19ICPC 61

SCHOOL COUNSELLING
Unit-I: Fundamentals in School Counselling
School Counselling: Development of School Counselling-Scope- Counselor’s role
withinschool setting. Professional and Ethical Boundaries in School
Counselling:Confidentiality and the Law- Codes of Confidentialitywith Pupil Clients
in School- Child Protection and Codes of Confidentiality-Professional Identity of
School Counselors in India
Unit-II: Models of School Counselling
Adler’s Theories in School Counselling- Rogers’s Person- (Child)-Centered School
Counselling- Behaviorism- Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy in School
Counselling- Beck’s Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in School Counselling.Glasser’s
Reality Therapy Supported by Choice Theory in School Counselling- Group
Counselling. Brief Counselling Models: Evidence based counselling- Brief therapy-
Egan’s Three-Stage Model- Motivational Interviewing. Solution-Focused Brief
Counselling- Narrative Therapy- Coaching Skills-Strengths Based Counselling in the
Schools- Virtual Counselling-Positive Psychology and School-Based Interventions.
Unit-I:
Fundamentals in School Counselling
School Counselling: Development of School Counselling-Scope- Counselor’s role
withinschool setting. Professional and Ethical Boundaries in School
Counselling:Confidentiality and the Law- Codes of Confidentialitywith Pupil Clients
in School- Child Protection and Codes of Confidentiality-Professional Identity of
School Counselors in India

INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING

The meanings of Counselling in the professional sense differ very much from the popular
understanding of the term. For the layman it means a piece of advice, a suggestion,
recommendation or providing some information. But professionally, Counselling is the
scientific process of helping the individual to understand him/herself better in relation to
his/her environment so that he/she becomes self-dependent, self-directed and self sufficient
and is able to lead a better and meaningful life. Counselling is aimed at helping the
individual in solving problems that are already present, preventing the occurrence of
problems in future and also enhancing personal, social, emotional, educational and
vocational development. Thus, Counselling has remedial, preventive and developmental
aspects.

DEFINITIONS OF COUNSELLING

Rogers (1952) describes counselling as " The process by which the structure of the self is
relaxed in the safety of the clients relationship with the therapist and previously desired
experiences are perceived and then integrated into an altered self'.

According to Halm and Mcheall (1 955) "Counselling is a one to one relationship between an
individual troubled by problems with which he cannot cope alone and a professional worker
w hose training and experience have qualified him to help others reach solutions to various
types of personal difficulties".

Smith (1955) defines "Counselling is a process in which the counsellor assists the
counselling to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice plan or adjustments which he
needs to make".

Pepisky and Pepisky (1954) defined "Counselling as that interaction which occurs between
two individuals called counsellor and client, takes place in a professional setting and is
initiated and maintained to facilitate changes in the behaviour of a client".

According to Stefflre (1970) "Counselling is a learning-teaching process".

Gustad (1953) stated that “Counselling is a learning oriented process carried in a simple one
to one social environment in which the counsellor, professionally competent in relevant

psychological skills and knowledge seeks to assist the client by methods Counselling is a
contracted meeting between a client and a counsellor. The meeting happens at a set time, in
an agreed place, for the sole benefit of the client.

WHAT IS SCHOOL COUNSELING?

School counseling addresses issues that may affect students’ academic performance, which
includes psychosocial and behavioral challenges (Gachenia & Mwenje, 2020). School
counseling services are delivered by the school counselor.

A school counselor’s role addresses students’ mental, emotional, social, and academic
development (Heled & Davidovitch, 2020; Popov & Spasenovic, 2020). Schools systems in
different parts of the world have varying titles for school counselors (Popov & Spasenovic,
2020):

 Australia – student or education counselor

 Bulgaria – pedagogical counselor
 Denmark – pedagogical-psychological counselor
 Russia – pedagogue-psychologist
 Croatia, North Macedonia, and Serbia – expert associate
 Malta, Slovenia, UK, USA – school counselor
 Ireland – guidance counselor

A 2020 study by Popov and Spasenovic showed that although the title or role of the school
counselor differs somewhat, the key elements of school counseling can be summarized as:

1. Supporting the psychological, academic, and social development of students

2. Resolving conflicts between all actors in school life
3. Helping students face personal problems
4. Consulting with students, parents, teachers, and principals
5. Coordinating various school activities.

School Counselor vs School Psychologist

The roles of the school counselor and school psychologist are similar in that they aim to
provide all students with meaningful access to the school curriculum. The biggest differences
between these two professions could be the preparation/education and licensing.

Although both roles may differ between countries, states, or school districts, here are a few
of the common similarities and differences.
A school psychologist is tasked with the responsibility of helping students succeed
academically, socially, and emotionally. This differs from the role of a school counselor in
terms of their daily tasks and scope of support.

Regarding interventions, as an example, a school counselor may be responsible for the

implementation of interventions, while the school psychologist’s duty includes
administering, scoring, and interpreting psychoeducational assessments that help students
qualify for specific services such as special education.

A school counselor is not licensed to perform such activities. In the United States,
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act mandates that a school psychologist is
required as an individualized education program (IEP) team member to interpret the
instructional implications of evaluation results.

Watkins, Crosby, and Pearson (2001) found that many psychologists would prefer to
administer fewer assessments and instead conduct more activities that mirror the school
counselor’s role. Indeed, in addition to psychometrics, many school psychologists work with
students and the school in the areas of positive behavior or conflict-resolution and bullying
(National Association of School Psychologists, n.d.).

As much as a school psychologist may wish to spend more time directly with students, the
school counselor will likely be providing individual, small group, class, and counseling
sessions to students. In such instances, students are more likely to be referred to school
psychologists only when in-depth mental health interventions are required (Wake Forest
University, n.d.).

Both school psychologists and counselors may provide training to teachers to help them meet
students’ diverse needs and engage with families, helping to connect them to community
service providers or other crisis prevention and intervention services.

The graph below is by no means an exhaustive list, but demonstrates some of the differences
and similarities between school counselors and school psychologists.
 

DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL COUNSELLING

Counselling in British education grew out of what was loosely termed ‘guidance’ in the early
1900s. Guidance in education traditionally covered three distinct activities: there was child
guidance provided by the medical service, then there was careers or vocational guidance
provided by the Careers Service, and Finally there was educational guidance. The first two
received generous funding, but neither was steered towards the provision of individual
counselling in schools. Career guidance was over longterm employment and independent
living was the focus of work, but individual counselling over sensitive relationship issues
was not generally undertaken. Inspite of the Careers Service giving pragmatic advice and
information, there was little emotional support (Thomas, 1990). It is hardly surprising
therefore that, with the modified title of Careers Adviser, there was no brief to offer contracts
of counselling.

The School Psychological Service provided educational guidance in the main (Milner, 1980).
While resources have been forthcoming from educational funding with the Psychological
Service – largely through Acts of Parliament (1910) and statutory regulation – there have not
been many educational resources put into child guidance. Although clinics for child guidance
have existed since 1921, their service from inception has been geared towards children of
‘normal intelligence’ whose behaviour is disruptive or non-conforming. School counselling
emerged not from education, then, but from the medical service, principally the National
Association for Mental Health, at a conference held in 1963. Courses set up at the
universities of Reading and Keele from 1965 onwards promoted the writings of Carl Rogers
and offered skills training in person-centered and nondirective counseling.

This trend sat comfortably with modern approaches in education that were moving from an
authoritarian, didactic style towards pupil-centered learning. Out of this training, a support
group was formed called the National Association of Educational Counsellors, which was
renamed the National Association of Counsellors in Education (NACE). It established a
professional code of ethics and endorsed the dissemination of ideas and research findings.
NACE became a sub-division of the British Association of Counselling (BAC, now BACP),
which then became CIE (Counselling in Education) but which today exists as CCYP
(Counselling Children and Young People) and AUCC (Association for University and
College Counselling).

History of School Counselling:

https://prezi.com/8khaii741bpc/the-history-of-school-counseling/

Refer History of SC pdf

https://www.schoolcounselor.org/getmedia/52aaab9f-39ae-4fd0-8387-1d9c10b9ccb8/
History-of-School-Counseling.pdf

SCOPE OF SCHOOL COUNSELLING:

Counseling in educational settings has a vast scope.

Williamson summarises it: “The techniques of counseling individual students may be
observed in greatly modified form, in the individualised service; granting loans and
scholarships; handling discipline cases; assignment of rooms and selection of room-mates in
dormitories; advising on student activities and
programmes; helping students choose vocational objectives; selecting optional courses of
study; learning to read at college rate and comprehension.”
Professional school counselors ideally implement a school counseling program that promotes
and enhances student achievement. Professional school counselors meet the needs of student
in three basic domains: academic development, career development, and personal/social
development (Dahir & Campbell, 1997) with an increased emphasis on college access.
School counselor interventions include individual and group counseling for some students.
For example, if a student’s behaviour is interfering with his or her achievement, the school
counselor may observe that student in a class, provide consultation to teachers and other
stakeholders to develop (with the student) a plan to address the behavioural issue(s), and then
collaborate to implement and evaluate the plan. They also provide consultation services to
family members such as college access, career development, parenting skills, study skills,
child and adolescent development, and help with school-home transitions.
School counselors develop, implement, and evaluate school counseling programs that deliver
academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to all students in their
schools.
Some of the areas covered by counselors :
• Improve or enhance academic performance for all students
• Prevent or stop bullying, substance abuse, or other negative behaviors
• Help students with mental health issues
• Support minority students and deliver culturally competent counseling
• Ensure the counseling office supports the goals of the school
• Make and keep the school a safe environment for everyone
• Advocate for students, including advocating for proper resources for schools

Counsellor’s Role in school Setting:

In 1997, the American Counselling Association (ACA) adopted the following definition of
professional counselling: ‘The application of mental health, psychological, or human
development principles, through cognitive, affective, behavioural or systemic intervention
strategies, that address wellness, personal growth, or career development, as well as
pathology’ (as cited in Marini and Stebnicki 2009, p. 16).

In literature, there are varying notions of what a school counsellor’s role is supposed to be.
But we do observe that from a very narrow definition of a school counsellor’s role, gradually
the scope for the responsibilities along with the demands for a school counsellor has been
increasing. Much of the literature on school counselling and the role of the school counsellor
is derived from studies done in various parts of the world other than India. Many of the
studies referred to here have been done in the developed world, and not in developing
countries. Some authors (Bemak 2000) have described school counsellors as being
instrumental in the integration of community-wide mental health services. Other authors
such as House and Martin (1998) have suggested that the school counsellor plays a powerful
role in

1. promoting student advocacy,

2. developing higher educational and career aspirations in students,
3. eradicating educational practices such as student tracking that inadvertently maintain
inequities among disadvantaged student groups and stratify opportunities and
4. using data to identify educational practices that may help or hinder student progress.

McLaughlin (1993) argues that counselling in schools has three elements: an educative
function, i.e. to develop students personally and socially in the context of the school; a
reflective function, which is the exploration of the possible impact of and contribution to
personal and social development and mental health of practices in the classroom and other
aspects of the school community; and a welfare function, which is the responsibility to plan
for and react to issues which impact on students’ welfare.

School Counselling in India

A 2014 survey by the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India

(ASSOCHAM) found that a majority of private schools in the National Capital Region had
been violating the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) guidelines on a mandatory
provision for full-time student counsellors. The recent mandatory provision took into
account the complexities that exist in the education system, as well as the different learning
and psychosocial needs of children in their formative years. It also took into consideration
the fact that children spend a majority of their time in schools, and the developmental tasks
that they fulfill occur within the setting of the school. The role that teachers play in guidance
is often limited and motivated by a more academic agenda, whereas the needs of the child
remain much greater. The teacher-student ratio in India is also abysmal, with there being
approximately 40-50 students with a singular teacher. As education also moves into a more
market-oriented sphere, were profits determine the creation and maintenance of schools, the
various learning needs of different children are often standardized.

The other interesting observation about school counselling, as opposed to other settings, is
that the counsellor has many roles to play out, across different settings. The counsellor is
often a remedial teacher, a special educator, an invigilator, an advocate, apart from his/her
therapeutic and assessment duties. School counselling in India is often subsumed as
guidance; with guidance being offered for careers and vocations. Counselling, which has a
facilitative and curative function needs to be distinct from guidance. Both guidance and
counselling are necessary in Indian schools today (Kodad and Kazi 2014; 168
SindhuraTammana Ramakrishnan and Jalajakumari 2013; Sinha 2006). Sinha (2006) refers
to the role of the school counsellor extending beyond school students to parents of students,
who may feel the need of availing of counselling services to deal with issues stemming from
their role as socialization agents.

While working, it also struck me as particularly intriguing, and slightly comical, that each
facet of the school asks of the counsellor different things. The teacher expects the counsellor
to ensure that the child remains disciplined and motivated in class, the administration wants
the counsellor to ensure that cases come and go as quickly as possible, to maintain
‘efficiency’ of the system, and parents expect the counsellor to act as a stand-in for them
within the premise of the school. The impression that I often got was that each subsystem
This issue will be further spoken of when we talk about the oft-conflicting roles that a school
counsellor is put into. The mandate, however, was passed by CBSE to ensure that
counsellors provided the following for students:

Academic Guidance: In helping students understand their learning needs and blocks, such
as equipping them with study skills, doing semi-formal assessments for Learning Disabilities
and Difficulties. Academic guidance is often necessary for children that are unable to get it
at home, or have a paucity of resources to equip them with specific knowledge otherwise.

Career and Vocational Guidance: While career guidance exists as a field in itself, school
counsellors are generally required to keep abreast with career options as well as things such
as entrance examinations, college requirements etc. More pertinent in Ma School counsellors
can help by providing information on the various career and vocational options available. ii.
School counsellors can guide the students in choosing the right career based on suitable
aptitude tests.

Issues with Peers: Issues such as bullying, clique formation, estrangement and infighting,
are all issues that we worked with in our fieldwork setting. Within this, we saw how the
teachers, administration and parents interacted to either mediate or exacerbate the situation
as well as how it was developmentally crucial to resolve these issues.

Psychosocial Problems: A school counsellor helps in early identification of problem

behaviours and takes suitable steps to prevent the onset of psychosocial problems. In case of
psychosocial problems detected after their onset, the school counsellor works towards
finding suitable solutions, or due to the time constraints in school, looks at referring the child
to a more suitable setting if the child’s home environment allows for it.

Working with Parents: To enable holistic support and to ensure that the child’s home
environment is secure and nurturing for her, as well as to keep the parents in the loop about
the work done in counselling, and how to ensure that the results are maintained at home.

Working with Teachers: Teacher meetings are extremely crucial in order to ensure two
basic things 1) to keep the teacher in the loop about the work being done, and how to modify
his/her behaviour accordingly, as well as for inputs about the conditions of the classroom 2)
help the teacher manage his own workload, by providing them with skills such as coping
skills or problem solving strategies or emotional unburdening.

Working with School Administration

An Ecological Systems Perspective

The school is no longer a realm that is devoid of larger social structures. As mentioned
above, the presence of a school counsellor often means that they often act as mediators
between different subsystems of the school. Keeping this in mind, it is very important that an
ecological perspective is taken into consideration. An ecology, by definition, takes into
perspective all aspects: the organism, along with its geography, climate, influencing factors
are all studied and considered to be not only interconnected, but essentially inseparable.
Ecological systems also have subsystems: within larger systems, there are smaller
subsystems. Within the school ecosystem, we have the administrative subsystem, the
classroom, the PTA -much like a forest ecosystem can have the subsystem of a pond, plant
life that can be looked at independently, but cannot exist wit

In Conyne and Cook’s (2004) Model of Ecological Counseling, which is grounded in

Lewin’s (1951) field theory, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) Social Ecological Model of Human
Development, and the philosophy of deep ecology (Capra, 1996), counseling is defined as
“contextualized help-giving that is dependent on the meaning clients derive from their
environmental interactions” (Conyne& Cook, 2004, p. 6).
Schools are part of an interconnected web of subsystems and suprasystems. Schools can be
broken down into a multitude of subsystems, some of which are organizational and officially
endorsed by the larger school system (e.g., classrooms, grade levels, sports teams, clubs) and
some of which are more organic in nature (e.g., cliques). These subsystems operate under
many of the same principles as the larger school ecosystem and are interconnected with all
other systems. Schools are also part of larger suprasystems, some of which are related to the
educational system (e.g., feeder patterns, school districts) and some of which are beyond the
educational system (e.g., community).

Healthy, well-functioning school systems are dynamic, balanced, and flexible. Schools
operate as a network of interdependently connected components and, like cells, ponds, and
families, are in a constant state of change, yet they work to maintain a healthy balance within
change. The process of maintaining balance while in a constant state of change is called
dynamic balance (Capra, 1996); it requires semi permeable boundaries that are not only clear
enough to distinguish separate within-school groups (e.g., teachers, students, administrators),
but also penetrable enough to promote connection.

The following section will attempt to contextualize Orchids International School, the setting
of my fieldwork, within an ecological framework, supplemented by literature as well as my
own experiences.

Working with Teachers: “The Disciplinarian”

The school counsellor also acts as a mediator between the teacher, the student and the
administration. It is very important to remain cognizant of the role of the teacher in the well
being of the student within the school. The first thing that I had to negotiate with in my
fieldwork setting was the belief system of the teachers: that became point A. In my work
with teachers, it became apparent that we had to navigate the minefield that was labelling:
labelling on the grounds of gender, caste, as well as psychosocial difficulties. Once a child
was deemed “problematic” all explanations would flow from that narrative. Apart from
meetings where these labels would be deconstructed, it became necessary to enroll the help
of teachers in giving children what they needed in classrooms: more attention, relocation,
checking in, a system of rewards. The capacity of the teacher along with her workload were
always factors that went into creating plans for the classroom. The counsellor’s regular
meetings with teachers not only helps the counsellor understand classroom behaviour and
issues, but also helps the teacher be cognizant and appreciative of micro changes that might
be occurring in class that otherwise go unnoticed.

Student Advocacy

One danger inherent in the industrial model of education is the number of students who do
not fit the model’s vision of a successful student. In an ever-changing world where people
from different backgrounds must work together and where new technology is being
introduced at incredible rates, the concept of a “standardized learner” is simply no longer
relevant. Moreover, at a time when student alienation from schools is a serious problem
(Schulz & Rubel, 2011; Sciarra& Ambrosino, 2011), educators who internalize the industrial
model’s vision of a successful student and place those expectations on their students may be
exacerbating students’ beliefs that school is not for them.

It is, therefore imperative that the counsellor be aware multicultural perspectives as well as
the different needs of various children. Clinging to a rigid perspective of a successful student
only oils administrative gears: at Orchids, all “problem children” that were in counselling
were sent there either with the aim of correction, or if that very linear and rigid definition of
correction failed, to justify any action taken against the child. In addition, counselors who
cling to a rigid perspective of successful students rather than understanding the cultural
values inherent in that vision are missing a key piece of being a culturally responsive
counselor (Brown & Trusty, 2005; Locke, 2003); they are also more likely to participate in
troublesome practices such as inequitable scheduling and advising (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007).

Working with Administration

Grounded in the segmented, linear, and time-bound paradigm of the industrial revolution,
many public schools operate similar to a factory here students are raw products that are run
through the assembly line of education, exposed to different teachers who work
independently to add their piece to the developing student before moving that student along
to the next stop on the assembly line (Ayers, 2009). Within our fieldwork, the Orchids group
has many schools spread cross the country that operate under it. Their counselling system is
centrally located in Hyderabad and serves as a standardization for counselling practices
across schools. This is the suprasystem that envelops many individual, but affected,
subsystems. Such centralization looks at strict numbers: number of cases looked at, number
of cases closed, and such a process severely undermines the freedom and the
multiculturalism that a school counsellor needs to function optimally. Common activities
that administrators described relying upon counsellors to perform were class scheduling,
coordination of the standardized testing programme, coordination of the special education
staffing and placement process, referral of students for outside services, and ‘pinch hitting’
as a disciplinarian, substitute teacher (Sindhura Tamanna, 2011).

Conclusion

Working in a school for me was both challenging and frustrating. It made me realize both the
importance of the counsellor, as well as how enmeshed the role of a counsellor was in a
school setting. Without proper involvement and integration of the various subsystems and
suprasystems, therapeutic work remains incomplete. Systems-oriented school counselling in
India has great potential for growth. It can cater to the emerging needs of the student
community with globalization, drastic changes in family structures, changing social values
leading to immense stress and strain on the students. The specialized skills of the school
counsellor need to be tapped to prevent, and treat increasing psychosocial problems of the
students an provide a holistic development to the students.
PROFESSIONAL AND ETHICAL BOUNDARIES IN SCHOOL
COUNSELLING:CONFIDENTIALITY AND THE LAW- CODES OF
CONFIDENTIALITYWITH PUPIL CLIENTS IN SCHOOL- CHILD PROTECTION
AND CODES OF CONFIDENTIALITY

Refer Brief Counselling Ebook - chapter 2

Unit 2
Models of School Counseling pdf

EVIDENCE-BASED COUNSELING
The five core evidence-based therapies are evidence-based due to the large amount of
past and current research and scientific data that each respective therapy has accumulated.

One or more evidence-based therapies may be used by the counselor to best manage
and treat the stressors the client is experiencing. This decision will also be based on what
therapy the client is comfortable working with during the initial assessment session with
his/her counselor.

The five core evidence-based therapies:

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)

This therapy is based on the premise that the way people think and behave is
influenced by their environment and life experiences. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy or
CBT involves guiding clients through experiences that will change the way they think so that
they can change behaviour. This may also be called rational-emotive therapy. CBT has
generated more empirical research than any other psychotherapy model.

Person Centred Therapy (PCT)

PCT’s basic assumptions are that people are essentially trustworthy, that they have a
vast potential for understanding themselves and resolving their own problems without direct
intervention on the therapist’s part, and that they are capable of self-directed growth if they
are involved in a specific kind of therapeutic relationship. The best vantage point for
understanding how people behave was from their own internal frame of reference focusing
more explicitly on the actualising tendency as the basic motivational force that leads to client
change.

Solution-Focused Therapy
Solution focused brief therapy (SFBT), often referred to as simply ‘solution focused
therapy’ or ‘brief therapy’, is a type of talking therapy that is based upon social
constructionist philosophy. It focuses on what clients want to achieve through therapy rather
than on the problem(s) that made them seek help. The approach does not focus on the past,
but instead, focuses on the present and future. The therapist/counsellor uses respectful
curiosity to invite the client to envision their preferred future and then therapist and client
start attending to any moves towards it whether these are small increments or large changes.
To support this, questions are asked about the client’s story, strengths and resources, and
about exceptions to the problem.

Gestalt Therapy
Gestalt therapy is an existential-phenomenological approach based on the premise that
individuals must be understood in the context of their ongoing relationship with the
environment. The initial goal is for clients to gain awareness of what they are experiencing
and how they are doing it. Through this awareness, change automatically occurs. Gestalt
therapy is lively and promotes direct experiencing rather than the abstractness of talking
about situations. The approach is experiential in that clients come to grips with what and
how they are thinking, feeling, and doing as they interact with the therapist. Gestalt
counsellors value being fully present during the therapeutic encounter, and growth occurs out
of genuine contact between client and therapist.

Behaviour Therapy
The current trend in behaviour therapy is toward developing procedures that actually
give control to clients and thus increase their range of freedom. Behaviour therapy aims to
increase people’s skills so that they have more options for responding. By overcoming
debilitating behaviours that restrict choices, people are freer to select from possibilities that
were not available earlier. Thus, as behaviour therapy is typically applied, it will increase
individual freedom.

Brief Therapy
Brief therapy is a type of counseling that is time limited and present oriented. Brief therapy focuses
on the client’s presenting symptoms and current life circumstances, and it emphasizes the
strengths and resources of the client. The therapist in brief therapy is active and directive.
Termination of counseling is a major focus from the initial session.

History of Brief Therapy

Brief therapy began to gain attention in the 1950s, following the increase in popularity of behavior
therapy and family therapy. Behavior therapy emphasizes the correction of immediate problem
behaviors and employs numerous behavioral techniques to facilitate change in the individual.
Family therapy emphasizes the individual in the context of the family. In both therapies, the
therapist is direct and active. These two therapies differ from earlier dominant therapies rooted in
psychoanalytic thought that focus on the individual’s insight and past, and in which the therapist is
nondirective and passive. Thus behavior therapy and family therapy set the stage for the
acceptance of active short-term therapeutic approaches.

The popularity of brief therapy increased in the 1980s, following empirical research on the process
and outcomes of psychotherapy. Researchers used meta-analysis, a statistical method allowing
the results of many studies to be compared, to make the following conclusions about
psychotherapy: (a) most clients stayed in therapy for six to eight sessions, (b) 75% of clients who
reported improvement experienced benefits within the first 6 months of therapy, and (c) time-
limited psychotherapy had outcomes similar to those of long-term therapy.

http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/counseling-psychology/counseling-therapy/brief-therapy/
Positive Psychology in Education: An Overview

In positive education, the aim is to develop scientifically validated positive psychology

programs in school settings that promote student and staff wellbeing.

Ensuring the wellbeing of students is a top priority in positive education, as wellbeing is

believed to be pivotal in improving academic outcomes, school retention, and student
engagement (Furlong et al., 2014).

Positive education interventions aim to facilitate skills that help students achieve a high level
of life satisfaction and overall wellbeing, centering on character development and proactive
programs to boost mental health (White, 2016).

This focus revolves around subjective wellbeing, which is the scientific term that researchers
use to measure how well an individual perceives their life to be going. Mainly done through
self-report scales, subjective wellbeing is measured as an individual’s general level of
satisfaction about different aspects of their life (Diener, 2021).

Increases in student wellbeing have been shown to increase the quality and quantity of
student learning, as a more positive mood boosts attention and motivation in
students (Seligman, 2011).

Since school is one of the primary places where children and youth engage in identity and
social development, it is the ideal setting to promote positive psychology
interventions that increase student wellbeing.

Positive education and Seligman’s PERMA model

Positive psychology is largely centered around individuals continuously seeking what makes
them happy, regardless of their age, orientation, or life status. Seligman’s (2011) PERMA
model provides insight into the factors that form the foundation for a successful life and
gives an individual further insight into their personal strengths.

According to Seligman (2011), it is the combination of positive emotions, engagement,

relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (PERMA) that forms the foundation for
individuals to live their most fulfilling life.

Since PERMA is strongly rooted in promoting happiness, each of the five tenets represents a
core element of happiness and wellbeing (Seligman, 2011):

 Positive emotion
Involves not only feeling good but also an acknowledgement that the past may not
have been ideal, promoting a positive outlook surrounding future prospects.

 Engagement
A passion or activity that an individual can become engaged or absorbed in that gives
 them personal fulfillment.

 Relationships
Intimate connections with other people (e.g., family, friends) who provide the
individual with emotional support.

 Meaning
An individual’s reason for continuing to persevere, often related to their work,
passions, or personal connections, despite battling hardships.

 Accomplishments
The ability to achieve a goal and take pride in what they have done.

Applying this model in school settings has become popular because of its focus on
promoting the development of positive self-concept and increased wellbeing among students
and staff.

One example of the PERMA model being applied in an educational setting is in Hong Kong,
where a positive education model has been used in senior and primary schools (Kwok,
2021).

The program is guided by a six-level implementation process and strengths-based approach,

where students are encouraged to examine and develop their character strengths.

The implementation process is broken down as follows (Kwok, 2021):

1. Learn it
Refers to learning opportunities that are provided to the school community (e.g.,
teachers, parents, students) to understand the science of wellbeing.

2. Live it
Emphasizes the importance of participants enacting evidence-based wellness practices
in school.

3. Reflect it
Providing everyone with opportunities to reflect on their experiences.

4. Conceptualize it
The ability to have a deeper understanding of the concepts and principles of positive
education.

5. Apply it
Designing and conducting positive education programs in schools.
 6. Embed it
Advocates building school-wide policies and a positive culture within the school
community.

The implementation process acts as a guideline for future positive psychology interventions
at the school level. Since putting this process in place, there has been an increase in the
wellbeing and decrease in the mental health problems of students (Kwok, 2021).

In Great Britain, the PERMA model has been applied alongside a wellness program to help
post-secondary students. The program consisted of eight online sessions with a counselor.
Each of the sessions focused on increasing students’ understanding of wellness through
coaching and providing general interventions and tactics to increase wellbeing (Morgan &
Simmons, 2021).

Having the PERMA model as an online intervention makes it more accessible, especially to
students afraid of being judged.

Having the online module allows individuals to be more anonymous when seeking help,
which could motivate those who are more hesitant to seek out interventions.

 3 Proven Benefits According to Research

Positive psychology has several benefits that have been highly documented in research.

The major benefits are centered around providing individuals with the skills to maintain
long-term happiness, which are concurrent with a decrease in mental health difficulties and
increased wellbeing and life satisfaction (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005; Shoshani
& Steinmetz, 2014; Pavot & Diener, 2008).

 A decrease in depression and anxiety-related symptoms

To help facilitate happiness and wellbeing, Seligman et al. (2005) came up with several
techniques to aid the integration of positive psychology. Although the research was initially
done with adults, these techniques can be applied in classroom settings to help integrate
positive psychology into students’ daily lives.

The first activity involved having individuals list three good things that happened during the
day. They were then asked to provide an explanation detailing these events and give reasons
why they were so beneficial.

The second activity surrounded using signature strengths differently. Each participant was
given an online inventory of character strengths and then asked to identify their top five
character strengths.

After identifying their strengths, participants received individualized feedback and were
asked to strategize workable ways to use these strengths in daily life. These strategies were
found to decrease depression and anxiety-related symptoms among participants (Seligman et
al., 2005).
 Increased wellbeing

General increases in wellbeing are not only synonymous with a decrease in depression and
anxiety, but have also been found to be related to the implementation of positive psychology.

An individual who has a high level of wellbeing is more likely to experience positive
emotions more frequently (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014).

Positive psychology emphasizes a focus on individual happiness. It also changes the general
perspective surrounding mental health and wellbeing, as an individual’s mental health is not
just assessed based on whether or not they have a mental health diagnosis.

Personal recovery is centered on moving toward better mental health. Individuals in personal
recovery are working away from floundering and toward flourishing by developing valued
societal roles (Slade, 2010).

Positive psychology encourages individuals to work toward a flourishing mentality, whether

or not they have diagnosed mental health issues. At the subjective level, positive psychology
focuses on wellbeing to contribute to happiness in the present and an attitude of hopefulness
and optimism about future experiences.

Greater life satisfaction

Positive psychology practices promote the development of positive attitudes (specifically

happiness), and individuals who embody positivity may be more likely to have higher levels
of life satisfaction.

Life satisfaction is an assessment of an individual’s general sense of satisfaction with their

life. It can be broken up into different domains, such as our job, personal relationships, and
housing satisfaction.

Generally, domain satisfaction and overall life satisfaction are significantly correlated (Pavot
& Diener, 2008).

Positive psychology aims to make individuals more focused on positivity and happiness.
Further, positive psychology practices aim to improve overall life and domain satisfaction by
targeting individuals’ thoughts, actions, and behaviors to make individuals more productive,
happier, and fulfilled in every domain of their life.

 How to Apply Positive Psychology in Schools

The rapid growth of the positive psychology movement has resulted in the application of this
model for students of all ages.

Central to integrating positive psychology in learning contexts is facilitating hope.

Correlational findings indicate that a child’s higher hopeful thinking is positively associated
with perceived competence and self-worth (Marques, Gallagher, & Lopez, 2017). Hope is
integrated throughout positive psychology practices that emphasize setting and achieving
goals.

Hope can be one of the most easily integrated concepts in schools, as it is centered around
goal setting. Students who have low levels of hope experience higher levels of anxiety,
especially in assessment situations, whereas students with higher levels of hope have greater
reported scholastic and social competence (Marques et al., 2017).

Applying positive psychology in school settings involves helping students set, prioritize,

and place clear markers on what they want to achieve. Once students achieve the goals they
have set, they may feel more accomplished and experience positive emotions, such as
satisfaction.

The expression of positive emotions allows for them to be more focused on what will help
them be happier in their educational and everyday lives, which is the foundation of positive
psychology.