfusion.
 An infected mother may also pass malaria on to her baby during delivery
(birth) - this is called 'congenital malaria'.
 People cannot "catch" malaria from others just by being near them. You
can sit next to an infected person quite safely, with no risk of infection,
even if they cough or sneeze.
LIFE CYCLE OF MALARIA PARASITE IN MAN AND MOSQUITO:
The parasite completes life cycle in liver cells (pre-erythrocytic schizogony) and
red blood cells (erythrocytic schizogony).
Diagnosis:
Microscopy:
Microscopy of stained thick and thin blood smears remains the gold standard
for confirmation of diagnosis of malaria. The advantages of microscopy are:
• The sensitivity is high. It is possible to detect malarial parasites at low
densities. It also helps to quantify the parasite load.
• It is possible to distinguish the various species of malaria parasite and their
different stages.
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Rapid Diagnostic Test:

Rapid Diagnostic Tests are based on the detection of circulating parasite
antigens. Several types of RDTs are available. Some of them can only detect P.
falciparum, while others can detect other parasite species also. The latter kits are
expensive and temperature sensitive. Presently, NVBDCP supplies RDT kits for
detection of P. falciparum at locations where microscopy results are not
obtainable within 24 hours of sample collection.
RDTs are produced by different companies, so there may be differences in the
contents and in the manner in which the test is done. The user’s manual should
always be read properly and instructions followed meticulously. The results
should be read at the specified time. It is the responsibility of the clinician or
technician doing a rapid test for malaria to ensure that the kit is within its expiry
date and has been transported and stored under recommended conditions. Failure
to observe these criteria can lead to false/negative results. It should be noted that
Pf HRP2 based kits may show positive result up to three weeks of successful
treatment.
MALARIA CONTROL STRATEGIES:

1. Early case Detection and Prompt Treatment (EDPT):
 EDPT is the main strategy of malaria control - radical treatment is
necessary for all the cases of malaria to prevent transmission of malaria.
 Drug Distribution Centres (DDCs) and Fever Treatment Depots (FTDs)
have been established in the rural areas for providing easy access to anti-
malarial drugs to the community.
2. Vector Control:
(i) Chemical Control:
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 Use of Indoor Residual Spray (IRS) with insecticides recommended

under the programnme
 Use of chemical larvicides like Abate in potable water
 Aerosol space spray during day time
 Malathion fogging during outbreaks
(ii)Biological Control:
 Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) is a species of freshwater fish. The
name "mosquitofish" was given because the diet of this fish
sometimes consists of large amounts of mosquito larvae.
 Alternative drugs, chloroquine is recommended as per the drug
policy of malaria.
(iii)Community Participation:
 Sensitizing and involving the community for detection of Anopheles
breeding places and their elimination
 NGO schemes involving them in programme strategies
 Collaboration with CII/ASSOCHAM/FICCI.
 ASHAs have been trained in diagnosis and treatment of malaria
cases and thus are involved in early detection and treatment.
(iv)Environmental Management & Source Reduction Methods
 Efforts to decrease mosquito larva by decreasing the availability of
open stagnant water or in still water, such as water tanks that are
ideal breeding grounds for the parasite and mosquito.
 Proper covering of stored water
 Channelization of breeding source.
(v) Personal Prophylatic Measures that individuals/communities can

take up:
 Use of mosquito repellent ((Diethyltoluamide (DEET)) is safe and
the most effective insect repellent and can be sprayed on to clothes)
creams, liquids, coils, mats etc.
 Screening of the houses with wire mesh
 Use of bednets treated with insecticide
 Wearing clothes that cover maximum surface area of the body.
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(vi)Monitoring and Evaluation of the programme:

 Monthly Computerized Management Information System(CMIS)
 Field visits by state by State National Programme Officers
 Field visits by Malaria Research Centres and other ICMR Institutes
 Feedback to states on field observations for correction actions.
The major weaknesses in the Indian health systems include:
1) Inadequate resources–human and financial:
India’s health system is welfare oriented and provides for a comprehensive
package of basic health care services. But due to a rapidly growing population,
and lack of sufficient funds, public health expenditure, the public health system
is under a great stress to meet the demands for even minimal levels of health care.
A main challenge facing the country's health sector is also the shortage of human
resources. Shortage of doctors, nurses etc.
Inadequate resources also lead to lack of clientele satisfaction and non-
availability of essential medicines. So, Public health expenditures in India need
to increase further in order to reduce the burden of out-of-pocket health
expenditures.
2) Inadequacies in public health infrastructure, including training
facilities:
In several parts of the country, the health infrastructure is poorly developed and
inadequately equipped to provide even basic health care services. Likewise, there
is not only the non-availability of trained manpower but also the substantial
mismatch between system requirements and theavailability of required skills and
competencies.
3) Inadequate regulatory frameworks:
Although the public health system functions within well-defined frameworks and
clear external regulatory requirements, the ability of the system to regulate itself
and ensure quality and efficiency is reduced by the lack of manpower, time and
in some cases, poor supervisory practices. The absence of public health laws to
regulate the private sector is also one reason for the inability of the public health
system to optimally utilize the private sector service for achieving public health
goals. It is estimated that 50% or more cases of fever/malaria are attended to by
the private sector; including qualified as well as the unqualified private health
care service providers.
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4) Inadequate planning, monitoring and evaluation at secondary,

primary care levels:
The Joint Monitoring Mission in 2007 observed that the strategic planning with
clear objectives, targets, monitoring indicators, and their means of verification
and required inputs to achieve the targets at the district and PHC levels was weak.
The capacity to analyse, interpret and use data for decision making at the district
and state level is also noted to be inadequate.
5) Mechanisms for collaboration between health programs and non-
health programs:
Most public health programs to control, eradicate or eliminate diseases like TB,
malaria, vaccine preventable diseases etc. continue to remain vertically driven
making inter programmatic coordination for service delivery difficult. This factor
is important from the perspective of the malaria program, as close collaborative
approach with national health programs as well as non-health programs and
multisectoral partners is extremely desirable to manage/prevent mosquitogenic
conditions and transmission.
6) Minimal involvement of and ownership by civil society:

Civil society organizations, local self-governments and communities currently
have a limited role in malaria control efforts and engagement with the health
systems (excepting in case of illness), especially in planning, monitoring and
advocacy leading to persistence of a provider-driven malaria program rather than
a community-driven program. Thus, utilization of services is varied and
community ownership of malaria control efforts is lacking.
Strategy-specific weaknesses in malaria control

Case management:
 Inadequate manpower (numbers and quality) at district, health facility and
community
 levels to handle the case load especially in epidemic situations;
 Inadequate drug supplies leading to many front-line health units lacking
second-line and pre-referral drugs causing delays in starting of appropriate
treatment;
 Inadequate supply of other supplies e.g. diagnostic aids;
 Inadequate malaria knowledge at community and household level; and
 Underutilized referral system.
Preventive measures:
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 Shortage of spray accessories (spray pumps, spares, etc.) and trained

technicians;
 Shortage of affordable mosquito nets in communities;
 Misconceptions about insecticide treated bed nets;
 Non availability of LLINs in the country as the country has to procure them
from international market; and
 Delays in procurement of LLINs leading to delayed supply and distribution
Community based activities:

 Insufficient educational materials especially in local languages;
 Inadequate community mobilization; and
 Inadequate appreciation of malaria as a serious disease with related
consequences e.g.
 poverty.
Surveillance capacity:
 Majority of ASHAs in high risk areas involved but ASHAs in many areas
need to be trained in anti-malaria activities;
 Inadequate or inappropriate data collection, analysis and utilization at
district and lower levels;
 Epidemic preparedness in epidemic prone districts is inadequate leading to
late response; and
 Delay in establishment of Surveillance in Sentinel Sites.
Drugs:
There is no vaccine to prevent human infection by this parasite.
Chloroquine: is a drug used in the treatment or prevention of malaria. It is also
known as "Resochin".
The bark of trees (chincona) in this genus is the source of a variety of alkaloids,
the most familiar of which is quinine, an antipyretic (antifever) agent especially
useful in treating malaria.
First synthesized in 1874, DDT’s ("dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane")
insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in
1939. It was then used in the second half of World War II to control malaria.
Mosqurix:
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The vaccine, RTS,S, also known as Mosquirix, was produced by

GlaxoSmithKline in 1987 in a public-private partnership with the PATH Malaria
Initiative and with support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
In 2015, the vaccine received approval from the European Medicines Agency
(EMA). For the next four years (2017-2021), the vaccine will be administered to
children between 5 and 17 months in Kenya, Ghana and Malawi. The vaccine
will be given four times and will be administered by an intramuscular injection.
The RTS, S vaccine works by targeting the liver phase of the malaria parasite’s
life cycle as the parasite multiplies inside the liver after getting introduced into
the body by a mosquito bite. It has taken about 30 years for the creation of the
vaccine to the approval of pilot programme in 2017. Only five species of
Plasmodium parasite spread malarial parasite worldwide.
Recent trends of malaria in India:

Recent Trends in Malaria The malaria incidence and deaths due to malaria have
reduced significantly in recent years. During the period 2000 to 2015, cases
declined by 44% from 2.03 million to 1.13 million and deaths declined by 69%
from 932 to 287. The Pf percentage remained around 50% from 2000 to 2013,
but rose to 65.6% in 2014 and 67.1% in 2015, contributed by increased Pf
detection by widespread use of RDTs by trained ASHAs. The malaria
epidemiological data and trends during 2000 to 2015 is given in table 1.2 and
figure 1.1 respectively.
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National Framework for Elimination of Malaria

The Union Health Minister recently launched the National Framework for
Malaria Elimination (NFME) 2016-2030, which outlines India’s strategy for
elimination of the disease by 2030.
 This framework has been developed with a vision to eliminate malaria from
the country and contribute to improved health and quality of life and
alleviation of poverty.
 The NFME document is expected to serve as a roadmap for advocating and
planning malaria elimination in the country in a phased manner.
The objectives of the NFME are to:
 Eliminate malaria from all low (Category 1-Elimination phase) and moderate
(Category 2-Pre-elimination phase) endemic states/UTs (26) by 2022.
 Reduce incidence of malaria to less than 1 case per 1000 population in all
States/UTs and the districts and malaria elimination in 31 states/UTs by 2024.
 Interrupt indigenous transmission of malaria in all States/ UTs (Category 3-
Intensified control phase) by 2027.
 Prevent re-establishment of local transmission of malaria in areas where it has
been eliminated and to maintain malaria-free status of the country by 2030.
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The milestones and targets are set for 2016, 2020, 2022, 2024, 2027 and 2030 by
when the entire country has sustained zero indigenous cases and deaths due to
malaria for 3 years and initiated the processes for certification of malaria
elimination status to the country.
Why we need to eliminate Malaria?
Eliminating Malaria will result in cutting down on expenditure on diseases
control programme, and will help in reducing out-of-pocket expenditure too.
It will also help to build systems to fight other mosquito-borne illnesses also.
Way ahead:
While there are already diagnostic kits and medicines available everywhere, it is
time to streamline the delivery mechanism for better outcomes.
An enabled environment and necessary resources would remain critical to realize
the objectives in the pathway to malaria elimination.
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New initiatives to combat TB
“Ensuring affordable and quality healthcare to the population is a priority for the
government and we are committed to achieving zero TB deaths and therefore we
need to re-strategize, think afresh and have to be aggressive in our approach to
end TB by 2025.” This was stated by Shri J P Nadda, Union Minister of Health
and Family Welfare at a function on the occasion of ‘World TB Day’.
The Health Minister announced that the National Strategic Program (NSP) will
be finalized in one month and will be rolled out across the country. He further
added that the resources will not be a constraint and the Government will continue
to work with all stakeholders, in devising short term and long term approaches.
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Shri Nadda also emphasized on the need for compassion in treatment of TB

patients.
Acknowledging substantial progress made by the Government in combating TB,

Shri Nadda said that TB control and India’s National TB Control Programme has
been recognized as one of the most successful Public Health Programmes. He
further added that TB is a disease which is largely curable and preventable. Still
we are facing this task of high incidence and on top of it Drug Resistant TB.
“Drug resistant TB is a growing threat and the diagnosis and treatment is much
costlier.
“A high proportion, almost 92% of TB patients with HIV has been put on
antiretroviral therapy. The Health Minister further stated that the government has
rolled out more than 500 CBNAAT machines in one year, offering rapid quality
diagnostics, linking at least one such machine for each district and these steps
have led to 35% rise in the Drug Resistant TB case notification in 2016. “New
anti-TB drug Bedaquiline has been introduced under Conditional Access
Programme (CAP) to improve outcomes of drug resistant TB treatment.
E-Nikshay platform have been made user friendly so that Private Doctors find it
easy to notify. The Health Minister reiterated that keeping TB at bay is everyone’s
responsibility, including the private sector to provide quality TB care to all TB
patients. “Every TB patient should be able to access treatment without fear of
stigma or unwarranted retrenchment,”
On the occasion, Shri J P Nadda also released Annual TB Report – TB India 2017,
Guidance document on Nutrition Support for Tuberculosis Patients, National
Framework for Joint TB-Diabetes collaborative activities, Swasth E-Gurukul TB
and TB Awareness Media Campaign featuring Shri Amitabh Bachchan.
“Awareness plays a vital role in enhancing the uptake of services offered by the
government for TB and fighting stigma and discrimination prevalent against the
TB patients,.
At the event, both MoS (Health) highlighted the several notable steps taken by
the Ministry in case finding, formulating standards of care, implementation of
RNTCP, govt. notifications, surveillance tools, advancement of eHealth and
eGovernance needs, counseling for TB patients, etc.
To reach the unreached, the TB programme in the month of January 2017,

conducted an active case finding campaign targeting specific vulnerable groups
like slum dwellers, miners, migrant workers, tribals and people residing in hard
to reach areas, covering 50 districts in 17 states/ U.T.s. The campaign screened
over 45 lakh people and detected more than 2600 additional cases.
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The RNTCP is pro-actively engaging with the private sector to improve

notification and the quality of care it delivers, by using IT enabled tools and
innovative public private partnership models. In the last one year, these efforts
have resulted in 1.5 fold increase in number of case notifications from private
health care providers.
MoHFW will soon be announcing the new National Strategic Plan for TB
Elimination (2017-2025) which will provide a framework to guide all
stakeholders, including state governments, development partners, civil society
organizations, international agencies, research institutions, the private sector, and
many others, to realise the Prime Minister’s vision of achieving TB elimination
by 2025, five years before the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) target.
History:
 The bacillus causing tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, was

identified and described by Robert Koch. He received the Nobel Prize
in physiology or medicine in 1905 for this discovery.
 Koch did not believe the bovine (cattle) and human tuberculosis
diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk
as a source of infection. Later, the risk of transmission from this source
was dramatically reduced by the invention of the pasteurization
process.
 Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved the first genuine
success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated
bovine-strain tuberculosis. It was called bacillus of Calmette and
Guérin (BCG). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in
France but only received widespread acceptance in the USA, Great
Britain, and Germany after World War II.
 In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective
treatment and cure of TB a reality. Prior to the introduction of this drug,
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the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the

"pneumothorax technique", which involved collapsing an infected lung
to "rest" it and allow tuberculous lesions to heal.
 India has been the highest TB burden sharing country according
to World Health Organization (WHO) statistics (2011).
 The government of India publishes every year a document “TB India
2014”. It is schedule to release on the world TB day on March 24.
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a small, aerobic, non-motile, rod shaped

bacteria (bacilli). Hence Mycobacterium tuberculosis is also known as
T.B bacilli.
 Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
that most often affect the lungs.
 The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but TB bacteria can attack any
part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain.
 It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is an extremely slow rate
compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour.
 The M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) includes four other TB-causing
mycobacteria:
 M. bovis,
 M. africanum,
 M. canetti, and
 M. microti
How TB Spreads:
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TB is spread through the air from one person to another. The TB bacteria are put
into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes,
speaks, or sings. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become
infected.
TB is NOT spread by:
 shaking someone’s hand

 sharing food or drink
 touching bed linens or toilet seats
 sharing toothbrushes
 Kissing.
Signs and Symptoms of TB Disease:

Symptoms of TB disease depend on where in the body the TB bacteria are
growing. TB bacteria usually grow in the lungs (pulmonary TB). TB disease
in the lungs may cause symptoms such as
 a bad cough that lasts 3 weeks or longer
 pain in the chest
 coughing up blood or sputum (phlegm from deep inside the lungs)
Other symptoms of TB disease are:
 weakness or fatigue
 weight loss
 no appetite
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 chills
 fever
 sweating at night
Symptoms of TB disease in other parts of the body depend on the area affected.
Latent TB Infection and TB Disease:

Not everyone infected with TB bacteria becomes sick. As a result, two TB-related
conditions exist:
 latent TB infection and

 TB disease.
Latent TB Infection:
TB bacteria can live in the body without making you sick. This is called latent
TB infection. In most people who breathe in TB bacteria and become infected,
the body is able to fight the bacteria tostop them from growing. People with latent
TB infection do not feel sick and do not have any symptoms. People with latent
TB infection are not infectious and cannot spread TB bacteria to others. However,
if TB bacteria become active in the body and multiply, the person will go from
having latent TB infection to being sick with TB disease.
TB Disease:
TB bacteria become active if the immune system can't stop them from growing.
When TB bacteria are active (multiplying in your body), this is called TB disease.
People with TB disease are sick. They may also be able to spread the bacteria to
people they spend time with every day.
Many people who have latent TB infection never develop TB disease. Some
people develop TB disease soon after becoming infected (within weeks) before
their immune system can fight the TB bacteria. Other people may get sick years
later when their immune system becomes weak for another reason.
For people whose immune systems are weak, especially those with HIV infection,
the risk of developing TB disease is much higher than for people with normal
immune systems.
Diagnosis:
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It is likely that a health care provider will use a stethoscope to listen to the lungs
during breathing and check the lymph nodes for swelling. They will also ask
about symptoms and medical history.
TB is most commonly diagnosed via a skin test involving an injection into the
forearm.
The most common diagnostic test for TB is a skin test where a small injection of
PPD tuberculin, an extract of the TB bacterium, is made just below the inside
forearm. The injection site should be checked after 2-3 days, and if a hard, red
bump has swollen up then it is likely that TB is present.
Unfortunately, the skin test is not 100% accurate and has been known to give
incorrect positive and negative readings. However, there are other tests that are
available to diagnose TB.
 Skin test.
 Blood tests,
 Chest X-rays and
 Sputum tests can all be used to test for the presence of TB bacteria,
What is a Gene-Xpert test? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Gene-Xpert/ CBNAAT: CBNAAT (Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid
Amplification Test) or Gene Xpert MTB/RIF assay detects the presence of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli DNA, and also gives the sensitivity profile of
Rifampicin (RIF), a main first-line TB drug, in sputum specimens in just two
hours.
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The rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis and detection of RIF resistance would mean
that treatment decisions of patients can be made in a single day.Patients resistant
to RIF can be immediately put on second-line drugs to treat drug-resistant TB.
Disadvantages
There are a number of disadvantages which include:
 The shelf life of the cartridges is only 18 months;

 A very stable electricity supply is required;
 The instrument needs to be recalibrated annually;
 The cost of the test;
 The temperature ceiling is critical
Advantages
The main advantages of the test are, for diagnosis, reliability when compared to
sputum microscopy and the speed of getting the result when compared with
culture. For diagnosis of TB, although sputum microscopy is both quick and
cheap, it is often unreliable. It is particularly unreliable when people are HIV
positive. Although culture gives a definitive diagnosis, to get the result usually
takes weeks rather than the hours of the Gene x-pert test.
The main advantage in respect of identifying rifampicin resistance is again the

matter of speed. Normally to get any drug resistance result takes weeks rather
than hours.
Drug Resistant TB:
A person with active TB disease has drug resistant TB. If the TB bacteria that the
person is infected with, is not responding to, and are resistant to, at least one of
the main TB drugs.
Drug resistant TB - how you get it?
There are two ways that people get drug resistant TB.
Firstly, people get acquired drug resistant TB when their TB treatment is

inadequate. This can be for a number of reasons, including the fact that patients
fail to keep to proper TB treatment regimes, the wrong TB drugs are prescribed,
or sub standard TB drugs are used for treatment.
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Secondly, transmitted or primary drug resistant TB results from the direct

transmission of drug resistant TB from one person to another. The occurrence and
prevention of primary drug resistant TB has largely been neglected during the
development of global TB control programs.
What are the main types of drug resistant TB?
There are two main types of drug resistant TB,
 MDR TB,
 XDR TB.
Another type of drug resistant TB, variously referred to as totally drug resistant
TB, XXDR TB or TDR TB has also now been detected.
What is the difference between the types MDR TB and XDR TB?
XDR-TB
 Caused by TB bacteria.
“Normal”
 Can be treated with first generation drugs.
TB
 Multi-drug resistant TB. It develops when first line drugs are
not taken properly.
MDR-TB  MDR-TB has to be treated with second line drugs; Patient
takes longer time to recover.
 Develops when second-line drugs are misused. (e.g. patient not

finishing entire course, or doctor giving inappropriate amount
XDR-TB
of drug)
Totally drug resistant TB is TB which is believed to be resistant to all the first

and second line TB drugs. It is sometimes referred to as extremely drug resistant,
or XXDR TB and it is extremely difficult, although not always totally impossible
to treat
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INDIAN SCENARIO:
 India pioneered TB control among developing nations. A national TB control

project was launched in 1962. With BCG vaccination as the main intervention.
 It is estimated that about 40% of the Indian population is infected with TB
bacteria, the vast majority of whom have latent rather than active TB.
 BCG manufacturing began in Chennai and an extensive vaccine trial was
launched in Chengalpattu district, Tamil Nadu, to measure its protective
efficacy.
 In 1978, the Expanded Programme on Immunisation took over BCG
vaccination.
 In 1979, preliminary results of a 15-year-long BCG trial showed no protection
against infection by TB bacilli. The disappointing results were much debated,
and ignored by the then TB control leadership.
 In the 1980s, AIDS entered India; HIV infection is a major risk factor of TB.
Diabetes, another factor, is increasing in India. Poverty and nutritional
deficiencies are additional factors.
 In 2000, the Indian Academy of Pediatrics called for a major redesign of TB
control, with alternative tactics to prevent infection and treat infection before
it caused disease. WHO’s 2012 Annual Report on TB confirmed India’s
failure. DOTS saves lives from TB mortality, but has failed to control TB.
 In 2012 India declared TB to be a notifiable disease. Meaning that with
immediate effect all private doctors, caregivers and clinics treating a TB
patient had to report every case of TB to the government.
 In 2012, India’s golden jubilee year of TB control, the World Health
Organization (WHO) named India the worst performer among developing
nations, with 17 per cent of the global population carrying 26 per cent of the
global TB burden.
 The National Tuberculosis Programme of India (NTP) was initiated in
1962 which was revised in 1997 as Revised National Tuberculosis Control
Programme (RNTCP) that used WHO recommended DOTS (Directly
Observed Treatment, Short-course chemotherapy) strategy. Countrywide
coverage was achieved in March, 2006. Since inception till December 2016,
more than 2 crores patients were initiated on treatment and more than 35 lakhs
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additional lives have been saved. In March 2016, RNTCP revised its technical
and operational guidelines.
The major additions reflected in terms of strategies in treatment of TB are:
• Daily regimen for treatment of TB

• Use of Bedaquiline for treatment of drug resistant TB with
Drug susceptibility testing (DST) guided treatment
• ICT based adherence support(NIKSHAY platform is being used
under the RNTCP as an ICT enabled state-of-art surveillance
system to get notification of TB cases at diagnosis from both
public and private sector including drug resistant TB patients)
• post treatment follow up.
The Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) in India
The Indian government's Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP)

was started in 1997 and was then expanded across India until the entire nation
was covered by March 2006. The program uses the WHO recommended Directly
Observed Treatment Short Course (DOTS) strategy and reaches over a billion
people in 632 districts/reporting units.
Revised RNTCP targets (2012-2017)
 In 2010 the RNTCP made a major policy decision that it would change
focus and adopt the concept of Universal Access to quality diagnosis
and TB treatment for all TB patients in India.
 This involves extending the reach of RNTCP services to all people
diagnosed with TB, as well as improving the quality of existing services.
 The aim is to achieve the following targets by the end of 2015:
 early detection and treatment of at least 90% of estimated TB cases in the
community, including HIV associated TB
 initial screening of all previously treated (retreatment) smear-positive TB
patients for drug resistant TB and the provision of treatment services for
multi drug resistant TB
 the offer of HIV counselling and testing for all TB patients, and linking
HIV infected TB patients to HIV care and support
 successful treatment of at least 90% of all new TB patients, and at least
85% of all previously treated TB patients
 the extension of RNTCP services to patients diagnosed and treated in the
private sector
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Activities to achieve these targets:

The RNTCP plans to achieve these targets by:
 using rapid diagnostics for the diagnosis of TB and drug resistant TB
 expanding services for the management of multi drug resistant TB
 strengthening urban TB control
 strengthening public-private mix initiatives
 improving the quality of basic DOTS services
 Aligning with National Rural Health Mission supervisory structures.
TB Disease Burden in India:
India accounts for one fourth of the global TB burden. In 2015, an estimated 28
lakh cases occurred and 4.8 lakh people died due to TB.
India has highest burden of both TB and MDR TB based on estimates reported in
Global TB Report 2016. An estimated 1.3 lakh incident multi-drug resistant TB
patients emerge annually in India which includes 79000 MDR-TB Patients
estimates among notified pulmonary cases. India bears second highest number of
estimated HIV associated TB in the world.
An estimated 1.1 lakh HIV associated TB occurred in 2015 and 37,000 estimated
number of patients died among them. The estimates of TB for India has been
revised upwards based on the newer evidences gained. This apparent increase in
the disease burden reflects the incorporation of more accurate data. With
backward calculations, both tuberculosis incidence and mortality rates are
decreasing from 2000 to 2015. The incidence of TB has reduced from 289 per
lakh per year in 2000 to 217 per lakh per year in 2015 and the mortality due to
TB has reduced from 56 per lac per year in 2000 to 36 per lac per year in 2015.
Introduction of Daily Regimen for treatment of Drug Sensitive TB:
under RNTCP Revised National TB Control Programme is changing treatment
strategy from Intermittent to Daily Regimen in phased manner. To begin with, it
has been initiated in 5 states – Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra and
Sikkim covering 27 crore population of the country. Subsequently, remaining
states will be covered by October 2017. Features of the daily regimen treatment
strategy will be as follows:
• The drugs will be given daily
• The dose of drugs is according to body weight.It means that the patients will
get appropriate dosages as per body weight.
• Fixed Dose Combination (FDC) tablets will be used which will reduce pill
burden
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• Treatment regimen is likely to be more effective with lesser relapses. This is

expected to reduce drug resistance with greater compliance
• For children, child friendly formulations as dispersible tablets
• Use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) enabled treatment
adherence support system. NIKSHAY platform is being used under the RNTCP
as an ICT enabled state-of-art surveillance system to get notification of TB
cases at diagnosis from both public and private sector including drug
resistant TB patients
• Regimen is acceptable to all health care providers
Programmatic Management of Drug Resistant TB services:
India began services for diagnostic and treatment services for multi-drug resistant
TB (MDR-TB) in 2007 and achieved complete coverage in 2013. Till 2016,
1,39,369 persons with MDR-TB/ RR TB diagnosed and 1,26,136 (91%) patients
were put on treatment under RNTCP.
Introduction of newer anti-TB drug –
Bedaquiline: The new drug Bedaquiline has been introduced at six sites in 5
states in the country in march 2016. The drug has been a novel one introduced
after 40 years. The drug currently is used under RNTCP for MDR/RR-TB patients
with resistance to fluoroquinolone and/or second line injectable, mixed pattern of
drug resistance.
The programme has started planning on expansion of use of this new drug along
with drug susceptibility testing guided treatment in other parts of the country. The
Bedaquilline is used along with optimum background regimen designed based on
drug susceptibility testing. Being a new drug, the RNTCP has established drug
safety monitoring committee at the national level following recommendations of
Global guidelines on use of Bedaquilline. A system of cohort event monitoring
has been established at all sites to systematically report and monitor adverse drug
reactions. Till December 2016, more than 207 drug resistant TB patients have
been initiated on Bedaquiline containing treatment.
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What is a GM crop?
A GM or transgenic crop is a plant that has a novel combination of genetic
material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.
For example, a GM crop can contain a gene(s) that has been artificially inserted
instead of the plant acquiring it through pollination.
The resulting plant is said to be “genetically modified” although in reality all
crops have been “genetically modified” from their original wild state by
domestication, selection, and controlled breeding over long periods of time.
Do we need GM crops?
Yes and why?
 Higher crop yields.
 Reduced farm costs.
 Increased farm profit.
 Improvement in health and the environment
No and why?
 It is clear that the technology of genetic engineering is an evolving one and
there is much, especially on its impact on human health and environment, that
is yet to be understood properly. The scientific community itself seems
uncertain about this. While there are many in this community who feel that
the benefits outweigh the risks, others point to the irreversibility of this
technology and uncontrollability of the Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMO) once introduced in the ecosystem. Hence, they advocate a
precautionary approach towards any open release of GMOs.
 One of the concerns raised strongly by those opposing GM crops in India is
that many important crops like rice, brinjal, and mustard, among others,
originated here, and introducing genetically modified versions of these crops
could be a major threat to the vast number of domestic and wild varieties of
these crops. In fact, globally, there is a clear view that GM crops must not be
introduced in centres of origin and diversity. India also has mega biodiversity
hotspots like the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats which are rich in
biodiversity yet ecologically very sensitive. Hence it will only be prudent for
us to be careful before we jump on to the bandwagon of any technology.
 There is also a potential for pests to evolve resistance to the toxins produced
by GM crops and the risk of these toxins affecting nontarget organisms.
 There is also the danger of unintentionally introducing allergens and other
anti-nutrition factors in foods.
India’s experiences so far:
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 Currently, India has the world’s fourth largest GM crop acreage on the
strength of Bt cotton, the only genetically modified crop allowed in the
country.
 The introduction of Bt cotton has been both highly successful and
controversial. Cotton yield more than doubled in the first decade since its
introduction in 2002. At the same time it was also shadowed by
 Controversy, with a tangle of pricing and intellectual property rights (IPR)
issues followed by government price interventions and litigation.
Worldwide practice:
 Few evidences show that though GM crops have been gaining acceptance
their use still remains highly skewed.
 Only 29 countries allow commercial cultivation of GM crops while a
similar number also allow their import. And most of the 170 million
hectares under GM crops are in the USA, Brazil, Argentina, India and
China. Moreover 98% of GM cultivation falls under four main crops:
soyabean, maize, cotton and canola. Experts also say that GM technologies
will continue to focus on these crops for some time.
 An agreement to develop Bt brinjal was signed in 2005 between Mahyco—
American agricultural biotech giant Monsanto’s Indian Bt cotton partner—
and two Indian agricultural universities. Following the study of biosafety
data and field trials by two expert committees, Bt brinjal was cleared for
commercialization by India’s top biotech regulator, the Genetic
Engineering Appraisal Committee, in 2009. But nothing came of it, with
moratoriums imposed by then government following opposition from civil
society groups and brinjal growing states.
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What is cloud computing? What are the services offered?
Cloud Computing is a process of delivering/enabling scalable, expandable and almost perfectly

elastic software services using internet technologies. It is a method of delivering Software as a
Service (SaaS), delivered in a pay-per-use basis. It provides self service capabilities to users
with scalable features to increase usage on requirement.
The various cloud based services commonly offered are:

Web Based Cloud Computing: Companies use the functionality provided by web services and
do not have to develop a full application for their needs.
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Organizations make use of the unlimited storage

potential of the cloud infrastructure. They can expand and shrink their storage space as
needed without having to worry about dedicated servers on site.
 Software as a Service (SaaS): It allows people to access the functionality of a
particular software without worrying about storage or other issues.
 Platform as a Service (PaaS): Companies can run their applications on the cloud
service’s platform without having to worry about maintaining hard drives and servers.
 Utility Services: Companies that need to store a lot of data can store all of their data
remotely and can even create a virtual data center.
 Managed Services: These are applications used by the cloud service providers, such
as anti-spam service.
 Service Commerce: It is the creation of a hub of applications that can be used by an
organisation’s members. It provides organisations the applications they need along with
the services they desire.
DRAFT GUIDELINES FOR SAFE HANDLING OF NANOMATERIALS

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 The Nano Mission under the Department of Science and Technology has come out
with the draft “Guidelines and Best Practices for Safe Handling of Nanomaterials
in Research Laboratories and Industries”.
 The guidelines, intended as standard operating procedure (SOP) for handling
nanomaterials in research laboratories and industries, prescribe a combination of
engineering controls, work practices and personal protective equipment as part of a
robust exposure control strategy.
 These lay down the process for identifying hazards, taking note of the specific effect
of surface chemistry, shape, size and morphology on toxicity caused to various
organs.
 The guidelines also lay down set of best practices related to the making and
handling of Nanopowders and use of products relating to food and healthcare.
About Nano Mission
 The Government of India, in May 2007, has approved the launch of a Mission on Nano
Science and Technology (Nano Mission) with an allocation of Rs. 1000 crore for 5
years.
 The Department of Science and Technology is the nodal agency for implementing the
Nano Mission.
 Capacity-building in this upcoming area of research will be of utmost importance for
the Nano Mission so that India emerges as a global knowledge-hub in this field.
 Equally importantly, the Nano Mission will strive for development of products and
processes for national development, especially in areas of national relevance like safe
drinking water, materials development, sensors development, drug delivery, etc.
WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?
Nano science is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular
and macromolecular scales, in order to understand and exploit properties that differ
significantly from those on a larger scale.
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Nanotechnologies are the design, characterisation, production and application of structures,

devices and systems by controlling shape and size on a nanometre scale. At this scale, the
general physical, chemical, electrical, biological and optical properties of a material start
behaving in a unique and peculiar way, i.e. the follow the laws of quantum physics which is
very different from the laws of Newtonian physics we see and feel. This uniqueness and
peculiarity opens up new vistas for enquiry and applications.
APPLICATIONS
Medical field
 Disease Diagnosis: Nano medicine has resulted in formation of Nano scale diagnostic
device which are more efficient & able to detect cancer, bacterial, viral infection. When
blood or any tissue sample made to pass through it one such device is known as lab-on-a-
chip, Biochip, DNAchip etc.
 Drug Delivery: Nanotechnology can be used in the formation of Nano size drug which will
help in lower overall drug consumption & side effect by depositing active agent at specific
places in body.
 Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment: Nanotechnology can locate & eliminate cancer cell using
gold Nano cells. Nano cells are targeted to cancer cell by tagging or attaching antibodies to
Nano cell surface.
 Tissue Engineering: Nanotechnology can help to repair damage tissue through tissue
engineering, making use of biodegradable polymer such as polycaprolactone coated with
collagen to promote cell to cell attachment or the wound healing process.
 Medical Nanorobot: Nanorobotics is a technique of creating machine or robot close to
microscopic scale, nanometre. These Nano size robot can navigate the human body,
transport important molecule, manipulate microscopic object and communicate with
physician by way of miniature sensor .These computer controlled nanorobot can be used in
cancer detection & treatment.
 Superbugs and anti-microbial resistance: Nanotechnology holds the key to stopping
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the deadly infections they cause.
Defence
 Use in intelligence gathering through difficult to detect sensors/cameras/recording devices.

 Possible supplement to traditional weaponry for close combat situations.
 Precision guiding tools for snipers/others who use fire motor shells.
Agriculture
 Food processing industry can get better packaging, presentation with least waste and
minimum moisture flow and growth of bacteria. This industry provides backward linkages
with agriculture.
 In mechanization of agriculture, nano engineered material in automotive products.
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 Soil health can be maintained by neutralizing harmful chemical or biological agents. Bio
indicators can be used to detect the bio magnification of pesticides and fertilizers.
 Anti-bacterial products such as nanosilver when used as a materials preserver maintain its
ability to reduce odour-causing bacteria longer and require smaller quantities than other
silver preservatives.
 Insect pests management through the formulations of nanomaterials-based pesticides and
insecticides
 Enhancement of agricultural productivity using bio-conjugated nanoparticles
(encapsulation) for slow release of nutrients and water
 Nanoparticle-mediated gene or DNA transfer in plants for the development of insect pest-
resistant varieties
 Use of nanomaterials for preparation of different kind of biosensors, which would be useful
in remote sensing devices required for precision farming.
 For controlling pests state-of-the-art nanotechnology has evolved to hassle-free gel-based
carriers for pheromones called nanogels.
Water treatment and remediation
 Nanomembranes for water purification, desalination, and detoxification

 Nanosensors for the detection of contaminants and pathogens
 Nanoporous zeolites, nanoporous polymers, and attapulgite clays for water purification
 Magnetic nanoparticles for water treatment and remediation
 TiO2 nanoparticles for the catalytic degradation of water pollutants
Construction
 Nanomolecular structures to make asphalt and concrete more robust to water seepage
 Heat-resistant nanomaterials to block ultraviolet and infrared radiation
 Nanomaterials for cheaper and durable housing, surfaces, coatings, glues, concrete, and
heat and light exclusion
 Self-cleaning surfaces (e.g., windows, mirrors, toilets) with bioactive coatings
Energy
 Novel hydrogen storage systems based on carbon nanotubes and other lightweight
nanomaterials
 Photovoltaic cells and organic light-emitting devices based on quantum dots
 Carbon nanotubes in composite film coatings for solar cells
 Nanocatalysts for hydrogen generation
What is Graphene?
Graphene form of carbon consisting of planar sheets (2D structure) which are one atom thick,
with the atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped lattice.
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According to recent research, Graphene-coated solar panels can produce electricity from rain
drops. This will increase efficiency of solar panels. Rain water contains salts which in turn
contains positive and negative ions. These positive and negative ions are used to generate
electricity.
• Properties of Graphene
• Stronger than the steel.
• Good conductor of heat and electricity.
Applications
• Paints and coatings, lubricants, oils and functional fluids, capacitors and batteries,
thermal management applications, display materials and packaging, solar cells, inks and 3D-
printers’ materials and films
To Recreate Bones
• Scientists at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru suggests that ‘3D Blocks’ of
graphene composites can be used for bone tissue regeneration as they mimic the
environment of the bone.
• Graphene will be used for strengthening Polycaprolactone (PCL)-a biodegradable polymer
which will be used for bone support
• The purpose of the PCL is to provide only a temporary home for the regenerating cells &
allowing for healthy tissue to eventually replace the scaffold.
• Nanotechnology will be used to create 3D structure of Graphene
NANO TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERBUGS
• A new, adaptive, light-activated Nano therapy could kill superbugs that have become
resistant to antibiotics.
o The dots, which are about 20,000 times smaller than a human hair and resemble the tiny
semiconductors used in consumer electronics, successfully killed 92 percent of drug-
resistant bacterial cells in a lab-grown culture.
o Special Features of Quantum dots based therapy
 Targeted tissue damage: Previous research on nanoparticles showed that gold and silver
nanoparticles can be harmful to healthy tissue as well as the target bacteria. But that
kind of collateral damage doesn't seem to be a problem with the new quantum dots.
 Made of semiconducting materials like cadmium telluride instead of metal, they can be
tailored to specific infections, slipping inside the disease-causing germs and, when
activated by light, triggering chemical reactions that destroy them.
• A typical weak light source (a lamp, well-lighted room, sunlight, etc.) is enough to activate
these quantum dots.
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• Depending on the nature of the infection several applications for quantum dots can be:
covering infected cuts might simply be with nanoparticle-impregnated bandages and
injecting quantum dots into infectious system.
• In addition, hospital rooms and medical instruments might be treated with a dot-containing
disinfectant in order to reduce the risk of spreading infections from patient to patient.
• But more research, including clinical trials, will be needed to develop quantum dot therapy
and prove its safety and effectiveness in humans.
ICT (information and communications technology) plays a critical role in the building of Smart
cities. According to Nasscom estimates, anywhere from 10 to 15 per cent of the total project
investments or about $30-40 billion is the opportunity for software companies over the next
five years.
For instance, in the case of citizen services, technology plays an integral role by providing
access to online citizen engagement and participatory process. Provision of Wi-Fi services at
public places and online service delivery are other ways. Moreover, ICT plays a key role in
improving city governance by building city command and operations centres. Many of the
cities have lined up huge investments in this space.
Since software development is crucial for remotely controlling water and power systems, NIIT
Technologies is our favourite in this space with its specialities in digital analytics and
infrastructure management services. It recently launched ‘geodesign’ , a Geographic
Information System framework for planning smart cities in India.
Jabalpur and others are looking at significant investment in optic-fibre cable. Electricity
companies also extensively use optical fibre cables for monitoring and control purposes.
Sterlite Technologies, which has a 40 per cent market share in the domestic optic fibre and
cable space, is expected to benefit from such projects.
Challenges
Indian software exports are steadily growing. The largest number of quality certified software
organizations are in India. However, although all this may appear to present a rosy picture, it
is not that the Indian software industry is without any problems and challenges.
The major problems and challenges seem to be: The uneven profile of the Indian software
industry
 People management problems

 Infrastructure related problem
 Growing competition from other countries
The Uneven Profile of the Indian Software Industry
The Indian software industry has been characterized by an uneven profit along several
dimensions. These skews have important implications for both the growth and earnings
potential of Indian software as listed
 Uneven output
 Uneven export destination
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 Uneven divisions of labor

 Uneven location division
 Uneven skill division
 Uneven market share
 Uneven site distribution
People Management Problems in the Indian Software Industry:
There is widespread dissatisfaction among senior managers in the software industry with the
performance of software projects. This takes the form of inordinate delays, time and cost
overruns, user dissatisfaction and maintenance problems. “High Burn Out” is a common
problem in most Indian software companies.
In order to overcome these problems, software companies are investing heavily to make
improvements in their software processes and practices.
Many of them have realized that lasting improvements require significant changes in the way
they manage, develop and use people. In many software companies the work of managing
people is seen as a responsibility of the Human Resources Department. The practices relating
to the management of people are done in an adhoc manner with little realization of their impact
on the motivation and morale of staff. The reluctance of project leaders/managers to undertake
such responsibilities is because they have not been trained to perform functions relating to the
management of people and also the fact that they are constantly under the pressure of delivery
deadlines.
Infrastructure related problems
The infrastructure consists of transport, electricity, and connectivity; land availability, quality
of life, government facilities etc.
Good communication infrastructure is considered vital for the continued growth of the software
industry. Overall, the data communication infrastructure in India is expensive and in limited
supply.
Growing Competition from Other Countries:
The global reach of software products and services from India is constantly under threat from
global competition from other countries that can offer educated manpower at competitive rates
What else needs to be done to boost the software sector in the country?
 Ease of doing business is essential. Numerous regulatory compliances can lead to
unintended oversights. A single repository of all applicable laws, compliances and their
associated processes would serve better.
 A support framework for product development is required, as products upgrade or even
relaunch for long-term sustainability.
 For undergoing testing and evaluation, investments in test beds is critical. In-house
investments can be steep, and shared resources supported by the government should be the
favoured approach.
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 The principles guiding tech transfer and licensing have undergone major shifts because of
the Internet, and Indian companies should be prepared to enter into contracts under these
new paradigms.
 New technologies have led to standards and patent rules which are still nebulous to many
ecosystem players, and it requires a high degree of sensitization. Hence, platforms need to
be created to facilitate such discussions to also include interoperability, integration,
scalability, cybersecurity, and provide assistance in building global partnerships and access
to global best practices.
 The talent requirement of product companies is unique. Future-ready products are expected
to be developed based on the mere articulation of needs and specifications. Talent
accelerator programmes in partnership with industry will help create industry-ready
professionals from a wide-ranging resource pool of engineers and other graduates.
 In addition to the ubiquitous need for tech skills in high-end technologies, the need for
country-specific language skills must also be emphasized. Strong business communication
is an essential prerequisite and its deficit has an adverse impact on growth.
 The software products policy should amplify the government’s start-up initiatives, not just
replicate them for software product start-ups. For instance, a registry of software product
start-ups being supported under various programs can be created (voluntarily); they can
then be mentored in a targeted manner. Furthermore, incubators and accelerators need to
be set up in other geographies to provide greater market accessibility to start-ups.
 Also, the support schemes should not be restricted to product start-ups alone, but structured
to benefit the product segment as a whole. Products require upgrades, new releases and
technology changes almost every other year, as a rule. Heavy investment in R&D creates
a dire need for a targeted scheme that will incentivize companies to develop new products.
 Emerging Indian products require new geographies to build scale to get brand positioning
right. An organization which will function like an export promotion council, but
exclusively for products and innovative technologies, is a must. And it would be beneficial
to set up helpdesks in Indian embassies/high commissions which would function as
advisers on local laws and market information.
Software Product industry:
The software product industry is estimated to be $411 billion globally today and is expected to
reach around $1 trillion by 2025. However, in India the software product industry is still in its
infancy stage. As per the estimates, the Indian software product industry accounts for 1.48%
of global market. The total revenue of software product industry in India is $6.1 billion, out of
which $2 billion is from exports.
The government recently issued the draft of first ever National Software Policy with an aim to
increase share of Indian software products in global market by 10 fold to estimated $148 billion
and create employment opportunity for 3.5 million people by 2025.
 The National Policy on Software Products visualizes the country’s rise of India as a
leading global player in creation, production and supply of innovative software.
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Why a new policy in this regard was necessary?

India’s first software policy of 1986 resulted in the Software Technology Park (STP) scheme
in 1991. Undoubtedly, the policy was highly successful, with the information technology (IT)
industry today accounting for more than 9% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP).
However, the past few years have seen a serious decline in IT sector growth, owing to the rapid,
global transformation in the technology and software industries.
 Despite diminishing growth, even after 25 years, the old software policy (1.0) of 1986 still
prevails, with its focus on IT services. India’s IT sector is strong enough to face changing
technology challenges. But failure to capitalize on the capability built in last quarter
century can have serious consequences.
 In order to address the relevant global strategic paradigm shifts, a new Software policy is
needed, with a ‘product’ focus.
Highlights of the new policy:

The new policy aims to strive for a tenfold increase in share of the global software product
market by 2025 by promoting easy access to local domestic/international market for software
product.
 The policy aims to create conducive environment for creation of 10,000 technology start-
ups to develop software products that are globally competitive and thereby generating a
direct and in-direct employment for 3.5 million persons.
 The policy targets to achieve a goal of creation of 1,000,000 jobs by 2017, and additional
2,500,000 by 2025.
 According to the draft policy, the government has promised that it will create an “enabling
framework for inclusion of Indian software product in government procurement” and
promote their usage “in strategic sectors like defence, atomic energy, space, railways,
telecommunication, power and healthcare etc”.
 Among various measures, the government aims to leverage the start-up India initiative
under the proposed policy to ensure ease of business and to address concerns that may be
specific to the software product industry through an Inter-Ministerial Coordination Group.
 The policy identifies 10 proactive strategic action areas for the development of the product
ecosystem. The main ones among them are ease of business, funding, research and
development, domestic demand boosters and frictionless trade and tax regimes.
Concerns raised over the new draft policy:

The policy does not clearly define software products as goods or services and does little to give
clarity on Intellectual Property Rights and also does not specify the incentives that the software
startups will get for government procurement.
The government however says the policy is only a statement of intent and too much
specification can hurt future innovation in the industry.
Applications of Plant Tissue Culture:

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 Germplasm conservation mainly in the form of cryopreservation of somatic embryos or

shoot apices, etc.
 Large scale production of useful compounds and secondary metabolites by using
genetically engineered plant tissue cultures.
 Technique of micro propagation for enhancing the rate of multiplication of economically
important plants.
 Eradication of systemic diseases in plants and raising disease free plants.
 Soma-clonal variations are useful sources of introduction of valuable genetic variations in
plants.
 Helps plants in imparting resistance to antibiotics, drought, salinity, diseases, etc.
 Somatic hybrids and cybrids overcome species barriers and sexual incompatibility and
produce hybrid plants with desired combination of traits.
 Embryo culture helps in overcoming seed sterility and dormancy.
 Haploid production in culture helps to solve various problems of genetic studies and thus
aids the plant breeders for producing new varieties.
 Production of synthetic seeds via somatic embryo differentiation for commercially
important plants helps to achieve increased agricultural production.
 Large scale production of biomass energy.
 Plant tissue culture aids in producing the genetically transformed plants.
 Early flowering can be induced by in-vitro culturing of plants so as to attain commercial
benefits.
 Triploids as well as polyploid plants can also be produced by tissue culture techniques for
uses in plant breeding, horticulture and forestry.
 Seedless fruits and vegetables can be produced by following the endosperm culture method
which add to their commercial values.
 Increased Nitrogen fixation ability can be achieved through association of tissue culture
techniques with genetic engineering.
 Callus cultures are useful in plant pathology as they act as an effective tool in the study of
mechanism of disease resistance and susceptibility.
 Different tissue culture techniques help us to study various biosynthetic processes,
physiological changes and cytogenetic changes.
What Makes Plant Tissue Cultures Grow?
Abiotic factors
1. Light - The lights in r culture room operate at a 23:1 hour light to dark photoperiod. A
combination of soft white and grow-light bulbs are used on each shelf. Different
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photoperiods are used for different plant species or to trigger different developmental
programs.
2. Temperature - A constant temperature of 23 degrees C (74 degrees F) is maintained
through cooling units and fans. Again, different temperatures may be used in order to obtain
specific plant growth and developmental responses.
Biotic factors
3. Plant tissue type - Plant species cultured, explant type, age and condition of tissue and
combinations of these factors affect the ability of the tissue to regenerate into a plant.
4. Media - the components and type (liquid or solid) have effects on the ability of the tissue
to regenerate into a plant.
Components of Tissue Culture Media:
Amino acids, minerals and vitamins - Plant tissue cultures, as well as all living organisms
require a specialized balance of basic nutrients to support life. Depending on the type and age
of the plant culture, these components must be supplied in different concentrations.
Sugars - Since most plant tissue cultures are not able to produce their own energy through
photosynthesis, an outside source of energy (sugars) must be supplied. Depending on the type
and stage of plant tissue development, different types or combinations of sugars are added to
the media.
Hormones - Phytohormones are added to tissue culture media to induce the cultures to produce
calli, embryos, shoots or roots. These are generally of the classes auxin and cytokinins and the
concentrations and balances of the two types are varied to obtain various growth and
differentiation responses.
Antibiotics - Antibiotics are added to media for control of Agrobacterium (used in some
transformation protocols). Another use of antibiotics is as a selective agent for transformed
plants. If an antibiotic resistance gene is transferred into a cell, then its clones will survive
exposure to an otherwise lethal dose of an antibiotic.
Agar-based agent - For use in all solid media, an agar-based gelling agent is used to provide
a strong, clear and flexible substrate on which the tissue culture can grow.
Media pH - The pH of the media must be matched with growth stage of the tissue culture. Low
pH will often result in a bleaching effect on younger tissue cultures.
PLANT TISSUE CULTURE
Introduction:
Plant tissue culture is an essential component of plant biotechnology. Apart from mass
multiplication of elites, it also provides the means to multiply and regenerate novel plants from
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genetically engineered cells. The promising plant thus produced may be readily cloned in
cultures under aseptic conditions.
Tissue Culture is widely used in –
 Obtaining disease free plants.

 Rapid propagation of plants those are difficult to propagate.
 Somatic hybridization.
 Genetics improvement of commercial plants.
 Obtaining androgenic and gynogenic haploid plants for breeding
programmes.
Methods in Plant Tissue Culture:
There are different methods of culturing plant material. These methods differ on the basis of
explants used and their resultant products.
Cell Culture:
Cell culture is actually, the process of producing clones of a single cell. The clones of cell are
the cells which have been derived from the single cell through mitosis and are identical to each
other as well as to parental cell. First attempts for cell culture were made by Haberlandt in
1902. However, he failed to culture single cell but his attempts stimulated other workers to
achieve success in this direction.
The method of cell culture is meritorious over other methods of culturing because it serves as
the best way to analyse and understand the cell metabolism and effects of different chemical
substances on the cellular responses. Single cell culturing is of immense help in crop
improvement programmes through the extension of genetic engineering techniques in higher
plants.
The method of cell culture is done by following three main steps:

(a) Isolation of single cell from the intact plant by using some enzymatic or mechanical
methods.
(b) In-vitro culturing of the single cell utilizing micro chamber technique, or micro drop method
or Bergmann cell plating technique (Fig).
(c) Testing of cell viability done with the phase contrast microscopy or certain special dyes.
It is important to note here that the cell cultures require a suitably enriched nutrient medium
and it should be done in dark because light may deteriorate the cell culture. Large scale
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culturing of plant cells under in-vitro conditions provides a suitable method for production of
large varieties of commercially important phytochemical.
Suspension Culture:
A culture which consists of cells or cell aggregates initiated by placing callus tissues in an
agitated liquid medium is called as a suspension culture. The continuous agitation of the liquid
medium during a suspension culture is done by using a suitable device called as shaker, most
common being the platform/orbital shaker.
Agitation with shaker is important because it breaks the cell aggregates into single cell or
smaller groups of cells and it helps in maintaining the uniform distribution of single cell and
groups of cells in the liquid medium.
A good suspension is the one which has high proportion of single cells than the groups of cells.
Changes in the nutritional composition of medium may also serve as a useful technique for
breakage of larger cell clumps (Fig. 7).
The general technique of suspension culture involves basically two types of cultures: batch
culture and continuous cultures.
A batch culture is a suspension culture in which cells grow in a finite volume of the culture
medium and as a result, medium gradually depletes. On the other hand, a continuous suspension
culture is the one which is continuously supplied with nutrients by the inflow of fresh medium
but the culture volume is normally constant.
Root Culture:
Pioneering attempts for root culture were made by Robbins and Kotte during 1920s. Later on,
many workers tried for achieving successful root cultures. In 1934, it was White who
successfully cultured the continuously growing tomato root tips.
Subsequently, root culturing of a number of plant species of angiosperms as well as

gymnosperms has been done successfully. Root cultures are usually not helpful for giving rise
to complete plants but they have importance’s of their own. They provide beneficial
information regarding the nutritional needs, physiological activities, nodulations, infections by
different pathogenic bacteria or other microbes, etc.
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4. Shoot Culture:
Shoot cultures have great applicability in the fields of horticulture, agriculture and forestry.
The practical application of this method was proposed by Morel and Martin (1952) after they
successfully recovered the complete Dahalia plant from shoot-tips cultures.
Later on, Morel realized that the technique of shoot culturing can prove to be a potent method
for rapid propagation of plants (i.e. Micro propagation). In this technique, the shoot apical
meristem is cultured on a suitable nutrient medium. This is also referred to as Meristem Culture
(Fig. 8).
The apical meristem of a shoot is the portion which is lying beyond the youngest leaf
primordium. Meristem tip culture is also beneficial for recovery of pathogen-free specially
virus-free plants through the tissue culture techniques. Various stages in this culture process
are the initiation of culture, shoot multiplication, rooting of shoots and finally the transfer of
plantlets to the pots or fields.
5. Protoplast Culture:
A protoplast is described as a plasma membrane bound vesicle which consists of a naked cell
formed as a result of removal of cell wall. The cell wall can be removed by mechanical or
enzymatic methods. In-vitro culturing of protoplasts has immense applications in the field of
plant biotechnology.
It not only serves for genetic manipulations in plants but also for biochemical and metabolic
studies in plants. For protoplast culture, firstly the protoplasts are isolated from the plants
utilizing some chemical or enzymatic procedure.
At present, there are available a number of enzymes which have enabled the isolation of
protoplasts from almost every plant tissue. After isolation of protoplasts, they are purified and
then tested for their viability. Finally the purified viable protoplasts are cultured in-vitro using
suitable nutrient medium which is usually either a liquid medium or a semisolid agar
medium.
7. Embryo Culture:
The technique of embryo culture involves the isolation and growth of an embryo under in-vitro
conditions to obtain a complete viable plant. First success for embryo culture was made by
Hannig in 1904 when he isolated and cultured embryos of two crucifers namely Cochleria and
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Raphanus. Embryo culture is used widely in the fields of agriculture, horticulture and forestry
for production of hybrid plants.
This technique allows the detailed study about the nutritional requirements of embryos during
different developmental stages. Also, it helps for identifying the regeneration potential of
embryos. Embryo culture is advantageous for in-vitro micro propagation of plants, overcoming
seed dormancy and for production of beneficial haploid plants.
8. Endosperm Culture (Triploid Production):
Endosperm tissue is triploid therefore the plantlets originating by the culture of endosperm are
also triploid.
In majority of flowering plant families (exceptions being Orchidaceae, Podostemaceae,
Trapaceae which lack endosperm) the endosperm tissues are present. Endosperm is formed
after the double fertilization of one male nucleus with two polar nuclei. Immature endosperm
has more potential of growth in culture especially among the cereals.
Endosperm culture has provided a novel strategy for plant breeding and horticulture for the
production of triploid plantlets. It is an easy method for production of a large number of
triploids in one step.
Moreover, it is much more convenient that the conventional techniques like chromosome
doubling by crossing tetraploids with diploids for triploid induction. Full triploid plants of
endosperm origin have been produced in a number of plant species like Populus, Oryza sativa,
Emblica officinalis, Pyrus malus, Prunus, etc.
The triploid plants are usually seedless therefore this technique is most beneficial for increasing
the commercial value of fruits like apple, mango, grapes, watermelon, etc. In addition to all the
above described applications, endosperm culture is helpful for studying biosynthesis and
metabolism of certain natural products also.
Haploid Production:
Haploid plants are those which contain half the number of chromosomes (denoted by n).
Haploids can be exploited for benefits in the studies related to experimental embryogenesis,
cytogenetics and plant breeding. Haploids have great significance in field of plant breeding and
genetics. They are most useful as the source of homozygous lines.
In addition, the in-vitro production of haploids also aids for induction of genetic variabilities,
disease resistance, salt tolerance, insect resistance, etc. Presently, attention is being focused on
improving the frequencies of haploid production in their advantageous utilization for economic
plant improvement.
There are two approaches for in-vitro haploid production. These are:
(a) Androgenesis:
The technique of production of haploids through anther or microspore culture is termed as
androgenesis. It is a method par excellence for the large scale production of haploids through
tissue culture.
Androgenesis technique for haploid production is based on the in-vitro culture of male
gametophyte i.e., microspore of a plant resulting into the production of complete plant from it.
It is achieved either by another culture or by microspore (pollen) culture.
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The technique of another culture is quicker for practical purposes and is an efficient method
for haploid production.
But sometimes during another culture, the plantlets may originate from different other parts of
anther also (along with from the pollens). On the other hand, microspore culture is free from
any uncontrolled effects of the anther wall or other tissues. Microspore culture is ideal method
for studying the mutagenic and transformation patterns (Fig. 9).
(b) Gynogenesis:
It is an alternative source of in-vitro haploid production. It refers to the production of haploid
plant from ovary culture or ovule culture. The method of gynogenesis for haploid production
has been successful, so far, in a very few plants only, hence it is not a very popular method for
in-vitro production of haploids. Thus, androgenesis is preferred over gynogenesis.
Terminology in tissue culture
 Totipotency : The ability inherent property of a cell (or) tissue to give rise to whole
plant irrespective of their ploidy level and the form of specialization .
 Meristem : A group of actively dividing cells from which permanent tissue systems
such as root, shoot, leaf, flower etc are derived .
 Embryoid / Somatic embryos : Non zygotic embryo‟s formed in culture.
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 Organogenesis : Type of morphogenesis which results in the formation of organs and

/ or origin of shoots roots. The floral organs from tissue culture (or) suspension
culture.
 Regeneration
 In tissue culture it is used for development of new organs (or) plantlets from a tissue,
callus culture (or) from a bud.
 Embryogenesis
 The process of embryo initiation origin of plantlet in a developmental pattern that
closely resembles the normal embryo development from fertilized egg or ovum. In
vivo : a latin word literally means in living applied to any process occur in a whole
organism under field condition where there is no control over the environmental
conditions .
 In vitro: A latin word literally means in glass / living in test tube applied to any
process carried out in sterile culture under controlled condition in the laboratory.
 Amplification : Creation of many copies of a segment of DNA by PCR / Duplication

of genes within a chromosomal segment.
 Parasexual hybridization : Hybridization by non-sexual methods. Eg:- protoplast

fusion.
 Cybrid : Plant (or) a cell which is a cytoplasmic hybrid produced by fusion of

protoplast cytoplast .
 Protoplast: A single cell with their cell walls stripped off a cell without a cell wall
 Cytoplast: Protoplast – nucleus i.e enucleated protoplast
 Heterokaryon: A cell in which two or more nuclei with dissimilar genetic make up
are present.
 Homokaryon: A cell with two or more nuclei of similar genetic make up .
 Synkaryon: Hybrid cell produced by fusion of nuclei in heterokaryon .
 Heteroplast : Cell containing foreign organells .
 Genetic Engineering :
 Manipulation of genetic architecture of an organism at DNA level (or) molecular
level .
 Recombinant DNA ( rDNA ) : The DNA which contains gene from different
sources and can combine with DNA of any organism .
 Transgenic plants : Plants which contain foreign DNA.
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1. Plants and Animal Resources: Uses of plants-food, fodder, medicine and

fibres and other products. Cultivated plants-origin and Indian natives.
Poisonous plants. Animals-wild and domesticated. Usefulness of animals
for mankind for food and medical advancements.
2. Crop Science in India; Characteristics of Plants - Crop plants, Forest

species, Medicinal Aromatic plants, Useful and Harmful plants and utility
for mankind.
What is a plant?
A plant is a multicellular, autotrophic living organism capable of photosynthesis,

adapted to living on land, and belongs to the kingdom Plantae.
General Characteristics of plant:
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• They lack motility; however, plants are not exactly immobile. They also
exhibit some form of limited movement like the unidirectional movement
of plant parts in response to light, or phototropism, and the folding of the
leaves of Mimosa in response to touch.
• Most of the plants are eukaryotic, i.e. these are multicellular, with clear
nuclear membrane.
• Cell walls of plant cells are comprised of cellulose.
• They have an ability to grow by cell division where new cells will be
formed from the pre-existing cells.
• In life cycle of plant cells, the interchanges occur from the embryos and
are supported by other tissues and self-produce.
• Plants have both organs and organ systems similar like animals.
• They obtain their energy from photosynthesis by using sun light and in
night time through a process of respiration.
• Chloroplast is the one of the important organelles present in plant but
absent in animals.
• Food material produced by the plants will be stored in the form of starch.
• Plants reproduce both by sexual and asexual. But animals reproduce only
through sexual process.
• Flower is the reproductive part of plant in many flowering plants.
• Plants develop a self-defense mechanism to protect them from being
destroyed by animals, fungi and other plants.
• Organisms within Kingdom Plantae are multicellular, eukaryotic and
autotrophic (where they prepare their own food material).
• Unlike animals, plants have no nervous system and organized muscle
fibers.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS
Characteristics of plants have been classified into two:

1. Plant morphology.
2. Plant physiology
1) PLANT MORPHOLOGY OR PHYTOMORPHOLOGY : is the study

of the physical form and external structure of plants. Plant morphology is
useful in the visual identification of plants. Plant morphology treats both
the vegetative structures of plants, as well as the reproductive structures.
DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL FLOWERING PLANT
Axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole.
Axillary bud - a bud that develops in the axil.
Flower - the reproductive unit of angiosperms.
Flower stalk - the structure that supports the flower.
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Internodes - the area of the stem between any two adjacent nodes.
Lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of the stem of a plant.
Leaf - an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most leaves
are flat and contain chloroplasts; their main function is to convert energy from
sunlight into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis.
Nodes:
• Nodes are the points where leaves attaches to a stem.
•The stem between two nodes is an internode (inter = between).
Petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant.
Root - a root is a plant structure that obtains food and water from the soil, stores
energy, and provides support for the plant. Most roots grow underground.
Root cap - a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the
apical meristem (the actively growing region) of the root.
Stem
• The stem supports the shoot and keeps it upright.
• It transports water and minerals up to the leaves.
• It transports food compounds downward to the roots and upward to growing
tissues.
Tap root - the main root of some plants; the tap root extends straight down under
the plant.
Terminal bud - a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem. Terminal buds have
special tissue, called apical meristem, consisting of cells that can divide
indefinitely.
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Structure of Flower
A flower is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants. The biological

function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism
for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers give rise to fruit and seeds.
The Basic Flower Parts:
The flower consists of many different parts. Some of the most important parts
being separated into both male and female parts.
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Male Parts (in Greek androsoikia: man's house)
 Stamen
This is the male part of the flower. It is made up of the filament and anther,
it is the pollen producing part of the plant. The number of stamen is usually
the same as the number of petals.
 Anther
This is the part of the stamen that produces and contains pollen. It is usually
on top of a long stalk that looks like a fine hair.
 Filament
This is the fine hair-like stalk that the anther sits on top of.
Female Parts (Gynoecium : (in Greek gynaikosoikia: woman's house)
 Pistil
This is the female part of the flower. It is made up of the stigma, style, and
ovary. Each pistil is constructed of one to many rolled leaflike structures.
 Stigma
One of the female parts of the flower. It is the sticky bulb that you see in
the center of the flowers, it is the part of the pistil of a flower which receives
the pollen grains and on which they germinate.
 Style
Another female part of the flower. This is the long stalk that the stigma sits
on top of.
 Ovary
The part of the plant, usually at the bottom of the flower, that has the seeds
inside and turns into the fruit that we eat. The ovary contains ovules.
 Ovule
The part of the ovary that becomes the seeds.
Other Important Parts of a Flower
 Petal
The colorful, often bright part of the flower. They attract pollinators and
are usually the reason why we buy and enjoy flowers.
 Sepal
The parts that look like little green leaves that cover the outside of a flower
bud to protect the flower before it opens.
 Peduncle: The stalk of a flower.
2) PLANT PHYSIOLOGY:
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Plant physiology is the study of the function of plant body. The three major plant
functions that are the basics for plant growth and development are photosynthesis,
respiration, and transpiration.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
One of the major differences between plants and animals on earth is the ability of
plants to internally manufacture their own food. To produce food for itself a plant
requires energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide from the air and water from the
soil. If any of these ingredients is lacking, photosynthesis, or food production,
will stop. If any factor is removed for a long period of time, the plant will die.
Photosynthesis literally means "to put together with light."
Photosyntheses
Any green plant tissue is capable of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts in these cells

contain the green pigment called chlorophyll which traps the light energy.
However, leaves are generally the site of most food production due to their special
structure. The internal tissue (mesophyll) contains cells with abundant
chloroplasts in an arrangement that allows easy movement of water and air. The
protective upper and lower epidermis (skin) layers of the leaf include many
stomata that are openings in the leaf formed by two specialized guard cells on
either side. Guard cells regulate movement of the gases, (i.e. CO2 into and O2
and H2O out of the leaf), involved in photosynthesis. The lower epidermis of the
leaf normally contains the largest percentage of stomata.
RESPIRATION:
Carbohydrates made during photosynthesis are of value to the plant when they
are converted into energy. This energy is used in the process of building new
tissues. The chemical process by which sugars and starches produced by
photosynthesis are converted into energy is called respiration. It is similar to the
burning of wood or coal to produce heat or energy. This process in cells is shown
most simply as:
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This equation is precisely the opposite of that used to illustrate photosynthesis,

although more is involved than just reversing the reaction. However, it is
appropriate to relate photosynthesis to a building process, while respiration is a
breaking-down process.
TRANSPIRATION:
Transpiration is the process by which a plant loses water, primarily through leaf
stomata. Transpiration is a necessary process that involves the use of about 90%
of the water that enters the plant through the roots. The other 10% of the water is
used in chemical reactions and in plant tissues. Transpiration is necessary for
mineral transport from the soil to the plant for the cooling of the plant through
evaporation, to move sugars and plant chemicals, and for the maintenance of
turgor pressure. The amount of water lost from the plant depends on several
environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and wind or air movement.
An increase in temperature or air movement decreases relative humidity and
causes the guard cells in the leaf to shrink, opening the stomata and increasing
the rate of transpiration.
USEFULNESS OF PLANTS FOR MANKIND
Humans are dependent upon plants. Directly or indirectly, plants provide food,
clothing, fuel, shelter, and many other necessities of life. Humankind's
dependence on crops such as wheat and corn (maize) is obvious, but without grass
and grain the livestock that provide people with food and other animal products
could not survive either.
Humanity's relationship with plants has actually made it possible for us to have a
civilization. Before we had cities, humans went around in little packs and were
hunter-gatherers. We ate rats, birds, berries, and whatever food we could find. It
wasn't very efficient. One day someone had the bright idea to plant the plants we
like to eat. When humans did that, they were able to stay in one place full time.
Then came the cities and a huge system of agriculture to support millions of
people.
As time has passed, we have taken farming to new levels. We have manipulated
species to create big apples and large ears of corn. The plants would never have
done it in the wild. It took man to change the plants. We are also moving toward
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the genetic alteration of plants. We're trying to make plants that are resistant to
disease and bugs. These stronger plants will allow our crops to give us more food
from the same amount of space.
Hence, Plants are the backbone of all life on Earth. Just think about how your
everyday life depends on plants.
1) Food:
Everything we eat comes directly or indirectly from plants. Throughout human

history, approximately 7,000 different plant species have been used as food by
people. Starches and sugars, the foods that plants make and store for their own
growth, are also the fundamental nutrients that humans and other organisms need
in order to live.
The chief food plants are cereal grains.
 Major cereal: these are rich in carbohydrates. Crops include corn

(maize), wheat, oats, rice, barley, and rye.
 Major Pulses: these are rich in protein content. Crops include soya
bean, pigeon pea, black gram, green gram, ground nut.
 Vegetables and fruits.
 For centuries, people have used the herbs and spices derived from plants
as seasonings for their food. Pepper and nutmeg are two examples of
seasonings derived from dried fruit, while others such as sage and
rosemary come from leaves. A common baking spice, cinnamon, is
found in the stem of the plant.
 Even beverages come from plant life. By steeping plants in hot water,
coffee, tea, and cocoa are produced. Nature makes many other
beverages naturally, such as fruit juices, cider, and milk.
 Plants are also important sources of food to cattle
2) Clothing:
 Much human clothing is made from material that comes directly from
plants. Cotton is the principal plant used for clothing manufacture.
 Artificial textile fibers, such as rayon, are manufactured chiefly from
cellulose, which is found mainly in the cell walls of plants.
 Linen is obtained from the flax plant.
3) Paper:
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 Papyrus, a grass like plant, was used more than four thousand years ago in
the first endeavor, by Egyptians, to make paper. It is from this plant that
paper has derived its name.
 The Chinese, around 100AD, invented a method of manufacturing paper
that is still in use today. The fibers from the plant are placed in water,
reduced to but a pulp. After the water has been sieved off, the remaining
pulp is pressed, and then allowed to dry to yield a very thin sheet of paper.
 Almost any plant that is found to be high in cellulose is considered
excellent for making the pulp which produces paper.
4) SHELTER:
 Wood is the most familiar forest product. It has manifold applications such
as match boxes, window frames, sports tools, ship building, etc.
 Ex: red sanders, Neem, pine wood, rosewood, willow wood, Sal, teak,
deodhar,
5) FUEL:
 Green plants, which lived on the Earth very long ago, are the origin for the
coal, oil, and gas that humans use for heating and cooking purposes.
 Compression and heat have converted these plants into fossil fuels.
 In Ireland, a common fuel is peat, which is formed by the same process as
coal.
 The oldest form of fuel is wood, burned to create heat for warmth and for
cooking.
6) MEDICINES:
 In ancient cultures, medicine men used the extracts from plant life to soothe
and relieve aches and pains. In the very beginnings of Botany, doctors in
India researched herbs in their quest to cure disease.
 Many of the plants that were discovered by ancient civilizations are still in
use today. The cinchona tree, yields from its bark quinine, used to fight
malaria.
 Onion and its relative garlic are members of the lily family and are some
of the oldest known medicinal plants. They are rich in trace elements,
sulphur and minerals, making them good for overall health. Onion juice is
a disinfectant and antibiotic.
 In Ayurveda medicine, turmeric is a symbol of prosperity. It is a base
ingredient in curries and acts as a catch-all treatment for a wide range of
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ailments. It helps reduce fever, runny nose, infections and relieves

symptoms of arthritis.
 Aloe Vera is a versatile plant; it can thrive anywhere, from greenhouses to
the windowsill in your home. Its uses are also versatile. The gel from the
leaves relieves burns, inflammation and wounds.
 Even today plants are being discovered that yield important and much
needed medicines. Many other plants have proven invaluable as sources of
vitamins, an important part of growth and proper development.
 As detailed above, plant life is a very vital part of human life; without
plants, both land and sea dwelling, human life could not be sustained.
Plant /tree Edible

part/medical
value
Saffron, cloves Flower
Cinchona tree Quinine(bark)
Turmeric/ ginger Stem
Opium/coriander Fruit
aloe Vera Leaves
Neem All parts of

plant
Cardamom Seeds
Ginger, turmeric, Stem

garlic
7) Cosmetics:
 Plants have been used for cosmetic purposes since time immemorial. From
the ancient India, who used olive oil.
 The modern day, plant extracts are widely used by men and women alike
for cleansing and beautifying purposes. One of the oldest and best known
plant oils is derived from lavender, the scientific name of which
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‘Lavandula’ is derived from the Latin ‘lavare’, meaning to wash, after the
widespread Roman practice of throwing lavender in their baths.
 Hair rinses and shampoos containing camomile (Chamaemelumnobile),
are popular nowadays amongst those with blond hair.
 Henna is another well-known, natural hair dye. Made from the crushed,
dried leaves of the henna plant (Lawsoniainermis), it is one of the oldest
known hair and body dies. The prophet Mohammed is said to have used it
to redden his beard and it is still commonly used by women to colour not
only their hair, but in some countries also their cheeks, hands, nails and
feet.
 There are countless other uses of plants – too many to record here.
8) Natural Insecticides:
 One of the most successfully used plant products is the powder from
pyrethrum flowers (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium). Pyrethroids act as
insecticides, killing insects effectively before decomposing into harmless
products.
 Neem is another plant-based insecticide used widely in India and Africa,
especially for controlling insect pests in stored grain.
9) Air Quality:
 Forest canopies purify air by filtering particles and providing chemical
reaction sites where pollutants are detoxified.
 Forest trees and other plants also store carbon and help to slow human-
induced global climate change. Were it not for the carbon sink provided by
plants, the rate of carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere would
be almost twice as fast as it is today – leading to rapid climate change.
10) Cleaning Toxic Soils:
 Soils in some areas are unusable as human activities have resulted in them
becoming contaminated with heavy metals, radioactive elements and other
toxins.
 Plants can be used to clean up such soils as they have the capacity to
concentrate toxic elements in their tissues without harm.
 Mustard plants for example accumulate lead and certain ferns take up
arsenic.
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1
USEFUL PLANTS
1) Allium sativum:
 Common name: garlic.

 Uses: anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, effective in
rheumatism.
 Raw garlic: decreases glucose, cholesterol, phospholipids, and
triglycerides.
2) Curcuma longa:
 Turmeric is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger
family, Zingiberaceae.
 In India, turmeric is used in almost all curries and gravy dishes. It gives
a rich color and a unique flavor to the food.
 In India, The active compound curcumin is believed to have a wide
range of biological effects including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,
anti-tumors, antibacterial, and antiviral activities, which indicate
potential in clinical medicine.
 Turmeric is a great pesticide. Sprinkle turmeric (powder) water near all
the entry points of your house to ward of insects, ants, and termites.
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 Apart from therapeutic uses, turmeric is also used as an important spice,

in beauty products and in spiritual ceremonies.
3) Aloe Vera:
 Is a succulent plant species.
 This nontoxic plant stores water in its leaves and survives in low rainfall
and arid regions.
 Aloe Vera is considered to be a miracle plant. Since, it contains
phytochemicals and other nutrients which are beneficial for hair, health
and skin.
 Aloe Vera when taken internally aids in digestion and effectively
cleanses the digestive system. Aloe Vera works as a laxative which
makes it easier for the food particles to pass through the intestine. Thus
aloe Vera helps those who suffer severe constipation problems.
 Aloe Vera gel contains two hormones, Auxins and Gibberellins which
have wound healing and anti-inflammatory properties. Aloe Vera with
its powerful healing capability helps to treat sun burn at the epithelial
level of the skin.
 Aloe Vera contains a plethora of anti-oxidants like beta carotene,
vitamins C and E that improve the natural firmness of skin. Aloe Vera
helps to keep the skin hydrated and it also improves the skin’s elasticity,
therefore minimizing the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles. Thus it
refreshes the skin and makes it vibrant and young looking.
4) Tamarindus indica:
 Is a leguminous tree in the family Fabaceae.
 The tamarind tree produces edible, pod-like fruit which are used
extensively in cuisines around the world.
 Tamarind is rich in tartaric acid. Tartaric acid gives sour taste to food
besides its inherent activity as a powerful antioxidant.
 In addition, it is also rich in many vital vitamins- vitamin-A, folic acid,
riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin-C. Much of these vitamins plays
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antioxidant as well as co-factor functions for enzyme metabolism inside

the body.
 Tamarind wood is a bold red color. Due to its density and durability,
tamarind heartwood can be used in making furniture and wood flooring.
 Tamarind concentrate can be used to remove tarnish from brass and
copper.
5) Phyllanthusemblica:
 It is a deciduous tree of the family Phyllanthaceae.
 A great source of vitamin C, consume raw amla daily instead of vitamin C
supplements as it is not easily absorbed by the body.
 Daily consumption of raw amla reduces constipation problem, as it rich in
fibres and acts as a gentle laxative.
 It has anti-inflammatory properties which help in reducing the swelling and
joint pain of knees caused due to arthritis. Have raw amla or amla juice
daily in the morning.
 Amla is the powerhouse of anti-oxidants and thus helps in fighting off free
radicals in your body. Daily consumption of raw amla or juice reduces the
risk of many serious diseases including cancer.
 Regular consumption of amla is very good for your stomach, as it balances
the acids levels of stomach and thus improving digestion.
6) Ocimumtenuiflorum:
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 It is also known as Ocimum sanctum, holy basil, or tulasi, is an aromatic

plant in the family Lamiaceae which is native to the Indian
Subcontinent.
 Tulasi is cultivated for religious and medicinal purposes, and for its
essential oil.
 The dried leaves have been mixed with stored grains to repel insects.
7) Azadirachta indica:
 The neem plant is a fast growing and long living tree, native to Burma
in India.
 From there the neem tree has spread and is now grown all over the
world.
 Neem seed oil is an ingredient in many skin care products. In India most
of the neem oil is used in neem soap, but there are also neem shampoos,
lotions, creams etc.
 It is extremely effective in eliminating bacterial and fungal infections
or parasites.
 The bark contains a higher concentration of active ingredients than the
leaves, and is especially high in ingredients with antiseptic and anti-
inflammatory action. Neem bark is highly effective when treating
gingivitis (gum disease).
 It is also used as a natural insect repellent, a safe and more efficient
alternative to the harmful DEET (N, N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide).
 Neem bark contains tannins which are used in tanning and dyeing. In
south India its wood is used to make the furniture. The bark of the yields
the fiber that is woven into ropes.
8) Tectona grandis:
 Teak is a tropical hardwood tree of species. The species is placed in the
family Lamiaceae.
 Teak timber is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance
 Teak is used extensively in India to make doors and window frames,
furniture, and columns and beams in old type houses.
 Teak has been used as a boatbuilding material for over 2000 years.
 It is very resistant to termite attacks. It is also highly resistant to rot,
fungi and mildew.
 Mature teak fetches a very good price.
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9) Gossypium arboretum:
 Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective

capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants in the family of Malvaceae.
 Cotton fibers are made up of cellulose.
 The fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft,
breathable textile.
 The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to
produce cottonseed oil, which, after refining, can be consumed by
humans like any other vegetable oil.
 In India, the states of Maharashtra (26.63%), Gujarat (17.96%) and
Andhra Pradesh (13.75%) and also Madhya Pradesh are the leading
cotton producing states.
 China is the world's largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used
domestically.
10) Capsicum:
 It belongs to Solanaceae family.
 India is the world's largest producer, consumer and exporter of chili
peppers.Guntur in Andhra Pradesh produces 30% of all the chilies
produced in India.
 In India, most households always keep a stack of fresh hot green chilies
at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes.
 Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper spray as an irritant, a
form of less-lethal weapon.
 Red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C and small amounts of
carotene (provitamin A).
 Capsaicin is considered a safe and effective topical analgesic agent in
the management of arthritis pain, diabetic neuropathy, mastectomy
pain, and headaches
Harmful plants
Vegetation helps sustain life. We eat many plants, herbs and so forth in our daily
diet. But, we must remember to be choosy. Some plants, trees or shrubs are
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potential killers of man. Some part of the ornamental plants or flowers in your
yard may contain deadly poison.
A poison is a substance which, when administered, inhaled or ingested, is capable

of acting deleteriously on the human body. Thus, there are really no limits,
between a medicine and a poison, for a medicine in a toxic dose is a poison and
a poison in a small dose may be a medicine means, it depends on dose/quantity
only.
Paracelsus (1493-1541), the father of toxicologysaid in the sixteenth century,

“Everything is poison; there is poisonin everything, only the dose makes a thing
not a poison”.
The poisonous nature of whole plant or any part of plant may be due to production
of toxic substances such as, alkaloids, glucosides, amines, resins, saponin,
tannins, essential oils, etc., harmful to man and animal life, at least under certain
conditions.
Some of the harmful plants are listed below:
11) Nicotianatobacum:
 Tobacco is a plant within the genus Nicotiana of the Solanaceae
(nightshade) family.
 Tobacco leaves contains the alkaloid nicotine; it is a potent neurotoxin and
is included in many insecticides.
 Dried tobacco leaves are mainly smoked in cigarettes, cigars, beedi, pipe
tobacco and hookah.
 They are also consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, gutka and dipping
tobacco.
 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco is the single
greatest cause of preventable death globally.
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 The harms caused by using tobacco include diseases affecting the heart and
lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes,
 Inhaling secondhand tobacco smoke can cause lung cancer in nonsmoking
adults.
12) Opium poppy (PapaverSomniferum):
 Belonging to the family Papaveraceae, is an annual medicinal herb.
 Incisions are made on the green seed pods; the latex which oozes from the
incisions is collected, and dried to produce "raw opium".Opium is the
source of many narcotics, including morphine (and its derivative heroin),
thebaine, codeine, papaverine, and noscapine.
 Heroin or diacetyl morphine is a derivative of morphine, which is used as
a is used as a recreational drug for the intense euphoria.Frequent and
regular administration is associated with tolerance and physical
dependence.
 Heroin is most often injected, however, it may also be vaporized
("smoked"), sniffed ("snorted"), used as a suppository, or orally ingested.
 The user experiences an alternately wakeful and drowsy state. Mental
functioning becomes clouded due to the depression of the central nervous
system. Other effects that heroin may have on users include respiratory
depression, constricted pupils and nausea. Effects of heroin overdose may
also include slow and shallow breathing, hypotension, muscle spasms,
convulsions, coma, and possible death.
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13) Nerium oleander:
Common Name: Oleander
 These are ornamental shrubs planted for the colourful flowers. Some
species of oleander such as the Neriumindicum, has scented flowers. The
leaves are simple, stiff, leathery and sharply pointed. Flowers are yellow
to rose-pink, red-purple or white. The fruit appear as long pods.
 Poisonous parts: All plant parts.
 Effects: Abdominal pain, diarrhea and nausea.
14) Castor Beans:

 Castor oil has long been used to aid digestion. While it has a foul taste and
consistency, it is not harmful when ingested, yet you may be surprised to
learn that just one bean from the plant that is used to make castor oil can
be fatal to an adult in minutes.
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 That's because when they make castor oil they remove a lethal compound
called ricin, making the oil safe to consume. While usually fatal, if
consumption of the castor bean doesn't kill you, you can look forward to
symptoms like nausea, emesis, diarrhea, tachycardia, hypotension and
seizures, often persisting for up to a week.
15) Partheniumhysterophorus:
 It is a species of flowering plant in the asteraceae family, which is native
to the American tropics. Common names include Santa Maria Feverfew
and White top Weed.This weed is considered to be a cause of allergic
respiratory problems, contact dermatitis, mutagenicity in human and
livestock due to presence of toxin “Parthenin”. Aggressive dominance of
this weed threatens biodiversity.
16) Calotropis gigantean:

 Calotropis is flowering plants in theAsclepiadaceae or Ak family, first
described as a genus in 1810. It is native to southern Asia and North Africa.
Calotropis is recognized as a poisonous plant in India and South Asia.
 They are commonly known as milkweeds because they produce latex.The
latex of Calotropisgigantea contains cardiac glycosides, fatty acids, and
calcium oxalate.
 When taken orally, the juice produces an acrid, bitter taste and burning pain
in throat and stomach, vomiting, diarrhea, dilated pupils, tetanic
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convulsions, collapse and death. Treatment includes stomach wash,

demulcents, and symptomatic treatment.
17) Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Belladonna):

 This plant goes by many names, including Belladonna, Devil's Berries, and
Death Cherries. Both the leaves and the berries are extremely toxic, and
children have been known to die from eating just two berries.
 One of the most toxic plants in the Western Hemisphere, consumption of

Deadly Nightshade leads to delirium, hallucinations, dilated pupils,
sensitivity to light, blurred vision, tachycardia, loss of balance, staggering,
headache, rash, dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retention,
constipation, confusion, and convulsions. Without receiving the antidote,
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sufferers will eventually die due to the plant's disruption of their body's
involuntary activities such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate.
18) Dumb Cane (Dieffenbachia):
 A common shade-loving household plant, Dumb Cane is a tropical plant
that is among the most poisonous plants in the world. Chewing on any part
of this leafy plant causes intense pain in the mouth and throat, excessive
salivation, and in rare cases, severe swelling of the throat that can lead to
strangulation.
19) Jimson Weed (DaturaStramonium):

 The very first plant poisoning death in the United States is credited to this
little weed: Jimsonweed. The Jamestown, VA settlers used jimsonweed to
poison British soldiers, who then spent 11 days in a state of insanity until
they came to their senses (and didn't remember a thing). Turns out those
soldiers got off easy; symptoms such as abnormal thirst, vision distortions,
delirium, incoherence, and coma are often fatal.
 Also called devil's trumpet, angel's trumpet, devil's weed, stinkweed,
locoweed, and hell's bells, people who attempt to consume this weed
recreationally for the hallucinogenic properties often get more than they
bargain for because it's nearly impossible not to overdose. In South Africa,
they call them "mad seeds."
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20) Codiaeumvariegatum: CommonName: Croton.

 Croton is a common house plant. The leaf colours are eye-catching, from
yellow, pink, and red to evenorange. Crotonsare availablein many different
leaf colours andleaf shapes.
 Poisonous parts:All plant parts.
 Effects: The latex of this planthas caused eczema in some gardeners.
Ingesting the barkor roots has caused burning and irritation of the mouth
parts. Occasional eczema has been reported after repeated exposure to the
latex.
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Why in news?
 Due to Government policy in favour open source software across all
Central departments.
 Open source software are those software which can be freely used,
modified, and shared.
Advantage of open source software

 Entail substantial savings on the Centre’s software expenses as most open
source alternatives are free
 Increase interoperability.
 Help in developing local capacity/ industry.
 Enable localization.
 Reduce piracy/copyright infringements.
 Promote growth of knowledge-based society.
Benefits
 There is dependency on closed software by government.
 Average spend on cyber security of closed software is about 2 to 3 per cent of
the total IT spending.
 Shifting to open software would help the government save a lot of money.
 It is more difficult to hack into open source software than close software.
 Open-source licences are cost effective.
 Faster in operation.
Why open source resources are more secure

 In open source users have access to the algorithm that makes it work.
 No one has access to the encryption key or the set of numbers that act as a
password.
 Without that password it is impossible to hack into these.
Adaptations of ORS in educational institution

 At present there is dependency on commercial closed software that tend to
suppress innovation in educational institution.
 There is need to create an environment where open-source talent can come out
of these institute.
Challenges
 There are Concerns pertaining to security and operational efficiency.
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 Due to publicly accessible source code, it can be modified by anyone.

 Unlike closed or commercial software, open source requires a certain
ecosystem to work smoothly.
 They need to be backed by a strong community as there are certain
vulnerabilities with it.
 Due to lack of regulation using open source in government departments might
be a concern.
 No serious policy backing until recent.
Way forward
 The question about the efficiency of open source software is largely a
perception
 The government is banking on BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions) –
in vernacular language
 Adoption of new policy will promote innovation by encouraging
collaborative development to develop better products in less time.
The Regional Centre for Biotechnology Bill, 2016
The Regional Centre for Biotechnology Bill, 2016 was introduced in Lok Sabha
by the Minister of Science and Technology and Earth Sciences, Dr Harsh
Vardhan, on March 15, 2016.
India had entered into an agreement in 2006 with the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) regarding establishment of the
Regional Centre for Biotechnology Training and Education in India to serve the
member countries of UNESCO. In light of this agreement, the central
government set up the Regional Centre for Biotechnology Training and
Education in Faridabad, Haryana through an executive order in 2009. The Bill
seeks to provide legislative backing to the Regional Centre. It also confers upon
it the status of an institution of national importance. An institution of national
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importance is an institute which imparts scientific or technical education, and is

empowered to grant degrees.
Objectives: The Bill states that the objectives of the Regional Centre will
include: (i) disseminating knowledge by providing teaching and research
facilities in biotechnology and related fields, (ii) facilitating transfer of
technology and knowledge in the SAARC region and generally Asia, (iii) creating
a hub of biotechnology expertise, and (iv) promoting cooperation at the
international level.
Powers of the Regional Centre: The powers of the Regional Centre will
include: (i) providing masters and doctoral degrees, and post-graduate diplomas
in biotechnology and related subjects (eg. medical, agricultural and engineering
sciences), (ii) instituting academic positions, like professorships, and appointing
persons to such positions, (iii) determining standards of admission to the Regional
Centre, and (iv) fixing and receiving fees.
Authorities of the Regional Centre: The Regional Centre will have authorities
responsible for its administration and functioning including: (i) the Board of
Governors, (ii) the Programme Advisory Committee, (iii) the Executive
Committee, (iv) the Finance Committee, etc.
Board of Governors: The Board will be the apex body of the Regional Centre
responsible for: (i) approving the annual plan and budget of the institute, (ii)
reviewing its policies and programmes, (iii) approving organisational structure,
(iv) carrying out the projects relevant to the institute, (v) expanding fund raising
capabilities, etc. The Board will have seven members: (i) the Secretary with the
Department of Biotechnology as Chairperson, (ii) three scientists nominated by
the central government (not below the rank of Joint Secretary or equivalent rank),
and (iii) three representatives of UNESCO.
Programme Advisory Committee: The Programme Advisory Committee will

be the principal academic body of the Regional Centre. It will be responsible for:
(i) making recommendations on planning education, training and research
activities, (ii) reviewing annually the programmes of the Regional Centre, (iii)
publishing reports on scientific and technical issues referred to it by the Board,
etc. It will comprise 14 members (including nominees of the Board, central
government and UNESCO).
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Executive and Finance Committees: The Executive Committee will be in

charge of implementing policies and decisions of the Board. The Finance
Committee will review finances and accounts of the Regional Centre, and make
recommendations to the Board. The constitution and powers of these committees
will be specified by the Board.
Review of functioning: The Regional Centre’s functioning will be reviewed

once in every four years by persons appointed by the central government.
Fund: The Regional Centre will maintain a Fund to meet its expenses (including
fees and allowances paid to members of the Board and various committees and
expenses incurred in carrying out its functions). The Fund will include: (i)
monies provided by the central government, (ii) fees received by the Regional
Centre, and (iii) grants, gifts, donations, etc. received.
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The Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2016
The Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2016 was introduced by Minister of Health and
Family Welfare, Mr. J. P. Nadda in Lok Sabha on November 21, 2016. The Bill
defines surrogacy as a practice where a woman gives birth to a child for an
intending couple and agrees to hand over the child after the birth to the intending
couple.
Regulation of surrogacy: The Bill prohibits commercial surrogacy, but allows

altruistic surrogacy. Altruistic surrogacy involves no monetary compensation to
the surrogate mother other than the medical expenses and insurance coverage
during the pregnancy. Commercial surrogacy includes surrogacy or its related
procedures undertaken for a monetary benefit or reward (in cash or kind)
exceeding the basic medical expenses and insurance coverage.
Purposes for which surrogacy is permitted: Surrogacy is permitted when it is, (i)
for intending couples who suffer from proven infertility; and (ii) altruistic; and
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(iii) not for commercial purposes; and (iv) not for producing children for sale,
prostitution or other forms of exploitation.
Eligibility criteria for intending couple: The intending couple should have a
‘certificate of essentiality’ and a ‘certificate of eligibility’ issued by the
appropriate authority.
A certificate of essentiality will be issued upon fulfilment of the following

conditions: (i) a certificate of proven infertility of one or both members of the
intending couple from a District Medical Board; (ii) an order of parentage and
custody of the surrogate child passed by a Magistrate’s court; and (iii) insurance
coverage for the surrogate mother.
The certificate of eligibility is issued upon fulfilment of the following conditions

by the intending couple: (i) Indian citizens and are married for at least five years;
(ii) between 23 to 50 years old female and 26 to 55 years old male; (iii) they do
not have any surviving child (biological, adopted or surrogate); this would not
include a child who is mentally or physically challenged or suffers from life
threatening disorder or fatal illness. Other conditions may be specified by
regulations.
Eligibility criteria for surrogate mother: To obtain a certificate of eligibility from

the appropriate authority, the surrogate mother has to: (i) be a close relative of the
intending couple; (ii) be an ever married woman having a child of her own; (iii)
be 25 to 35 years old; (iv) be a surrogate only once in her lifetime; and (iv) possess
a certificate of medical and psychological fitness for surrogacy.
Appropriate authority: The central and state governments shall appoint one or
more appropriate authorities within 90 days of the Bill becoming an Act. The
functions of the appropriate authority include; (i) granting, suspending or
cancelling registration of surrogacy clinics; (ii) enforcing standards for surrogacy
clinics; (iii) investigating and taking action against breach of the provisions of the
Bill; (iv) recommending modifications to the rules and regulations.
Registration of surrogacy clinics: Surrogacy clinics cannot undertake surrogacy

related procedures unless they are registered by the appropriate authority. Clinics
must apply for registration within a period of 60 days from the date of
appointment of appropriate authority.
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National and State Surrogacy Boards: The central and the state governments shall
constitute the National Surrogacy Board (NSB) and the State Surrogacy Boards
(SSB), respectively. Functions of the NSB include, (i) advising the central
government on policy matters relating to surrogacy; (ii) laying down the code of
conduct of surrogacy clinics; and (iii) supervising the functioning of SSBs.
Offences and penalties: The Bill states the following offences: (i) undertaking or
advertising commercial surrogacy; (ii) exploiting the surrogate mother; (iii)
abandoning, exploiting or disowning a surrogate child; and (iv) selling or
importing human embryo or gametes for surrogacy. These offences will attract a
minimum penalty of 10 years and a fine up to 10 lakh rupees.
The Bill specifies a range of offences and penalties for other contraventions of
the provisions of the Bill and initiating commercial surrogacy.
Open Source Software
Introduction
 The term "open source" refers to something that can be modified and shared
because its design is publicly accessible.
 Open source software is software whose source code is available for
modification or enhancement by anyone.
 "Source code" is the part of software that most computer users don't ever see.
 It's the code computer programmers can manipulate to change how a piece of
software-a "program" or "application" -works.
 Programmers who have access to a computer program's source code can
improve that program by adding features to it
Difference between open source and other types of software
Closed source
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 Some software has source code that cannot be modified by anyone but the
person, team, or organization who created it and maintains exclusive
control over it.
 This kind of software is frequently called "proprietary software" or "closed
source" software.
 Microsoft Word and Adobe Photoshop are examples of proprietary software.
 In order to use proprietary software, computer users must agree that they will
not do anything with the software that the software's authors have not
expressly permitted.
Open source
 Its authors make its source code available to others who would like to view
that code, copy it, learn from it, alter it, or share it.
 Libre Office and the GNU Image Manipulation Program are examples of
open source software.
 Users must accept the terms of a license when they use open source software.
 Open source software licenses promote collaboration and sharing because
they allow other people to make modifications.
 Computer programmers can access, view, and modify open source software
whenever they like-as long as let others do the same when they share their
work.
Benefits
 Open source software benefits programmers and non-programmers alike.

 Anyone using the Internet benefits from open source software.
 Many people prefer open source software because they have more control
over that kind of software.
 They can examine the code to make sure it's not doing anything they don't
want it to do.
 They can change parts of it they don't like.
 Users who aren't programmers also benefit from open source software,
because they can use this software for any purpose they wish.
 Because open source code is publicly accessible, students can learn to make
better software by studying what others have written.
 They can also share their work with others, inviting comment and critique.
 Some people prefer open source software because they consider it more
secure and stable than proprietary software.
 Because anyone can view and modify open source software, someone might
spot and correct errors or omissions that a program's original authors might
have missed.
 Open source software is generally fixed, updated, and upgraded quickly.
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 Many users prefer open source software to proprietary software for

important, long-term projects.
GOI's policy on Open Source Software (OSS)
 Department of Electronics and Information Technology has announced a

policy to prefer use of Open Source Software(OSS) in all central
government departments and ministers.
 With use of Closed Source Software(CSS) only being considered as an
exception with sufficient justification.
 Policy prefer Open Source Software(OSS) compared to Closed Source
Software(CSS).
 Presently this policy is applicable to departments and ministers under central
government. State governments may chose to adopt this policy.
 Objective of this policy is not only reducing costs of projects, but also to
adopt Open Source Software(OSS) to ensure long term control of
applications.
 Policy requires vendors to provide justification, if they do not include Open
Source Software option while responding.
 The policy requires central government ministers and departments to adopt
Open Source Software (OSS) in all e-governance applications or systems
implemented by government.
 However, when OSS solutions are not available, or when urgency demands
adopting CSS solution, the government may consider Closed Source
Software (CSS) with sufficient justification.
 Policy neither prevents suppliers from proposing Closed Source Software
nor does it prevent government from choosing Closed Source Software.
 Government of India is implementing 'Digital India' programme.
 Under this the Government of India is seeking to make available government
services in reliable and manner at affordable prices.
 Organisations all over the world have managed to reduce costs by exploring
Open Source Software.
 Government of India has been promoting Open Source Software to leverage
economic and strategic benefits.
Software patents in India
 The Indian Patents Act, 1970, clearly prohibits the patenting of software
'per se' under Section 3.
 This means that software, in isolation, cannot be patented.
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 Software can, however, be patented in the form of 'computer related

inventions'.
 Under the new guidelines, patent examiners have been asked to not grant a
patent if the "contribution lies only in the algorithm".
 These inventions may have one or more features which are either wholly
or partially dependent on software to function.
 Software can, for example, be patented in combination with hardware.
 Patenting was allowed when the software produces a 'further technical
effect', i.e., an effect which is unusual, in comparison with the normal
effects caused by software.
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What are Technology Missions?

The "Technology Mission" are the brain child of Mr. Rajiv Gandhi. The mission
was started as an offshoot of the Seventh Plan in the fields of
 Literacy,
 Immunization,
 Oilseeds,
 Drinking water,
 Dairy products and
 Telecommunication.
Objectives:-
(i) Make substantial improvement in the functional literacy of the population.
(ii) Immunize all infants against six diseases and women against tetanus.
(iii) Cut down imports of edible oil.
(iv) Improve the availability and quality of drinking water in rural areas.
(v) Improve milk production and rural employment,
(vi) Extend and improve the telecommunication network especially in rural areas.
Thus, the National Technology Missions focused on the key human needs. The
advantage of working through the missions is that, they break up the process of
change and delivery into manageable tasks in the form of a package programme
with the aim of country.
The special objective of this mission level is also to improve the motivational of
the people. The mission implementation takes place with the coordination of the
center, the states, and the voluntary organization funded through the Planning
Commission.
Mission goals
The missions’ specific goals were as follows:
1. Make clean potable water available to 100,000 problem villages in the amount
of 40 liters a day per person and 30 liters a day per head of livestock.
2. Immunize 20-million pregnant woman and 20-million children per year.
3. Teach 80-million people ages 15-35 (75% of the adult illiterate) to read and
write at the rate of 10-million each year.
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4. Increase oilseed production by as much as 18-million tons and reduce,

eliminate, or reverse India’s annual 10-billion rupee import bill for edible oils.
5. Increase dairy production from 44- to 61-million metric tons per year over
eight years, raise dairy employment and incomes, and expands the number of
dairy cooperatives by 42%.
6. Improve service, dependability, and accessibility of telecommunications
across the county, including rural areas.
NATIONAL WATER TECHNOLOGY MISSION:
The National Drinking Water Mission” has been set up by the Government of
India under the Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Agriculture in
1986.
The Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) was the first major
intervention in the water sector that started in 1972-1973. To accelerate coverage,
a Technology Mission on Drinking Water was launched in 1986. In 1991-92, this
mission was renamed Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission, and in
1999, the Department of Drinking Water Supply (DDWS) was formed under
Ministry of Rural Development, for focused attention on drinking water and
sanitation. The first major sector reform project (SRP) was started in the same
year. Later was renamed as Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation in 2010
and in 2011, it was conferred the Ministry status, keeping in view the extreme
importance given to the sector by the ruling government. The Ministry of
Drinking Water and Sanitation is the nodal department for the overall policy,
planning, funding and coordination of programmes of drinking water and
sanitation in the country.
Vision
Safe drinking water and improved sanitation for all,at all times,in rural India.
Mission
To ensure all rural households have access to and use of safe and sustainable
drinking water and improved sanitation facilities by providing support to state in
their endeavor to provide these basic facilities and services.
Objectives
In rural areas of the country,
 Ensure all households have access to and use of safe drinking water and
sanitation facilities.
 Ensure communities monitor and keep surveillance on their drinking water
sources;
 Ensure all government schools and anganwadis have functional toilets,urinals
and access to safe drinking water;
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 Provide an enabling environment and support to Panchayat Raj Institutions

and local communities to manage their own drinking water sources and
sanitation in their villages;
 Provide access to information through online reporting mechanism with
information placed in public domain to bring in transparency and informed
decision making;
Functions:
 Planing, implementation and monitoring of centrally sponsored programmes
and schemes for safe drinking water and sanitation in rural areas;
 Support R&D initiatives, IEC and HRD activities for all stakeholders in
drinking water and sanitation sector;
 Building partnerships and synergizing efforts with other sector partners,
organizations UN and bilateral agencies, NGOs, R&D institutions and civil
society.
 Assist state in resource mobilisation from multilateral and bilateral agencies
through govt. of India.
 Technical support to states through seminars, interactions, documentation of
best practices and innovations;
 Provide inputs to other Departments/Ministry for formulation for policies
impacting water and sanitation issues;
 Recognizing and awarding Panchayats and organisations for excellent work
in rural sanitation.
NANO-SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MISSION

Nano Technology is a ‘knowledge-intensive & enabling technology’ which is
expected to influence a wide range of products and processes with far-reaching
implications for the national economy and development.
NANO-SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE (NSTI)
To create the background and infrastructure for R&D in nano-science &
technology, Nano-Science & Technology Initiative (NSTI) have been rolled out
in the time period of 2001 to 2006 by Department of Science and Technology
(DST). Across India, 19 Centres of Excellence have been established for research,
development and applications of nanotechnology.
NANO-SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MISSION (NSTM)
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In 2007 DST started Nano-Science & Technology Mission (NSTM) with a budget
of 1000 Cr. This ‘nano-mission’ has been working to help scientists, institutions
and the industry in terms of promoting basic research, development of adequate
manpower resources, international collaborations, augmentation the
infrastructure for research and generation of socially useful products.
The nano-mission has resulted in about 5000 research papers and some useful
products like nano hydrogel based eye drops, pesticide removal technology for
drinking water, water filters for arsenic and fluoride removal and nano silver
based antimicrobial textile coating.
Approval for the Second Phase of NSTM
The Union Cabinet gave its clearance for the continuation of the NSTM in its
second phase in the 12th plan period at a cost of Rs. 650 crores. Announcing the
Cabinet decision, an official statement noted that as a result of the efforts led by
the mission, India has moved from the fourth to the third position in the world in
terms of scientific publications in nano-science and technology.
The Nano mission, in this new phase, will make greater effort to promote
application-oriented R&D so that some useful products, processes and
technologies also emerge. It will be steered by a ‘Nano Mission Council’ chaired
by an eminent scientist.
Write about the National Green Mission
The National Mission for a Green India, as one of the eight Missions under the
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), recognizes that climate
change phenomena will seriously affect and alter the distribution, type and quality
of natural biological resources of the country and the associated livelihoods of
the people. Mission for a Green India (henceforth referred to as Mission)
acknowledges the influences that the forestry sector has on environmental
amelioration though climate mitigation, food security, water security,
biodiversity conservation and livelihood security of forest dependant
communities.
The Mission aims at responding to climate change by a combination of

adaptation and mitigation measures, which would help:
• enhancing carbon sinks in sustainably managed forests and other

ecosystems;
• adaptation of vulnerable species/ecosystems to the changing climate; and
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• adaptation of forest-dependant communities.
Mission Objectives
The objectives of the Mission are:
a) Increased forest/tree cover on 5 m ha of forest/non-forest lands and improved

quality of forest cover on another 5 m ha (a total of 10 m ha).
b) Improved ecosystem services including biodiversity, hydrological services and
carbon sequestration as a result of treatment of 10 m ha.
c) Increased forest-based livelihood income of about 3 million households living
in and around the forests.
d) Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tonnes in the year
2020.
Green Indian Mission plans approved for 4 states:
Union Environment Ministry has approved annual plans of National Mission for
Green India (GIM) of four states viz. Kerala, Mizoram, Manipur and Jharkhand.
In this regard, National Executive Council (NEC) has approved the Perspective
Plans (PP) and Annual Plan of Operations (APOs) of GIM submitted by 4 states.
Key facts:
 The approval has been granted for alternative energy devices such as biogas,
LPG, solar devices, biomass-based systems and improved stoves.
 These devices in turn will help to reduce pressure on forests and provide
carbon emission benefits, along with health and other associated benefits.
 It will cover around 27,032 households from these 4 states for financial year
2015-16.
Financial support:
PP of all four states has total financial outlay of 90,202.68 lakh rupees for a plan
period of five to ten years. While, APOs of 11,195.32 lakh rupees for same period.
Forest and non-forest area: It will be taken up in the 4 states under GIM during
the total plan period will be 1, 08,335 hectares. Out of it, 81,939 hectares will
help in improving the density of existing forests and 16, 396 hectares in new
areas.
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NATIONAL HEALTH MISSION
The National Health Mission is India’s flagship health sector programme to

revitalize rural and urban health sectors by providing flexible finances to State
Governments. The National Health Mission comprises of 4 components namely
 The National Rural Health Mission,
 The National Urban Health Mission,
 Tertiary Care Programmes and
 Human Resources for Health and Medical Education.
The National Health Mission represents India’s endeavor to expand the
focus of health services beyond Reproductive and Child Health, so as to address
the double burden of Communicable and Non-Communicable diseases as also
improve the infrastructure facilities at District and Sub-District Levels. The
National Health Mission has synergized learning from the National Rural Health
Mission for better implementation of the National Urban Health Mission. The
National Health Mission has an allocation of Rs. 26,690 crores for 2017-18 and
is one of the largest centrally sponsored schemes of the Government of India.
The National Health Mission (NHM) brought together at National level the two
Departments of Health and Family Welfare. The integration resulted in
significant synergy in programme implementation and enhancement in Health
Sector allocations for revitalizing India’s rural health systems. A similar
integration was witnessed at State levels too. Further the NHM brought in
revolutionary changes in devolution of central finances to State Health Societies
outside the purview of the State Finance Departments. The second major change
was the integration of the disease control programmes into the NHM framework.
The NHM brought in considerable innovations into the implementation of Health
Sector Programmes in India. These included flexible financing, monitoring of
Institutions against Indian Public Health Standards, Capacity Building at the
State, District and Panchayat Samiti levels by induction of management
specialists into the Programme Management Units and simplified HR
management practices for timely recruitment through the State Institutes of
Health and Family Welfare. Another significant innovation is the establishment
of the National Health Systems Resource Center (NHSRC) to help design and
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formulate various initiatives. State Health Systems Resource Centers have also
been established in some States.
The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare approves Programme
Implementation Plans of the State Health Societies on an annual basis with
specific resource allocations under the major heads of RCH Flexi Pool, the
NRHM Flexi Pool, the Flexi Pool for Communicable Diseases and the Flexi Pool
for Non Communicable Diseases as also for Infrastructure strengthening. There
are significant resource allocations for training programmes and capacity
building. The State Health Societies have considerable autonomy to re-
appropriate resources within the major heads and devolution to District Hospitals,
Community Health Centers and Primary Health Centers.
The priority focus of NHM is Reproductive and Child Health services. The
successful implementation of Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) and Accredited
Social Health Activist (ASHA) programmes had a significant impact in
behavioral changes and brought pregnant women in large numbers to public
health institutions. The NRHM flexi pool resources were utilized to create
adequate infrastructure at public health institutions to cope with the heavy rush
of maternity cases. Ambulance services were introduced for transportation of
maternity cases to public health institutions and for emergency care. The success
story of the 108 ambulance services has been well documented across many
States.
The increase in institutional deliveries in High Focus States of NHM had a
significant impact on Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) and Under Five Mortality
Rate (U5MR). On the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 4 and 5, the
country made substantial progress. In the case of MDG 6, the country was able
to meet the target and reverse the prevalence of Tuberculosis, Malaria
and HIV. NHM has also performed well by adopting a continuum of care or
life cycle approach as demonstrated by improvements in key health indicators.
The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare added two new programmes to its
basket of activities under the National Health Mission. The first
is Mission Indradhanush, which has demonstrated good progress in improving
immunization coverage by over 5% in the just one year. The second is the
Kayakalp initiative launched in 2016 under the NHM to inculcate the
practice of hygiene, sanitation, effective waste management and infection control
in public health facilities. The competition for awards introduced under Kayakalp
has been well received by all the States and significant improvements in
sanitation standards are being witnessed.
The NHM created a peoples’ movement for health care. India has deployed nearly
10 lac Accredited Social Health Care (ASHA) workers representing
transformational change agents. The ASHA workers act as mobilizers for
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institutional deliveries, focus on integrated management of neonatal and

childhood illness and advise on home based neo-natal care. The NHM has also
empowered people through Village Health and Sanitation Committees to
formulate village health plans and exercise supervisory oversight of ASHA
workers. At the Primary Health Centre (PHC) and Community Health Centre
(CHC) level Rogi Kalyan Samitis have been activated to establish systems of
oversight over the public health facilities for creating a patient friendly
institution. Besides rural areas, the urban slums are now receiving attention with
the launch of the National Urban Health Mission.
The National Health Mission represents India’s flagship health sector programme
making the Health For All vision a reality. In its innate success lies the future of
a healthy India.
National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology

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National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NIMAET) is a new

12th Plan programme approved by outgoing UPA Government in February 2014
with an objective to spread farm extension services and mechanization. The NDA
Government has included a lots of other activities for Agricultural Extension and
Technology under this programme.
Four Sub-missions: this mission has four sub-missions as under:
 Sub Mission on Agricultural Extension (SMAE)
 Sub-Mission on Seed and Planting Material (SMSP)
 Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)
 Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine (SMPP)
The common thread that runs across all four sub-missions is extension and
technology; the four sub-missions are proposed for administrative convenience.
The entire plan period outlay for this scheme is Rs. 13073.08 crore, with
Government of India’s share of Rs. 11390.68 crore and State share of Rs.1682.40
crore.
This scheme aims to bring maximum possible farmers within the ambit of cost
effective and remunerative mechanized farming for improved productivity and
sustainable farm growth in the country. It also covers seed production and plant
protection along with strengthening regulatory framework for management of
pesticides and plant quarantine.
The core ideas is to enable delivery of appropriate technology and improved
agronomic practices to farmers with a judicious mix of extensive physical
outreach and interactive methods of information dissemination, use of ICT,
popularization of modern and appropriate technologies, capacity building and
institution strengthening to promote mechanization, availability of quality seeds,
plant protection etc. and encourage aggregation of Farmers into Interest Groups
(FIGs) to form Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs).
Other Government Efforts towards Agriculture Extension The government of
India has launched many programmes for enhancing the agriculture extension and
technology.
These schemes are as follows:
Support to State Extension Programmes
There is a Support to State Extension Programmes for Extension Reforms scheme
in which central government provides additional support to states for setting up
the Farmer Advisory Committees (FACs) at block / district / state level and other
activities such as educating and creating awareness amongst farmers including
visits, trainings, demonstrations etc.
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Mass Media Support

Government carries out mass media support including broadcast of focussed
content on All India Radio, Doordarshan as well as Private Radio and TV
Channels.
Agri-Clinic and Agri-Business Centres:
Agri-Clinic and Agri-Business Centres scheme provides extension services to
farmers through setting up of economically viable self-employment ventures.
Selected trainees are provided agri-entrepreneurship training for a period of two
months by MANAGE through identified nodal training institutions in various
states, which also provide handholding support for one year. NABARD monitors
the credit support to agri-clinics through commercial banks, provision of credit-
linked back-ended subsidy at the rate of 36% (44% for SC, ST, Women and
persons from North East).
National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture:
This scheme aims to achieve rapid development of agriculture in India through
the use of ICT for ensuring timely access to agriculture related information for
the farmers of the country. Such information is intended to be provided to farmers
through multiple delivery channels such as internet, government offices, touch
screen kiosks, krishi vigyan kendra, kisan call centres, agri clinics, common
service unstructured supplementary service data and voice recognition. Twelve
services include information on pesticides, fertilizers and seeds, soil health;
information on crops, farm machinery, training and good agricultural practices;
weather advisories; information on prices, arrivals, procurement points and
providing interaction platform; electronic certification for exports and import;
information on marketing infrastructure; monitoring implementation/evaluation
of schemes and programmes; information on fishery inputs; information on
irrigation infrastructure; drought relief and management, livestock management.
Kisan Call Centres (KCC):
The scheme of Kisan Call Centres was started in 2004 with basic objective to
provide information to farming community through toll free telephone number
(1800 180 1551) on all seven days a week from 06.00 AM to 10.00 PM. Under
the current government, the scheme has been revamped and restructured to set up
state of the art KCCs at select location. The revamped KCCs are more
professional and equipped with voice/media gateways, dedicated leased line
broadband, call barging etc.
Farmers’ Portal
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Government of India has launched Farmers Portal as one stop solution for all the
farmers for accessing information on agricultural activities. It provides
information about package of practices; crop and seed varieties; common pests;
dealer network for seeds, fertilizers and pesticides; machinery and tools; agro-
met advisories etc.
MKisan Application:
This app and portal has been designed and developed by inhouse IT team of DAC
with the help of C-DAC Pune under project mKisan. It brings together SMS (both
Push and Pull), interactive voice response system, unstructured supplementary
services of DATA or USSD (which is essentially Interactive SMS and can
facilitate data entry and query on Web Portals without internet), mobile apps and
services. It enables farmers and all other stakeholders to obtain advisories and
information being sent by experts and government officials at different levels
through mkisan portal without registering on the portal.
Bhuvan Hailstorm App:
This app collects data about hailstorms in real time along with photographs and
geographical coordinates.
DD Kisan Channel:
‘DD Kisan’, India’s first television channel dedicated to farmers was launched
in May 2015. This 24×7 channel disseminates real-time inputs to farmers on new
farming techniques, water conservation and organic farming. It also shares best
farm practices in different parts of the country, quiz shows for farmers, a bottoms-
up approach involving agriculturists. Prior to launching this channel, Prasar
Bharati was running ‘Krishi Darshan’ programme on DD1 for farmers. It was one
of the longest running programmes on DD and was launched on January 26, 1967.
Crop Insurance App and Agri-Market App:
These two apps were launched by the Government in December 2015 to provide
all relevant information to farmers and other stake holders in real time to create
conducive environment for raising farm productivity and income to global levels.
Crop Insurance mobile app:
It will help farmers find out complete details about insurance cover available in
their area. It will also help farmers to calculate the insurance premium for notified
crops, coverage amount and loan amount. Farmers can use this app to get details
and information about normal sum insured, premium details, extended sum
insured and subsidy information of any notified crop in any notified area.
Agri-Market Mobile app:
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It can be used by farmers to get the market prices of crops in the mandi within 50
km radius of the device. It can automatically tracks the location of person using
mobile GPS and fetches the market prices of crops in those markets.
Steel Ministry to set up of Steel Research & Technology Mission of India:

Ministry of Steel is planning to set up Steel Research & Technology Mission of
India (SRTMI) to facilitate joint collaborative research projects in the iron and
steel sector in India. The conceptualization of SRTMI was done by a high level
task force set up by the Union Ministry of Steel.
Key Facts:
SRTMI has been setup as a Registered Society wherein the Union Ministry of
Steel is a facilitator. It is an industry driven institutional initiative. It will be
governed and administered by a Governing Body comprising the CEOs of steel
companies, domain experts and a representative from Union Ministry of Steel.
The Director of SRTMI will carry out the executive functioning who will be
assisted by appropriate supporting structure. Initial corpus for setting up of
SRTMI is. 200 crore rupees. Union Ministry of Steel will provide 50% of corpus
and the balance will be provided by participating steel companies.
Significance:
The SRTMI is likely to enhance the R&D investments in the iron and steel
industry to the international levels. The R&D investment of the leading steel
companies in India in terms of percentage of their turnover is very low and ranges
from 0.05 to 0.5% vis-à-vis upto 1%. Some of the steel companies also have
formulated R&D masterplans to increase their expenditure in R&D to 1% of their
turnover to meet international levels.
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1. Technology Mission on Cotton
The Govt. of India launched Technology Mission on Cotton in February 2000.

The objective of TMC was as under:
 To improve the yield and quality of cotton, particularly in respect of staple
length, micronnaire, strength, etc. through development of better cotton
varieties as well as through improved seeds, and integrated water, nutrient
and pest management technologies.
 To increase the income of the cotton growers by reducing the cost of
cultivation as well as by increasing the yield per hectare through proper
transfer of technology to the growers.
 To improve the quality of processing of cotton, particularly in respect of
trash, contamination, etc. by improving the infrastructure in the market
yards for cotton and by modernizing the existing ginning & pressing
factories and setting up new units.
Right now India is at second position behind china in cotton production and it is
expected to overtake china this year. After this mission there has been constant
increase in cotton production on back of high yield variety and GMO seeds.
 To fulfill the above objectives 4 Mini Missions are established under TMC
as follows:
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Mini
Objective Nodal Agency
Mission
Indian.Council
Cotton Research and Technology
I of Agriculture
generation
Research
Transfer of Technology and Ministry of

II
Development Agriculture
Improvement of Marketing Ministry of

III
infrastructure Textiles
Modernisation/Upgradation of G & P Ministry of

IV
Factories Textiles
2. Technology Mission on Oilseeds, Pulses and Maize (TMOPM)

 The Technology Mission on Oilseeds was launched by the Central
Government in 1986 to increase the production of oilseeds to reduce import
and achieve self-sufficiency in edible oils.
 Subsequently, pulses, oil palm and maize were also brought within the
purview of the Mission in 1990-91, 1992 and 1995-96 respectively.
 In addition, the National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oils Development
(NOVOD) Board also supplement the efforts of TMOPM by opening of
newer areas for non-traditional oilseeds. IT is promoting Tree Borne
Oilseeds (TBO)s.
The schemes implemented under TMOPM are:
 Oilseeds Production Programme (OPP)
 National Pulses Development Project (NPDP)
 Accelerated Maize Development Programme (AMDP)
 Post Harvest Technology (PHT)
 Oil Palm Development Programme (OPDP)
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 National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oils Development Board (NOVOD)

Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize
In order to provide flexibility to the States in implementation based on regionally
differentiated approach, to promote crop diversification and to provide focused
approach to the programmes, the schemes of Oilseeds Production Programme,
Oil Palm Development Programme, National Pulses Development Project and
Accelerated Maize Development Programme was merged into one Centrally
Sponsored Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize
(IPOPOM) during the 10th Five Year Plan which is being implemented with
effect from 1st April, 2004. The scheme is being implemented by 14 major
growing States for oilseeds and pulses and 15 States for Maize and in 10 States
for oil palm.
The ISOPOM has the following special features:
 Flexibility to the States to utilize the funds for the scheme/crop of their choice.
 Annual action plan to be formulated by the State Governments for
consideration and approval of the Government of India.
 Flexibility to the States for introducing innovative measures or any special
component to the extent of 10 per cent of financial allocation.
 Involvement of private sector by the State Governments for the
implementation of the programme with a financial cap of 15 per cent.
 Flexibility for inter component diversion of funds upto 20 per cent for non-
seed components only and
 Diversion of funds from seed components to non-seed components with the
prior approval of the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation.
 Implementation of oilseeds production programme helped in increasing the
production of oilseeds from 108.30 lakh tones in 1985-86 to 324 lakh tonnes
during 2013-14. The pulses production in the country increased from 128.60
lakh in 1989-90 to 185 lakh tonnes in 2014-15.
 Despite India being the largest producer [18.5 million tons] and processor of
pulses in the world also imports around 3.5 million tons annually on an
average to meet its ever increasing consumption needs of around 22.0 million
tons.
 The area under Oil palm increased from 8,585 ha. at the end of 1992-93 to
26,178 ha. in 2008-09. Actual production of Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFBs)
during 2008-09 is 355,480.36 MTs yielding around 59,007.40 Metric tonnes
of Crude Palm Oil (CPO).
3. NATIONAL TECHNOLOGY JUTE MISSION:
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The Jute Technology Mission was been launched during 2006 jointly by the
Ministry of Textiles and Ministry of Agriculture to achieve the following
objectives:
The objectives of Jute Technology Mission are:

 Improve the yield and quality of jute fibre by
(a) Developing new varieties;
(b) Developing improved retting procedures; and,
(c) Promoting scientific agronomic practices;
 Strengthen the existing infrastructure to develop and supply quality seeds
through the public-private partnership framework;
 Implement quality improvement programmes with a thrust on retting and the
adoption of other innovative extraction technologies;
 increase the supply of quality raw material to the jute industry at reasonable
prices so that they can meet the growing demand for better quality yarn, twine
and fabric for Diversified Jute Products (JDPs);
 Explore the prospect of Commercial utilization of sun hemp, ramie, jute and
mesta in the pulp and paper industry;
 Establish strong market linkages by improving the available markets, and put
in place a rural network of market facilities for the benefit of jute growers;
 Modernize plant and machinery in the jute industry, adopt international
standards, and upgrade skills;
 Take up market promotional activities and explore new areas to increase the
consumption of raw jute, Jute Diversified Products (JDPs), and increase
earnings through export
It has 4 mini Missions:
Mini Mission Activity Related organisations
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Mini Mission – Research activities on Jute ICAR (DARE)

I
Mini Mission – Development/extension of Ministry of

II raw jute agriculture Agriculture(DAC), Govt.
of India , State Govt.
Mini Mission – Marketing of raw jute Ministry of Textiles

III
Govt. of India
Mini Mission – Processing, utilisation and Ministry of Textiles,

IV industrial aspects of raw Govt. of India
jute
4. Technology Mission on Coconut
Why the Mission?
 Traditionally, coconut was grown for edible oil. It served as an ingredient for
various industrial applications too. The changed food habits and availability
of other cheaper edible oils both in the edible and industrial sectors, however,
have brought out a drastic decline in the use of coconut oil in these areas.
 On account of heavy imports of cheaper vegetable oil, especially of the
Palmolein, the price of coconut oil has been depressed despite the large-scale
price support operations undertaken. The Price Support Scheme could not
make much impact in pushing up the price level and was not beneficial to the
farmers as expected. In this context, it was realized that diversification of
coconut derived products and value addition could only help the coconut
growers in getting remunerative prices.
 The coconut crop has also been affected by severe pests and debilitating
diseases like root-wilt. It was realized that a major initiative should be started
towards controlling the pests and diseases in coconut to improve its
productivity and promote product diversification on better value realization
from various coconut products. This will help the small and marginal farmers
who depend on coconut for their livelihood to realize better returns.
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 In this context to protect the interest of the coconut growers, Technology

Mission on Coconut was launched.
 The Mission should converge and synergize all the efforts through vertical and
horizontal integration of existing programmes and address the problems and
bridge the gaps through appropriate programmes in Mission Mode to ensure
adequate, appropriate, timely and concurrent action. This would help develop
a mechanism which makes coconut farming competitive and ensures
reasonable returns.
Goals and Objectives
 To establish convergence and synergy among numerous ongoing

governmental programmes in the field of coconut development in order to
bring in horizontal and vertical integration of these programmes
 To ensure adequate, appropriate, timely and concurrent attention to all the
links in the production, post harvest and consumption chain.
 To maximise economic, ecological and social benefits from the existing
investment and infrastructure created for coconut development
 To promote economically desirable diversification and value addition to
generate skilled employment.
 To disseminate technologies using participatory approach through
demonstration and promotion to address the gaps in a mission mode
Mission Approach
 Mission approach is to evolve an approach for technology support which shall

have synergy and convergence to address the existing gaps.
 Existing schemes of Coconut Development Board and other institutes will
continue with existing pattern and shall be converged in a manner that vertical
and horizontal integration are achieved.
 Issues which have not been addressed in existing schemes to meet the
challenges.
 Issues relating to development of technologies for management of insect pests
and disease affected gardens, product diversification and market promotion,
its demonstration and promotion for adoption.
 Missing links in existing programmes with focused attention to achieve the
goals of the mission
5. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture:

Under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, India has launched a
dedicated National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) to define its
strategies for climate mitigation and adaptation within the agriculture sector.
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Focus areas of NMSA:

 Dryland Agriculture
 Risk Management
 Access to Information
 Use of Bio- technology
Focus areas of NMSA
The core focus areas for NMSA include Dryland Agriculture, Risk Management,
Access to Information and Use of Biotechnology.
Dryland Agriculture:
This further includes:
 Development of drought and pest-resistant crop varieties.
 Improving methods to conserve soil and water to ensure theirs optimal
utilization.
 Generate awareness through stakeholder consultations, training workshops
and demonstration exercises for farming communities, for agro-climatic
information sharing and dissemination.
 Financial support to enable farmers to invest in and adopt relevant
technologies to overcome climate related stresses.
Risk Management
This further includes:
 Strengthening existing agricultural and weather insurance mechanisms.
 Development and validation of weather derivative models by insurance
providers.
 Ensure access to archival and current weather data for this purpose.
 Creation of web-enabled, regional language based services for facilitation
of weather based insurance.
 Development of GIS and remote-sensing methodologies for detailed soil
resource mapping and land use planning. All watershed and river basins to
be covered.
 Mapping vulnerable eco-regions and identification of pest and disease
hotspots.
 Developing and implementation of region-specific contingency plans
based on vulnerability and risk scenario
Note: The energy sector emissions comprise of emissions due to fuel combustion
in electricity generation, solid fuel manufacturing, petroleum refining, transport,
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residential & commercial activities, agriculture & fisheries. It also includes the
fugitive emissions due to coal mining, and handling of oil and natural gas. The
largest chunk of emissions was from electricity generation amounting to 719.31
million tons of CO2 -eq which represented 65 percent of the total CO2 equivalent
emissions from the energy sector.
Access to Information
This further includes
 To improve and expand the data bases on (a) Soil Profile, (b) Area Under
Cultivation, Production And Yield, and (c) Cost of Cultivation.
 To digitize data, maintain database of global quality, and streamline the
procedure governing access there to
 To build public awareness through “National Portal” on agricultural
Statistics.
Use of Bio- technology
This further includes
 Genetic engineering to convert C-3 crops to the more carbon responsive C-4
crops to achieve greater photosynthetic efficiency for obtaining increased
productivity at higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and to sustain
thermal stresses.
 Development of strategies for low input sustainable agriculture by producing
crops with enhanced water and nitrogen use efficiency which may also result
in reduced emissions of greenhouse gases, and crops with greater tolerance to
drought, high temperature, submergence and salinity stresses.
 Development of nutritional strategies for managing heat stress in dairy
animals to prevent nutrient deficiencies leading to low milk yield and
productivity.
 Development of salt tolerant and disease resistant fresh water fish and prawn.
We see that as such NMSA has been successful in identifying the larger
challenges faced by Indian agriculture and how they will be exacerbated in a
changing climate context. However, the strategies proposed to meet these
challenges are largely drawn from past policies and are highly technology
focused. Here are some issues in this mission.
 Most of the proposed strategies target the big farmers, while the small and
marginal farmers are left vulnerable.
 Water use efficiency has been given importance but the chemical fertilisers
have been largely igonored in the strategies. Chemical fertilizers are also a
major driver of rising demand for irrigation water.
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 NMSA lacks adequate regulatory framework required to meet climate change

related challenges to agriculture.
National Food Security Mission
 The National Development Council (NDC) in its 53rd meeting held on

29th May, 2007 adopted a resolution to launch a Food Security Mission
comprising rice, wheat and pulses to increase the production of rice by 10
million tons, wheat by 8 million tons and pulses by 2 million tons by the
end of the Eleventh Plan (2011-12). Accordingly, a Centrally Sponsored
Scheme, ‘National Food Security Mission’ (NFSM), was launched in
October 2007.
 The Mission is being continued during 12th Five Year Plan with new
targets of additional production of food grains of 25 million tons of food
grains comprising of 10 million tons rice, 8 million tons of wheat, 4 million
tons of pulses and 3 million tons of coarse cereals by the end of 12th Five
Year Plan.
 The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) during the 12th Five Year
Plan will have five components:
1. NFSM- Rice
2. NFSM- Wheat
3. NFSM- Pulses
4. NFSM- Coarse cereals
5. NFSM- Commercial Crops.
National Mission on Food Processing
 Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MFPI) had launched Centrally

Sponsored Scheme (CSS)- National Mission on Food Processing (NMFP)
during the 12th Plan (2012-13). Further, the Govt. of India have approved
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continuation of the Mission during the remainder of 12th Five Year Plan
(2013-17).
 The basic objective of NMFP is decentralization of implementation of
Ministry’s schemes, which will lead to substantial participation of State
Governments / UTs.
 The NMFP contemplates establishment of a National Mission as well as
corresponding Missions in the State and District level.
 NMFP is likely improve significantly the Ministry’s outreach in terms of
planning, supervision and monitoring of various schemes with the
following objectives
1. To promote facilities for post-harvest operations including setting up of

food processing industries.
2. To undertake decentralization of the schemes so far operated by the
Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI) in order to take into
account the requirements suitable to the local needs.
3. To augment the capacity of food processors working to up scale their
operations through capital infusion, technology transfer, skill Up gradation
and hand holding support.
4. To support established self-help groups working in food processing sector
to facilitate them to achieve SME status.
5. Capacity development and skill up gradation through institutional training
to ensure sustainable employment opportunities to the people and also to
reduce the gap in requirement and availability of skilled manpower in food
processing sector.
6. To raise the standards of food safety and hygiene in order to meet the norms
set up by FSSAI.
7. To facilitate food processing industries to adopt HACCP and ISO
certification norms.
8. To augment farm gate infrastructure, supply chain logistics, storage and
processing capacity.
9. To provide better support system to organized food processing sector.
National Mission for Protein Supplement
 It is one of the six sub-schemes being implemented as sub-schemes under

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY).
 The National Mission for Protein Supplements was launched in 2011-12.
It took up activities to promote animal based protein production through
livestock development, dairy farming, piggery, goat rearing and fisheries
in selected blocks.
National Saffron Mission

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 It is one of the six sub-schemes being implemented as sub-schemes under

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY).
 Kashmir has the proud privilege of producing the finest quality saffron,
which is famous for its colour and flavour all over the world. The Central
Government launched the National Saffron Mission (NMS) in 2010-11.
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH):
It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for the holistic growth of the horticulture

sector covering fruits, vegetables, root & tuber crops, mushrooms, spices,
flowers, aromatic plants, coconut, cashew, cocoa and bamboo. Scheme took off
in 2014. While Government of India (GOI) contributes 85% of total outlay for
developmental programs in all the states except the states in North East and
Himalayas, 15% share is contributed by State Governments. In the case of North
Eastern States and Himalayan States, GOI contribution is 100%. National
Horticulture and Bamboo mission are integrated under this mission. These both
come under National Horticulture Board.
National Horticulture Mission:
National Horticulture Mission, a centrally sponsored scheme is in place since

2005-06. The objective of this scheme is to provide holistic growth of
horticulture sector in India and to enhance horticulture production.
All the States and Union Territories are covered under the Mission except the
eight North Eastern States including Sikkim and the States of Jammu & Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand, which are covered under previously
mentioned separate mission. The assistance from Government of India will be
85% with 15% contribution by the State Government. All crops except coconut
and medicinal plants are covered under NHM.
National Bamboo Mission
 Mission envisages promoting holistic growth of bamboo sector by adopting

area based, regionally differentiated strategy and to increase the area under
bamboo cultivation and marketing. Steps have been taken to increase
availability of quality planting material by supporting setting up of new
nurseries and strengthening of existing ones. It addresses forward integration
by taking steps toward marketing of bamboo products, particularly of
handicraft items. Here also biggest potential lies in north eastern India.
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What is immunity?
Immunity is broadly defined as “the capacity of the body to recognize materials

as foreign to itself and to neutralize, eliminate or metabolize them with or without
injury to its own tissues”.
Immunobiology is the study of organization and functioning of immune

system. Immune system provides ‘immunity’ (protection against diseases).
Types of immunity:
TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSES
Broadly, immune responses can be classified into two categories :
 Non-specific immune responses and

 Specific immune responses.
1. Non-specific immune responses: are those which non-selectively protect

against foreign substances or cells without having to recognize their specific
identities. Phagocytosis (engulfing, of particulate matter) by macrophages and
extracellular killing by proteins known as ‘complement’. They are two
nonspecific types of immune responses.
2. Specific immune responses (adaptive immune response) depend upon the

immunological recognition of the substances or cells to be attacked. Specific
immune responses are again of two types :
(a) Cell mediated immune responses : Mediated by cytotoxic T-cells and

natural killer cells. These constitute major defence against intracellular viruses
and cancer cells.
(b) Antibody-mediated or humoral immune responses : These responses are

mediated by antibodies secreted by plasma cells, which arise from activated B-
cells. They constitute major protection against bacteria and viruses in the
extracellular fluid.
difference between cell mediated immunity and humoral immunity
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TYPES OF IMMUNITY:
There are two main types of immunity :
(i) Natural or innate (i.e. genetic, from birth), and

(ii) Acquired (i.e. developed during life time).
A. Natural or Innate Immunity A healthy individual himself from potentially

harmful microorganisms by a number of very effective mechanisms. These
mechanisms are termed innate or natural immunity. Innate defence consists of
three main components :
 Physical barriers (preventing entry of germs)

 Phagocytic cells and (Dealing with germs which enter)
 Soluble components (complement)
Physical Barriers It is the first line of defence. It means preventing the entry of
pathogens into the body.
 Skin : The outer tough layer of skin is formed of keratin and is almost
impermeable to germs. Sebaceous glands in the skin generate an acidic
environment by producing lactic acid which kills many pathogens.
 Epithelial lining of various organs : The respiratory tract, the alimentary
tract (the gut) and the urino-genital tract have an exterior epithelial cell
layer covered by a protective mucous lining. In the respiratory tract, cilia
covering to the external surface of the epithelial cells continually beat
upwards towards the nasopharynx and this helps to expel particles and
pathogens. Epithelial cells are constantly renewed and their removal expels
pathogens lodged on their surface.
 Body secretions : Body secretions such as sweat and secretion from eyes
also ward off pathogens. Other body fluids contain molecules which are
bactericidal that is capable of killing bacteria (e.g., spermine in seminal
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fluid, hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, etc.).If the germs somehow enter
the body by evading physical barriers of the body, the other two main
defence mechanisms come into play – phagocytosis and the bactericidal
effect of soluble chemical factors collectively known as complement
system which are described below.
(ii) Phagocytic Cells When the micro-organisms or inert particles such as colloidal
carbon enter the tissue fluid or blood stream, these are very rapidly engulfed and
destroyed by phagocytic cells. Such cells may either be circulating in body fluids
or may be fixed in some tissues. This phenomenon is called phagocytosis
(literally meaning ‘eating’ by the cell). The engulfment and destruction/digestion
of microorganisms is assigned to two major types of cells named as microphages
and macrophages.
 Microphages are the polymorphonuclear leucocytes (or neutrophils which are

white blood cells) smaller in size and short-lived.
 Macrophages are mononuclear phagocytes large in size and long-lived. These
are found in virtually all the organs and tissues. But particularly these are
found in large numbers in lung, liver and spleen.
Important features of phagocytic cells
1. They are actively phagocytic.
2. They contain digestive enzymes to breakdown engulfed material.
3. They are an important link between innate and acquired immunity
(described below). These pass on antigen or their products to the
lymphoid cells for their further processing.
(III)Complement System
The group of proteins known as ‘complement’ provides another innate immunity
mechanism for killing microbes without prior phagocytosis.
Some of the complement components are designated by the letter ‘C’ followed
by a number. The most pivotal and most abundant component is C3. Complement
component may also act as opson in (e.g. C36). Opson is that type of antibody
whose binding to antigens on virus or bacterium facilitates their subsequent
ingestion by the phagocytic cells. Such antibodies can also cause direct
destruction of microbes by making their membrane leaky.
B. Acquired Immunity
It is the immunity mediated by lymphocytes and characterized by antigen
specificity and memory. An acquired immunity may be brought about in an
individual in two main ways:
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1. By infection so that antibodies are produced against the infective agent and by
deliberate artificial immunization. This is termed actively acquired immunity.
2. By transfer from an actively immunized individual through blood, serum
component etc. This is called passively acquired immunity.
(i) Actively acquired immunity
Actively acquired immunity due to infection falls into two general categories.
(i) Some infections, such as diphtheria, whooping cough, smallpox and mumps
usually induce a life time immunity i.e. a patient once recovered does not get the
disease subsequently.
(ii) Other diseases such as common cold, influenza, bacillary dysentery and
pneumococcal pneumonia confer immunity for a shorter period, sometimes only
for a few weeks.
(ii)Passively acquired immunity
It may be developed in the following ways :
 Transfer of antibodies (e.g. IgG) from mother into foetus across the
placenta.
 Breast fed children also receive antibodies from the mother’s milk.
 Pooled human immunoglobulin is also used as source of antibody in a
number of cases including measles infection and infectious hepatitis.
 Human immunoglobulin is also given to patients with a congenital inability
to make antibody globulin.
ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION (VACCINATION) People had observed in the
past that individuals who recovered from certain diseases are protected for life
time from recurrences. This gave rise to the concept of immunization. Edward
Jenner introduced vaccination in 1796 using cowpox to protect against smallpox.
The objective of vaccination is introduce the attenuated germs into the body. The
boty then generate specific population of memory cells. These memory cells can
rapidly increase in number on the renewed contact with the same antigen and
more antibodies can be produced to provide protection against infection.
What is Industrial Internet?
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 IoT’s industrial applications are called as the ‘Industrial Internet’.

 The Industrial Internet closely linked to enterprise IoT is likely to radically
transform and overhaul business segments including manufacturing, oil and
gas, agriculture, defence, mining, transportation and healthcare etc.
Collectively, these sectors account for over two-thirds of the global economy.
How Industrial Internet works?
 The industrial Internet draws together fields such as machine learning, big
data, the Internet of things and machine-to-machine communication to absorb
data from machines, analyze it (in real-time), and use it to adjust operations.
 It holds great potential for quality control, sustainable and green practices and
overall supply chain efficiency.
 The Industrial Internet also is applied to transportation projects, such as
driverless cars and intelligent railroad systems.
Challenges
 The Industrial Internet is still at an early stage and the full range of
implications of the industrial internet on their industries is still emerging and
not crystal clear.
 But it is said that industrial internet applications in the sectors mentioned
above will grow by leaps and bounds, requiring not just huge amounts of
bandwidth but more importantly, absolutely reliable and real-time responses.
 Consumer internet, i.e. terrestrial internet (through fibre, cable or WiFi) is
not quite the solution as
high speeds, much lower latency, smaller form-factor satellite devices and
satellite mobility.
-
throughput satellites would also be available at a fraction of the cost of
terrestrial broadband.
What is Internet of Things (IoT)?
 IoT is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and digital

machines, objects, or people that are provided with unique identifiers.
 Thus it can be said that it is an internetworking of physical devices, vehicles,
buildings and other items—embedded with electronics, software, sensors and
network connectivity.
 The internetworking has ability to transfer data over a network without
requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
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 IoT is also dubbed as the infrastructure of the information society. It allows

objects to be sensed and controlled remotely across existing network
infrastructure.
 Thus it creates opportunities for more direct integration of physical world into
computer-based systems, and resulting in improved accuracy, efficiency and
economic benefits.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
What is genetic engineering?

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An engineer fixes a machine to make it work efficiently. Body is like a machine

and genes, the nucleotide sequences in DNA have the information for products to
run this machine. With progress in molecular biology, techniques have been
developed by which a scientist can now manipulate genetic material, replace
genes or replace gene products in the body, make identical copies of these genes
and store them in a gene library. This is called genetic engineering.
Importance of genetic engineering:
You know that diabetes mellitus is a genetic disorder. A diabetic patient lacks a
gene which has the information for synthesis of insulin, so such a person cannot
secrete insulin. Take another example. A person suffering from Thalassemia
lacks the gene for haemoglobin and can survive only through frequent blood
transfusions. A person suffering from sickle cell anemia has an altered gene
whose product makes the red blood corpuscles abnormal on exposure to oxygen
because they contain faulty haemoglobin. Human suffering from genetic
disorders such as those cited above have now hope in genetic engineering.
Genetically engineered copies of DNA can be produced and stored in gene
libraries to be used when required. In the previous sections of this lesson you have
studied about the use of microbes to produce various products on a commercial
scale. Currently bacteria are being genetically manipulated to act as biological
factories to produce various kinds of proteins such as enzymes, hormones,
antibodies through genetic engineering. Researchers have isolated genes which
can be used to produce effective vaccines. Researchers have also developed
bacterial strains, through genetic manipulation, which can degrade harmful
environmental pollutants.
Tools and steps in recombinant DNA technology:
Recombinant DNA technology is a “cut and paste” technology. Specific
nucleotide sequences are cut from the DNA of humans, other animals or plants
and “pasted” into plasmids. DNA of the plasmid carrying nucleotide sequence of
another organism is the recombinant DNA. It is then inserted into bacteria.
Bacteria divide repeatedly and a clone of bacteria with the recombinant DNA is
obtained. Five requirements for recombinant DNA technology are:
(i) Cell culture
(ii) Restriction endonuclease enzyme
(iii) Plasmids
(iv) Ligases
(v) Host bacteria
1. Cell culture : Cultured cells of an animal or plant (or even a bacterium)
carrying the required gene (nucleotide sequence of DNA) in its nucleus.
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2. The enzyme Restriction endonuclease : Restriction endonucleases cut short

specific DNA sequences. There are many different restriction endonucleases
found in bacteria. Each of these enzymes very specifically recognises a
particular DNA sequence (usually 4 to 6 bases) and cuts it. These enzymes are
the “molecular scissors”. Either they cut both the strands at the same place or
at different places so that the two DNA strands hang out at the two ends. Two
cuts at the two ends of a DNA segment releases the cut part as the restriction
fragment. The ends are single stranded and called sticky ends. Thus a piece of
DNA containing a particular gene can be obtained by selecting a particular
restriction endonuclease.
(iii) Plasmids : Plasmids are extra chromosomal DNA molecules in a bacterial
cell which have sequences matching those of the required gene and can be
similarly cut by the same restriction enzymes. Plasmids can readily enter bacteria,
yeast or other speedily reproducing cells.
(iv) DNA ligase: It is an enzyme which can seal one DNA fragment with another
DNA segment, both having sticky ends. Ligase is the “molecular glue”.
(vi) Host Bacteria: Host bacteria are the bacteria whose plasmid is used for
carrying foreign DNA.
APPLICATION OF GENETIC ENGINEERING:
1. Protein manufacture You would recall from earlier section of this lesson that
bacteria and yeasts have been used for centuries to produce cheese, alcohol, etc.
and more recently antibiotics, etc. Currently, plasmids in bioengineered bacteria
carry some human genes and these genes are expressed to give large quantities of
human proteins which are clinically useful. The development of recombinant
DNA technology and gene cloning has generated a new industry for
manufacturing proteins. Earlier valuable proteins could be obtained from
eukaryotes in small amounts and at heavy expense, but now these can be produced
in large quantities. For example, until sometime back growth hormone was
available only in tiny amounts and was extremely expensive as it had to be
extracted from endocrine glands. Today, it can be made available in large
quantities through recombinant DNA technology. In 1982 production of human
insulin became the first commercial success of recombinant DNA technology.
There are several proteins of therapeutic (medical) value which are available now
through recombinant DNA technology. These are cloned human gene products
approved for use or being developed. Following table 29.3 gives the names and
uses of some of these:
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Enzymes: It have also been produced from cloned genes. The following table
29.4 gives the names of such enzymes and their uses:
Enzymes are fragile and have to be entrapped in gel and encapsulated in small
artificial cells.
3. Antibiotics:
Since the discovery of Penicillin in 1920s, more than 6000 antibiotics have been
isolated from various microorganisms and have resulted in an enormous
improvement in human health. Research is in progress to genetically engineer
biosynthetic pathways for the synthesis of antibiotics. Novel antibiotics have also
been obtained through genetic manipulation.
4. Vaccines
Bioengineered vaccines have been developed for rabies and hepatitis B. A gene
for the antigen protein isinserted into a plasmid and the bacteria containing
recombinant DNA then generate large quantities of the protein. The protein is
added to the vaccine. Antibodies immediately form against the antigen when
vaccinated.
5. Applications in Agriculture:
Artificially synthesized fruits and vegetables is just one of the many aspects.
Fertilizers and bio synthesizers which help in proper growth of crops at the same
time killing the harmful bacteria have helped the agriculture sector. If added
nutrients are added to the soil, the produce is of better quality and of higher
quantity, both of which are very beneficial. The soil does not lose its potential to
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grow more crops which allow for the agriculture process to be carried out all
through the year. Added experiments are being carried out to make plants which
are self dependent and would only be need to sown once. Emphasis is also paid
on discovering plants which do not require high amounts of water.
6. Applications for Environment:
Organisms have been known to help in the bio degradation of waste materials.
However, there are some materials like plastics which cannot be degraded by
them. To help such causes, genetic research has produced modified
microorganisms which not only have the capability of doing this but are also more
efficient due to the speedy process. They are used in situations which may cause
severe damage to the planet earth like oil spills.
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Define the term immunity?

Immunity is broadly defined as “the capacity of the body to recognize materials
as foreign to itself and to neutralize, eliminate or metabolize them with or without
injury to its own tissues”.
Immunobiology is the study of organization and functioning of immune system.
Immune system provides ‘immunity’ (protection against diseases).
Types of immunity:
The immune system is typically divided into two categories--innate and adaptive-
-although these distinctions are not mutually exclusive.
1. Innate immunity
Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play
immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These
mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and
immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body. The innate immune
response is activated by chemical properties of the antigen.
2. Adaptive immunity
Adaptive immunity refers to antigen-specific immune response. The adaptive
immune response is more complex than the innate. The antigen first must be
processed and recognized. Once an antigen has been recognized, the adaptive
immune system creates an army of immune cells specifically designed to attack
that antigen. Adaptive immunity also includes a "memory" that makes future
responses against a specific antigen more efficient.
Edward Jenner introduced vaccination in 1796 using cowpox to protect against

smallpox.
The objective of vaccination is introducing the attenuated germs into the body.
The body then generates specific population of memory cells. These memory
cells can rapidly increase in number on the renewed contact with the same antigen
and more antibodies can be produced to provide protection against infection.
Type of Vaccine:
Five main types of vaccines are available:
1. Killed organisms as vaccines:

These vaccines contain a version of the living virus that has been weakened so
that it does not cause serious disease in people with healthy immune systems.
Because live, attenuated vaccines are the closest thing to a natural infection, they
are good teachers for the immune system.
Ex: typhoid, cholera, pertussis (whooping cough), rabies and poliomyelitis.
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2. Live attenuated (weakened) organisms as vaccines:

These vaccines are made by inactivating, or killing, the virus during the process
of making the vaccine. The inactivated polio vaccine is an example of this type
of vaccine. Inactivated vaccines produce immune responses in different ways
than live, attenuated vaccines. Often, multiple doses are necessary to build up
and/or maintain immunity.
Ex: BCG, rubella, Measles and polio.
3. Toxoid vaccines: prevent diseases caused by bacteria that produce toxins

(poisons) in the body. In the process of making these vaccines, the toxins are
weakened so they cannot cause illness. Weakened toxins are called toxoids. When
the immune system receives a vaccine containing a toxoid, it learns how to fight
off the natural toxin.
Examples: diphtheria and tetanus.
4. Subunit vaccines include only parts of the virus or bacteria, or subunits,

instead of the entire germ. Because these vaccines contain only the essential
antigens and not all the other molecules that make up the germ, side effects are
less common. The pertussis (whooping cough) component of the DTaP vaccine
is an example of a subunit vaccine.
5. Conjugate vaccines: fight a different type of bacteria. These bacteria have

antigens with an outer coating of sugar-like substances called polysaccharides.
This type of coating disguises the antigen, making it hard for a young child’s
immature immune system to recognize it and respond to it. Conjugate vaccines
are effective for these types of bacteria because they connect (or conjugate) the
polysaccharides to antigens that the immune system responds to very well. This
linkage helps the immature immune system react to the coating and develop an
immune response. An example of this type of vaccine is the Haemophilus
influenzae type B (Hib) vaccine.
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What is transgenic animal?
A transgenic animal is one that carries a foreign gene that has been
deliberately inserted into its genome. It is the one which has been genetically
altered to have specific characteristics it otherwise would not have.
In animals, transgenesis either means transferring DNA into the animal or

altering DNA of the animal. Transgenic animal are genetically modified to
contain a gene from a different species following gene transplantation or resulting
from the molecular manipulations of endogenous genomic DNA. The new gene
is inherited by offspring in the same way as the organism’s own genes. The
earliest transgenic approaches involved transferring DNA, usually by injection
into a fertilized mouse egg. However, since it is not possible to control the site of
integration of the foreign DNA using this technique, it is a relatively imprecise
tool. Mice resulting from this technique are generally called “overexpressors”.
Currently over 95% of transgenic animals used in biomedical research are

mice. Over 80% of mouse genes function the same as those in humans. Mice also
have a short reproduction cycle and their embryos are amenable to manipulation.
Mice are therefore an ideal human surrogate in the study of most diseases. It is
hoped that the refinement of transgenesis techniques in mice will ultimately allow
for a corresponding reduction in the use of “higher” animals, such as dogs and
non-human primates, in biomedical research. Other transgenic animals include
rats, pigs and sheep.
Why Transgenic Animal?
Interest in transgenic animals originally fall into two broad categories:
 To increase production efficiency of farm animals in a short duration.

 Molecular farming: Using livestock to produce medicines, nutraceuticals
and tissues for transplant into humans.
METHODS USED TO PRODUCE TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
1. Microinjection: DNA microinjection has become the most commonly

applied method for gene transfer in animals. Using DNA microinjection,
mouse was the first animal to undergo successful gene transfer. Microinjection
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of embryos with DNA has been the traditional approach for generating
transgenic livestock.
2. Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer: A retrovirus is a virus that carries its
genetic material in the form of RNA rather than DNA. The retrovirus-
mediated expression cloning method is efficient because the number of the
provirus integrations in each cell is limited. This method was successfully
used in 1974 when a simian virus was inserted into mice embryos, resulting
in mice carrying this DNA. The most important features of retrovirus as
vectors are the practically ease and effectiveness of gene transfer and target
cells specificity. When cells are infected by retroviruses, the resultant viral
DNA, after reverse transcription and integration, becomes a part of the host
cell genome to be maintained for the life of the host cell. Retroviruses are
being explored widely for apply in human gene therapy and have been used in
a precise condition to treat genetic diseases. Recently lentivirus constructs
have been made and used to infect embryonic tissue resulting in the generation
of transgenic rats and mice. On the other hand, retroviral methods of
modifying the chicken genome are progressing.
3. Somatic cell nuclear transfer: In genetics and developmental biology,
somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a laboratory technique for creating a
viable embryo from a body cell and an egg cell. The technique consists of
taking an enucleated oocyte (egg cell) and implanting a donor nucleus from a
somatic (body) cell. It is used in both therapeutic and reproductive cloning.
Dolly the Sheep, famous for being the first successfully cloned mammal was
created using this process. Somatic cell nuclear transplantation has become a
focus of study in stem cell research. The aim of carrying out this procedure is
to obtain pluripotent cells from a cloned embryo. These cells genetically
matched the donor organism from which they came. This gives them the
ability to create patient specific pluripotent cells, which could then be used in
therapies or disease research. A potential use of stem cells genetically matched
to a patient would be to create cell lines that have genes linked to a patient’s
particular disease. By doing so, an in vitro model could be created, would be
useful for studying that particular disease, potentially discovering its
pathophysiology, and discovering therapies. For example, if a person with
Parkinson’s disease donated his or her somatic cells, the stem cells resulting
from SCNT would have genes that contribute to Parkinson’s disease. The
disease specific stem cell lines could then be studied in order to better
understand the condition. Another application of SCNT stem cell research is
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using the patient specific stem cell lines to generate tissues or even organs for
transplant into the specific patient. A number of animals with genetically
identical appearance can be produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).
From current advancement of SCNT and molecular techniques, production of
a transgenic animal becomes easier. Although cloning efficiency in goat is
low, the ability to propagate genetically identical animals, with a gene or genes
of interest, would be important for increasing productivity and ultimately the
economic livelihood.
4. Sperm-mediated gene transfer: In the year 1971, the first evidence of
mammalian spermatozoa being able to take up and transfer exogenous DNA
was demonstrated by Bracket et al. Sperm cells are exposed to foreign DNA,
which binds to the surface of sperm through specific protein-protein
interactions. There is currently a general agreement that only two steps in the
processes are well-established and fully reproducible: (i) the spontaneous
interaction between sperm cells and foreign DNA molecules, and (ii) delivery
of spermbound DNA to oocyte at fertilization. At present research has been
carried out to determine the appropriate conditions to use when incubating
DNA with sperm. This method is now being hopefully perceived as a valuable
technique for transgenic animal production. To increases the effectiveness of
sperm uptake of DNA by various approaches are being taken. One is to attach
the recombinant DNA to the sperm head via an antibody amalgamated to the
DNA. The antibody used in this work recognizes surface proteins common to
sperm from cattle, pigs, sheep, chicken, goats, mice and humans. An
additional approach likewise lipofection technique or electroporation method
has been used to produce transgenic progeny by placing the DNA inside the
sperm head. With the improvement in techniques for culturing and expanding
spermatogonial stem cells there is now also the possibility of engineering these
cells in-vitro to generate transgenic sperm that could be used to fertilise
oocytes and generate transgenic animals.
5. Liposomes mediated technology: Liposome is small bodies consisting of
membrane-like lipid layers surrounding hydrous compartments. Cationic
liposome was used to increase the transfection efficiency of sperm cells.
Association of the cationic liposome/DNA complexes with sperm cells may
allow DNA to be carried into oocytes at fertilization. However, sperm motility
and fertilizing capability of spermatozoa was lower at the higher concentration
of liposome as assessed by microscopic observation. Furthermore, the
existence of several different types of liposome makes it difficult to make
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general predictions as to the likelihood of success, in the absence of specific

empirical studies.
6. Linker (receptor) based method: The process of linking the exogenous
DNA to the head of the sperm was reported by using the monoclonal antibody
mAbC. The antibody (mAbC) is a positively charged basic linker protein; it
binds to negatively charged DNA via ionic interactions. These interactions
specifically bind exogenous DNA to sperm in a precise way. DNA can bind
to polycations in a strong but noncovalent manner forming soluble complexes.
DNA coupled with antibodies or antibody fragments offers the ability to
internalize the complexes via receptor-mediated endocytosis.
7. Restriction enzyme-mediated integration (REMI): Restriction enzyme-
mediated integration (REMI), involves the transformation of cells with a
mixture of plasmid DNA, linearized with a restriction enzyme, along with a
restriction enzyme that is capable of generating compatible cohesive ends in
the genome. REMI has proven useful for genetic screens and for placing
genetic and molecular markers at particular points in the genome. Plasmids
were linearized with a restriction enzyme to generate single-stranded cohesive
ends and then introduced in vitro into decondensed sperm nuclei using REMI
produced transgenic
Applications of transgenic animals:
Transgenic animals Mice: It is difficult to generate transgenic animals as animal

cells do not accept plasmids. Transgenic mice are however routinely produced in
the laboratories throughout the world by microinjecting foreign DNA. Gene for
growth hormone from rats was microinjected into mouse eggs. These mice grew
larger than their little mates. This was because rat gene got integrated into mouse
DNA and was being expressed.
Goats: Transgenic goats have been developing from a fertilised egg injected with
recombinant DNA consisting of goat gene sequences spliced with human genes
for tPA (tissue plasmanogen activator). Goat milk contains this factor which
dissolves blood clots. This has proved very useful for heart attack (coronary
thrombosis) and stroke patients.
Cattle: Transgenic livestock have the potential to produce large quantities of
drugs faster and at much cheaper rates than from bacteria which have to be
cultured in huge industrial vessels.
Chinese hamster: Blood clotting factor VIII genes have been inserted in chinese
hamster ovary cells. This factor saves the patients suffering from haemophilia A.
Blood clotting factor generated through the recombinant DNA technology in
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Chinese hamster eliminates the need to get it from human blood as also the risk
of transmitting AIDS.
Ethical issues related to transgenic animals:
The main reasons for opposition of people are as follows:
1. Use of animals in biotechnological research causes great suffering to the
animals. But most people seem to accept some animal suffering to serve the basic
interest and welfare of mankind; this attitude has been termed as interestsensitive
speciesism.
2. It is felt that by using animals for the production of pharmaceutical proteins we
reduce them to mere factories. This seems not to recognize that animals also are
living beings which feel pleasure and pain just as we do.
3. Some people feel that animals should be regarded as equal to humans in that
they have the same basic rights as human beings. However, in most societies
animals are relegated to a position several steps below that of man.
4. An argument attempts to focus on integrity of species in that each biological
species has a right to exist as a separate identifiable entity. But biologists do not
regard a species as a fixed, water-tight entity; rather they are regarded as dynamic,
constantly evolving groups.
5. Finally, the introduction of human genes into animals, and vice-versa, may be
seen by many as clouding the definition of “humanness”. But most of the known
human genes are not unique, and comparable genes do occur in animals. In
addition, many retroviruses have integrated into the human genome without any
recognizable devaluation of our humanness.
Limitations of transgenices:
The transgenic technology even though has tremendous applications in livestock
improvement programmes, still it has lots of limitations:
 Insertional mutations resulting in alteration of important biological
processes.
 Unregulated gene expression resulting in improper expression of gene
products.
 Possibility of side effects in transgenic animals like arthritis, dermatitis and
cancer etc.
 Integration of exogenous DNA sequence in Y chromosome resulting in
transmission only to males.
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Vaccines
A vaccine is an inactivated form of bacteria or virus that is injected into the
body to simulate an actual infection. Because the injected microorganisms are
'dead,' they don't cause a person to become sick. Instead, vaccines stimulate an
immune response by the body that will fight off that type of illness.
How the Immune System Works

For the better understanding of vaccines, we need to know more about how our
body's immune system works. There are special cells in our bloodstream called
white blood cells . They have the very important job of fighting against foreign
invaders such as viruses and bacteria. These invaders are known as antigens.
White blood cells are like the armed forces of our body. They are constantly on
the lookout for antigens that have entered our body, compromising our health.
We also have a group of defensive proteins circulating in our blood that are
known as antibodies. They float around in non-active form until triggered by an
immune response, such as the detection of an antigen. When this happens,
billions of additional antibodies are produced that will fight off that particular
antigen. This enormous army of antibodies now joins in the attack with the
white blood cells, and the germs don't stand a chance.
Example: Imagine that an influenza virus has entered your body and has
begun replicating. The white blood cells patrolling your bloodstream have
spotted these antigens. They gather their troops, produce a few billion
antibodies geared to fight this specific virus, and launch a massive attack.
It will take some time for the body to completely fight off these germs, and
that's why you have symptoms of the illness for a short time. However, if you
have a healthy and strong immune system, you will be as good as new in a few
days.
The great news is that now your body has developed a very strong army of
antibodies for that particular virus. They remain on the lookout for that same
antigen to invade. The next time it enters your body, it will be overtaken by the
immune response so fast that you won't even feel any symptoms.
Mechanism of their action:
And so how do vaccines work to help us stay healthy? Let's use the measles as
an example. As mentioned earlier, within a vaccine are inactivated versions of
the virus. Basically, the shells of the virus are present, but their ability to
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replicate has been taken away, so there is no danger of getting sick from having
the vaccine injected into your body.
When you receive the measles vaccine into your bloodstream, the inactive form
of measles viruses are now floating around in your bloodstream. The immune
system detects that these are antigens, and they send out the emergency signal.
Those white blood cells programmed to fight against the measles virus now
spring into action, and an immense number of measles antibodies are produced.
Now, it is important to remember that you are not actually ill with the measles.
Vaccines create the illusion of illness in order to make your immune system
respond. However, if you later come into contact with the measles virus and it
enters your body, your immune system is now prepared. The massive army of
measles antibodies along with your white blood cells will attack the viruses so
quickly that you will not get sick.
Passive versus Active Immunization:
Passive immunization consists of providing temporary protection from disease

through the administration of exogenously produced antibody. Infants are
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passively immunized from their mothers through transplacental transfer of

maternal antibodies. These antibodies protect the infant for 3-6 months after birth
and allow the infant’s own immune system time to develop. Pooled human IgG,
known as immunoglobulin, is used for passive immunization against hepatitis A
and measles. Passive immunization against these diseases is used after a non-
immune person has been exposed to the infection but before they develop the
disease in an attempt to avoid serious illness. Pooled immunoglobulin is also
used to prevent infection in individuals with immune deficiencies such as X-
linked agammaglobulinemia.Special preparations of immunoglobulin taken from
donor pools with high levels of antibodies specific to certain infectious agents are
also used to passively protect individuals from infections.
Examples:
 Hepatitis B immune globulin is used to protect neonates born to hepatitis

B carrying women and to protect non-immune persons after exposure to
HBV.
 Varicella zoster immune globulin (VZIG) is used to prevent serious

chickenpox infections in exposed, non-immune individuals at high risk of
severe infection.
 Rabies immune globulin is used to protect people exposed to rabies

infection during the time it takes for immunity to be built up by active
immunization.
 RSV immune globulin (RSVIG) is used to protect premature infants and

infants with lung disease from serious RSV infection
 Tetanus immune globulin (TIG) is used to prevent tetanus infections in

unimmunized, exposed individuals
Antibodies provided by passive immunization are generally short-lived and do

not give the long-lasting protection of active immunization strategies.
Active immunization consists of inducing the body to develop defenses against

disease. This usually is accomplished by giving agents that stimulate the body’s
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immune system to produce antibodies and/or cell mediated immune responses

against a particular infectious agent. This is the form of immunization that we
usually think of when we talk about vaccination and the various agents of active
immunization will be covered in detail in the following sections.
The immune system in active immunization:
Antibodies react with antigens in the blood stream and extracellular fluid
and at mucosal surfaces. They cannot readily reach intracellular sites of infection.
Most antibodies produced by vaccines are thymus-dependent in that they require
activation of T helper cells to initiate B cell proliferation and antibody production.
After an antigen, in this case a vaccine component, enters the body it is presented
by mononuclear phagocytes or dendritic cells which trigger a cascade of
cytokines and stimulate the maturation of naïve T helper cells into T helper type
2 cells (TH2). TH2 cells in turn produce cytokines that lead to maturation of naïve
B cells and release of specific antibody. After the initial immune response is
induced by the vaccine, activated B cells become resting memory cells ready to
respond rapidly when the antigen is encountered again. Protective antibodies
against bacterial infections work in several different ways depending on the type
of pathogen encountered. They can:
1.Inactivate soluble toxic products (anti-toxins, e.g. diphtheria vaccine)
2.Facilitate phagocytosis of bacteria (e.g. pneumococcal vaccine)

3.Interact with serum complement to damage bacterial membranes and
facilitate bacteriolysis (typhoid vaccine) and/or
4.Interfere with the bacterium’s ability to adhere to mucosal surfaces. Protective

antibodies against viral infections can only work when the virus is in extracellular
spaces. These antibodies may bind to viruses preventing their entry into cells or
may interfere with uncoating of virus particles or other steps in the viral lifecycle.
Cell mediated immunity is directed against intracellular antigens and thus

is most effective against organisms that spend at least part of their lifecycle inside
cells. Cytotoxic T cells (CTL) recognize small fragments of antigens presented
on the surface of infected cells in combination with HLA class I molecules. The
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T cell receptor molecules of CTL are designed to recognize a specific antigen in

combination with a specific HLA molecule. Like thymus dependent antibody
production, the induction of cellular immunity is dependent upon the activation
of T helper cells; however, in order to stimulate cell mediated immunity, T helper
cells mature along the T helper type 1 (TH1) pathway. TH1 cells release cytokines
that cause the maturation of naïve cytotoxic T cells which can then recognize
intracellular antigens using their T cell receptors. When the T cell receptor of the
mature CTL recognizes its antigen combined with its HLA class I molecule on
the surface of an infected cell it releases substances that kill the infected cell.
Like antibody producing B cells, CTL can become resting memory cells ready to
become activated as soon as the host is exposed to the antigen again.
On first exposure to a vaccine antigen, the primary response requires a

latent period of several days before humoral (antibody) and cell mediated
immunity can be detected. Circulating antibodies do not appear for 7-10 days
and initially are of the IgM class. Two or more weeks after vaccination the titers
of IgG antibodies rise. After a second exposure to the same antigen heightened
antibody and cell mediated immune responses are seen and occur within 4-5 days
after exposure. Because antibody responses are easier to measure, the response
to a vaccine is usually measured by the antibody titer in the serum of the
vaccinated host; however, cell mediated immune responses have been shown to
be induced by vaccines and the lack of detectable antibody does not mean that
the individual is necessarily unprotected by the vaccine.
Determinants of the Effectiveness of Active Immunization: The ability of a

vaccine to produce an effective immune response is determined by the vaccine
antigen(s), the genetic background of the vaccinee (e.g. HLA type), the
physiologic condition of the vaccinee, the manner in which the vaccine antigen
is presented, dose, use of adjuvants and route of administration.
HLA types vary widely amongst individuals and contribute the recognition of
different parts of a complex antigen in different populations. This variation is of
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particular importance for vaccines that primarily attempt to elicit cell mediated
immunity (e.g. HIV vaccine). These vaccines must contain antigenic molecules
that can be recognized and presented by at least one HLA molecule in every
individual vaccinated. Differences in HLA types may explain why certain people
never respond to certain vaccines (hepatitis B vaccine).
The age, nutritional status, and immune status of a vaccinee may influence
the effectiveness of the response to a vaccine. Young infants often do not respond
to vaccines because of the presence of maternal antibodies. The elderly often
have diminished immune responses to vaccines because of waning cellular
immunity. Severely malnourished individuals have blunted immune responses
and people with immune deficiencies may be unable to respond to many vaccines.
The type of vaccine used may have significant effects on immunogenicity.

Live attenuated vaccines, in which a weakened strain of live infectious
agent is given to the vaccinee (measles, mumps, rubella), actually multiply
in the recipient until checked by the immune response. Most of these
vaccines can confer life-long immunity after a single dose because they
allow for large amounts of antigen to be presented to the immune system.
Killed or subunit (vaccines containing only part of the infecting organism)
vaccines in contrast usually require more than a single dose and often
require booster shots (tetanus, rabies, diphtheria) throughout life.
The dose and route of administration of the vaccine can also affect
immunogenicity. There is usually a dose-response curve relationship
between antigen dose and peak response; however, this response often
plateaus. The route of administration may determine the nature of the
immune response to a vaccine. Intranasally administered vaccines are
more likely to induce local IgA production than parenterally administered
vaccines.
Adjuvants are substances added to vaccines that enhance the

immunogenicity of antigens. They are particularly useful with inactivated
vaccines and toxoids. The mechanism of immune enhancement is not
completely defined but may include mobilization of phagocytes and
delayed release of antigen.
DNA Vaccines
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Genetic/ DNA immunization is a novel technique used to efficiently stimulate

humoral and cellular immune responses to protein antigens. The direct injection
of genetic material into a living host causes a small amount of its cells to produce
the introduced gene products. This inappropriate gene expression within the host
has important immunological consequences, resulting in the specific immune
activation of the host against the gene delivered antigen
Currently Available Vaccines Recommended for General Use: Currently

available vaccines can be made up of live attenuated organisms, whole killed
organisms, fractions of organisms or toxoids (modified bacterial toxins which are
nontoxic but retain immunogenicity).
Live attenuated vaccines : consist of live organisms that have been specially
modified to make them considerably less virulent than wild type pathogens.
These vaccines have the ability to infect the vaccinated host and multiply, but
generally do not cause disease. For the reasons given earlier, they are generally
the most effective vaccines available; however, because they do contain live
organisms their use may be problematic in certain populations (e.g. pregnant
women, people with AIDS, etc) and not every organism can be attenuated enough
that it does not cause disease but remains capable of inducing an immune
response (e.g. HIV to date).
Measles vaccine is a live attenuated virus vaccine with an efficacy of over

95% when administered in a single dose to children over the age of 15 months;
however, because measles can continue to circulate in the 2-5% of the population
who do not respond, 2 doses of vaccine are recommended (second dose generally
at school entry). The introduction of the measles vaccine in the US has resulted
in 99.75% decrease in measles cases; however, vaccination rates may be quite
low in developing countries. Travelers should be adequately vaccinated as a
recent outbreak of measles in Queens in US born infants who had traveled to
India before being vaccinated illustrates.
Mumps vaccine is also a highly effective live attenuated vaccine

recommended for all children over the age of one who do not have specific
contraindications (immunocompromise). Protection is lifelong after a single dose
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although most people receive two doses as part of the MMR vaccine. The mumps
vaccine has led to a 98.3% decline in mumps cases in the US since 1968.
Rubella vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine which makes up the third

component of the MMR vaccine. Its purpose is to prevent the congenital rubella
syndrome by ensuring that all women of childbearing age are protected against
infection. A single dose confers lifelong protection in 95% of vaccinees. Because
the live attenuated rubella virus can cross the placenta this vaccine is
contraindicated in all pregnant women and within three months of a planned
conception. However, data on 226 women who received rubella vaccine during
pregnancy or within three months of conception showed no evidence of
congenital rubella syndrome.
Oral polio vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine given in three doses to

children at 2, 4, and 6 months of age. It is highly effective and easy to administer;
however, because live polio virus is secreted from the intestines of vaccinated
individuals for a short time after vaccination and because vaccine polio virus can
cause paralytic disease this form is no longer used in this country where polio has
been eradicated. Oral polio vaccine is still the vaccine of choice of the World
Health Organization’s effort to eradicate polio from the world.
Varicella zoster vaccine was approved in 1995 for use in the United States.
It is given at 12-18 months of age and is highly effective in preventing severe
varicella infections. Its use is also recommended for adults who may be exposed
to VZV and who are not immune (health care workers, daycare attendants, etc).
This vaccine was originally developed for immunocompromised children;
however, because it can cause chickenpox-like symptoms it is currently
contraindicated in individuals with severe immunodeficiency. The vaccine can
cause a mild chickenpox rash in immunocompetent hosts and has been shown to
go latent in dorsal ganglion cells with subsequent reactivation zoster; however, it
is felt that the risk of zoster in vaccinated individuals is less than that in naturally
infected individuals.
Whole killed vaccines : consist of organisms that have been inactivated so that
they are no longer capable of infecting a host or of multiplying within the
vaccinated host. These vaccines do not cause disease but can elicit an immune
response. However, because they do not replicate in the vaccinee they provide
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less antigenic stimulus than live attenuated vaccines and often require multiple
doses to ensure protection. For the most part, these vaccines are safe and can be
used in immunocompromised individuals. Adverse reactions to whole killed
vaccines are often seen in children.
Hepatitis A vaccine is derived from formalin inactivation of hepatitis A virus and

is recommended for travelers to areas of the world where hepatitis A is endemic
and for children in communities with high rates of hepatitis A (and there are a
lot!). The vaccine is very effective at least in the short term. Two doses given 6-
12 months apart appear to be protective for at least 10 years. Longer term
protection may require further boosting.
Influenza virus vaccine is composed of whole or disrupted (split) influenza

viruses. The viruses chosen change from flu season to flu season depending upon
which strains are likely to circulate. Revaccination is recommended yearly as
strains change and antibody levels decline over a 6-9 month period after
vaccination. Efficacy of this vaccine is 60-80% in healthy adults. It is less in
elderly and immunocompromised individuals; however, the vaccine is still
effective in this group at preventing serious illness, hospitalization and death. A
live attenuated nasal influenza vaccine (Flumist) recently received FDA approval
for healthy individuals aged 5-49.
Pertussis vaccines come in two different preparations in this country. The first
to be introduced was the whole cell vaccine which consists of whole killed
Bordetella pertussis. More recently an acellular preparation has become
available which consists of combinations of purified components of the organism
and detoxified pertussis toxin. Whole cell pertussis vaccines are associated with
a higher rate of adverse events after vaccination than are most other vaccines in
common use. In a large prospective study more than 60% of vaccinees had local
reactions or fever after receiving the vaccine. Febrile convulsions (without
sequelae) were seen in 1/1750 vaccinees. Acellular pertussis vaccine causes
fewer local and systemic reactions than the whole virus vaccine and for this
reason is now the favored form of vaccination. Pertussis vaccine is usually
combined with diphtheria and tetanus vaccines to produce the DTP (now DTaP
as the acellular preparation is used) given to infants at 2, 4, 6, and 15-18 months
with a booster at school entry age.
Inactivated polio vaccine is currently the polio vaccine of choice in the United
States. It is prepared by formalin inactivation of poliovirus strains and has been
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formulated to contain antigens recognized by 99% of the population (enhanced

potency IPV). This vaccine is more immunogenic than OPV but must be
administered parenterally (subcutaneously). It is given on the same schedule as
OPV (2, 4, 6-18 months) and has an excellent safety record. Vaccination against
polio has resulted in the eradication of wild-type polio infection from the Western
hemisphere and from Europe.
Subunit vaccines : consist of immunogenic parts of whole organisms and are

used when attenuation of the organism is difficult and whole killed vaccines are
either not immunogenic enough or too toxic. Many subunit vaccines are
conjugated, that is attached to protein carriers which greatly enhance their
immunogenicity. Subunit vaccines, like killed vaccines, cannot cause disease. In
general, adverse events are rare with subunit vaccines.
Haemophilus b vaccine consists of purified high molecular weight

haemophilus b polysaccharide (PRP) which is covalently linked to a carrier
protein. The linkage of the polysaccharide to the carrier protein greatly enhances
the immunogenicity of the vaccine and allows for its use in young infants (the
group most at risk of serious Hib infection). There are currently 4 licensed
formulations of the vaccine which differ in their carrier protein. PRP-D, which
consists of the PRP linked to diphtheria toxoid, is the least immunogenic of the 4
and is not recommended for use in infants. PRP-OMC, which consists of the PRP
linked to the outer membrane protein complex derived from N. meningitidis, is
the most immunogenic formulation. PRP-T (PRP linked to tetanus toxoid) and
HbOC (oligosaccharide linked to mutant diphtheria toxin protein) are as effective
as PRP-OMC but require an extra dose of vaccine at 6 months. Hib vaccine is
generally given at 2 and 4 months of age with a boost at 12-15 months if using
the PRP-OMC preparation. If using PRP-T or HbOC a third dose at 6 months
followed by a boost at 12-15 months is recommended. All preparations of the
vaccine are quite safe and have resulted in a dramatic decrease in serious Hib
infections in vaccinated populations.
Hepatitis B vaccine consists of purified, inactivated hepatitis B surface

antigen particles derived, nowadays, from recombinant DNA technology. In
some other countries HBV vaccine is still made from HBsAg particles derived
from the plasma of chronic carriers of HBV. The vaccine is safe, well-tolerated
and generally highly effective although a small number of vaccinated individuals
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never seroconvert. Vaccination is currently recommended for all adults with

potential blood/ body fluid exposure (that includes all of you) and is given to all
infants in the United States (usually in combination with a Hib vaccine).
Meningococccal polysaccharide vaccine contains purified meningococcal

polysaccharides of groups A, C, Y, and W135. A single IM dose induces
protective antibody levels in over 90% of vaccinees over the age of 2. Adverse
events are rare. The vaccine is recommended for high risk groups including those
with complement deficiency, asplenia, and travelers to countries with endemic
disease. It is recommended by some for college students, particularly freshmen
living in dormitory accommodation. It should be noted that the vaccine does not
confer protection against group B meningococcus infection -- an important cause
of meningitis.
Both pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine and conjugated

pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine are currently available in the United
States. The unconjugated vaccine consists of 23 different serotypes of
pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide covering the strains responsible for 85%
of all bacteremic pneumococcal disease in the US. This vaccine is recommended
for people over the age of 65 and in adults and children over the age of 2 with
high risk for pneumococcal disease. The conjugated pneumococcal
polysaccharide vaccine consists of polysaccharide from 7 serotypes of
pneumococcus linked to protein carriers. It is recommended for all children aged
2-23 months and is generally given at 2,4,6, and 12-15 months.
Toxoids : are modified bacterial toxins that have been rendered non-toxic but
retain the ability to stimulate the formation of antibodies (antitoxins). Toxoids
are generally safe and well-tolerated but most do not produce life-long immunity
and require booster doses.
Diphtheria toxoid is a purified preparation of inactivated diphtheria toxin.

It is highly effective in inducing antibodies that will prevent disease although it
has little effect on acquisition or carriage of the actual organism,
Corynebacterium diphtheriae, that makes the toxin. Local reactions to the toxoid
are frequent especially with booster doses. A high dose of toxoid is given in
combination with pertussis vaccine and tetanus toxoid to young children (DTaP)
and in a lower dose in combination with tetanus toxoid (Td) to older children and
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adults. After the initial 3 doses of toxoid, booster doses need to be given every
10 years to ensure continued protection against diphtheria. The use of the
diphtheria toxoid has resulted in a 99.99% decrease in cases of diphtheria in the
United States from 1921 to 1992.
Tetanus toxoid is a purified preparation of inactivated tetanus toxin

precipitated with alum and is one of the most effective immunizing agents known.
A course of 3 doses induces protective antibodies in over 95% of recipients. It is
given to young children as part of the DTaP vaccine and to older children and
adults as the Td vaccine. After the initial series of vaccinations boosters are
recommended every 10 years (given as Td to ensure both tetanus and diphtheria
protection is given). The most common side effects are fever and local reactions.
As the local reactions can be quite severe, boosters are recommended only every
10 years unless a particularly tetanus-prone wound has occurred in which case a
booster should be given if it is more than 5 years since the last booster. Tetanus
cases have decreased over 97% since the introduction of tetanus toxoid.
Other Vaccines to Know About: A number of other vaccines are available and
recommended for use under certain circumstances. It is worthwhile knowing
about these vaccines especially if you work with travelers and immigrants, plan
to travel yourself, or have an interest in potential agents of bioterrorism.
Anthrax vaccine is a cell-free filtrate prepared from microaerophilic

cultures of an avirulent strain of Bacillus anthracis. The vaccine is indicated only
for those at high risk of anthrax infection (this definition may change over time
but currently consists of people coming into contact with animal hides from
endemic areas, laboratory personnel working with anthrax, and the military). Its
efficacy is not known but it does induce antibodies in over 90% of individuals
who receive the primary course of 6 subcutaneous injections. Annual boosting is
required to sustain antibody levels. Mild local reactions are quite common
however system reactions are very rare.
BCG vaccine contains living Calmette-Guerin bacillus, an attenuated

strain of Mycobacterium bovis. Although widely used throughout the world it is
not recommended for general use in the United States because it can affect the
PPD test and is of controversial efficacy. It appears to be most effective in
preventing complications of disseminated TB in young children and it is therefore
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recommended primarily for infants and young children at high risk of exposure
to TB in the US. Because BCG vaccine contains live organisms, it can
disseminate in immunocompromised individuals and therefore it should not be
used in this population. BCG produces a vigorous local immune response and
has been instilled into the bladder to produce an immune response in people with
bladder cancer.
Rabies vaccine is an inactivated virus vaccine prepared in human or fetal

rhesus lung diploid cell culture. The human diploid cell preparation (HDCV) can
be used either intramuscularly or intradermally, while the rhesus lung preparation
(RVA) can only be used IM. Rabies vaccine is used in people likely to be exposed
to rabies (veterinarians, certain travelers, etc) or in people who have been exposed
to potentially rabid animals. Preexposure prophylaxis is given as three doses
either IM or intradermally at 0, 7, 21-28 days with follow-up boosting every 2
years or when a potential exposure has occurred. Postexposure prophylaxis is
given as 5 IM shots on days 0, 3, 7, 14, and 28 along with rabies immune globulin
on day 0. Rabies immune globulin is not needed in persons who have received
pre-exposure prophylaxis. Local reactions are common (30-74% of vaccinees)
and systemic complaints are also frequently seen with rabies vaccine but no
contraindication exists for its administration to at risk or exposed individuals
(remember the alternative is certain death).
Yellow fever vaccine is a live attenuated virus preparation. It is highly

effective and very well tolerated and excellent immunity is achieved after a single
dose of vaccine. It is recommended for travelers to areas of endemnicity and is
required by some countries for entry. As it is a live attenuated virus its use is
contraindicated in immunocompromised individuals; although pregnancy is not
an absolute contraindication for its use.
Smallpox vaccine has resulted in the eradication of naturally occurring

smallpox infection on earth. Smallpox vaccines are derivatives of cowpox
(vaccinia) virus and are the derivatives of one of three strains: Elstree (Lister,
France) strain, EM63 (Moscow) strain, and the New York City Board of Health
strain. Smallpox vaccines are produced from a seed virus propagated on the skin
of calves and then processed to eliminate bacterial contamination. Vaccinations
are given over the deltoid region of the upper arm using a bifurcated needle
dipped in the vaccine. The needle is held perpendicular to the skin and pressed
in and out 5 times in unvaccinated individuals, 15 times in previously vaccinated
individuals. A successful vaccination is defined as a pustular lesion or an area of
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definite induration or congestion surrounding a central lesion 6-8 days after

vaccination. Although smallpox vaccine is highly effective, it does have a
number of serious adverse consequences which preclude its general use at the
current time. The most frequent complications include:
 vaccinia necrosum: an often lethal complication of inadvertent

vaccination of an immunocompromised host which consists of the
insidious progression of an initially normal appearing vaccination with the
development of metastatic lesions throughout the body
 eczema vaccinatum: the consequence of local spread and/or dissemination
of vaccinia virus infection in individuals with atopic dermatitis
 generalized vaccinia: a nonspecific term used to describe a vesicular rash
that develops after vaccination. Unlike actual generalized infection such
as is seen in vaccinia necrosum or eczema vaccinatum, these reactions can
be seen in normal hosts, are generally not accompanied by systemic
symptoms, and do not yield virus on culture of the lesions
 erythematous urticarial eruptions: erythematous rashes observed in
otherwise healthy individuals 7-12 days after vaccination.
 Postinfectious encephalitis is one of the most serious complications of
vaccination in normal hosts with a mortality of 10-30%. It occurs in
1/100,000 primary vaccinees.
 Myocarditis: since the reactivation of smallpox vaccination in military
personnel and selected civilian populations, myocarditis, pericarditis and
myopericarditis have been reported. Persons with preexisting heart
disease are currently advised not to be vaccinated.
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Outdoor caged trials to demonstrate the efficiency of genetically modified

mosquitoes to suppress wild female Aedes aegypti mosquito populations that
transmit dengue, chikungunya and Zika were launched on January 23 in
Dawalwadi, Badnapur, in Maharashtra’s Jalna district.
What is RIDL technology?
Release of Insects carrying Dominant Lethal genes (RIDL) technology is a
technology using genetically modified mosquitoes to suppress wild female Aedes
aegypti mosquito populations that transmit dengue, chikungunya and Zika.
 It uses genetically modified male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes carrying a
dominant lethal gene.
 When male GM mosquitoes mate with wild female mosquitoes, the lethal gene
is passed on to offspring that kills the larvae before they reach adulthood.
 Since male mosquitoes do not bite humans, the release of GM males does not
increase the risk of dengue, chikungunya and Zika.
 Based on the results of the trials, which use the Release of Insects carrying
Dominant Lethal genes (RIDL) technology, and permission from Indian
regulatory authorities, Gangabishan Bhikulal Investment and Trading Limited
(GBIT) and Oxitec, plan to conduct open field trials in the country.
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 Laboratory-based studies have already been carried out in India since 2012
by GBIT and Oxitec and these studies have demonstrated the compatibility
of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
 “The efficiency to kill offspring was over 99% and male mosquitoes
imported from the U.K were able to mate with locally available wild
female mosquitoes and the longevity of imported mosquitoes was the same
as the wild ones,” says Dr. Shaibal Dasgupta, Project Leader, GBIT, Delhi.
 Oxitec’s technology uses genetically modified male Aedes aegypti
mosquitoes that carry a dominant lethal gene. When male GM mosquitoes
mate with wild female mosquitoes the lethal gene is passed on to offspring.
The lethal gene in the offspring kills the larvae before they reach
adulthood.
 Since male mosquitoes do not bite humans, the release of GM males will
not increase the risk of dengue, chikungunya and Zika.
Wolbachia-infected:
 “India is looking at another alternative. We are about to sign a
memorandum of understanding next month with Monash University for
vector control using Wolbachia-infected A. aegypti mosquitoes,” Dr.
Swaminathan says.
 Vector control using A. aegypti infected with the bacterium Wolbachia is
achieved by using the life-shortening bacteria strain in both male and
female mosquitoes. Uninfected wild female mosquito embryos fertilised
by Wolbachia-infected males fail to develop, while embryos from infected
females fertilised by infected or uninfected wild males survive. As
Wolbachia is maternally inherited, the bacteria are anyway passed on to
offspring. Dengue, Zika or chikunguya viruses cannot replicate when
mosquitoes have Wolbachia. Unlike the RIDL technology, a feature of
Wolbachia is that it is self-sustaining, making it a low-cost intervention.
 The downside is that the release of even a single female mosquito infected
with Wolbachia could “potentially lead to the alien bacteria spreading in
the target population,” says a June 2013 report in Pathogens and Global
Health.
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What is CERN?
It is the world’s largest nuclear and particle physics laboratory, where scientists
and engineers are probing the fundamental structure of the Universe by using the
most sophisticated scientific instruments and advanced computing systems.
India and CERN
 India has been actively involved in CERN’s scientific activities for over 50
years
 In 1991, India and CERN signed a Cooperation Agreement, setting priorities
for scientific and technical cooperation. India and CERN have signed several
other protocols since then. But India’s involvement in CERN began in the
1960s with researchers from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
Mumbai participating in experiments at CERN.
 In the 1990s scientists from Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology,
Indore too got involved in CERN experiment. Researchers from TIFR, Raja
Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology and other institutes built
components for an accelerator (LEP) and detectors (L3, WA93 and WA89).
India was granted Observer status to the CERN Council in 2002.
 The CERN convention was signed in 1953 by the 12 founding state. Currently,
CERN has 22 member states. Besides India, Turkey, Pakistan, Ukraine are
Associate members and Serbia and Cyprus are associate members in the pre-
stage to membership.
How will India Benefit as an associate member:
 As an Associate member India will have full access to all data generated at
CERN. As there are many experiments in CERN, there will be plenty of
information available. When we were not an Associate member, India could
data only from those experiments where we were participating.
 As an Associate member, India can participate in all experiments. We may
have to pay additional charges for participating in the experiments. We can
choose the experiments where India wants to participate
 Whenever any CERN facilities get upgraded and go through maintenance, it
will provide opportunities for Indian industries to participate
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 Since Indian scientists will become eligible for staff appointments, it will
enhance the participation of young scientists and engineers in operation and
maintenance of various CERN projects.
Internet Governance and ICANN

1) Introduction
 Internet governance is the development and application of shared
principles, norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and programs that
shape the evolution and use of the Internet.
 Internet governance should not be confused with E-Governance, which
refers to governments' use of technology to carry out their governing
duties.
Background
 No one person, company, organization or government runs the Internet.
 It is a globally distributed network comprising many voluntarily
interconnected autonomous networks.
 It operates without a central governing body with each constituent network
setting and enforcing its own policies.
 However, to help ensure interoperability and the principal namespaces are
administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN)
 ICANN oversees the assignment of globally unique identifiers on the
Internet, including domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and many
other parameters.
 ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from
across the Internet's technical, business, academic, and other non-
commercial communities.
Internet Corporation for Assigned names and Numbers'(ICANN)
 ICANN is a non profit that manages the Domain Name System (DNS)
 ICANN helps organise the Internet with the allotment of domain names
such as .com, .org and .net.
 Recently US government gave up oversight of Internet naming functions
and handed over it to ICANN.
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India's Role in Internet Governance

 India’s government must play an active role in formulating the rules,
given its social responsibility to ensure equitable access to the one billion
“unconnected” citizens for service and governance delivery.
 India should take the lead in setting up a group of experts from 15 to 20
countries in the digital sector to shape internet governance, a proverbial
“D-20”.
 Such a forum would translate the key features of India’s bilateral
agreements into global norms and bring it cyber heft.
 India should consolidate its leadership by creating ideation forums to
shape the discourse. This would also complement the “Digital India”
initiative
 To bring all Indian stakeholders on the same page, an Indian internet
governance council must be established.
 India is in a position to shape cyberspace debates, but for that it will need
to be flexible, propositional and present everywhere that internet
governance is debated.
 India hosted the ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers) 57th meeting in Hyderabad
 The language of the Internet cannot be English and English alone," and
India appealed to the ICANN community to make more local languages
available to users.
What are the salient features of National Health Policy-2017?
Policy looks at problems and solutions holistically with private sector as strategic
partners. It seeks to promote quality of care, focus is on emerging diseases and
investment in promotive and preventive healthcare. The policy is patient centric
and quality driven. It addresses health security and make in India for drugs and
devices.
• It aims to raise public healthcare expenditure to 2.5% of GDP from current

1.4%, with more than two-thirds of those resources going towards primary
healthcare.
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• It envisages providing a larger package of assured comprehensive primary

healthcare through the ‘Health and Wellness Centers’.
• It is a comprehensive package that will include care for major non-
communicable diseases (NCDs), geriatric healthcare, mental health, palliative
care and rehabilitative care services.
• It proposes free diagnostics, free drugs and free emergency and essential
healthcare services in all public hospitals in order to provide healthcare access
and financial protection.
• It seeks to establish regular tracking of disability adjusted life years (DALY)
Index as a measure of burden of disease and its major categories trends by
2022.
• It aims to improve and strengthen the regulatory environment by putting in
place systems for setting standards and ensuring quality of healthcare.
• It also looks at reforms in the existing regulatory systems both for easing drugs
and devices manufacturing to promote Make in India and also reforming
medical education.
• It advocates development of mid-level service providers, public health cadre,
nurse practitioners to improve availability of appropriate health human
resource.
What are the main aims and targets of national health policy-2017?
The primary aim of the National Health Policy, 2017, is :
 To inform, clarify, strengthen and prioritize the role of the Government in

shaping health systems in all its dimensions- investment in health
 Organization and financing of healthcare services, prevention of diseases
and promotion of good health through cross sectoral action
 Access to technologies
 Developing human resources
 Encouraging medical pluralism
 Building the knowledge base required for better health
 Financial protection strategies and regulation and progressive assurance for
health.
 The policy emphasizes reorienting and strengthening the Public Health
Institutions across the country, so as to provide universal access to free
drugs, diagnostics and other essential healthcare.
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What are the key elements of science and technology policy?
The key elements of the STI policy are:
 Developing synergies between science, technology & innovation

 Providing a fresh perspective on innovation in an Indian context
 Charting a high-technology path for creating a science, research & innovation
system in India
 Promoting proliferation of scientific temper among all sections of the society
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 Enhancing skill for applications of science among the young from all social
strata
 Making careers in science, research & innovation attractive to the brightest
students
 Establishing world class R&D infrastructure for gaining global leadership in
some select frontier areas of science
 Positioning India among the top 5 global scientific powers by 2020
 Encouraging private sector to invest in research & development in Science &
Technology.
 Setting up of large scale R&D facilities via PPP mode.
 Setting up of regulatory framework for sharing IPRs between inventors &
investors.
 Migrating R&D outputs into commercial applications by replicating hitherto
successful models as well as establishing new structures
 Facilitating S&T-based high-risk innovations through new mechanisms
 Triggering changes in the mindset & value systems to recognise, respect &
reward performances that create wealth from S&T derived knowledge
 Increasing R&D spending to 2.4 per cent of GDP by 2034
Introduction
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India ranks third among the most attractive investment destinations for
technology transactions in the world. Modern India has had a strong focus on
science and technology, realising that it is a key element of economic growth.
India is among the topmost countries in the world in the field of scientific
research, positioned as one of the top five nations in the field of space exploration.
The country has regularly undertaken space missions, including missions to the
moon and the famed Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
Currently, 27 satellites including 11 that facilitate the communication network to
the country are operational, establishing India’s progress in the space technology
domain. India is likely to take a leading role in launching satellites for the SAARC
nations, generating revenue by offering its space facilities for use to other
countries.
Market size
India is among the world’s top 10 nations in the number of scientific publications.
Position-wise, it is ranked 17th in the number of citations received and 34th in
the number of citations per paper across the field of science and technology
(among nations publishing 50,000 or more papers). The country is ranked ninth
globally in the number of scientific publications and 12th in the number of patents
filed.
India's analytics industry is expected to touch US$ 16 billion by 2025 from the
current US$ 2 billion, as per the National Association of Software and Services
Companies (Nasscom).
With support from the government, considerable investment and development
has incurred in different sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, space research,
and nuclear power through scientific research. For instance, India is gradually
becoming self-reliant in nuclear technology. Recently, the Kudankulam Nuclear
Power Project Unit-1 (KKNPP 1) with 1,000 MW capacity was commissioned,
while the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project Unit-2 (KKNPP-2) with 1,000
MW capacity is under commissioning.
Recent developments
Some of the recent developments in the field of science and technology in India
are as follows:
 The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) plans to launch 2

satellites in March and April 2017, which includes the satellite meant for
the benefit of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC) nations. ISRO also targets launch of second lunar mission
Chandrayaan-2 in first quarter of 2018.
 ISRO has launched a record high of 104 satellites in one go on a single
rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
 ISRO has successfully placed remote sensing satellite RESOURCESAT-
2A in orbit, to provide continuity to ISRO's three tier imaging data, which
will be extremely useful for agricultural applications.
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 Magicbricks has launched India’s first real estate Experience Centre in

Mumbai, which uses technologies such as virtual reality, augmented
reality, and on-demand video-call to provide an intuitive experience in
property purchase.
 The Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has tied up
with French engine maker Snecma to guide the Gas Turbine and Research
Establishment (GTRE) to improve the performance of Kaveri engines
being used in India’s indigenously developed Light Combat Aircraft
(LCA) Tejas.
 The Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle-C35 (PSLV-C35) has successfully placed eight different satellites
in a single rocket mission, including SCATSAT-1 for weather related
studies, five foreign satellites and two satellites from Indian academic
institutes into orbit.
 The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has
announced a research and development (R&D) initiative to develop next
generation sustainable refrigerant technologies as alternatives to the
currently used refrigerant gases like hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), in order
to mitigate its impact on the ozone layer and climate.
 The Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) geosynchronous
satellite launch vehicle-F05 (GSLV) successfully launched India's weather
satellite INSAT-3DR into space, which will provide meteorological
services and assist search and rescue operations of security agencies
including all defence forces, the coast guard, and in shipping industry.
 The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) plans to partner with
private firms to jointly build a navigation satellite that it would launch by
March 2017, which would allow the space agency to free its resources to
focus on research and deep space missions.
 Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur (IIT-Kharagpur) and National
Highways Authority of India (NHAI) have signed a memorandum of
understanding (MoU) for research project to develop technology to
construct maintenance free highways in India.
 Intertek Group, a UK-based total quality assurance provider, has launched
an Agricultural Technology (Agritech) laboratory in Hyderabad, which
will perform high-tech Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) analyses for the
agri-biotech, plant seeds breeding, and plant seeds production industries.
 The Indian Institute of Science (IISc) has discovered a breed of natural
cures for cancer in Quercetin, a compound found in fruits and leaves, and
plant VernoniaCondensata, which can significantly reduce the tumour size
and increase the longevity of life.
 The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has completed its mission
of developing India's independent navigation system by launching Indian
Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS - 1G), the seventh and final
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navigation satellite, which will reduce the country's dependency on US

Global Positioning System.
 The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has signed a
memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Airports Authority of India
(AAI), aimed at providing space technology for construction of airports,
which will help make flight operations safer and provide optimum
utilisation of land.
 Indian and American delegations have discussed an arrangement for Space
Situational Awareness (SSA), a programme for monitoring space
environment and track potential hazards and security threats, and have set
up a bilateral mechanism for sharing information for tracking movements
of satellites, avoiding collisions and identifying potential threats to space
and ground assets.
 The Department of Space/ Indian Space Research Organisation
(DOS/ISRO) and Kuwait Institute of Scientific Research (KISR) have
signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on cooperation in the field
of exploration and use of outer space.
 The Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore has become the first
Indian institution to enter the Top 100 universities ranking in engineering
and technology*.
Investment Scenario
 Infosys Ltd has invested Rs 14.5 crore (Danish Krone 15.22 million) in a
Danish artificial intelligence start-up called UNSILO, which specialises in
advanced text analysis and has built a semantic search engine with best-in-
class text intelligence.
 NIDHI (National Initiative for Development and Harnessing Innovations),
an umbrella program pioneered by the Department of Science &
Technology (DST), has committed Rs 500 crore (US$ 75 million) to
implement Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Startup India initiative, by
providing technological solutions and nurturing ideas and innovations into
successful startups.
 InnoNano Research, a clean water technology company, has raised US$ 18
million from NanoHoldings, a US-based energy and water investment
firm, which will be used to set up manufacturing facility, modern research
laboratory and technology delivery offices across North America, Asia and
Africa to make India an exporter of water technologies.
 Ecoppia, an Israel-based developer of robotic cleaning technology for solar
sites, has signed a deal with Sanmina Corporation, a US-based Original
Equipment Manufacturer (OEM), to begin mass production of their E4
robots at a new facility near Chennai.
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 Saama Technologies Incorporation, the Big Data analytics solutions and

services company, headquartered in the Silicon Valley, plans to invest US$
2 million to create the largest pure play data science and analytics hub in
India.
 The Government aims to invest 2 per cent of the country’s GDP on research
and development (R&D) in its 12th Five-Year Plan period (2013–17).
Accordingly, the Government has undertaken various measures for
promoting growth of scientific research, such as: Sustained increase in plan
allocations for scientific departments
o Setting up of new institutions for science education and research

o Launch of new Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2013
o Creation of centres of excellence for research and facilities in
emerging and frontline science and technology areas in academic
and national institutes
o Establishment of new and attractive fellowships
o Strengthening infrastructure for R&D in universities
o Encouraging public-private R&D partnerships
o Recognition of R&D units
o Fiscal incentives and support measures for enhancing industry
participation in R&D
Government Initiatives
India and Israel have agreed to enhance the bilateral cooperation in science and
technology in the next two years, under the aegis of the S&T agreement
concluded in 1993, by providing US$ 1 million from each side to support new
research and development (R&D) projects in the areas of big data analytics in
healthcare and cyber security.
India has become an Associate Member State of the European Organisation for
Nuclear Research (CERN), which will increase the collaboration between India
and CERN’s scientific and technological endeavours, and will increase
participation of Indian physicists, software engineers and electronics hardware in
global experiments.
Ms Nirmala Sitharaman, Minister of State with Independent Charge for the
Ministry of Commerce & Industry, outlined plans of setting up a committee to
examine and expeditiously implement measures to improve India’s innovation
landscape.
Dr Harsh Vardhan, Minister for Science and Technology and Earth Sciences,
outlined Government of India's plans to pursue a green path to growth by
doubling investment in clean energy research to US$ 145 million in the next five
years from current investment of US$ 72 million.
The Department of Health Research (DHR), Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare plans to set up a three-tier national network of Viral Research and
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Diagnostic Laboratories (VRDLs) under which 160 VRDLs will be set up with
capability to handle around 30-35 viruses of public health importance.
The central government plans to soon institute a nation-wide consultation process
with a view to develop the first publicly accessible Science and Technology
policy. The policy ‘Vision S&T 2020’ would articulate the country’s future
towards self-reliance and technological independence in the 21st century.
The Union Cabinet gave "in principle" clearance for the location of a Laser
Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) facility in India which
will be the third in the world and will be set up and managed by the IndIGO
Consortium (Indian Initiative in Gravitational-wave Observations).
The Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology of the
Government of India has become only the second country outside of Europe to
join the European Molecular Biology Organisation (EMBO), which consists of
1,700 eminent scientists and 84 Nobel laureates, and aims to encourage research
in the field of life sciences.
The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has signed a Memorandum
of Understanding (MoU) with the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC)
under Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and North East Centre for
Technology Application and Research (NECTAR) to use spatial technology such
as satellite data to monitor and manage national highways.
National Council of Science Museums (NCSM), an autonomous organisation
under the Union Ministry of Culture, is engaged in the establishment of Science
Centres across the country. NCSM is developing a Science City at Guwahati,
Assam, which would be handed over to the Government of Assam for future
operations and maintenance. The organisation has received proposals from
various state governments for setting up of such Science Cities. NCSM has
undertaken the Science Centres/Cities projects in a phased manner depending on
the availability of resources, project handling capacity of NCSM, and existing
level of science centre activities in a particular state.
The Road Ahead
India is aggressively working towards establishing itself as a leader in
industrialisation and technological development. Significant developments in the
nuclear energy sector are likely as India looks to expand its nuclear capacity.
Moreover, nanotechnology is expected to transform the Indian pharmaceutical
industry. The agriculture sector is also likely to undergo a major revamp, with the
government investing heavily for the technology-driven Green Revolution. Also,
several automobile manufacturers, from global majors such as Audi to Indian
companies such as Maruti Suzuki and Mahindra & Mahindra, are exploring the
possibilities of introducing driverless self-driven cars for India. The Government
of India, through the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Policy-2013,
among other things, aspires to position India among the world’s top five scientific
powers.
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In the year 2014, Department has restructured all the women specific programmes
under one umbrella known as “KIRAN” (Knowledge Involvement in Research
Advancement through Nurturing).
Knowledge Involvement Research Advancement through Nurturing (KIRAN)

Programme is being implemented by the Department of Science & Technology
to provide various career opportunities to women scientists. It is primarily aimed
at gender parity in Science & Technology sector by inducting more women talent
in the research & development domain through various programmes, namely,
Fellowship Schemes for break-in career women scientists [i.e. Women Scientist
Scheme-A (WOS-A), Women Scientist Scheme-B (WOS-B) and Women
Scientist Scheme-C (WOS-C)], Institutional support through Consolidation of
University Research through Innovation and Excellence in Women Universities
(CURIE) scheme and Women Technology Parks (WTPs).
In 2016-17, a new programme “Mobility Scheme” has been launched under

KIRAN to address relocation issue of working Women Scientists. Further, they
are also encouraged to avail of capacity building schemes related to basic
research, societal development and self-employment.
The Mobility Scheme is aimed to provide an opportunity to women scientists who

are facing difficulties in their present job due to relocation (marriage, transfer of
husband to any other location within the country, attending ailing parents, and
accompanying children studying in different city) and will act as filler while
searching other career option at new place. The initiative intends to provide a
harmonious environment during early phases of women scientists where they
would like to stay active in research in addition to attending and fulfilling other
responsibilities in the domestic front. It offers a contractual research award to
women scientists and enables them for independent research.
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Department of Science & Technology has also constituted “Standing Committee

for Promoting Women in Science” in May, 2016.
As per the latest Official Statistics available (2011-12), out of 1.93 lakh persons
in Research & Development, only 27532 women scientists are directly engaged
in R&D activities at various research institutions, which constitute 14.3% of the
total.
Women are not lagging behind in this field. They could be statistically less in
number, which could possibly be on account of rigorous academic and research
in the crucial stage of life, familial issues like marriage, family responsibility,
relocation due to transferable job of spouse etc. These sometimes leads to dropout
from higher studies, career break, overage for scientific jobs and prolonged
absence from place of work or even resignation from the job. The Draft National
Policy for Women 2016 has taken cognizance of these issues.
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What is Augmented Reality

 Augmented reality is a computer technology that functions on computer vision-
based recognition algorithms to augment sound, video, graphics and other sensor
based inputs on real world objects, using your device’s camera.
 It layers digital enhancements to enrich an existing real life setting by appealing to
the senses.
 Augmented 3D information helps workers on assembly lines or during
maintenance work and repair to carry out required tasks.
 India’s first augmented reality (AR) education and training institute will be set in
Varanasi.
 The institution will be established by the central government in partnership with
Eon Reality, an augmented reality company based in the US.
Significance
 Augmented reality is seen as the next big thing in the Internet revolution especially in
learning and practical
Training space
 It will allow students from various ranges like skill schools, engineering, research, etc.
to experience a different kind of learning before entering the real-world workplace.
 It will be a virtual manufacturing shop floor that will provide students from diploma-
to research-level “hands-on training” on high value machines that are beyond the
budgets of institutions.
 Each trainee will be able to unpack the machine part by part and learn through virtual
dissection. Like a real machine, it will throw new problems to trainees and thus would
help in better training.
 The institutions and the software deployed will be able to create virtual machines of
many sectors-from car design to the assembly line of an automobile firm, from textiles
to heavy engineering machines.
 The idea goes well with the Skills India and Digital India initiative of the government.
Limitations/Challenges:
 Currently, AR works better in static, unchanging situations, and when it has to show
information that is constantly changing, it becomes less accurate.
 It has privacy concerns due to its facial and location recognition technologies.
 With the already isolation of individuals due to various technologies (e.g. social
media), AR can further lead to social detachment among people.
WHAT IS VIRTUAL REALITY?
Virtual reality (VR) is an artificial environment that is created with software and presented to
the user in such a way that the user suspends belief and accepts it as a real environment.
On a computer, virtual reality is primarily experienced through two of the five senses: sight
and sound.
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Virtual reality can artificially create sensory experiences, which can include sight, hearing,
touch, and smell.
The simplest form of VR is a 3-D image that can be explored interactively at a personal
computer, usually by manipulating keys or the mouse so that the content of the image moves
in some direction or zooms in or out.
More sophisticated efforts involve such approaches as wrap-around display screens, actual
rooms augmented with wearable computers, and haptics devices (Haptics--the science of
applying touch (tactile) sensation and control to interaction with computer applications) that
let you feel the display images. Virtual reality can be divided into:
 The simulation of a real environment for training and education.

 The development of an imagined environment for a game or interactive story.
The Virtual Reality Modelling Language (VRML) allows the creator to specify images and
the rules for their display and interaction using textual language statements.
Furthermore, virtual reality covers remote communication environments which provide virtual
presence of users with the concepts of tele-presence and tele-existence or a virtual artefact (VA)
either through the use of standard input devices such as a keyboard and mouse, or through
multimodal devices such as a wired glove or omnidirectional treadmills.
APPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL REALITY:
 Education and training- Using VR, for students doing study can be more interactive
in the classroom. It will help in understanding concepts, for recreational activities etc.
 Training- The usage of VR in a training perspective is to allow professionals to
conduct training in a virtual environment where they can improve upon their skills
without the consequence of failing the operation. VR plays an important role in combat
training for the military.
 Video games- The use of graphics, sound and input technology in video games can be
incorporated into VR.
 Heritage and archaeology- Virtual reality enables heritage sites to be recreated
extremely accurately, so that the recreations can be published in various media. The
original sites are often inaccessible to the public, or may even no longer exist. This
technology can be used to develop virtual replicas of caves, natural environment, old
towns, monuments, sculptures and archaeological elements.
 Urban design- VR can be used for urban regeneration and planning and transport
projects.
 Therapy- The primary use of VR in a therapeutic role is its application to various
forms of exposure therapy, including phobia treatments patients.
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Effect of Global Warming on Oceans

1) Introduction
 Global warming is making the oceans sicker than ever before, spreading disease among
animals and humans and threatening food security across the planet
 SDG14 which pertains to conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas and marine
resources
 The world’s waters have absorbed more than 93 per cent of the enhanced heating from
climate change since the 1970s and drastically altering the rhythm of life in the ocean
 The study shows that two-thirds of the total heat is present in the upper layer, while the
rest (one-third) is in the deeper layers.
2) A cause for concern
 Oceans sustain this planet and oceans provide every second breath we take
 The ocean has been shielding us and the consequences of this are absolutely massive
 Cumulative impacts of human activities have pushed the oceans’ carrying capacity
almost to its limit
 Climate change, overexploitation of marine living resources, increased uses of ocean
space, rising pollution and other factors have placed excessive pressure on oceans
How warmer temperatures are affecting our oceans

Coral bleaching
 Mass coral bleaching events observed are due to warm temperatures related to climate
change.
 Mass coral bleaching results in the starvation, shrinkage and death of the corals that
support the thousands of species that live on coral reefs.
Fish migration
 In addition, many fish species have moved toward the poles in response to ocean
warming, disrupting fisheries around the world.
Drowning wetlands
 Rising sea levels, partly the result of heat absorbed by the ocean, is also “drowning”
wetlands.
 Wetlands normally grow vertically fast enough to keep up with sea level rise, but
recently the sea has been rising too fast for wetlands to keep their blades above water.
 Coral reefs and sea grass meadows are also in danger of “drowning” since they can only
photosynthesize in relatively shallow water.
Ocean acidification
 The ocean has absorbed about 30 percent of the carbon dioxide humans have sent
into the atmosphere since the start of the Industrial Revolution
 This is damaging many ocean species that use calcium carbonate to form their
skeletons and shells.
 Studies have shown that calcium carbonate formation is disrupted if water becomes
too acidic.
 Ocean acidification also appears to be affecting whole ecosystems, such as coral reefs,
which depend on the formation of calcium carbonate to build reef structure
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India's Ambitious Renewable Energy Targets

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India’s ambitious Renewable Energy Targets

 The ambitious target of achieving 175GW of renewable energy capacity by

 Ujwal Discom Assurance Yojana (UDAY), will help distribution companies

 Accessing affordable finance, the poor financial health of state electricity

What is the Alliance?

There are three objectives behind the International Solar Alliance.

Firstly, to force down prices by driving demand;

Currently, the global installed capacity of solar power is around 180 GW at

The second rationale of this alliance is to bring standardization in the

Research and Development:

1. The Sunshine Countries {Suryaputra} :

2. International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (IASPA) :

The ISA secretariat will be set up in National Institute of Solar Energy,

Solar power in India is a fast-growing industry and as of 30 September 2016, the

Solar energy use can be classified as:

Under Direct use, Sunlight can be converted into

2. Electricity as Solar Electric Energy

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY:

Disdvantages of Solar Energy:

1. Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime and sunny.

 The Government of India announced a massive renewable power production

What is the Alliance?

There are three objectives behind the International Solar Alliance.

Firstly, to force down prices by driving demand;

Currently, the global installed capacity of solar power is around 180 GW at

The second rationale of this alliance is to bring standardization in the

Research and Development:

5. The Sunshine Countries {Suryaputra} :

6. International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (IASPA) :

India’s ambitious Renewable Energy Targets

 The ambitious target of achieving 175GW of renewable energy capacity by

 Policy and regulatory framework for the promotion of renewable energy is in

The offshore wind farming is of two types viz.

Merits and Demerits of wind energy:

4. Decreases heat buildup in the atmosphere from energy use

Advantages common to offshore and onshore wind energy

Advantages of Offshore Wind over Onshore Wind:

National Offshore Wind Power Policy: India is making significant progress

The offshore wind farming is of two types viz.

Merits and Demerits of wind energy:

Advantages common to offshore and onshore wind energy

Advantages of Offshore Wind over Onshore Wind:

National Offshore Wind Power Policy: India is making significant progress

Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of

Overview of biomass energy in India:

Advantages & Disadvantages of Biomass/ Bioenergy

 It makes sense to use waste materials where we can.

 Collecting or growing the fuel in sufficient quantities can be difficult.

Pros of Biomass Energy

1. Renewable: Biomass energy is a renewable resource. The principal positive

2. Dependency on Fossil Fuels is Reduced: It replaces other fuel sources. In all

3. Carbon Neutral: It doesn’t produce carbon. The distinction between using

5. Can be Used in Many Forms: Biomass can be used to create different

6. Helps Reduce Waste: It helps with waste management. Consistently we create

Cons of Biomass Energy

2. Can Lead to Deforestation: Wood is a major source of biomass energy. To

3. In-efficient: Biodiesel product like Ethanol which is produced by biomass is

CURRENT SCENARIO OF BIOMASS ENERGY: