Chapter 4: Reliability, Maintainability, and Availability of Facilities and

Introduction

The growing complexity of equipment and systems, as well as the rapidly increasing cost
incurred by loss of operation as a consequence of failures, has brought to the forefront the
aspects of reliability, maintainability, availability, and safety.

The expectation today is that complex equipment and systems are not only free from defects and
systematic failures at time t = 0 (when they are put into operation), but also perform the required
function failure free for a stated time interval and have a fail-safe behavior in case of critical or
catastrophic failures.

If n statistically identical and independent items are put into operation at time t = 0 to perform a
given mission and ν ≤ n of them accomplish it successfully, then the ratio ν / n is a random
variable which converges for increasing n to the true value of the reliability.

Reliability is a characteristic of the item, expressed by the probability that it will perform its
required function under given conditions for a stated time interval.

Qualitatively: it is the ability of the item to remain functional.

Quantitatively: it is probability that no operational interruptions will occur during a stated time
interval.

On the basis of it, the following characteristics of reliability can be traced.

1. It is expressed as probability. Hence it can vary from zero to one. Probability values near
to 1 imply higher reliability.
2. The required/intended function specifies the item's task. It is starting point for any
reliability analysis, as it defines failures.
3. The operating conditions. Experience shows, for instance, that the failure rate of
semiconductor devices will double for operating temperature increase of 10 to 20°C.
4. The time period for which the devise has to work satisfactory. It can be expressed in
operating hours or days or months or years.
History of Reliability

 As a discipline it may be traced back to the 1930s when probability concepts were applied to
electric power generation-related problems.

Reliability and Quality

Reliability and quality go hand-in-hand and are complimentary to each other.

 The quality of a product is the degree of conformance to specifications or standards.

 It is not concerned with the elements of time and environment.
 Reliability: is the ability of a product to maintain its quality for specified period of time
under specified working conditions.
 Another difference between quality and reliability is:
 It is possible to build a reliable complex system by using less reliable components (by
using redundant components) where as
 It is not possible to improve quality once it has been produced (unless it is reworked)

Objectives of Reliability

To ensure

1. Trouble free running of equipment

2. Adequate performance for specified period of time
3. The equipment works under specified conditions.
4. Minimization of down time of equipment.
5. Maintainability of equipment.

Failure and Failure (hazard) rate

Failure: It is the inability of an item to perform its required function.

Some components fail suddenly and some components may fail gradually.

Failure rate: It is the frequency with which a component fails.

The failures occurring over a time interval can be termed as failure rate.

It is the average number of failures per unit time and is denoted as λ.

Basic Derivations: MTTF, MTBF

Let us assume that n statistically identical, new, and independent items are put into operation at
time t = 0, under the same conditions, and v(t) at the time t a subset of these items have not yet
failed. V (t) is a right continuous decreasing step function. t1... tn, measured from t = 0, are the
observed failure-free times (operating times to failure) of the n items considered.

is the empirical mean (empirical expected value) of τ.

For converges to the true mean E[τ] = MTTF

The function is the empirical reliability function, which converges to R( t ) for n →∞.
is the empirical mean (empirical expected value) of τ.

Mean time to failure (MTTF) is used when the components are irreparable. When n numbers of
items are tested until all fails, if

Ti is the time at which the ith item fails, then

Mean time between failures (MTBF): is used to indicate the frequency of failure for repairable
items. If a component fails after T1 period, after repair and put into operation, if it fails after T2
period, after repair and put into operation, if it fails after T3 period … Then,

The relation between failure rate and MTBF

Failure rate curve (Bathtub curve)

In reliability analysis of engineering systems it is often assumed that the hazard or time-
dependent failure rate of items follows the shape of a bathtub as shown below.

The curve shown in the figure below has three distinct regions:

1. Burn-in period (Early Failures)

2. Useful life period, and
3. Wear-out period

1. Burn-in period
 The burn-in period also known as mortality period, break-in period, or debugging period.
 The failures occurring in this period are due to
 Poor design& manufacturing, poor quality control,& debugging,
 Human error, and substandard material and workmanship.

2. Useful life period

 The hazard rate is constant, minimum and the failure occurs randomly or unpredictably.
 Causes of failures in this region include:
 Insufficient design margins & incorrect use of environments,
 Undetectable defects, human error and, unavoidable failures.
3. Wear-out period
 It begins when the item passes its useful life period.
 Hazard rate increases.
 Causes of failures in this region include:
 Wearing due to aging and friction,
 Inadequate or improper preventive maintenance,
 Limited-life components, misalignments,
 Corrosion and creep, and incorrect overhaul practices.
 The failures can be reduced significantly by executing:
 Effective replacement and preventive maintenance policies and procedures.

Reliability Measures

The reliability of an item can be obtained by using the following equations

R (t)  1- F(t)  1 -  f(t) dt

Where, R (t) = reliability at time

F (t) = cumulative distribution function,

f (t) = failure density function.

Where (t) = hazard rate or time-dependent failure rate.

In general, Reliability can be reduced to the equation

Example 1: Consider a component that has a MTTF of 1000 hours. Find its reliability for 100,
1000 and 2000 hours and offer your comments.

Example 2: Determine the reliability of equipment having a MTBF of 50 hours for an operating
period of 45 hours. If the reliability has to be improved by 20% what percent change in MTBF is
required?
System Reliability

The reliability evaluation of most standard systems/networks is important in engineering

systems.

When two or more components are used to form a system, the components can be arranged in
series or in parallel.

Components are in series:

Let three components A, B, and C with reliabilities RA, RB and RC are arranged in series, then the
system reliability is

RS = (RA) (RB) (RC)

If any one of the units fails, the system fails. All system units must work normally for successful
operation of the system.

Generally, where Ri is the unit i reliability, for i = 1, 2, 3, … m

The system reliability can be approximated by using

For identical units (i.e. Ri = R), RS = 1-M (1-R)

The failure rate of a system is the sum of the failure rates of all the components if they are
arranged in series
Components are in parallel:

Let three components A, B and C with reliabilities RA, RB and RC are arranged in parallel, then
the system reliability is RS = 1-(1-RA) (1-RB) (1-RC)

Generally,

Example 3: Assume that an automobile has four independent and identical tires. The tire
reliability is 0.95. If any one of the tires is punctured, the automobile cannot be driven. Calculate
the automobile reliability with respect to tires.

Example 4: A step down transformer, rectifier and filter comprise a series system with the
following failures. Transformer =1.56 % failures/10000 hours, Rectifier = 2 % failures/10000
hours Filter = 1.7 % failures/10000 hours. The equipment has to operate for 1500 hours. What is
the probability of not survival of the system?

Example 5: A computer has two independent and identical CPUs operating simultaneously. At
least one CPU must operate normally for the computer to function successfully. If the CPU
reliability is 0.96, calculate the computer reliability with respect to CPUs.

Concept of Standby Redundancy

 Redundant systems consist of two or more components connected in parallel.

 When one fails, the required function is performed by another (called as redundant
component), thus improving the reliability.
 In some systems, the redundant components may not be continuously operating but
remain in the system in a standby mode.
 When the main component fails, the redundant component is switched on.
 Standby Redundancy is more appropriate for mechanical systems such as motors and
pumps.
Problem: Consider the following arrangement of components; three transformers each with
reliability of 0.75, two rectifiers each with reliability of 0.94, and four filters each with reliability
of 0.90. Determine the reliability of the system.

Maintainability

 No equipment/system can be perfectly reliable for very large period in spite of the designers’
best effort.
 It is bound to fail during its operation which sometimes is dangerous and costly.
 Maintenance therefore becomes important consideration in long term performance of the
equipment.
 The system requires preventive maintenance to eliminate or slow down failures during its
operation.

Maintainability: is the

 Characteristic of an equipment design and installation which is expressed in terms of ease

and economy of maintenance, availability and safety of equipment.
 Probability that a failed equipment is restored to operable condition in a specified time
(called as down time) when maintenance is performed under stated conditions.
 Design parameter intended to reduce repair time, as opposed to maintenance, which is the act
of repairing or servicing an item or equipment.
Maintainability Engineering: An application of scientific knowledge and skill to develop
equipment / item that is inherently be able to be maintained as measured by favorable
maintenance characteristics.

Maintainability function: A plot of the probability of repair within a time given on the y-axis,
against maintenance time on the x-axis and is useful to predict the probability that repair will be
completed in a specified time.

Objectives of Maintainability

 To maximize equipment and facility availability.

 To reduce predictive maintenance time and costs by simplifying maintenance through design.
 To determine labor-hours and other resources needed to perform the projected maintenance.
 To use maintainability data to determine item availability/unavailability.

Where M = Maintainability i.e., the probability of repairing in time T.

T= Max allowable time to repair

μ= maintenance action rate or average no of maintenance actions per period of time

For example 10 items are repaired in 150 hours, then or

Maintainability is , Where Ø = average hours per maintenance action

Example 6: Consider a component with a total number of failures of 86. The corresponding total
number of maintenance hours required for these 86 failures is 540. Compute the maintainability
for 1, 5 and 10 hours.

Mean time to repair (MTTR)

 The most widely used maintainability measure.

 The mean time required to perform a given maintenance activity of a system.
Let T1, T2, T3 etc. are the times required to repair, then, MTTR is expressed by:

Or

Where MTBF is mean time between failures and Ai is the inherent availability

Optimizing Maintainability

Considering the importance of Maintainability, it imperative to maximize it.

The following are the basic strategies for doing it.

1. Fault location and isolation:

 Most frequently the time consuming especially in complex systems.
 Can be minimized by preventive maintenance where likely trouble spots are noted and
logged.
2. Repair time: Equipping well trained maintenance personnel, proper tooling and repair
facilities, spare parts tools.
3. Accessibility: A part that is easier to get reduces maintenance time and reduces down time.
4. Interchangeability: This refers to plug-in devices where spares are instantly interchangeable.
5. Redundancy: In large complex systems parallel components and subsystems can be built in
to be used while the failures are repaired.

Availability: The probability that a system or equipment will be up and ready for use is
availability. Thus availability includes both reliability and maintainability.

On the basis of this the availability can be defined as

 The probability that a stated percentage of equipment will have no downtime in excess of t
the mission time.

This definition implies that poor reliability can be offset by a good maintainability.

Types of Availability

There are three different types of Availability depending on time.

1. Inherent Availability
 The probability that a system or equipment when used under stated conditions in an ideal
support environment (i.e., readily available tools, spares, maintenance personnel etc.) will
operate satisfactorily at any point in time as required”.
 It excludes preventive or scheduled maintenance actions, logistics delay time and
administrative delay times. It includes corrective maintenance downtime.


Where MTBF = Mean time between failure. MTTR = Mean time to repair

2. Achieved Availability
 The probability that a system or equipment when used under stated conditions in an ideal
support environment (i.e., readily available tools, spares, maintenance personnel etc.) will
operate satisfactorily at any point in time.
 This definition is similar to the Inherent Availability except the preventive (i.e.,
scheduled) maintenance is included.
 It excludes logistic delay time and administrative delay time and is expressed as;

, Where

 MTBM is mean time between maintenance

 Functions of corrective (unscheduled) maintenance actions & times.
 M the mean active maintenance time
 Functions of preventive (scheduled) maintenance actions and times.
3. Operational Availability
 The probability that a system or equipment when used under stated conditions in an actual
operational environment will operate satisfactorily when called upon.

, Where MDT is the mean maintenance down time.

 The reciprocal of MDT is the frequency of maintenance which in turn is significant in

determining logistic support requirements.

MDT includes active maintenance time (M), logistic delay time and administrative delay time.
Example 7: Consider a system that has the following information based on its historical data.
Total uptime = 3000 hrs CM downtime = 100 hrs PM downtime = 30 hrs Number of system
failure = 10 Number of system downing PMs = 2 Mean logistics delay = 2 hrs

Determine the inherent (Ai), achieved (Aa), and operational (Ao) availability of the system.

CM = Corrective maintenance, PM = Preventive maintenance