4 5985348647112411029

ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY
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ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY
M. J. DEODHAR
Emeritus Fellow
AICTE, New Delhi
India
Delhi • Chennai • Chandigarh

Copyright © 2009 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd
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In memory
of
one of my dearest friends,
the Late Shri M. J. alias Achyut Karmarkar.
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface ix
About the Author x
1. Introduction 1
2. Hydrometeorology 16
3. Evaporation and Transpiration 25
4. Precipitation 51
5. Infiltration 98
6. Hydrograph 125
7. Runoff 177
8. Floods 209
9. Discharge Measurement 236
10. Flood Routing 284
11. Groundwater 315
Appendices 346
Bibliography 387
Index 389
CONTENTS
Preface ix 4.4 Factors Affecting Pr ecipitation 54

About the Author x 4.5 Types of Precipitation 55
4.6 Measurement of Precipitation 57
1. Introduction 1 4.7 Supplementing Rainfall Data 66
1.1 Definition 1 4.8 Consistency Verification of
1.2 Quantity of Water Available Rain Gauge 69
on the Earth 3 4.9 Average Depth of Precipitation 71
1.3 History of Hydrology 3 4.10 Rain Gauge Density 79
1.4 Properties ofWater 6 4.11 Probable Maximum Precipitation 83
1.5 Hydrological yCcle 7 4.12 Intensity Duration Analysis 84
1.6 Hydrological Proc ess 10 4.13 Precipitation over India 89
1.7 Modern Techniques 11 eRview uQestions 90
eRview uQestions 13 uNmerical uQestions 91
Multiple Choice Questions 14 Multiple Choice Questions 94
2. Hydrometeorology 16 5. Infiltration 98
2.1 Definition 16 5.1 Definition 98
2.2 Vapour Pressure 18 5.2 Process of Infiltration 99
2.3 Relative uHmidity 18 5.3 Factors Affecting nfi I ltration 99
2.4 Wind 19 5.4 Measurement of Infiltration 101
2.5 Temperature 20 5.5 Expression of Infiltration 114
2.6 Air Mass 21 eRview uQestions 121
eRview uQestions 22 uNmerical uQestions 122
3. Evaporation and Transpiration 25 6. Hydrograph 125

3.1 Definition 25 6.1 Definition 125
3.2 Necessity of Estimation of Evaporation 27 6.2 Separation of Base Flow 129
3.3 Factors Affecting Evaporation 27 6.3 Excess aRinfall 135
3.4 Estimation of Evaporation 29 6.4 Unit yHdrograph 136
3.5 Control of Evaporation from a Reservoir 42 6.5 Changing of Time of
3.6 Transpiration 44 Unit Precipitation 146
3.7 Soil Ev aporation 46 6.6 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph 155
eRview uQestions 46 6.7 Averaging of Unit Hydrograph 159
uNmerical uQestions 47 6.8 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 161
Multiple Choice Questions 48 6.9 Distribution rGaph 166
6.10 Triangular Unit Hydrograph 169
4. Precipitation 51 6.11 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 170
4.1 Definition 51 eRview uQestions 171
4.2 Different Forms of Precipitation 52 uNmerical uQestions 172
4.3 Process of Precipitation 53 Multiple Choice Questions 174
viii CONTENTS
7. Runoff 177 9.8 Hydraulic Model Method 270

7.1 Definition 177 9.9 Ultrasonic M ethod 270
7.2 Catchment Area 178 9.10 Electromagnetic Induction Method 271
7.3 Classification of Catchment Areas 184 9.11 Moving-Boat Technique 272
7.4 CatchmentFlo wC haracteristics 185 9.12 Stage Discharge Relation 274
7.5 ProcessofR unoff 186 9.13 Stream Gauging Network 277
7.6 Classification of Streams 187 eRview uQestions 278
7.7 Stream Patterns 188 uNmerical uQestions 279
7.8 Factors AffectingR unoff 188 Multiple Choice Questions 281
7.9 Sources or Components of Runoff 191
7.10 Estimation of Runoff 192
10. Flood Routing 284
7.11 DependableFlo w 202 10.1 Definition 284
7.12 FlowD urationC urve 203 10.2 Types of Flood Routing 285
7.13 Runoff Coefficient 204 10.3 Flood Routing Through Channels 287
7.14 RunoffC ycle 204 10.4 Flood Routing Through Reservoir 298
eRview uQestions 205 eRview uQestions 312
uNmerical uQestions 206 uNmerical uQestion 312
11. Groundwater 315

8. Floods 209
11.1 Definition 315
8.1 Definition 209 11.2 Formation of Groundwater 316
8.2 Factors Affecting Flood 210 11.3 Occurrence of Groundwater 317
8.3 Classification of Floods 212 11.4 Parameters of an Aquifer 320
8.4 Estimation of Floods 213 11.5 SteadyO ne-Dimensional
8.5 Gumbell’s iDstribution 225 Groundwater Flow 322
8.6 Log-Pearson Type III 11.6 Well Hydraulics 325
Distribution 228 11.7 Groundwater Movement 329
8.7 Risk 231 11.8 Groundwater Exploration 335
eRview uQestions 232 11.9 Yield from a Basin 336
uNmerical uQestions 232 11.10 Yield from a Well 336
Multiple Choice Questions 233 11.11 Well Interference 340
11.12 Sea Water Intrusion 340
9. Discharge Measurement 236 11.13 Recharging of Groundwater 341
9.1 Definition 236 eRview uQestions 342
9.2 The Stage of a River 238 uNmerical uQestions 343
9.3 Measurement of Discharge 241 Multiple Choice Questions 343
9.4 Area–Slope Method 244
9.5 Area–Velocity Method 246
Appendices 346
9.6 Salt Titration Method 261 Bibliography 387
9.7 Discharge Measurement by
Hydraulic Structures 263 Index 389
PREFACE
I am very happy to present this book for the benefit of students and practising engineers.
I taught this subject for over 35 years and sincerely felt the necessity of a good textbook explain-
ing the subject in a simple language making the fundamentals clear and also indicating its practical
application. I have, therefore, made the text comprehensive and covered almost the entire gamut
of related topics.
The sequence of the chapters followed in the book is similar to the processes of the hydrological
cycle. Each chapter is divided into sub-topics, which will help to bring clarity to the subject matter
and make it easy for students to grasp the concepts. A number of appendices are added to provide
all the necessary allied information. The text includes a number of numerical problems with solu-
tions to help clarify the concepts and demonstrate their practical utility. At the end of each chapter
‘multiple choice questions’ are given to help students prepare for competitive examinations.
A number of my students have helped me in writing this book. It is not possible for me to mention
all the names here but I thank them all. The help and guidance extended by Professor P. R. Bhave,
Dr C. D. Thatte, Professor S. Y. Kute and Professor R. D. Mahadeokar for checking the text and
numerical problems is thankfully acknowledged. I also thank Vasant Vaze, my business partner, for all
the help extended by him.
The data provided in this book have been procured from the following institutes:
1. Government College of Engineering, Pune.
2. Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College of Engineering, Pune.
3. Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune.
4. Central Water and Power Research Institute, Pune.
5. National Water Academy, Pune.
6. Bhandarkar Institute of Oriental Research, Pune.
7. Dnyan Prabhodhini, Pune.
I thank the authorities of these institutes for their support.
I was awarded Emeritus fellowship by the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE),
New Delhi, for writing this book. It was an encouragement to me. I express my deep sense of
gratitude for the honour conferred on me.
I have made a sincere attempt to make this book a valuable reference book. Any suggestions to
enhance the quality of this book are welcome.
1, Amraphal Apartments, M. J. Deodhar

34, Bharatkunj Society No. 1,
Erandavana
Pune 411038
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Professor M. J. Deodhar graduated in 1957 and completed his postgraduate studies in Hydraulics
and Dam Engineering in 1959 from the University of Pune. He started his career as Assistant
Research Officer in Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nasik, and later became Professor
and Head of the Civil Engineering Department in the Government College of Engineering at Karad,
Amaravati and Pune. He retired as Principal of K. K. Wagh College of Engineering, Nasik.
He has been Visiting Professor and also Emeritus Fellow, AICTE, New Delhi. He has worked as
technical expert for UPSC, MPSC, UP PSC and Himachal Pradesh PSC, and as Chairman, Board of
Studies in Civil Engineering. He has also been a member of Faculty of Engineering and Technology
and the Academic Council of universities in Maharashtra.
He has published technical articles and also presented papers at the international conferences,
the prominent being the International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research held at
San Francisco and Beijing. He has also conducted and attended short-term courses on behalf of the
Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi, and UNESCO.
With over 50 years of research and teaching experience behind him, Professor Deodhar
was awarded the ‘best teacher’ award and ‘outstanding engineer’ award by the Institution of
Engineers, Nasik Local Centre. Presently, he is working as Technical Advisor for Coastal Power
Consultants, Pune.
Introduction
1
Chapter Outline
1.1 Definition 1.4 Properties of water

1.2 Quantity of water available 1.5 Hydrological cycle
on the earth 1.6 Hydrological process
1.3 History of hydrology 1.7 Modern techniques
g 1.1 DEFINITION
Hydrology today denotes a field of science that covers many more branches of science than it did
earlier. Till 1906, hydrology referred to the study of underground water only, as distinct from the
present usage that covers both groundwater as well as surface water. In a much broader sense,
hydrology refers to the study of water.
The term ‘hydrology’ is derived from two Greek words hydor and logas meaning ‘water’ and
‘science’, respectively. So, in simple terms, hydrology is a science related to water.
The Merriam-Webster dictionary describes hydrology as a science dealing with the properties,
distribution and circulation of water on the surface of land, in the soil, in the underlying rocks and in
the atmosphere, particularly with respect to evaporation and precipitation.
2 ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
C. O. Wisler and E. F. Brater define it as The science that deals with the processes governing the
depletion and replenishment of the water resources of the land areas of the earth.
The ad-hoc panel on hydrology of the Federal Council for Science and Technology (established
by the president of the United States of America in 1959) recommended the following definition
for hydrology:
Hydrology is the science that treats waters on the earth, their occurrence, circulation,
distribution, their chemical and physical properties and their environment including their
relation to living things.
In short, what happens to the rain is the basis of the definition of the science of hydrology. It
should not be confused with hydraulics, which deals with the mechanics of water. Hydrology has
got a variety of practical applications. Therefore, it should not be treated as a pure science.
1.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGY

Water is, indeed, the most valuable natural resource because human race or life will not survive in
its absence. It is also described as the free gift of God. Without it, no form of life is possible. It not
only supports the animal and plant kingdom for its daily subsistence but also serves as a valuable
source of energy and a means of transportation. It also serves many other useful purposes.
However, this natural source, at times, assumes the form of a very destructive agent destroying
valuable property, taking a heavy toll of life and eroding and carrying thousands of tons of rich and
fertile soil into the sea. With a rapid increase in population, the demands for this vital resource are
becoming more and more acute. So also the destructive effects of floods are increasing and becom-
ing more devastating. It is, therefore, necessary that an attempt be made to gain a better understand-
ing of the occurrence and behaviour of water on the earth.
1.1.2 SUB-BRANCHES OF HYDROLOGY

Depending on the applications of hydrology, the hydrological study can be divided into different
sub-branches.
• To emphasize its importance in practical application, the term applied hydrology is used.
• For the numerous applications of hydrology in the field of engineering, the title engineering hydrology
is applied.
• The expression scientific hydrology is used to distinguish it from practical application.
• The term synthetic hydrology is used for the study of hydrology that involves synthesis
and simulation techniques by field plots, or physical and mathematical models, or electrical
analogy.
1.1.3 SUPPORTING SCIENCES

For the study of hydrology, knowledge of other sciences is required. These sciences are:
(1) chemistry, (2) physics, (3) biology, (4) geology, (5) fluid mechanics, (6) statistics, (7) mathematics
and (8) operation research.
INTRODUCTION 3
1.1.4 OVERLAPPING AREAS OF HYDROLOGY

There are other fields and branches of science of which hydrology forms a significant part. The
significance of overlapping areas can be seen from the development of the new branches such as:
‘(1) hydrometeorology, (2) hydrogeology, (3) geohydrology, (4) hydrobiology and (5) biohydrology.’
1.1.5 INFLUENCE OF HYDROLOGY

Since hydrology is a science also deployed in dealing with the development and regulation of water
resources, it influences the following areas:
(1) agriculture, (2) forestry, (3) geography, (4) watershed management, (5) political sciences
(water law and policy), (6) hydro-economics, (7) sociology and (8) ecology.
1.1.6 PRACTICAL USE OF HYDROLOGY

Hydrology has got practical applications in other fields too. These fields are: (1) water supply,
(2) waste-water disposal, (3) irrigation, (4) drainage, (5) hydropower, (6) flood control, (7) navigation,
(8) erosion and sediment transport and (9) hydroponics.
1.1.7 EMBODYING SCIENCES

The science of hydrology embodies various fields of study, as shown in the following:
• Potamology—Science of surface streams
• Limnology—Science of surface lakes
• Cryology—Science of surface snow and ice
• Glaciology—Science of surface glaciers
• Oceanology—Science of surface oceans
• Hydrometry—Science of measurement of water
• Hydrography—Science that describes the physical features of all waters on the earth’s surface
g 1.2 QUANTITY OF WATER AVAILABLE ON THE EARTH
The total quantity of water available on the earth is estimated as 1348.25305 106 km3, and
this may cover the earth to an average depth of 2.73 km—assuming earth a uniform sphere of
12,800 km in diameter.
1.2.1 GLOBAL WATER BUDGET

The water available on the earth in its various forms is given in Table 1.1.
g 1.3 HISTORY OF HYDROLOGY
Man understood some hydrological phenomena such as precipitation, runoff, and so on. Studies
were done related to these in the prehistoric times also, and were based on logical thinking, but
as a science, hydrology was developed only recently. Those studies and investigation of nature’s
processes were initially the tasks of philosophers, and were explained by them based on the assump-
tions and deductions therefrom.
Table 1.1 Various forms of water available on the earth
Serial no. Water occurrence Estimated water (km3) Estimated water (%)
A. Salt water
1 Oceans 1307.410 106
2 Salt water lakes and island seas 0.100 106
Total sea water 1307.510 106 96.9781
B. Freshwater
3 Glaciers, Polar ice caps 30.4300 106
4 Atmospheric moisture 0.0140 106
5 Hydrated earth minerals 0.0040 106
6 Water content in plants and animals 0.0011 106
B1. Non-utilizable freshwater 30.4491 106 2.2584
7 Freshwater lakes 0.1246 106
8 Rivers 0.00115 106
B2. Surface resources of freshwater 0.12575 106 0.0093
9 Soil moisture 0.0375 106
10 Groundwater up to 800-m depth 4.998 106
11 Groundwater below 800-m depth 5.6309 106
B3. Groundwater resources 10.1682 106 0.7542
B4. Total freshwater resources 40.74305 106 3.0219
Total water resources of the earth 1348.25305 106 100
Men, in earlier days, noticed that rainfall annually occurred occasionally for a short span of
time. They also saw there were some perennial rivers and springs. The problem for the early think-
ers was ‘Wherefrom these rivers and springs received their supply?’ The solution of these problems
was based on the following two assumptions:
1. Rainfall was inadequate to account for all the surface water in rivers and springs.
2. The earth was impervious below a certain depth from the surface.
Homer (1000 BC), Thales (650 BC) and Plato (400 BC) put forth the idea of subterranean flow
from sea to land. By subterranean water, they meant that there is a continuous underground
supply from sea to land, and during the flow the sea water loses its salinity. They also believed
that the subterranean water flow supplied water to springs. Aristotle (350 BC) also assumed that
there was an atmosphere below the ground. According to him, water vapour came from the seas
and condensation took place, and this was the major source for the springs and rivers during
the non-rainy days. Lucretius (90 BC), Pliny (30 BC) and Seneca ( 65 AD) accepted this theory.
Vitruvius, who lived during the time of Christ, had mentioned that the source of rivers and
springs was rain or ice only. But nobody believed this, and the theories proposed by the early
thinkers were believed.
Leonardo da Vinci (1442–1519) and Bernard Palissy (1509–1589) correctly understood the
hydrological process, and proposed the infiltration theory. Vitruvius, Vinci and Palissy are, there-
fore, considered as the pioneers in advocating correct hydrological principles.
INTRODUCTION 5
Qualitative measurements of the hydrological processes were started by Pierr Perrault

(1608–1680), Edme Mariotte (1620–1684) and Edmund Halley, the English astronomer (1656–1742).
Perrault observed the discharge of river Seine near Burguendy for three years, and noticed that it was
only one-sixth of the precipitation. Mariotte made observations on the same river near Paris and
accepted Perrault’s observations. Halley conducted experiments on salt-water evaporation and stated
that the evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea was adequate to supply all waters to rivers discharg-
ing into the sea. The study by these three scientists put an end to the subterranean flow theory.
These three scientists are, therefore, considered as founders of hydrology. Measurement of
water is the basic requirement in hydrology. Pitot (1732) proposed the flow velocity measurement
tube, while Chezy (1775) proposed the flow formula. Dalton’s evaporation measurements (1801)
and infiltration measurements (1802) were important for the development of this science.
Until the 19th century, slow progress was made in the development of hydrology. The important
contributions in this century were as follows:
• Francis formula (1856)
• Venturimeter by C. Herschel (1886)
• Currentmeter by Ellis
• Ganguillet and Kutter’s formula to determine Chezy’s coefficient (1869)
• Contribution by Darcy, Dupuit, Gabriel, Daubree, Abbe Parramelle, Prinz Adolph Thiem, Gunther,
Theiss Forcheimer, Slitcher and Hazen in groundwater flow
• The first book Manual of Hydrology was published in 1850 by a civil engineer Nathaneil Bardmore.
Mead published Notes on Hydrology in 1904 and modified it in 1909 under the title Hydrology.
Meyer published Elements of Hydrology in 1927. These books are important contributions for the
development of this science.
In 1919, in Brussels and then in 1922, in Rome, the International Union of Geology and
Geophysics was held. This led to the development of scientific hydrology. In 1932, L. K. Sherman
proposed the unit hydrograph theory, and laid an important milestone in the development of the
science and all further developments and research in this science, namely, instantaneous unit
hydrograph leading to conceptual models, and so on, and are based on the unit hydrograph theory
proposed by Sherman.
In order to focus the attention of all countries on the importance of the hydrology, the Inter-
national Hydrological Decade, as proposed by UNESCO, started from 1965, and its activities are
continued beyond 1975 till today.
1.3.1 PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY

Professor Ven Te Chow divided the development of hydrology in eight phases. The division is not
exact and the phases do overlap. The phases are as follows:
1. Period of speculation (up to 1400 AD) The concept of hydrological cycle was speculated by
many scientists and philosophers. However, all these ideas were incorrect.
2. Period of observations (1400–1600) In this period, scientists started taking observations and
deriving theories based on these observations rather than speculating ideas.
3. Period of measurement (1600–1700) Scientists started measurements based on these obser-
vations and were able to make some conclusions.
4. Period of experimentation (1700–1800) Some understandings and discoveries were estab-
lished in this period, based on the experiments done.
5. Period of modernization (1800–1900) The experiments were modernized, and the founda-
tion of modern science of hydrology was laid.
6. Period of empiricism (1900–1930) In this period, empiricism in hydrology became more
evident. A number of empirical formulae were suggested.
7. Period of rationalization (1930–1950) In this period, rational analysis of hydrological prob-
lems was used instead of empiricism.
8. Period of theorization (1950–till date) In this period, theoretical approaches have been used
extensively in hydrological problems. Many hydrological principles have been subjected to math-
ematical analysis. Use of sophisticated instruments and computer techniques has been developed.
These phases indicate that hydrology is a young science with many important problems only
imperfectly understood, and research in this field is still going on.
1.3.2 HYDROLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA

During the Vedic period, it was believed that water is not lost during the various processes
of hydrological cycle, namely, evaporation, condensation, rainfall, stream flow, and so on,
but gets converted from one form to another. Water intake by plants, division of its particles
into minute particles by the Sun’s rays and wind, different types of clouds, their heights, their
rainfall capacity, and so on, along with the prediction of rainfall quantity in advance, by obser-
vations of natural phenomena, is illustrated in the Puranas, the Varah Sanhita, the Meghmala
and other literature.
The references of rain gauges are available in Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Panini’s Astad-
hyayi. The distribution of rainfall in various parts of India was also known to Kautilya. The
cyclonic and orographic effects on rainfall were also known. Various other phenomena such as
infiltration, interception, stream-flow, geomorphology and erosive action of water were well
understood.
Groundwater development and quality consideration were getting sufficient attention, as evi-
denced by Varah Sanhita. Water management and conservation, well-managed water-pricing system,
construction methods and materials for dams, bank protection, spillways, and so on, mentioned
in the ancient literature, reflect the high-stage development of water resources and hydrology in
ancient India.
g 1.4 PROPERTIES OF WATER
Water consists of two hydrogen and one oxygen molecules strongly bonded together. It is an inor-
ganic liquid, and the only substance occurring naturally as solid, liquid and gas. Water has the
highest surface tension compared to other liquids, except mercury. Some chemical properties of
water are mentioned below:
• Water is the universal solvent and many compounds and salts dissolve in it.
• Pure water boils at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °C.
• Water by itself is a bad conductor of electricity; however, dissolved ions like Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, and so
on, have the ability to conduct electricity.
• Water has the greatest thermal conductivity except mercury.
• The physical properties of water are as follows:
Mass density ␳ 1000 kg/m3, weight density 9.81 kN/m3.
INTRODUCTION 7
Atmosphere
Evapotranspiration
Precipitation
Sublimation
Precipitation
Precipitation
Precipitation
Evaporation
Evaporation
Vegetation
Precipitation
Snowpack Through fall
and
icecaps
Melt Surface
runoff
Land surface
Vapor Stroms,
Infiltration Exfiltration
diffusion lakes and
rivers
Soil Interflow
Surface
Precolation capillary rise
runoff
Groundwater
Aquifers flow
Ocean
Sea water intrusion
Fig. 1.1 Engineering representation of the hydrological cycle
g 1.5 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
The cyclic movement of water from sea and back to the sea is known as hydrologic cycle,
hydrological cycle or water cycle. This cyclic order of events may be explained as follows:
The water from the sea evaporates due to solar radiation. It becomes lighter than air and hence
moves up in the atmosphere. Here, under favourable conditions, clouds are formed. These clouds
move upwards and then over the land. Precipitation from the clouds occurs over the land area.
Water, thus, precipitated gets collected in streams and rivers and then flows back to the sea. All
these events are repeated continuously. Thus, the hydrological cycle is a case of circular infinity.
The hydrologic cycle has no beginning. Nobody knows for sure when it started and from which
stage it started. But it is surmised that it started some 3500 million years ago. It is the most distinc-
tive and important process on this planet. It is driven by the energy of the sun, influenced by the
gravity of the earth and the physical, chemical and biological properties of water.
The cyclic order of events does occur in nature, but there are some short cuts also at different
stages. Figure 1.1 shows the engineering representation of the hydrological cycle.
Figure 1.2 shows the descriptive representation of the hydrological cycle.
The circulation of water penetrates the three phases of the earth system:
1. Hydrosphere: Bodies of water that cover the surface of the earth
2. Atmosphere: The gaseous envelop above the hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere: Rocks below the hydrosphere
Rain clouds Cloud

formation
From falling
Precipitation water
From Lakes From ocean
From ice caps Precipitation
From ground
Transpiration
Infiltration
Ground water Interflow Ocean
Fig. 1.2 Descriptive representation of the hydrological cycle
1.5.1 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The quantitative analysis of the hydrological cycle on the earth is given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 The quantitative analysis of the hydrological cycle on the earth
Area Total quantity Annual average

Serial no. Item Symbol (km2) (km3) per unit area (mm)
A. Precipitation
1 Precipitation on ocean PO 360 106 346,000 961
2 Precipitation on land PL 150 10 6
99,000 660
Total precipitation P 510 106 445,000 872
B. Evaporation
3 Evaporation from oceans EO 360 106 383,000 1063
4 Evaporation from land EL 150 106 62,000 413
6
Total evaporation E 510 10 445,000 872
C. Runoff R 150 106 37,000 247
P PO PL
E EO EL
R PL EL
The average global precipitation is 872 mm, which is equivalent to 445,000 km3 of water. The
average atmospheric moisture is 14,000 km3. This means that the atmospheric moisture is replaced
32 times in a year, or the residence time of atmosphere moisture is 10 days. Figure 1.3 shows the
disposition of global annual average precipitation.
INTRODUCTION 9
Atmosphere
660 mm 961 mm
413 mm
1063 mm
Land
Ocean 6 2
Ocean
247 mm Ocean
6 2
Fig. 1.3 Disposition of global annual average precipitation
1.5.2 PROCESSES IN HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The various processes in a hydrological cycle are as follows:
1. Evaporation It is a process by which water from water bodies or land mass passes into
vapour state and is diffused into the atmosphere. Evaporation is observed from oceans, lakes,
streams; land; vegetation; glaciers and ice and during rainfall.
2. Transpiration It is the process by which water passes from the liquid state to the vapour
state through plant metabolism. Evaporation and transpiration are sometimes combined, as often
their separate assessment is difficult and are termed as evapotranspiration.
3. Precipitation It is the general term for all the moisture emanating from the clouds and fall-
ing on the ground. Precipitation can occur in many different forms, including rain, hail, mist, snow,
ice and so on.
Through fall is that part of precipitation, intercepted by vegetation, which then falls on the ground.
4. Interception It is that part of precipitation, which is received and retained by vegetation and
evaporates later.
5. Infiltration It is that part of precipitation, which enters into the ground and then flows
downwards.
6. Vapour diffusion It is that part of water retained by the soil, which flows in the form of
vapour towards the ground surface.
7. Surface detention When a river flows, a significant volume of water is contained in the river
channel. This temporary storage in the river channel is called surface detention.
8. Depression storage When there is precipitation over a catchment, and before the river starts
flowing, part of water is stored in ditches, small ponds, and so on, depending upon the topography of the
catchment. This quantum of water thus stored is known as depression storage or surface retention.
9. Surface runoff The precipitated water after meeting all the requirements flows in a stream.
This is known as surface runoff or overland flow.
10. Interflow When water infiltrates, it starts moving laterally towards a stream and appears on
the surface. This is known as interflow. It is above the groundwater table. The velocity of flow is
very low as compared to the surface flow. It is also known as sub-surface storm flow, sub-surface
runoff, storm seepage and secondary base flow.
11. Groundwater flow The infiltrated water may reach the saturated zone of water below ground
and may get stored between its pores and voids between particles. This water stored eventually may
flow towards a stream. This happens when the groundwater table is above the stream water level.
However, when the stream water level is above the groundwater table, there may be a flow from
stream to groundwater. This movement of water below the ground is known as groundwater flow.
1.5.3 WATER-HOLDING ELEMENTS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The water-holding elements of the hydrologic cycle are (1) atmosphere, (2) vegetation, (3) snow
caps and ice caps, (4) land surface, (5) soil, (6) streams and lakes, (7) aquifers and (8) oceans.
1.5.4 LIQUID-TRANSPORT PHASES OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The liquid-transport phases of the hydrologic cycle are as follows:
1. Precipitation on the land surface and vegetation
2. Through fall from vegetation to land surface
3. Melting of snow and ice onto land surface
4. Surface runoff
5. Infiltration from land surface to subsoil
6. Ex-filtration from subsoil to land surface
7. Interflow from subsoil to streams
8. Percolation from subsoil to aquifers
9. Capillary rise from aquifers to soil
10. Groundwater flow from aquifer to streams and from streams to aquifer
1.5.5 VAPOUR-TRANSPORT PHASES OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The vapour-transport phases of the hydrologic cycle are as follows:
1. Evaporation from land, stream, lakes, oceans and atmosphere
2. Evapotranspiration from vegetation to atmosphere.
3. Sublimation from snow-packs and ice-caps to atmosphere
4. Vapour diffusion from subsoil to land surface
g 1.6 HYDROLOGICAL PROCESS
Any phenomenon that undergoes continuous changes is generally termed as process. All hydro-
logical phenomena change with time and thus they are termed as hydrological processes. These
hydrological processes are complex and involve many variables that are interdependent and can be
classified as follows:
1. Deterministic
2. Stochastic or probabilistic
INTRODUCTION 11
1.6.1 DETERMINISTIC PROCESS

The study in a deterministic process is based on exact law, and the chance of occurrence of vari-
ables is ignored. For example,
QAV
Discharge can be calculated with the help of this identity and there is no possibility of any chance.
1.6.2 STOCHASTIC PROCESS

In the case of stochastic or probabilistic study, the chance of occurrence of the variables is taken
into consideration. For calculating the flood discharge, the chance or probability of the maximum
precipitation is required to be taken into account.
1.6.3 THE HYDROLOGICAL EQUATION

All the hydrologic studies are mainly based on the continuity equation, which is known as hydrologic
equation. This equation is as follows:
I nflow Outflow Change in storage
g 1.7 MODERN TECHNIQUES
In the study of hydrology, the following modern developments and techniques are used:
• Remote sensing
• Artificial neural network
• Geographical information system
• Genetic algorithm
• Fuzzyl ogic
1.7.1 REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing (RS) is an art and the science of obtaining information about an object, area or
phenomenon through the analysis of the data acquired by a device that is not in contact with an
object, area or phenomenon under consideration.
The electromagnetic energy sources are normally installed on satellites and these sensors
acquire data from the earth. Various features of the earth surface exhibit typical spectral reflectance
patterns. This spectral reflectance is measured by the sensor and the digital images are stored. The
image processing provides the detailed information.
1.7.2 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK

The idea of artificial neural network (ANN) was proposed by McCulloch and Pitts in 1943. Its
development is inspired by a desire to understand the human brain and emulate its functioning. An
ANN is a massively parallel-distributed information-processing system that resembles biological
neural networks of human brain. The individual units in neural network perform computations in
parallel. The ANN has an ability to extract the relation between the input and the output process,
without the physics being explicitly provided to them. It has a potential to learn from experience.
A neural network is an interconnected assembly of simple processing elements, units, nodes or

neurons whose functionality is loosely based on the biological neuron. The processing ability of
the network is stored in the inner unit connection. Strengths or weights, obtained by a process of
adaptation to or learning form, a set of learning form, a set of training patterns.
The major strength of neural network lies in the way knowledge is represented by it. Knowl-
edge refers to stored information or models used by a person or machine to interpret, to predict and
appropriately respond to the outside world. The functioning of the ANN consists of the following
basic steps:
1. Information is passed between nodes through connection links.
2. Signals are passed between nodes through connection links.
3. Each connection link has an associated weight that represents its connection and strength.
4. Each node typically applies a non-linear transformation called activation function to its net to
determine its output signal.
1.7.3 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

Geographical information system (GIS) is a very effective digital tool that handles and anal-
yses the spatially referred data. The digitalized data forms a framework for regional map
coverage for easier comparison with other categories of data, which is amenable for com-
puter aided analysis.
GIS originated in the middle of 1960. It is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing and
retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set
of purposes. It acts as a decision-support system, involving the integration of spatially referenced
data in problem solving. GIS consists of four basic operations:
1. Data gathering and input processing
2. Geographic data bases
3. Data analysis and modelling
4. Outputpr esentation
The data is presented in a number of layers laid one over the other in GIS while presenting the
output. The applications of GIS have increased many folds in various fields. It is used widely as
a standard tool in agriculture, environmental management, forestry, hazard monitoring, watershed
management, land analysis and hydrology.
1.7.4 GENETIC ALGORITHM

Genetic algorithm (GA) is a stochastic global-search method based on the mechanics of natural
selection and neutral genetics. It works on the principles of the survival of the fittest and inheritance
of the characteristics of the parent populations. The problems based on non-convex functions can
be easily solved by GA, where other conventional optimization methods fail to do so. GA is often
viewed as function optimizer. It is a process of a number of solutions simultaneously.
The GA approach consists of the following features:
• All parameters are encoded in binary digits in the form of a string.
• When operated on such population of string, the GA operations act randomly to explore search space
from different points. This global search gives an optimum result.
INTRODUCTION 13
• No gradient information is required that avoids the mathematical complexity of conventional non-
liner optimization methods.
• GA reduces the computational time during evolution process due to the possibility of parallel
computation.
Following are the key steps in GA:
1. Generating an initial population
2. Describing a coding scheme for all the variables
3. Running the flow simulation finite element model for all the sets of variables
4. Computing the fitness function from objective functions
5. Performing the operations with genetic operators
6. Terminationc ondition
1.7.5 FUZZY LOGIC

Fuzzy logic (FL) was first developed for solving imprecise or vague problems in the field of arti-
ficial intelligence, especially for imprecise reasoning and modelling linguistic terms. When the
information is incomplete and vague, the precise mathematics will not be sufficient to model a
complex system. Such problems can be solved by FL.
A fuzzy can be defined mathematically by assigning each possible individual its grade of mem-
bership in the fuzzy set. This grade corresponds to the degree to which that individual is similar
with the concept represented by the fuzzy set. Such individuals may belong to the fuzzy set to a
greater or lesser degree as indicated by a large or smaller membership grades. These membership
grades are very often expressed by real numbers values between 0 and 1. Fuzzy system can serve
different purposes such as modelling, data analysis, prediction or control.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define hydrology. Also discuss its importance in modern times.
2. Is hydrology a pure science? Discuss.
3. What are the sub-branches of hydrology?
4. State and discuss the supplementary sciences for the study of hydrology.
5. What are the overlapping areas of hydrology?
6. Explain the practical use of hydrology in other fields.
7. State and explain the influence of hydrology in other sciences.
8. Write a note on water budget of the world.
9. Write a detailed note on the history of hydrology.
10. Write a note on hydrology in ancient India.
11. Explain the different phases of development of hydrology as suggested by Prof. Ven Te Chow.
12. Explain with a neat sketch hydrological cycle.
13. State and explain the different processes in a hydrological cycle.
14. Analyse the hydrological cycle quantitatively.
15. What are the water-holding elements in a hydrological cycle?
16. What are the liquid-transport phases of a hydrological cycle?
17. What are the vapour-transport phases of a hydrological cycle?
18. Write short notes on

a. Definition of hydrology b. Total quantity of water on the earth
c. Hydrologicale quation d. Hydrologicalpr ocesses
e. Hydrologyi na ncientI ndia f. Interflow
g. Water budget of the world h. Remote sensing
i. Fuzzyl ogic j. Artificial neural network
k. Geographical-informations ystem l. Genetica lgorithm
19. Differentiatebe tween
a. Surface detention and surface b. Deterministic process and stochastic
retention process
c. Synthetic hydrology and applied d. Geohydrology and hydrogeology
hydrology
e. Biohydrologya ndhydr obiology f. Overland flow and interflow
g. Hydraulics and hydrology
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The science of surface streams is
(a) Potamology (b) Limnology
(c) Cryology (d) Morphology
2. The science of measurement of water is

(a) Hydrography (b) Hydrometry
(c) Oceanography (d) Hydraulics
3. The total quantity of water on the earth is
(a) 1348 106km 3 (b) 2348 106km 3
(c) 3348 106km 3 (d) 4348 106km 3
4. Assuming earth to be a uniform sphere, the total quantity of water may cover to an average
depth of
(a) 1.73km (b) 2.73km
(c) 3.73km (d) 4.73km
5. The per cent of salt water on the earth is

(a) 67 (b) 77
(c) 87 (d) 97
6. The total area covered by oceans on the earth is

(a) 260 106km 2 (b) 360 106km 2
(c) 460 10 km
6 2
(d) 560 106km 2
7. The total area covered by land on the earth is

(a) 150 106km 2 (b) 250 106km 2
(c) 350 10 km
6 2
(d) 450 106km 2
INTRODUCTION 15
8. The average annual precipitation on the earth is

(a) 672m m (b) 772 mm
(c) 872m m (d) 972 mm
9. The average annual runoff from the land to the sea is
(a) 147m m (b) 247 mm
(c) 347m m (d) 447 mm
10. If the earth is assumed to be a uniform sphere, its diameter is
(a) 10,800km (b) 11,800km
(c) 12,800km (d) 13,800 km
11. The phases of development of hydrology were suggested by
(a) L.K .S herman (b) Prof. Ven TeC how
(c) Leonardoda Vinci (d) Dalton
12. Science of occurrence, distribution and circulation of water is known as
(c) Hydraulics (d) Noneof t hea bove
13. The full form of GA is
(a) Generala lgorithm (b) Genetica lgorithm
(c) Geologica lgorithm (d) Geographic algorithm
14. The full form of RS is
(a) Regulars ensing (b) Remotes urveying
(c) Regulars urveying (d) Remotes ensing
15. The full form of FL is
(a) Fuzzyl ogic (b) Finitel ogic
(c) Fuzzyl ocation (d) Finitel ocation
16. The full form of ANN is
(a) Artificial normal network (b) Automatic neural network
(c) Artificial neural network (d) Automatic normal network
17. The full form of GIS is
(a) Geographical information system (b) Graphical information system
(c) Geographical information source (d) Graphical information source
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. a 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. d 6. b 7. a 8. c
9. b 10. c 11. b 12. d 13. b 14. d 15. a 16. c
17. a
*** ***
Hydrometeorology
2
Chapter Outline
2.1 Definition 2.4 Wind

2.2 Vapour pressure 2.5 Temperature
2.3 Relative humidity 2.6 Air mass
g 2.1 DEFINITION
The word atmosphere is derived from two Greek words, atmos and spheria. Atmos means vapour and
spheria means sphere or spherical earth as its extended meaning. Atmosphere, therefore, means the
gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.
Hydrometeorology is the study of that atmospheric process, which affects the hydrologic characters
of a region.
2.1.1 ATMOSPHERE AND ITS CONSTITUENTS

The permanent constituents of air, in gaseous form, are: (1) nitrogen—78%, (2) oxygen—21% and
(3) inert gases 1%. The variable constituents may be in the solid, liquid or gaseous form.
Water is one of these variable constituents, which may comprise as much as 4% of the atmo-
sphere and may exist in all the three forms. When water exists in the form of gas, it is invisible and
HYDROMETEOROLOGY 17
is termed as humidity. Besides water, ozone (O3) and carbon dioxide (CO2), exist in the atmosphere
in varying proportions.
2.1.2 EXISTENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere has got no upper limit. It is densest near the earth surface and gradually decreases
in density and practically does not exist beyond 600 km from the earth surface. About 90% of the
atmosphere is within 20 km from the earth surface.
2.1.3 DENSITY AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

At the equator, the normal atmosphere density is 1.02 kg/m3 and pressure is 1.02 ⫻ 105 N/m2 equivalent
to 10.33 m of water.
2.1.4 VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The vertical structure of the atmosphere is divided into five layers.
Figure 2.1 shows the vertical structure of the atmosphere.
1. Troposphere: It roughly extends up to a height of about 10 km, 8 km over the poles and 16 km
near the equator. The entire phenomenon related to weather is confined to this layer. Around 75%
of mass of the moisture, dust, etc. lies in this layer. Its temperature reduces at a rate approximately
of 6.5 °C/km. The top of troposphere is called tropopause.
2. Stratosphere: This layer lies above the troposphere and is considered to be of a height
ranging from 16 to 30 km. In this layer, major portion is ozone and the temperature is more or
less constant. The top of the stratosphere is called stratopause.
140
Temperature
120 Exposphere
100 Ionosphere
Height in KM
Mesopause
80
Pressure Mesosphere/
60
Chemosphere
Stratopause
40
Stratosphere
20 Tropopause
Troposphere
0
⫺80 ⫺60 ⫺40 ⫺20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature in 0 c
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pressure in 1000 mb
Fig. 2.1 Vertical structure of atmosphere

3. Mesosphere: This is a warm layer and is above the stratosphere and the thickness is roughly 30
km. It is also known as chemosphere. The region at the top of the mesosphere is called mesopause.
4. Ionosphere: This layer is above the mesosphere; the pressure in this layer is very low. It consists
of a number of layers with different electrical characteristics.
5. Exosphere: The ionosphere gradually merges into the outermost shell called exosphere.
g 2.2 VAPOUR PRESSURE
Water exists in the form of vapour in the atmosphere. Vapour is lighter than air.
The partial pressure exerted by this vapour is known as vapour pressure. The more the
vapour content, the more will be the vapour pressure. The vapour pressure is normally denoted
by ‘e’. For any temperature, there is a limit for the water vapour that can be held in the atmo-
sphere. For a given temperature, when the air holds the vapour to its maximum capacity, the
vapour pressure is said to be saturated vapour pressure at that temperature and is generally
denoted by ‘es’.
Saturated vapour pressure increases with temperature.
Air with vapour is lighter than dry air.
Vapour pressure is normally expressed in millibars (mb)
1 bar ⫽ 105 N/m2
1 mb ⫽ 102 N/m2
and 1.33 mb ⫽ 1 mm of mercury.
g 2.3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Relative humidity is the ratio of actual vapour pressure and saturated vapour pressure for that tem-
perature, and is generally denoted by ‘h’ and in terms of percentage.
Naturally, it is always less than 100.
Thus, h ⫽ (e/es) ⫻ 100
2.3.1 SATURATION DEFICIT

The difference between the saturated vapour pressure and the actual vapour pressure is known as
saturation deficit.
2.3.2 DEW-POINT TEMPERATURE

When the temperature of air is reduced, the existing water vapour gets saturated at a certain tem-
perature and this temperature is known as dew-point temperature. Indirectly, it is the temperature
at which the saturated vapour pressure equals the existing vapour pressure.
HYDROMETEOROLOGY 19
2.3.3 WET-BULB TEMPERATURE

If evaporation is allowed in the air without controlling the temperature, then the temperature of
air goes on reducing, reaching a saturation point. This temperature, when the air gets saturated, is
known as wet-bulb temperature.
2.3.4 MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY

The instrument used to measure humidity is known as psychrometer. It consists of two glass ther-
mometers: (a) a dry bulb thermometer and (b) a wet-bulb thermometer. The dry bulb thermometer
records the ambient air temperature normally denoted as ‘T’. The wet-bulb thermometer has its
mercury bulb wrapped in a wick. The other end of the wick is submerged in a container having
distilled water. With this arrangement, the mercury bulb is supplied with moisture continuously
due to surface tension. The water in the wick, wrapping the mercury bulb, evaporates reducing the
temperature recorded by this thermometer. For this reason, this thermometer is known as wet-bulb
thermometer and the temperature recorded as wet-bulb temperature normally denoted by ‘Tw’.
From the observed atmospheric pressure ‘P’ and from these two temperatures, the relative
humidity can be calculated. For this purpose psychometric tables are used.
2.3.5 HYGROGRAPH
It is noticed that human or animal hair reacts to the change in the humidity. It expands as humidity
increases and contracts with a decrease in humidity. This variation is very uniform. This prop-
erty is used to measure humidity and is automatically recorded on a graph. This instrument is
known as hygrograph. Sometimes hygrograph is also equipped with a thermograph and is called a
thermohygrograph.
g 2.4 WIND
Air in motion is called wind. The horizontal component parallel to the earth surface is called wind
and the vertical component is referred to as air current.
2.4.1 WIND VELOCITY

The wind velocity is measured by an instrument known as anemometer.
A cup-type anemometer is the standard instrument. It consists of three or four hemispherical
cups mounted on a sleeve that rotates freely about the vertical axis. Because of the wind veloc-
ity, the cups rotate along the vertical axis and the number of rotations is recorded by a counter.
The more the velocity, the more will be the rotations. The rotations are recorded automatically
on a chart so that the wind velocity during the 24 hours is recorded.
Figure 2.2 shows an anemometer. In recent years, electrical/electronic anemometers are
available.
2.4.2 DIRECTION OF WIND

The direction of the wind is measured and recorded by wind vanes. The wind vanes are normally
installed along with the anemometer.
ooo
Fig. 2.2 Anemometer with a counter
2.4.3 LEVEL OF ANEMOMETER

No standard has been specified for the height of an anemometer. The wind speed varies with
the height above the ground and it follows the logarithmic profile or power law profile. It can
be expressed as
V/V0 ⫽ (Z/Z0)0 15
where, V ⫽ Speed of wind required at a height Z
V0 ⫽ Speed of wind observed at a height Z0
2.4.4 EFFECT OF WIND

Wind transports vapour and heat and hence is responsible for precipitation, evaporation and tempera-
ture changes at a location.
g 2.5 TEMPERATURE
The temperature indicates the heat energy in soil, water and air mass. It affects the hydrologic
processes like evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, etc.
2.5.1 FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE

Temperature depends on the following factors:
(1) altitude, (2) latitude, (3) nature of surface, (4) condition of sky, (5) wind speed (6) time after
sunrise, (7) vegetation and (8) orographic influence.
HYDROMETEOROLOGY 21
2.5.2 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is normally measured by the length of mercury column in a glass bulb-type thermom-
eter kept in a wooden shelter known as Stevenson screen. Standards have been laid down for the
installation of a Stevenson screen.
An automatic recording instrument known as thermograph obtains a continuous record of tem-
perature with time.
2.5.3 AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE

The average daily temperature is calculated by either of the following two methods:
1. Average of maximum and minimum temperatures.
2. Average worked out from thermograph chart.
These two values differ slightly.
2.5.4 NORMAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

The normal average temperatures required in the study of hydrology are: (1) mean daily temperature,
(2) mean monthly temperature and (3) mean annual temperature.
These average values are worked out from 30-years period and are revised every decade, that is,
10 years.
2.5.5 LAPSE RATE

Lapse rate is the change in temperature with height above ground.
g 2.6 AIR MASS
Air mass is a vast and deep body of air. The temperature, humidity, etc. are homogeneous in the
air mass. The air mass may move because of the pressure gradient. It can be categorized into the
following two types:
• When the air mass moves over a warmer surface, it is called cold air mass.
• When the air mass moves over a cooler surface, it is called warm air mass.
2.6.1 AIR FRONT

The surface of contact between two air masses or with the surrounding atmosphere is called air
front. The air front is of the following three types:
• The air front with the earth surface is called surface front.
• When a moving cold air mass comes in contact with a warmer one, the warm air mass moves over the
cold one and then it is called a cold front.
• Similarly, when a moving warm air mass comes in contact with a cold one, it is called warm front.
2.6.2 CYCLONE
When a low atmosphere pressure develops in an area, the air in the adjoining area revolves moving
spirally towards the low-pressure belt with a high velocity. The storm thus formed is known as
tropical cyclone.
The cyclone may cover a circular area of 500 km2 and its centre is called eye of the storm. A
cyclone in the northern hemisphere revolves always anticlockwise, while in the southern hemi-
sphere it revolves clockwise. The wind speed may be to the extent of 300 km/h and may pick up
moisture from the land and ocean surface and may cause heavy precipitation.
2.6.3 CAUSES OF CYCLONE

The tropical cyclones normally occur at low latitudes over the seas because of the development
of low pressure. The reason may be a combination of the following: (a) intense sunshine, (b) high
humidity, (c) low surface friction, (d) deflation due to earth rotation and (e) lapse rate.
2.6.4 EXTRATROPICAL CYCLONE

When air masses of contrasting properties come in contact with each other, the storm formed is
known as extratropical cyclone. It covers a very large area to the extent of 2000 km2 and is mostly
associated with heavy precipitation.
2.6.5 ANTICYCLONE
When high pressure is developed at a location, the air mass moves away spirally outwards and
then it is called anticyclone. The spiral movement is anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the permanent and variable constituents of the atmosphere.
2. Describe the vertical structure of the atmosphere.
3. Discuss the factors that affect temperature at a location.
4. Explain the working of an anemometer.
5. What is humidity? How is it measured?
6. Discuss the effect of wind on various hydrological processes.
7. Explain the effect of temperature on various hydrological processes.
a. Vapour pressure b. Saturation deficit
c. Relative humidity d. Measurement of temperature
e. Eye of a cyclone f. Lapse rate
g. Variation of wind with the height h. Dew-point temperature
above ground
i. Wet-bulb temperature j. Measurement of humidity
9. Differentiate between
a. Warm front and cold front b. Average temperature and normal temperature
c. Cold air mass and warm air mass d. Cyclone and anticyclone
e. Tropical cyclone and extratropical f. Dry bulb thermometer and wet-bulb
cyclone thermometer
g. Wind and air current h. Isobar and isotherm
i. Hygrograph and thermograph
HYDROMETEOROLOGY 23

1. Hydrometeorology is the science dealing with
(a) Water in the atmosphere (b) Water below the earth surface
(c) Water in the oceans (d) Water in surface streams
2. A pressure of 1 mb is equal to
(a) 100 N/m2 (b) 10 N/m2
(c) 1 N/m2 (d) 0.1 N/m2
3. The atmosphere has no existence from the earth surface beyond

(a) 6000 km (b) 600 km
(c) 60 km (d) 6 km
4. At the equator, the normal atmospheric density is

(a) 100.02 kg/m3 (b) 10.02 kg/m3
3
(c) 1.02 kg/m (d) 0.102 kg/m3
5. At the equator, the atmospheric pressure is

(a) 100.33 m of water (b) 10.33 m of water
(c) 1.03 m of water (d) 0.103 m of water
6. The vertical structure of the atmosphere is divided into

(a) Six layers (b) Five layers
(c) Four layers (d) Three layers
7. Most of the weather phenomenon takes place in

(a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere
(c) Mesosphere (d) Ionosphere
8. The permanent constituents of air in gaseous form are

(a) 1. Nitrogen 50% (b) 1. Nitrogen 70%
2. Oxygen 30% 2. Oxygen 10%
3. Inert gases 20% 3. Inert gases 20%
(c) 1. Nitrogen 60% (d) 1. Nitrogen 78%
2. Oxygen 20% 2. Oxygen 21%
3. Inert gases 20% 3. Inert gases 1%
9. Water exists in the atmosphere in the form of

(a) Solid (b) Liquid
(c) Gas (d) All of the three
10. The temperature in the atmosphere is fairly constant in

(a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere
(c) Mesosphere (d) Ionosphere
11. Isobar is the line joining the points of equal

(a) Temperature (b) Humidity
(c) Atmospheric pressure (d) Wind velocity
12. Wind velocity is measured by

(a) Current meter (b) Atmometer
(c) Anemometer (d) Aerometer
13. Atmospheric humidity is measured and recorded by

(a) Barograph (b) Hygrograph
(c) Thermograph (d) Pantograph
14. Atmospheric temperature is measured and recorded by

(a) Pantograph (b) Thermograph
(c) Barograph (d) Hygrograph
15. Thermohygrographr ecords

(a) Temperature and humidity (b) Temperature and wind velocity
(c) Temperature and pressure (d) Humidity and pressure
16. In the cyclone in the southern hemisphere, wind flows
(a) Clockwise inward (b) Anticlockwise inward
(c) Clockwise outward (d) Anticlockwise outward
17. In the anticyclone in the southern hemisphere wind flows
(a) Clockwise inward (b) Anticlockwise inward
(c) Clockwise outward (d) Anticlockwise outward
18. Wind speed varies with the height above ground and the profile is
(a) Elliptical (b) Logarithmic
(c) Straight line (d) Circular
19. Wind transports vapour and heat and is responsible for
(a) Precipitation (b) Evaporation
(c) Temperature changes (d) All the three
20. The p eriod after which the normal average temperature values are revised is
(a) 10 years (b) 20 years
(c) 30 years (d) 40 years

1. a 2. a 3. b 4. c 5. b 6. b 7. a 8. d
9. d 10. b 11. c 12. c 13. b 14. b 15. a 16. a
17. c 18. b 19. d 20. c
*** ***
Evaporation
and Transpiration
3
Chapter Outline
3.1 Definition 3.5 Control of evaporation from

3.2 Necessity of estimation of a reservoir
evaporation 3.6 Transpiration
3.3 Factors affecting evaporation 3.7 Soil evaporation
3.4 Estimation of evaporation
g 3.1 DEFINITION
Evaporation is an important process in the hydrologic cycle preceding precipitation. It is the pro-
cess by which water in the liquid form transforms into vapour through the transfer of energy. The
exact laws governing this phenomenon are not completely known.
The transformation from solid to the vapour state without passing through the usual intermedi-
ate liquid state is known as sublimation. In the atmosphere, evaporation occurs from free water
surfaces like (1) seas, (2) lakes and rivers, (3) moisture in solid surfaces of (4) land and soil,
(5) vegetation, (6) snowfields, (7) glaciers and (8) even from the falling rain drops.
3.1.1 PROCESS OF EVAPORATION

Any water body, regardless of its size, is made up of a number of molecules. Each one of
them is constantly in motion at varying velocities and in different directions. This velocity of
movement is dependent on temperature. So also, in a given mass, every molecule is attracted
by another by a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and
directly proportional to the product of their masses. The molecules underneath attract the
molecules which are near the top surface. Thus, some molecules near the surface, which have
more kinetic energy than the attracting force—quite enough to overcome the attraction of the
molecules in the lower part of the water body, escape into the atmosphere. This process is
known as evaporation.
The molecules that escape into the atmosphere carry with them some heat energy. Thus
evaporation is a cooling process. Some molecules are continuously moving into the atmosphere
and some are returning from the atmosphere to the water surface. There may be a collision of
molecules moving from and to the water surface. Thus, the rate of evaporation is the net rate
of movement of molecule to and from the water surface.
When the rate of molecules coming from the atmosphere to the water surface is more than the
rate of molecules going out from the water surface, then the process is known as condensation.
Evaporation is expressed in terms of the depth of water per unit area per unit time
(e.g. mm/m2/h).
3.1.2 DALTON’S LAW OF EVAPORATION

John Dalton was the first scientist to describe this process, scientifically.
Immediately adjacent to the water surface, there is a thin layer of air that is saturated with
vapour and its temperature is the same as that of water.
Evaporation depends upon the difference of vapour pressure in the atmosphere and the saturated
vapour pressure of this air film.
de
Mathematically E C ___
dz
where, E Evaporation rate
C Ac onstant
de
___
Vapour pressure gradient in the vertical direction.
dz
If the air above the film has vapour pressure same as that of the film, i.e. when de 0, then
there will be no evaporation.
However, if the air above the film has vapour pressure less than that of the film, i.e. de 0, then
there will be evaporation.
Dalton suggested the formula
E C( es ea)
where, E Evaporation rate
C Ac onstant
es Saturated vapour pressure at the water surface temperature
ea Vapour pressure in the air above
Dalton’s Law of evaporation is fundamental and all further work is based on this law.
EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 27
g 3.2 NECESSITY OF ESTIMATION OF EVAPORATION
Large amounts are spent in constructing a dam and creating a reservoir to store water. Canals are also
constructed to carry water. Some water stored in these reservoirs and flowing in canals is lost due to
evaporation. The amount of the loss of water due to evaporation can be substantial (about 30%).
It is, therefore, necessary to estimate the loss due to evaporation to assess the water available
for use in different seasons.
g 3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
The factors affecting evaporation are (1) temperature, (2) solar radiation, (3) wind, (4) barometric
pressure and altitude, (5) dissolved solids, (6) turbidity, depth of water, (7) shape of surface, (8) extent,
i.e., total area of water surface, (9) colour of water, (10) velocity of water, and (11) waves at water
surface. These are discussed below in detail.
3.3.1 TEMPERATURE
Evaporation is directly affected by the temperature of water as well as that of the air above. The
kinetic energy of the molecules of water increases with temperature. Similarly, the saturated vapour
pressure of the air film near the water surface and the vapour pressure of the air above increases.
Since evaporation depends upon the difference of these two vapour pressures, change in tem-
perature may not affect evaporation in the same proportion and, as such, effect of temperature on
evaporation is somewhat complicated.
Evaporation observed in a lake for one complete year indicates that for the same mean temperature
observed in different months, the evaporation figures differ. However, evaporation increases with tem-
perature, even though a close relation between evaporation and temperature cannot be established.
3.3.2 SOLAR RADIATION

About 590 calories are required for converting one gram of water into water vapour. This heat
energy is directly or indirectly derived from solar radiation. It is quite evident that evaporation rate
changes during day, night and during different months in a year, since incidence of the Sun’s radia-
tion on the earth is different. Air and water temperatures depend upon solar radiation, and one can
expect a close relation between the Sun’s radiation and evaporation.
3.3.3 WIND
The air above the water surface receives the evaporated water molecules, and the rate of evapo-
ration depends upon the moisture content in the air. If the water molecules in the air above are
removed quickly, then the rate of evaporation increases. Removal of water molecules in the air
above water surface is done by the wind and naturally depends on the velocity of wind. The more
the velocity of wind, the faster will be the process of removal of water vapour particles and more
will be the evaporation rate.
However, there is a limiting velocity of wind up to which the rate of evaporation increases with
the increase in the wind velocity. Further increase has no effect on the evaporation rate. This higher
limit of wind velocity depends on other factors also.
The velocity of wind referred above is naturally near the water surface, because the variation in the
velocity of wind in the vertical direction is not a straight-line relation. Wind speed observed by an ane-
mometer at a higher level will have to be modified considering the variation in the vertical direction.
So also, the velocity of wind will affect the evaporation rate if the air movement is turbulent. The
water vapour will be removed quickly by turbulent diffusion. If the airflow is laminar, it will have no
significant effect on the removal of water vapour and indirectly on the evaporation rate.
3.3.4 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE AND ALTITUDE

It is evident that the barometric pressure has an influence on the rate of evaporation. As the baromet-
ric pressure reduces, the rate of evaporation increases. However, the change in barometric pressure
brings about changes in other variables that influence evaporation, and, as such, it is very difficult
to establish an exact relation between the change in barometric pressure and evaporation rate.
Similarly, as altitude increases, the barometric pressure reduces and so the temperature. How-
ever, evaporation increases with the reduction of barometric pressure, but reduces with the reduction
in temperature. The result will be the combined effect.
However, field observations indicate that evaporation goes on reducing with altitude.
3.3.5 QUALITY OF WATER

When water contains some dissolved solids, the vapour pressure reduces as compared to the pure
water. Thus, the evaporation rate reduces with an increase in soluble solids. Evaporation is about
2–3% less from sea water as compared to fresh water. It is also noticed that the evaporation rate
reduces by 1% with 1% increase in the specific gravity due to the dissolved solids.
Turbidity of water has no direct effect on the evaporation rate. The reflection of the solar radia-
tion may increase and thus turbidity may indirectly affect the evaporation rate.
3.3.6 DEPTH OF WATER

The depth of water in the lake or reservoir has definitely an effect on the evaporation rate. The heat
energy received by water from the Sun’s radiation is utilized in three different ways:
1. Reflecting it back into atmosphere
2. Increasing the temperature of water
3. Fore vaporation
In the case of water of high depth during summer season, heat is utilized to increase the tem-
perature of water at lower depths and thus evaporation reduces slightly. In cold season for higher
depths, heat is available for evaporation from water and hence the evaporation rate increases. In the
case of shallow waters, it is exactly the opposite way. The evaporation rate observed in two differ-
ent lakes having different depths is shown in Fig. 3.1.
3.3.7 OTHER FACTORS

The other factors that have an effect on evaporation are as follows:
• Shape of the water surface
• Size, i.e. total area of the water surface
A.....Reservoir, Maximum Depth :- 9.0 m

B…..Reservoir, Maximum Depth :- 39.7 m
125 A
Evaporat on n mm
100
B
75
50
25
0
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Period
Fig. 3.1 Evaporation in lakes with different depths
• Colour of water surface

• Flow velocity of water
• Surfacew aves
However, efforts are still on to evaluate the effect of these factors on the rate of evaporation,
though it is quite certain that these factors affect the evaporation rate. No exact relation has been
concluded so far.
g 3.4 ESTIMATION OF EVAPORATION
The following methods are generally adopted to evaluate the rate of evaporation from a reservoir.
• Water budget method
• Energy budget method
• Mass transfer method
• Actualobs ervations
• Evaporationf ormulae
3.4.1 WATER BUDGET METHOD

This method is the application of continuity equation to the water content in a reservoir which
is expressed as
E P I ( Ui Uo) O dS
where, E E vaporation
P P recipitation
I Surface inflow
Ui Underground inflow into the reservoir
Uo Underground outflow from the reservoir
O Outflow from the reservoir, if any

dS Change in storage
The total evaporation during the observed time (may be a week or so) can be evaluated provided
all terms on the RHS of the above equation are known. The precipitation, if any, during the period
of observation has to be taken into account. The inflow in the form of surface flow from the vari-
ous streams discharging into the river/reservoir, if any, can be measured. Underground inflow or
underground outflow is very difficult to calculate.
Outflow from the reservoir may be in the form of irrigation canal flow or hydroelectric power
generation outflow which can be evaluated. During the observation period, there might be some
change in the reservoir storage. This may be positive or negative.
Thus, knowing the variables on the RHS, evaporation loss during the specified period can
be estimated.
This method is not accurate but may give a rough idea about the loss due to evaporation.
Example 3.1
The catchment area of an irrigation tank is 70 km2. The constant water spread during October 2006
was 2 km2. During that month, the uniform precipitation over the catchment was recorded to be 100
mm. 50% of the precipitation reaches the tank. The irrigation canal discharges at a uniform rate of
1.00 m3/s in the month of October.
Assuming seepage losses to be 50% of the evaporation losses, find out the daily rate of evapora-
tion for October 2006.
Solution:
100
Total inflow 70 106 _____
1000 0.5 3.50 10 m
6 3
Outflow from canal 1 3600 24 31

2.68 106m 3
Loss of water 3.50 106 2.68 106
0.82 106m 3
Seepage loss evaporation loss
Since seepage loss is 50% that of evaporation loss,
Loss of water 1.5 evaporation loss
0.82 106
_________
Therefore,e vaporationl oss 1.5 0.55 106 m3
0.55 106 1000
________________
Rate of evaporation
2 106 31
8.8 mm/day/m2
Example 3.2
The surface area of a reservoir in m2 given by A 100 y2, where y is the depth of water in metres
in the reservoir. In one week, the water depth in the reservoir has reduced from 10 to 9 m. Find the
average hourly rate of evaporation. Assume seepage loss to be 40% of the evaporation loss.
Solution:
Therefore, A1 Area at depth 10 m
100 102 10,000 m2
A2 100 92 8100 m2 ________
1 冤A A (A A ) 冥
Average surface area __3 1 2 √ 1 _____________
2
__
1
3 冢10,000 8100 √ 10,000 8100 冣
9033.33 m2
Loss of water 9033.33 1
9033.33 m3
Since seepage loss 0.4 evaporation loss
Therefore, evaporation loss seepage loss 1.4 Evaporation loss
9033.33 103
Therefore, rate of evaporation ____________________
1.4 9033.33 7 24
4.25 mm/h/m2
Example 3.3
The catchment area of a reservoir is 10.0 km2. A uniform precipitation of 0.5 cm/h for 2.0 h was
observed on 7th of July. 50% of the runoff reached the reservoir. A canal carrying a discharge of
1.25 m3/s is taken from the reservoir. The rate of evaporation observed was 0.7 mm/m2/h. The seep-
age loss was observed to be 50% of the evaporation loss. Find the change in the reservoir level on
4th July from 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. if the water spread of the reservoir was 0.476 km2.
Solution:
0.5
Inflow into the reservoir 10.0 106 ____
100 2.0 0.5 5.0 10 m
4 3
Canal outflow 1.25 10 3600 4.5 10 m 4 3

_____
1
Evaporation and seepage losses 0.476 106 10 1000 0.7 1.5
0.5 10 m 4 3
Total outflow from the reservoir 4.5 104 0.5 104 5.0 104m 3
i nflow.
Hence, there will not be any change in the reservoir water level.
Example 3.4
A trapezoidal channel of bed width 4.0 m and side slopes 1:1 carries water at a depth of 2.0 m. The rate
of evaporation observed was 0.35 mm/m2/h. Find the daily loss due to evaporation from the canal in a
length of 10 km in ha m.
Solution:
Top width of water level 4.0 2.0 2.0 8.0 m
Total water spread in the canal in 10.0 km 8.0 10.0 1000 8 104m 2
Rate of evaporation from the canal 0.35 mm/m2/h

_____
0.35
Daily loss of canal water 8.0 104 1000 24 672 m3
672 104 ha m
0.0672 ha m
3.4.2 ENERGY BUDGET METHOD

In this method, in a specific time, the energy received by water from the Sun or from the atmo-
sphere is accounted and then the energy utilized for evaporation is calculated; thus, the actual
evaporation is worked out.
Thus, Q I QR Qs QE
where, QI Total energy received from Sun’s radiation
QR Energy reflected back into the atmosphere by water
Qs Change in the energy of the stored water
QE Energy required for evaporation
Qs may be positive or negative depending on energy utilized by the water or energy received
from the water. This will depend upon the season. QE can be calculated if all other factors in the
equation above are evaluated. However, this requires a lot of instrumentation. Once QE is calcu-
lated, the actual evaporation can be calculated knowing the following:
• Latent heat of evaporation
• Temperature of water
• Barometric pressure
This method too is not accurate, as it requires very accurate instrumentation. However, it may
give a rough idea.
Example 3.5
A reservoir having a water spread of 0.5 km2 and water storage of 1 million m3 receives the Sun’s radi-
ation at the average rate of 0.025 Langley per second. 5% of this radiation is reflected back into the
atmosphere. The rise in the average temperature of the water is 2 °C during 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.
Assuming no exchange of heat between water and ground as well as the atmosphere, find the
average rate of evaporation.
Solution:
1 Langley 1 cal/cm2
Latent heat of evaporation: 539.55 cal/g
Specific heat of water: 1 cal/g/C
(A) Energy received from the Sun 0.5 106 104 0.025 8 3600
3.6 1012c al
(B) Energy received by water 0.95 3.6 1012
3. 42 1012c al
(C) Energy utilized by water 2 1 106 106c al
2.0 1012c al
(D) Energy utilized by water for evaporation ( 3.42 2.0) 1012c al

1.42 1012c al
1.42 1012 106
(E) Volume of water evaporated _______________
539.55 2.63 103m 3
2.63 103 1000
(E) Rate of evaporation ________________
0.5 106 8
0.66 mm/m2/h
3.4.3 MASS TRANSFER METHOD

This method is based on the determination of the mass of water vapour transferred from the water
surface to the atmosphere. It is also known as vapour flow approach or aerodynamic approach.
The concept of boundary layer theory and continuous mixing, are applied. It is assumed that wind
velocity in the vertical is logarithmic and atmosphere is adiabatic.
The evaporation is expressed as:
46.08(e1 e2)(v2 v1)
E ___________________
(T 273) logc(z2/z1)2
where, E Evaporation in mm/h
z1, z2 Arbitrary levels above water surface levels in metres
e1, e2 Vapour pressures at z1, z2 in mm Hg
v1, v2 Wind velocity at z1, z2 in km/h
T Average temperature in C between z1 and z2
3.4.4 METHODS OF ACTUAL OBSERVATIONS

Evaporation can be measured by an instrument known as atmometer.
In an atmometer, there is a continuous supply of water to a surface. This surface is kept con-
stantly wet and evaporation from this surface is measured. Atmometers are not common because
of their small size. They do not have sufficient exposure. The rate of evaporation observed from an
atmometer is on higher side than that from any other method.
The following are normal atmometers: (1) Livingstone atmometer, and (2) Piche atmometer
(1) Livingstone atmometer It consists of a 50-mm diameter spherical surface of 2.5-mm thick
porous material as shown in Fig. 3.2.
The bottle is filled with distilled water that is supplied continuously to the porous bulb. The loss
of water from the bottle is due to evaporation.
(2) Piche atmometer It consists of a graduated glass tube of 15-mm diameter and 300-mm in
length. It is filled with water and covered with a filter paper. The tube is kept in an inverted position
so that there is continuous supply of water to the filter paper. The loss of water from the glass tube
is the loss due to evaporation. The Piche atmometer is shown in Fig. 3.3.
3.4.5 PAN OBSERVATIONS

The estimation of evaporation can be done by taking actual observations from a pan and correlating
these results to a reservoir.
Porous sphere 1
2
3
4
Waterproof system 5
6
7
8
9
Air vent 1
Rubber stopper 2
3
Rubber stopper 4
5
6
7
8
Glass tube 9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Bottle
Fig. 3.2 Livingstone atmometer Fig. 3.3 Piche atmometer
3.4.5.1 Pan
A pan is a metal container, square or circular, and of uniform cross-section. Normally it is circular.
The diameter may range from 300 to 1500 mm.
This pan is filled with water and the loss of water from this pan in a specified period is mea-
sured. The rate of evaporation observed here is correlated to the evaporation from a reservoir.
3.4.5.2 Observations on a Pan

The observations over a specified time are taken by two methods.
1. In the first method, the pan is filled up to a specific level and the loss of water is calculated by
observing the level of water over a specified time. Knowing the cross-section of the pan and the
reduction in the water level, the loss due to evaporation over the specified time can be calcu-
lated. The water levels in the pan are taken accurately by a hook gauge.
2. In the second method, the pan is filled up to a specific level. This level is maintained
constant by adding water to the pan periodically to meet the evaporation loss. The loss
due to evaporation over that period is the quantity of water added to the pan to maintain
a constant level.
Example 3.6
The drop in water level in the case of a 1.5-m diameter evaporation pan during 24 h is 10 mm. The
precipitation recorded during this period was 15 mm. Find the rate of evaporation from the pan.
Solution:
( 1.5)2 1.767 m2
Area of pan __
4
EP
Evaporation in 24 h ______
Area
10 15
Therefore, Rate of evaporation __________
1.767 24 0.59 mm/h/m
2
Example 3.7
The amount of water added to a 1.0-m diameter circular land pan over a period of 10 h to maintain
the water level constant is 9.56 lit. Find the hourly rate of evaporation from the pan.
Solution:
D2 __
Area of pan __
( 1)2 0.785 m2
4 4
103 103
________________
9.56
Rate of evaporation per hour 0.785 10
Rate of evaporation 1.21 mm/h/m2
Example 3.8
Observations taken on a 1.0-m diameter circular land pan on 7 July 2006 from 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.
were as follows:
1. Quantity of water taken out of the pan 5.0 lit
2. Precipitation during this time period 20 mm
If there was no change in the water level in the pan, find the rate of evaporation.
Solution:
␲
1. Area of pan __
4 1 0.785 m
2 2
2. Amount of water received due to precipitation 0.785 103 20 103 15.706l it

3. Evaporation from the pan: 15.706 5.0 10.706 lit
10.706 103 1000
Therefore, the rate of evaporation ___________________
0.785 10 1.36 mm/m2/h
Example 3.9
In the case of a 1.5-m diameter circular pan, following observations were taken from 8:00 a.m. to
6:00 p.m.
1. Quantity of water added to keep the water level in the pan constant is 5.0 lit
2. Precipitation during the observation period is 10 mm
3. Leakage from the pan is 2.0 lit
Find the rate of evaporation from the pan.
Solution:
␲
Area of the pan __
4 1.5 1.767 m
2 2
Quantity of water received by the pan 1.767 103 10 103

17.67 lit by way of precipitation
Evaporation from the pan 17.67 5.0 2.0 20.67 lit
20.67 103 103
Rate of evaporation _________________
1.767 10 1.17 mm/m2/h
3.4.5.3 Pan Coefficient

The observations from a pan are extrapolated to a reservoir by using a pan coefficient.
A pan coefficient may be defined as follows:
Rate of evaporation from the reservoir
Pan coefficient _______________________________
Rate of evaporation from a pan
The value of pan coefficient is always less than 1.0 and is dimensionless because, in the case of
a pan, a very small area is exposed to atmosphere and, secondly, the metal container absorbs more
energy and in turn is utilized for evaporation.
Example 3.10
The rate of evaporation from a 1.25-m pan having a pan coefficient of 0.8, was 1 mm/m2/h. Find
the total evaporation from a reservoir in a week, having a water spread of 2.0 ha.
Solution:
1
Evaporation from the reservoir during a week _____
1000 0.8 2 10 7 24
4
2688 m3
Example 3.11
The monthly evaporation (in mm) observed on a pan from January to December 2006 is as follows:
111, 126, 127, 132, 141, 146, 148, 143, 138, 126, 118, 114
The water spreads of reservoir in January 2006 and December 2006 were 2.56 and 2.69 km2,
respectively. Assuming a pan coefficient of 0.8, find the total loss of water due to evaporation in
2006 from the reservoir. Neglect all other losses.
Solution:
_______
Mean spread of reservoir __1 A A A A
(
3 1 2 2)
√ 1 __________
1 (2.56 2.69 2.56 2.69 )
__ √
3
2.624 km 2
Annual loss due to evaporation 111 126 127 132 141 146 148 143 138
126 118 1 14 1570 mm
1570
Therefore, evaporation loss in 2006 2.624 106 _____
1000 0.8
3.295 10 m 3 3.295 million m3
6
3.4.5.4 Factors Affecting Pan Coefficient

The following factors affect the pan coefficient.
• Diameter of pan
• Depth of water in the pan
• Height of rim of pan above the water level
• Location of pan
• Colour of pan
• Material used for pan
The pan coefficient can be evaluated by taking observations on the different sizes of pans and
extrapolating the observations as shown in Fig. 3.4.
The different types of pans are: land pan, floating pan and sunken pan
3.4.5.5 Land pan

This type of pan is located on land above the ground normally on the bank of the lake or the reser-
voir. There are different types and sizes. The standard one is shown in Fig. 3.5.
It is made of ungalvanized iron sheet 1200 mm in diameter and 250 mm in depth. The bottom
is supported on a wooden frame placed 150 mm above ground level, and the water level is kept
50–75 mm below the rim. The pan coefficient varies between 0.6 and 0.7.
3.4.5.6 Floating pan

In this type, the pan is kept floating in the reservoir. Thus with this arrangement, similar surround-
ing conditions are maintained. Initially, the water level in the pan is kept the same as that of reser-
voir and observations are taken regularly by approaching it from the bank.
0.5
0.6
Pan coefficient
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Diameter of pan in ‘m’
Fig. 3.4 Variation of pan coefficient w.r.t. pan diameter
The standard Floating Pan of 900-mm2 area and 450-mm depth is as shown in Fig. 3.6. The pan
coefficient varies from 0.7 to 0.82.
3.4.5.7 Sunken pan

In this type, the pan is sunk in the ground on the banks of the reservoir. This arrangement avoids
splash of rain, drifting of dust or trash and obstruction to the wind. It also eliminates boundary
effects such as the radiation of the side walls and heat exchange between the pan and the atmo-
sphere.
122 cm
25.4 cm
20 cm
Wooden support
15 cm
G.L
Fig. 3.5 Land pan

Water levels in pan and tank

Pan suspended from stand by ropes
7.5 cm
25.5 cm
Tank bed Steel stand of

suitable section
Steel stiffener
121 cm
Fig. 3.6 Floating pan
The standard type is made of ungalvanized unpainted iron sheet with an area of 900 mm2 and 450
mm in depth. The rim is kept 100 mm above water level and the water level same as that of ground,
as shown in Fig. 3.7. The pan coefficient varies between 0.75 and 0.86.
Stilling well
10 cm
61 cm
183 cm
Fig. 3.7 Sunken pan
3.4.6 FORMULAE TO ESTIMATE THE EVAPORATION FROM A RESERVOIR

There are several formulae to estimate evaporation from a reservoir. All of them are empirical.
The formulae normally used are: Fitzgerald’s formula, Rohwer’s formula, Meyer’s formula and
Lake Mead formula.
The various variables used in the formulae in estimating evaporation from a reservoir are as
follows:
E Evaporation in mm/day
es Saturated vapour pressure in mm Hg
ea Actual vapour pressure in mm Hg
V Wind velocity at the water surface in km/h
Pa Mean barometric pressure in mm Hg
Ta Average air temperature in °C
Tw Average water temperature in °C
The formulae are as follows:
1. Fitzgeraldf ormula
E (0.4 0.124 V )( es ea)
where, E is evaporation in mm/day.

2. Rohwer’sf ormula
E 0.771 (1.465 0.000732 Pa) (0.44 0.07334 V )( es ea)

3. Meyer’sf ormula
E C( es ea) (1 0.06215 V10 )
where, E is evaporation in mm/month

C a constant having a value of 11 for deep water bodies and 15 for shallow water bodies.
V10 Velocity at 10 m above water surface in km/h
4. Lake Mead formula
E 0.0331 V( es ea) [1 0.03 (Ta Tw)]
Example 3.12
For a reservoir the following observations were taken:
1. Saturation vapour pressure of air 30 mm Hg
2. Relative humidity 0.5
3. Velocity of wind at the rate of 0.5 m above ground 25 km/h
4. Water spread of reservoir 10 km2
5. Atmospheric pressure 10.4 m of water
6. Average air temperature 29 °C
7. Average water temperature 27 °C
Evaluate monthly evaporation by using different formulae.
Solution:
The monthly evaporation rate was calculated by four empirical formulae.
1. Fitzgerald’ s equation
E (0.4 0.124 V )( es – ea)
Actual vapour pressure of air
__________________________
Relative humidity
Structure vapour pressure of air
ea ___
ea
0.5 __
es 30 since es 30 mm Hg
Therefore, ea 15 mm Hg
Assuming average velocity of wind
V Velocity of wind at the rate of 0.5 m above ground
E (0.4 0.124 V )( es ea)
(0.4 0.124 25) (30 – 15)
(0.4 3.1) (15)
E 52.5 mm/day
Therefore, monthly evaporation loss E 30 water spread of reservoir
52.5
_____
1000 30 10 10
6
15.75 106m 3 15.75 million m3

2. Meyer’se quation
E C(es – ea)(1 0.0621 V10)
where, E Evaporation in mm per month
V Velocity at 10 m above ground
C 15
Velocity at the rate of 10 m above ground V10
Velocity at the rate of 0.5 above ground V0 5 25 km/h
V10
Therefore, ___ ( )10 0 15
___
V0 5 0.5
( ) 10 0 15
V10 V0 5 ___
0.5
V10 V0 5 1.567
V10 25 1.567
V10 39.18 km/h
E C(es – ea) (1 0.0621 V10)
15 (30 – 15) (1 0.0 621 39.18)
15 15 3.433
772.42 mm/month
Therefore, monthly evaporation loss E water spread of reservoir
772.42
______
1000 10 10
6
7.724 106m 3 7.724 million m3

3. Lake Mead equation

E 0.0331 V( es – ea) [1 – 0.03 (Ta – Tw)]
where, Ta Average air temperature 29 °C
Tw Average water temperature 27 °C
E 0.0331 25 (30 – 15) [1 – 0.03 (29 – 27)]
E 11.66 mm/day
Therefore, monthly evaporation loss E 30 water spread of reservoir
11.66
_____
1000 30 10 10
6
3.498 106m 3 3.498m illionm 3

4. Rower’se quation
E 0.771 (1.465 0.000732 Pa) (0.44 0.07334 V ) (es ea)
where, Pa Pressure in mm Hg
10.33
Pa _____
13.6 1000 764.70 mm Hg
E 0.771 (1.465 0.000732 764.70) (0.44 0.07334 25) (30 15)
0.771 (1.465 0.559) (0.44 1.833) 15
23.81 mm/day
23.81
Therefore, monthly evaporation loss _____
1000 30 10 10
6
7.14 106 m3
7.14 million m3
g 3.5 CONTROL OF EVAPORATION FROM A RESERVOIR
Evaporation from a reservoir can be reduced by as much as 30%. The different methods to control
evaporation from a reservoir are as follows.
3.5.1 SURFACE AREA REDUCTION

Evaporation depends mostly on the exposed surface area. If by any means the surface area exposed
is reduced, the evaporation from a reservoir can be reduced.
This can be achieved by the following ways:
• Reducing the meandering length of the streams
• Selecting the dam site such that the ratio of surface area to storage is the minimum
• Storing water underground
This method has a limited scope, but evaporation can be controlled by this method.
3.5.2 MECHANICAL COVERS

If a reservoir is covered, completely or even partially, the movement of water vapour can be con-
trolled and thus evaporation will reduce.
This is a very costly method and can be practised for small reservoirs only.
3.5.3 WIND SHIELDS

Wind velocity near the water surface affects the evaporation. Less the velocity, less will be the
evaporation. The wind velocity near the water surface can be reduced by providing obstruction to
wind. This obstruction can be achieved by providing plants and bushes all around the reservoir.
However, the exact effect due to this method cannot be estimated.
This method can be adopted for small lakes and reservoirs only.
3.5.4 SURFACE FILMS

Reduction in evaporation from a reservoir is achieved by spreading a film over the water surface.
This can be done by means of some chemicals. This film will retard the movement of water mol-
ecules from the water surface to the air above.
This film is one-molecule thick and hence is termed as monomolecular film (one millionth of a
millimetre). The reduction in evaporation due to such films is observed to be 40–70% in the labora-
tory and 25% in the lakes and the reservoirs.
The chemical to be used should have the following properties:
• It should prevent movement of water molecules into the atmosphere.
• It should allow movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• It should not get disturbed due to wind or rain.
• It should not be harmful to plants and animals.
• It should be cheap and available in the required quantity.
3.5.4.1 Chemicals normally used

Cetyl alcohol (C16H33OH) known as hexadecanol or stearyl alcohol (C18H37OH) known as octa-
decanol are the chemicals normally used. These are available in powder form and a solution is
prepared by using turpentine, petrol, kerosene, or so.
3.5.4.2 Application of chemicals

The chemical can be applied by one of the following methods:
• Hand spreading from the banks
• Spraying from a boat
• Aerial application using aeroplanes
• By automatic dispensing units mounted on well-spaced anchored barges
3.5.5 FLOATING COVERS

Evaporation from a reservoir can be controlled by providing floating covers over the water surface.
This retards the movement of water molecules from the water surface to the air above.
These floating covers may be any of the following:
• Wooden planks or sheets
• Plasticb alls
• Polyethylenes heets
This method is very costly. However, it has definitely some positive result.
This method can be adopted for very small lakes and reservoirs.
g 3.6 TRANSPIRATION
Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots. Mineral salts are also absorbed in dilute solu-
tion using water as its vehicle. This solution is transported through roots and stems to the leaves
where plant food is produced from this sap, CO2 from atmosphere and using energy from the Sun
through chlorophyll. The plant food thus produced is again distributed using water as a vehicle for
the cell growth and tissue building.
Most of the water thus absorbed by the plants is discharged back into the atmosphere in the form
of vapour. This process is known as transpiration. It is observed that only 1% of water sucked in
by the roots is retained by the plants.
3.6.1 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION

Practically, all the meteorological factors that affect evaporation, influence transpiration also. In
addition, the following factors affect transpiration:
Sunlight: The growth of plants depends on sunlight. About 95% of the transpiration occurs during
the day time.
Moisture available: Transpiration is limited by the rate of moisture that becomes available to the
plants. The plants can extract water between field capacity and the wilting point. If the water
available is less than the wilting point, then the plants may not be able to suck up water from the
soil. Thus, it may affect transpiration.
Stage of plant development: Transpiration depends upon the plant growth. The growth of plant
varies (1) diurnal, (2) seasonal and (3) annual. Also, the growth of the plants is more during its
early stage. Transpiration varies accordingly.
3.6.2 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration can be measured in terms of the depth of water transmitted daily or annually.
A phytometer provides a practical method for measuring transpiration. This is a large vessel
filled with soil in which one or two plants are rooted. The soil surface is sealed to prevent evapora-
tion from the soil. The initial weight of the container along with the soil and the plants is recorded.
The transpiration loss can be worked out by observing the weight of the container over a known
period. A small phytometer containing water only is known as potometer.
3.6.3 TRANSPIRATION REDUCTION

Water conservation can be achieved to some extent through transpiration reduction. The following
are the different methods to conserve water:
• Use of chemicals to inhibit water consumption (similar to mono molecular films in the case of
evaporation)
• Harvesting of plants
• Improved irrigation methods
• Removing unwanted, unproductive and useless trees, bushes and grasses
Transpiration ratio (TR) is the ratio of the total weight of water transpired by a plant during its
complete development to the weight of the dry matter produced. It is dimensionless.
The TR for rice is between 300 and 600 and that for wheat is between 600 and 800.
3.6.4 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
In studying water balance from an area, it is difficult to separate evaporation and transpiration and
hence these two processes are combined and treated as a single and termed as evapotranspiration.
3.6.4.1 Potential Evapotranspiration

When adequate quantity of water is available for evaporation and transpiration, the combined process
is known as potential evapotranspiration. It is normally known as PET. Actual evapotranspiration,
normally denoted by AET is, therefore, always less than potential evapotranspiration (AET
PET).
3.6.4.2 Measurement of Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration can be measured by the following methods:
• Lysimeter
• Inflow–outflowm easurements
Lysimeter: It consists of a circular tank, its diameter ranging from 600 mm to 3000 mm. It is
buried in the ground so that its top is flush with the ground. It is filled with the soil similar to the
field conditions, and the crop or the tree of which AET is to be found is grown in the lysimeter. A
typical lysimeter is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Water is added to the lysimeter and an account of water added, etc. is kept. Then AET is calcu-
lated as follows:
P W O AET S
where, P Precipitation during the period of observations
W Waters upplied
O Waterdr ained
AET Actuale vapotranspiration
S Change in soil moisture in lysimeter
Lysimeters are expensive and the process of observation is time-consuming.
1.5 to 2 m
A
AREA = A = 1 m 2
Fig. 3.8 Lysimeter

Inflow–outflow measurements: This method is applicable to large areas, such as up to 100 ha.
An account of the inflow of water is maintained for a specific period. The inflow may be precipita-
tion or surface inflow or even groundwater inflow. During the same period, an account of outflow
is maintained. The outflow may be the surface outflow or the groundwater outf low. Naturally, the
difference between these two will be the loss due to evapotranspiration.
If the observation period is small, then it is assumed that the groundwater inflow and outflow
are equal. In this method, it is very difficult to measure inflow, outflow and groundwater storage to
the desired accuracy.
g 3.7 SOIL EVAPORATION
Immediately after the rain stops, evaporation from the soil starts. Evaporation from a saturated
soil surface is approximately the same as that from a water surface at that temperature. As the soil
begins to dry, the evaporation goes on reducing. Finally it virtually stops as there is no supply of
water. If the groundwater table is within 1.0 m from the ground, evaporation from soil is noticed
since there is some supply of water.
Evaporation opportunity is defined as ‘the ratio of evaporation from soil and evaporation from
equivalent water surface’. It is dimensionless and is generally expressed in terms of percentage.
Thus,
Evaporation from soil
Evaporation opportunity ___________________________________ 100
Evaporation from equivalent water surface
Evaporation from soil is measured by using a lysimeter of size 1 m 1 m 1 m. The soil
is filled flush with the tank edge and the groundwater table is maintained at a specific level. The
evaporation from the soil can be determined by weighing the tank at known intervals and from the
quantity of water added to maintain the groundwater table.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define evaporation. Explain the process of evaporation.
2. Explain Dalton’s law of evaporation.
3. Discuss the factors that affect evaporation.
4. How is evaporation from a reservoir estimated?
5. Explain the water budget method of estimation of evaporation from a reservoir.
6. Explain the energy budget method of estimation of evaporation from a reservoir.
7. Explain the mass transfer method of estimation of evaporation from a reservoir.
8. What is an atmometer? Discuss the ones normally used.
9. What is a pan? How are observations taken on a pan?
10. What is a pan coefficient? Discuss the factors that affect pan coefficient.
11. Explain land pan with the help of a neat sketch.
12. Explain sunken pan with the help of a neat sketch.
13. Explain floating pan with the help of a neat sketch.
14. Discuss the merits and demerits of the different types of pans.
15. Discuss the various parameters involved in the different formulae used to estimate evapora-
tion from a reservoir.
16. State and explain the different formulae normally used to estimate evaporation from a reservoir.
17. Can evaporation from a reservoir be reduced? Explain the different methods.
18. Write a detailed note on the use of surface films to reduce evaporation from a reservoir.
19. Explain the process of transpiration. Discuss the different methods to reduce transpiration.
20. Discuss the different methods to measure transpiration.
21. What is evapotranspiration? Explain the different methods to estimate it from a catchment.
22. Discusss oile vaporation.
23. Write a note on the pattern of evaporation over India.
a. Potentiale vapotranspiration. b. Factorsa ffectingt ranspiration.
c. Livingstonea tmometer. d. Pitcha tmometer.
e. Transpirationr atio. f. Phytometer.
g. Potometer. h. Lysimeter.
i. Panc oefficient. j. Factorsa ffectingt ranspiration.
k. Annuale vaporationi nI ndia. l. Atmometer.
m. Evaporationoppor tunity.
a. Evaporation,s ublimation b. Phytometera ndpot ometer.
and transpiration.
c. Land pan, sunken pan d. Evapotranspiration and potential
and floating pan. evapotranspiration.
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1. The uniform precipitation over a catchment area covering 80 km2 received a total precipitation
of 80 mm in a month. 60% of the precipitation reached the reservoir. The spread of reservoir
during that month was 2.5 km2. The irrigation canal discharges at a constant rate of 1.1 m3/s. If
the seepage losses were 60% of the evaporation losses, find the daily rate of evaporation.
Ans: 8.24 mm/h/m2
2. In the case of a reservoir, the surface area in m2 is given by A 90 y2, y is the average depth of
water in the reservoir in metres. In a week, the depth of water reduced from 9.0 m to 8.5 m. If
the evaporation loss is double the seepage loss, find the rate of hourly evaporation loss.
Ans: 2 mm/h/m2
3. The bed width of a trapezoidal channel is 5.0 m and the side slopes are 1:1. It carries water
at a depth of 1.8 m. The rate of evaporation observed on a 1.5-m diameter floating pan was
0.25 mm/h/m2. Find the loss of evaporation in a day from the canal in a length of 5 km. Assume
the pan coefficient to be 0.8.
Ans: 0.0206 ha m
4. During a test, the drop in water level in the case of a land pan of diameter 1.0 m in 24 h was
observed to be 15 mm. The precipitation recorded during this period was 10 mm. Find the rate
of evaporation from the pan.
Ans: 1.32 mm/h/m2
5. A test was conducted on a 0.5-diameter sunken pan. The quantity of water added to maintain the
water level constant over a period of 10 h was 950 cc. Find the rate of evaporation.
Ans: 0.5 mm/h/m2
6. The following observations were taken on a 1.0-m diameter land pan from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.
(i) Precipitation during the observation period 15 mm
(ii) Leakage from the pan 1.5 l
(iii) Quantity of water added to keep the level constant 4.0 l
Find the rate of evaporation.
Ans: 2.02 mm/h/m2
7. The following observations were taken from a reservoir:
(i) Velocity of wind at 0.5 m above ground 24 m/s
(ii) Atmospheric pressure 10.4 m of water
(iii) Average air temperature 30 °C
(iv) Average water temperature 27 °C
(v) Relative humidity 0.5
(vi) Water spread of reservoir 15 km2
(vii) Saturation vapour pressure of air 30 mm Hg
Find the monthly evaporation using empirical formulae.
Ans: (i) 22.50 106m 3
(ii) 11.25 106m 3
(iii) 4.87 106m 3
(iv) 10.36 106m 3

1. The pan coefficient is given by
Rate of evaporation from reservoir Rate of evaporation from pan
(a) ____________________________ (b) ____________________________
Rate of evaporation from pan Rate of evaporation from reservoir
(c) Rate of evaporation from reservoir (d) Rate of evaporation from reservoir
Rate of evaporation from pan Rate of evaporation from pan
2. The dissolved salts in water
(a) Reduce the rate of evaporation (b) Increase the rate of evaporation
(c) Have no effect on the rate of (d) Double the rate of evaporation
evaporation
3. Lysimeter is an instrument used to measure
(a) Evaporation (b) Transpiration
(c) Evapotranspiration (d) Sublimation
4. The unit of evaporation is
(a) mm/h (b) mm/m2/h
(c) mm/m/h (d) mm/m3
5. The pan coefficient is always

(a) More than 1 (b) Equal to 1
(c) Less than 1 (d) Less than 0.5
6. Dalton’s law of evaporation is given by

(a) E C( ea es) (b) E C( es ea)
ea es
(c) E C __
es (d) E C __
ea
7. Transpiration ratio is given by
Weight of dry matter produced
__________________________ Weight of water transpired
_________________________
(a) (b)
Weight of water transpired Weight of dry matter produced
(c) Weight of dry matter produced (d) Weight of dry matter produced
Weight of water transpired Weight of water transpired
8. Transpiration is confined to
(a) Dayt imehour s (b) Nighthour s
(c) All the day (d) Any of the three
9. The reduction of evaporation by using monomolecular surface is approximately

(a) 2% (b) 10%
(c) 25%. (d) 50%
10. Out of the water sucked by the roots, the percentage retained by plants is
(a) 1 (b) 5
(c) 10 (d) 15
11. The transpiration ratio for rice is between

(a) 50 to 300 (b) 300 to 600
(c) 600 to 900 (d) 900 to 1200
12. PETm eans

(a) Practicale vapotranspiration (b) Progressive evapotranspiration
(c) Perfecte vapotranspiration (d) Potentiale vapotranspiration
13. AEPm eans

(a) Additionale vapotranspiration (b) Accumulatede vapotranspiration
(c) Actuale vapotranspiration (d) Allowablee vapotranspiration
14. Evapotranspirationm eans

(a) Evaporation t ranspiration (b) Evaporation t ranspiration
(c) Evaporation t ranspiration (d) Evaporation transpiration
15. Evaporationi sa
(a) Coolingpr ocess (b) Heating process
(c) Combined process (d) None of the three
16. Annual evaporation loss from a reservoir is about

(a) 5% (b) 10%
(c) 30% (d) 60%
17. From a reservoir evaporation loss can be evaluated from
(a) Landpa n (b) Floatingpa n
(c) Sunken pan (d) Any of the three
18. The chemical notation of cetyl alcohol is
(a) C16H32OH (b) C10H20OH
(c) C20H40OH (d) C16H33OH
19. The chemical symbol for stearyl alcohol is
(a) C18H38OH (b) C18H40OH
(c) C18H37OH (d) C19H38OH
20. The thickness of a monomolecular film is
(a) One tenth of a millimetre (b) One hundredth of a millimetre
(c) One thousandth of a millimetre (d) One millionth of a millimetre
21. In the case of a crop TR means
(a) Truer atio (b) Transitr atio
(c) Transpirationr atio (d) Technical ratio
22. The dimensions of evaporation opportunity are
(a) mm/m2/h (b) Dimensionless
(c) mm/h (d) mm/m2

1. a 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. b 7. b 8. a
9. c 10. a 11. b 12. d 13. c 14. b 15. a 16. c
17. d 18. d 19. c 20. d 21. c 22. b
*** ***
Precipitation
4
Chapter Outline
4.1 Definition 4.8 Consistency verification of rain

4.2 Different forms of precipitation gauge
4.3 Process of precipitation 4.9 Average depth of precipitation
4.4 Factors affecting precipitation 4.10 Rain gauge density
4.5 Types of precipitation 4.11 Probable maximum precipitation
4.6 Measurement of precipitation 4.12 Intensity duration analysis
4.7 Supplementing rainfall data 4.13 Precipitation over India
g 4.1 DEFINITION
All water flowing or stored on the land surface or subsurface is derived directly or indirectly from
precipitation, i.e. rainfall including snowfall. It is one of the important basic processes in the hydro-
logical cycle.
Precipitation is the general term for all the moisture emanating from the clouds and falling
on the ground. Precipitation data are of utmost importance to hydrologists as they form the basis
of all hydrological studies. Variation of rainfall distribution over time and space creates extreme
problems like droughts and floods. Study of precipitation, therefore, requires great attention.
g 4.2 DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
The different forms of precipitation are as follows:

• Drizzle: It consists of water drops less than 0.5 mm in diameter and intensity less than 1 mm/h.
• Rain: It consists of water drops of 0.5 mm and above.
• Cloudburst: It is rainfall, which is exceptionally of very high intensity.
• Hail: It is precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice with diameter from 0.5 mm up to 5.0 cm.
• Snow: It is precipitation in the form of ice crystals or thin flakes of ice resulting directly from the
water vapour.
• Sleet: It is a mixture of ice and rain.
• Dew: It forms on the ground directly by condensation during the night when the surface has been
cooled due to outgoing radiation.
• Glaze: It is the ice coating when drizzle or rain freezes as it comes in contact with cold objects at
the ground.
• Fog: It is a low-level cloud that touches the ground.
• Smog: It is a mixture of smoke and fog.
Precipitation of high intensity occurring over a substantial time covering a large area is nor-
mally termed as a storm.
4.2.1 TERMINAL VELOCITY OF A RAINDROP

As a raindrop starts falling under gravity, the velocity is low. The air resistance is a function of
velocity. As the raindrop starts falling under gravity, the velocity of fall of the raindrop goes on
increasing so also the air resistance. A stage is reached when the air resistance and the weight of
the raindrop are equal and opposite. When this stage is reached, the raindrop starts falling with a
constant velocity.
This constant velocity is called the terminal velocity of the raindrop and is a function of the diameter
of the raindrop. The terminal velocity for different diameters of the raindrop is given in Table 4.1.
When the raindrop diameter is more than 5.5 mm, because of the resistance offered by air
during its fall, it deforms and splits. The air resistance of a falling body depends on the area
exposed to air. The volume contained by the surface area per unit weight is maximum in case of
a sphere. Hence to have minimum resistance, it is nature’s tendency to have a spherical shape
for a raindrop.
Table 4.1 The terminal velocity for different diameters of raindrops

Diameter of Terminal
Serial no. raindrop (mm) velocity (m/s)
1 1.0 4.4
2 2.0 5.9
3 3.0 7.0
4 4.0 7.7
5 5.0 7.9
6 5.5 8.0
PRECIPITATION 53
g 4.3 PROCESS OF PRECIPITATION
Four conditions are necessary for the formation of precipitation. These are:
1. Mechanism to cool the air
2. Mechanism to produce condensation
3. Mechanism to produce growth of droplets
4. Mechanism to produce accumulation of moisture of sufficient quantity
4.3.1 MECHANISM TO COOL THE AIR

Water vapour is the most essential for the formation of precipitation. Generally, it is available in
the atmosphere.
Air near the ground surface and the oceans carries a lot of moisture. When this air is heated,
it becomes lighter and rises up in the atmosphere along with the water vapour and, naturally, as it
rises it gets cooled.
Cooling of water vapour is necessary so that the vapour gets saturated and helps in condensation.
4.3.2 MECHANISM TO PRODUCE CONDENSATION

When the air gets cooled it condenses. Condensation of the water vapour in the high atmosphere
takes place on a hygroscopic nucleus.
Hygroscopic nuclei may be defined as very small particles that have an affinity for water. These
are very small particles of dust of the size 103 to 10 micron (1 micron 103 mm). Sodium
chloride, sulphur trioxide and cement particles have affinity for water. These hygroscopic nuclei
are available in atmosphere in abundance. The condensation may take place even before the air is
saturated with vapour.
Condensation depends on the curvature of the nucleus. When, due to condensation, the raindrop
size increases, the curvature is reduced and thus the affinity to attract water vapour also reduces. When
the raindrop size equals to 103 mm, the effect of curvature and hygroscopicity becomes negligible.
4.3.3 MECHANISM OF DROPLET GROWTH

Clouds can be considered as colloidal or in suspension. A tendency of the droplet thus formed to
remain small and not to fall on the earth is termed as colloidal stability. On the other hand, if these
droplets tend to combine to form bigger size droplets sufficient to overcome the air resistance to
fall on the earth then it is termed as colloidal instability.
Therefore, for precipitation colloidal instability is necessary. The small droplets, of size less
than 103 mm formed due to condensation coalesce (combine to form a bigger one), which is due
to the following two reasons:
1. Gravitational coalescence process The small droplets formed due to condensation are in
suspension and move in a haphazard manner in any direction. The speed of movement of differ-
ent particles is different and thus the particles collide with each other. During this collision, the
larger particles grow at the cost of the smaller ones. When the size of the droplet is sufficient to
overcome the air resistance, it falls down.
This process is more predominant in tropical countries where the cloud temperature is well
above 0 oC.
2. Ice crystal theory In the high atmosphere where condensation takes place, the temperature
is 0 oC or even lower. The droplets thus formed are in the form of ice crystals or even water
droplets. There is a difference in saturation pressure over the ice crystals and the water droplets.
Thus evaporation of water droplets and condensation over the ice crystals occurs.
This process is comparatively slow and occurs in very cool (super cooled) clouds, i.e. having
temperatures lower than 0 oC.
4.3.4 MECHANISM TO PRODUCE ACCUMULATION OF MOISTURE

If a vertical column of atmosphere from land or from sea is considered, the amount of water vapour
remains the same or slightly more than during and after rains. Thus to have rains there should be
continuous inflow of water vapour into the vertical column from the sides. This flow is known as
convergence and is observed during precipitation.
g 4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PRECIPITATION
The factors affecting precipitation at a specific location are as follows:

• Height of the station
• Presence of mountains and their relative position
• Nearness of large lakes or oceans
• Forestation or urbanization
• Prevalent wind direction
• Sunspots
4.4.1 HEIGHT OF STATION

Normally temperature decreases with the altitude, and hence the moisture holding capacity of the
air decreases. So also, the temperature reduces with the altitude and less moisture is available for
precipitation. Thus, generally, higher the altitude lesser will be the precipitation. There are some
exceptions to this tendency, but these exceptions have special conditions associated with them.
4.4.2 PRESENCE OF MOUNTAINS AND THEIR RELATIVE POSITION

Mountains having their ridges across the direction of the flow of wind cause lifting of air. As the air
containing moisture is lifted up, the temperature reduces and causes precipitation on the windward
side. This is the case of orographic precipitation.
Of course, precipitation reduces on the leeward side of the mountains.
If the mountain range is oriented parallel to the movement of air, it does not affect the precipitation.
4.4.3 NEARNESS OF THE OCEANS AND SEAS

A place near a large water body will have a higher relative humidity because of continuous supply of
water vapour. If other favourable conditions exist, then it will ensure higher precipitation. So also, as
the air moves towards land, precipitation will occur due to vertical movement of moisture and due to
cooling. Normally coastal areas receive higher precipitation as compared to the interior ones.
PRECIPITATION 55
4.4.4 FORESTATION AND URBANIZATION

In the forest area, transpiration is more and the temperature is less. Thus, due to the foresta-
tion, precipitation tends to increase. Higher precipitation helps in an increase in forestation.
The African and Amazon forests are good examples. The heat from the urban area is more and
naturally the vapour-holding capacity of the air increases.
Precipitation due to urbanization, therefore, reduces.
4.4.5 PREVALENT WIND DIRECTION

Areas that receive winds from equatorial or warm oceans receive higher precipitation. Winds
travelling from the cold areas receive little precipitation. The coasts near the equator facing
east or west are rich in precipitation, whereas coasts facing north or south poles receive less
precipitation.
The precipitation over India is named according to the direction from which the wind is blowing.
4.4.6 SUNSPOTS
There are spots on the Sun and scientists have observed that these sunspots have a cycle of variation
of 11 years, i.e. the nature of the sunspots are repeated after every 11 years. Some scientists believe
that there is a correlation between the hydrological cycle and the sunspots cycle, but have failed to
prove any exact correlation.
4.4.7 PRECIPITATION CYCLE

It was formerly assumed that the precipitation cycle in India repeats after 35 years. However, after
scanning the observed data, it is now noticed that no such cycle of precipitation after 35 years is
prevalent.
g 4.5 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
The different types of precipitation are as follows:

• Cyclonicpr ecipitation
• Convectivepr ecipitation
• Orographicpr ecipitation
In nature, the effect of these types is interrelated and hence precipitation of any specific type
cannot be exactly identified.
4.5.1 CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION

Very often, low-pressure belts are developed as a result of thermal variations in some regions,
and hence air from the surrounding area flows towards these low-pressure belts. The air rushing
from the surroundings changes into a whirling mass because of the rotary motion of the earth.
The movement of such whirling air results in cyclone formation. Some features of a cyclone are
mentioned below:
• A cyclone may be defined as a whirling mass of air at the centre of which the barometric pres-
sure is low.
• It is also known as hurricane, blizzard, typhoon and tornado according to the whirling speeds. An
anticline similarly whirls round a high-pressure centre.
• A cyclone comprises of a very large mass of air spread over an area from 10 km2 to as high as
1500 km2 moving with a velocity of 100 km/h or even more.
• The whirling air mass carries water vapour with it. The central portion of the cyclone acts as a
chimney through which the air gets lifted, expanded and cooled, and the water vapour gets con-
densedc ausingpr ecipitation.
Thus, precipitation caused due to a cyclone is known as cyclonic precipitation and may result
into a drizzle or into heavy precipitation covering a large area.
4.5.2 CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION

On a hot day, the ground surface is heated unequally and so is the air near the ground surface. This
causes air that is heated more to rise in atmosphere, to cool and then to condense resulting into
precipitation. Such type of precipitation is called convective precipitation and normally covers a
small area for a short duration but has a high intensity.
4.5.3 OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION

When the winds carrying sufficient water vapour are obstructed by a range of hills or mountains,
they are mechanically lifted up. During this lifting, the air is cooled and condensation takes place.
This results in heavy precipitation on the windward side and the precipitation on the leeward side
reduces substantially.
The precipitation caused due to the obstruction by mountains is called orographic precipitation.
In India, precipitation is mostly due to this type.
Figure 4.1 shows a specific case of orographic precipitation.
Fig. 4.1 Orographic precipitation

PRECIPITATION 57
4.5.4 ARTIFICIAL PRECIPITATION

Precipitation can also be achieved artificially. Many times it happens that there is sufficient
water vapour in the atmosphere and all other conditions are also favourable for precipitation,
but there may be a deficiency of the hygroscopic nuclei, which are essential for the formation of
raindrops.
A nucleus is essential for the formation of a raindrop. Artificial precipitation can be produced by
providing the required hygroscopic nuclei. The hygroscopic nuclei for such artificial precipitation
used so far are:
• Dry ice (solid CO2)
• Silveri odide
• Sodiumc hloride
• Portlandc ement
This process of artificial formation of clouds is also known as cloud seeding. Cloud seeding is
accomplished by the following methods:
• Emitting the hygroscopic nuclei with the help of special guns or through high-level chimneys
• Using aeroplanes for spreading the nuclei
• Using rockets by using suitable delivery systems (these nuclei are taken to the desired height
followed by explosions)
Artificial rain-inducing system is not much prevalent because it has the following three major
disadvantages.
1. It is a very costly process.
2. It may affect rainfall in the adjoining area.
3. The success rate is not very high.
g 4.6 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
The instrument used to measure rainfall is known as rain gauge. All forms of precipitation
are measured on the basis of the vertical depth of water that would accumulate on a plain
surface, if the precipitation remains where it falls. It is measured in millimetres or tenths of
millimetres.
In olden days, a rain gauge was known as hyetometer, ombrometer or pluviometer.
4.6.1 HISTORY OF PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT

The earliest systematic hydrological measurements ever made were probably those of precipitation.
There is evidence that precipitation was measured as far back as 400 BC. However, precipitation
measurements done by Mr Townley in 1671 are available even now.
The measurement of precipitation is never subjected to check either by repetition or by duplica-
tion and hence care should be taken during its measurement. So also, rainfall measurement forms
the basic data on which all the designs are based and hence utmost accuracy has to be observed
during its measurement. The precipitation per unit time is the intensity of precipitation.
It is measured as mm/h or cm/day.
4.6.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTING SITE FOR A RAIN GAUGE

The following considerations should be followed while installing a rain gauge:
• The site should be an open-level ground.
• Clear distance between the obstruction and the rain gauge should be at least twice the height of
the obstruction. In no case, it should be nearer to the rain gauge than 30 m.
• The site should be representative of the area.
• Roof installation and windward slopes should be avoided.
• The serious factor that affects the rainfall measurement is wind velocity, its vertical as well as
horizontal components. Obstruction to either should be avoided.
• The rain gauge should be installed upright in a vertical mode.
A gauge inclined at 10° with vertical will catch 1.5% less rainfall as compared to that in a verti-
cal direction. Some engineers consider that the rain gauge should be kept perpendicular to ground
and the rainfall thus calculated may be multiplied by the cosine of the angle of inclination of the
ground surface. However, this is not practicable and hence avoided.
The best site would be a level ground with trees and bushes all around, which serve as wind-
break. However, care should be taken that these trees and bushes do not affect the catch of the rain
gauge and the distance between the two is more than twice their height.
4.6.3 HYETOGRAPH
A bar chart of time versus precipitation is known as hyetograph. The ordinate graph presents the
rainfall in a year drawn to some scale at the corresponding year.
Specific and ordinate graphs are shown in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3, respectively.
200
160
120
80
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 4.2 Mass curve and hyetograph of precipitation

PRECIPITATION 59
Fig. 4.3 Ordinate graph of precipitation
4.6.4 MASS CURVE OF PRECIPITATION

A mass curve of precipitation is a cumulative plot of the accumulated precipitation.
A mass curve is shown in Fig. 4.2.
The slope of the mass curve is the intensity of rainfall at that time. When there is no rainfall, the
mass curve is horizontal.
Example 4.1
The hourly precipitation data during a storm are as follows:
Ti e (h)
m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Precipitation (mm) 0 30 25 50 5 0 10 15 25 20 0
Plot 1.H yetograph

2. Massc urve
Solution:
The mass curve coordinates will be as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Precipitation (mm) 0 30 55 105 110 110 120 135 160 180 180 180 180
The hyetograph and the mass curve are shown in Fig. 4.2.
4.6.5. TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES

The different types of rain gauges are as follows:
• Non-recording rain gauge
• Recording or automatic rain gauge
• Radar
The rainfall observed at a station by a rain gauge is known as point rainfall or station rainfall. The
rainfall observed by the non-recording or recording rain gauges is point rainfall and hence these
gauges are known as point precipitation gauges. The third one, i.e. by the radar, gives an instanta-
neous picture of the rainfall over an area and not the point precipitation.
4.6.5.1 Non-recording rain gauge

The standard Symons’s rain gauge is shown in Fig. 4.4.
The gauge consists of a funnel with sharp edges and the rainfall is collected in the cylinder, which
has a narrow neck and splayed base, resting on the ground. The volume of the water collected in spe-
cific time divided by the area of the funnel, gives the depth of the rainfall during this period.
In order to avoid this division, the cylinder is calibrated and rainfall can be measured immedi-
ately. The various dimensions of the rain gauge are shown in Fig. 4.4. Normally, the observations
are taken at 8:30 a.m. every day, which indicates the rainfall during the 24 h of the previous day.
Sharp edged
rim
125 mm
Funnel
Receiver
300 mm
Body
100 mm 50 mm
600 mm
600 mm
Fig. 4.4 Non-recording rain gauge
Disadvantages in the non-recording rain gauge

The disadvantages in the non-recording rain gauge are as follows:
• It records the precipitation only during the observation period and not the intensity of precipitation.
• If the rainfall is heavy, the cylindrical collecting bottle may overflow and thus may not record the
entire quantum of precipitation.
4.6.5.2 Automatic rain gauges

In this case the rainfall is recorded automatically using different mechanisms. The different types
of automatic rain gauges are as follows:
PRECIPITATION 61
• Siphon bucket-type rain gauge

• Tipping bucket-type rain gauge
• Weighing bucket-type rain gauge
All these automatic rain gauges record not only the rainfall but also its intensity.
Siphon bucket-type rain gauge

The rainfall is collected in a float chamber through a funnel. The funnel has a sharp rim. The float
chamber contains a light float that rises in the chamber as rainfall is collected in the chamber.
Thus, the level of the float is indirectly a measure of the rainfall.
The vertical movement of the float is recorded by a mechanism on a paper chart fixed on a
drum, by a pen. This pen rests on the chart. This chart is kept rotating at a uniform speed on the
drum by a spring wound mechanism. The drum makes one rotation a day.
Thus, the chart records time on the x-axis and rainfall on the y-axis.
There is a small compartment by the side of the float chamber. This is connected by a small
opening at the bottom. This is known as the siphon chamber. A small vertical pipe is used that
works as a siphon. This siphon is used to empty the chamber to avoid the increase in size of the float
chamber. As the level of water in the float chamber reaches a specific level, the siphon starts work-
ing and water in the float chamber is drained. The float moves down to its lowest position. Along
with the float, the pen moves down and draws a vertical line on the chart. As the rain water is again
collected in the float chamber due to rainfall, the float moves and with it the pen too.
Normally, the paper on the drum is replaced everyday at 8:30 a.m. Figure 4.5 shows the details of
a siphon bucket-type rain gauge and the rainfall chart. The chart is the mass curve of precipitation.
Receiver
Funnel
Pen Clock driven

Filter drum with chart
Cover
Float chamber
Syphon Float
chamber
Pres p tat on n mm
10
8
6
4
2
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2 4 6 8
Time in hours
Fig. 4.5 Siphon bucket-type rain gauge

The vertical line indicates that the siphon has worked and a horizontal line indicates no precipi-
tation. The slope of the chart indicates the intensity of rainfall.
The siphoning action requires 15 seconds and record of rainfall during this period is lost. So also the
rainfall record may be lost during the time taken in changing the paper, if there is rainfall during that time.
Example 4.2
The chart fixed to an automatic float-type rain gauge is shown in Fig 4.5
Find 1. Hourlypr ecipitation
2. Dailypr ecipitation
3. Time when the siphon was operated
4. Period of no precipitation
5. Maximum intensity of precipitation
Solution:
1. The hourly precipitation as read from the chart will be as follows:
Time 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Cumulative ppt (mm) 0 0.25 0.5 1 2.5 4 4 4 4.9 6 7.4 8.5
Precipitation (mm) 0 0.25 0.25 0.5 1.5 1.5 0 0 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.1
Time 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Cumulative ppt (mm) 10 0.5 1 1.8 2.8 4.2 6 6 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Precipitation (mm) 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 1 1.4 1.8 0 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2. Total daily precipitation: 10.0 8.0 18.0 mm

3. Time when siphon operated: 20 h, i.e. 8 p.m.
4. Time of no precipitation: 13–14
14–15
2–3
3–4
Total 4 h
5. Maximum intensity: 1.8 mm/h from 1 to 2 h
Tipping bucket-type rain gauge

The details of a tipping bucket-type rain gauge are shown in Fig. 4.6.
In this type, the rainwater received through the funnel is collected alternately in twin buck-
ets. When one bucket receives water and the water level reaches a specific level, it tips along
a pivot and discharges into a measuring jar. As the bucket tips, the other twin bucket receives
the rainwater. Both the buckets receive the rainwater alternately and discharge into the same
measuring bucket.
The funnel diameter, the bucket size and shape are so designed that the bucket may tip after it
has received a rainfall of 25 mm. The tipping of the bucket is recorded by an electric circuit or by
some mechanism on a drum. The measuring jar is calibrated to give the depth of rainfall.
This rain gauge gives the total precipitation during the specific period. The intensity of rainfall
can be worked out from the time required to tip the bucket as well as the number of tippings of each
PRECIPITATION 63
30 cm Receiver
Funnel
Bucket collecting water

Stopper
Stopper
Casing
Stand
Measuring jar
Fig. 4.6 Tipping bucket-type rain gauge
bucket. However, for low intensity of rainfall, the results may not be very accurate since no-rainfall
period is not recorded in this rain gauge.
Weighing bucket-type rain gauge

The details of a weighing bucket-type rain gauge are shown in Fig. 4.7.
The rainfall is collected through a funnel into a bucket resting on a platform. The weight of
water thus collected is transformed through a mechanism to a pen, which makes a trace on a paper
Receiver
Funnel
Case
Bucket
Platform
Spring
Pen arm Weighing

mechanism
Clock driven drum

with a chart
Fig. 4.7 Weighing bucket-type rain gauge

Fig. 4.8 Chart of weighing bucket-type rain gauge
fixed on a drum. The drum is driven mechanically by a spring clock and makes one revolution a
day at a uniform speed. Thus, the trace of the pen on the paper records the weight of rainwater and
indirectly the rainfall.
After a certain amount of precipitation, the mechanism reverses the travel of the pen. However,
the movement of the drum remains unaltered. Figure 4.8 shows a typical rainfall chart of a weigh-
ing bucket-type rain gauge.
The horizontal line indicates the no-rainfall period. Reversal of line has to be taken into
account. With this, the total precipitation as well as the intensity of precipitation can be calcu-
lated accurately.
This type of rain gauge can be used for the measurement of snow, rainfall, hail, and so on.
Example 4.3
The chart fixed to an automatic weighing bucket-type rain gauge reads as in Fig. 4.8:
Find 1. Hourlypr ecipitation
2. Dailypr ecipitation
3. Time when the pointer reverted
4. Period of no precipitation
5. Maximum intensity of precipitation
Solution:
1. The hourly precipitation as read from the chart will be as follows:
Time 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Cumulative ppt (mm) 0 0 0 5 18 30 37 40 44 48 56 66
Precipitation (mm) 0 0 0 5 13 12 7 3 4 4 8 10
Time 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Cumulative ppt (mm) 70 72 78 83 84 87 89 96 100 70 65 55 52
PRECIPITATION 65
2. Total daily precipitation: 100 ( 100 52) 148 mm

3. Time when the pointer reverted: 4 h
4. Period of no precipitation: 8–9
9–10
Total 2 h
5. Maximum intensity of precipitation: 30 mm/h from 4 to 5 h
Difference between the record graph papers

The difference between the record graph papers of siphon-type rain gauge and weighing-type rain
gauge is as follows:
1. The pen, in the case of a float-type, records the vertical movement of float and the graph paper
is a squared graph paper. However, in case of weighing-type, the weight of water collected on
the platform is transferred to the pen through a point and hence its movement is along the arc of
a circle with pivot as the centre.
2. In the case of float-type, when the level of water in the collection chamber reaches the specific
limit, the siphon operates and the pen records a vertical line up to the x-axis. On the contrary,
when the weight of water collected on a platform reaches the specific limit, the mechanism
reverts and the graph records precipitation in the negative direction.
4.6.5.3 Radar measurement of rainfall

Radar is an acronym and its full form is RAdio Detection And Ranging. It was originally designed
to detect the location of aircrafts flying in the air.
High frequency electromagnetic waves are radiated in the atmosphere and the reflections of
these waves due to the rainfall (which is known as echo) are recorded on a radarscope.
The intensity of rainfall, its duration and also the coverage can be estimated by scanning the
intensity of radiation of the electromagnetic waves, the echo due to rainfall, the time of travel, and
so on. The range of a radar is about 200 km. This procedure is very costly and requires high-level
instrumentation.
4.6.6 DIFFICULTIES IN THE MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

The difficulties experienced in the measurement of precipitation are as follows:
• The rain gauge itself may cause eddy currents and may affect the catch of the rain gauge.
• There may be some evaporation from the water collected in the rain gauge.
• Some of the precipitation water may be lost in wetting the sides of the funnel or the measuring
flask.
• In some case, the splash into or out of the gauge may modify the true value of rainfall.
4.6.6.1 Rainy days

When the rainfall during a day is 2.5 mm or more the day is known as rainy day.
4.6.6.2 Classification of intensity of rainfall

The rainfall intensity is classified as follows:
1. Up to 2.5 mm/h: Light rain
2. 2.5–7.5 mm/h: Medium rain
3. 7.5 mm/h and above: Heavy rain
4.6.6.3 Average precipitation

The average precipitation, whether it is annual, seasonal or even daily, is taken as the average
of the last 30 years. It is revised after every 10 years by deleting the previous 10-year data and
adding the recent 10-year data.
4.6.6.4 Index of wetness

Index of wetness is the ratio of rainfall in a given year and annual average precipitation. When this
index is less than one, it is called a bad year or a deficient year or a dry year. When it is more than
one, it is called a good year or a surplus year or a wet year. When it is one, it is a normal year.
g 4.7 SUPPLEMENTING RAINFALL DATA
Sometimes there might be breaks or gaps in the rainfall data of some stations. These gaps may be
due to the following reasons:
• Absence of an observer
• Instrumentsf ailure
• Unapproachable circumstances such as flooding or washing out of the approach road, etc., result-
ing in non-recording of the rainfall
The missing rainfall data may be supplemented by the following methods:
• Arithmetic average method
• Normal ratio method
• Weighted average method
4.7.1 ARITHMETIC AVERAGE METHOD

When the data of a rain gauge station, e.g. ‘A’, is missing for a year, consider the adjacent rain
gauge stations—B, C and D. If the rainfall at these adjacent stations B, C and D is within 10% of
the average rainfall of A (less or more), then the simple arithmetic average of these adjacent stations
of the year may be considered as the missing rainfall of A for that year.
__
PA (missing) n1( PB PC PD … Pn)
where, n Number of adjacent rain gauge stations
PB, PC, PD Precipitation at B, C and D for the period for which the data is missing at A
PRECIPITATION 67
Example 4.4
In a catchment area, daily precipitation was observed by 11 rain gauge stations. On 2 August 2005,
the observations indicated that one rain gauge was out of order. The observations taken by the 10
rain gauge stations are as follows:
Station A B C D E F G H I J K
Precipitation (mm) 21 23 19 20 23 24 19 ? 21 22 18
Estimate the missing data at H.
Solution:
Since there is not much variation in the precipitation data, a simple arithmetic average of the
precipitation observed at the 10 remaining stations was taken as under.
21 23 19 20 23 24 19 21 22 18
_____________________________________________
Precipitation at H 10
____
210
10 21 mm
4.7.2 NORMAL RATIO METHOD

If the rainfall of station A is missing for a year and the variation of the adjacent rain gauge stations
B, C and D is more than 10%, then simple principle of linearity is used to evaluate the missing
rainfall of A as follows:
[
NA
__ ___
B
NA
___
PA (missing) n1 N PB N PC N Pn
C
NA
___
n
]
where, NA Average of A excluding the missing period
NB NC Average of B and C excluding the missing period
PB PC Precipitation at B and C during the missing period
n number of adjacent rain gauge stations considered
For this method, a minimum of three adjacent rain gauge stations are considered.
Example 4.5
The average annual precipitation at five rain gauge stations in a catchment is as follows:
Station P Q R S T
Average annual precipitation (mm) 2400 2332 2431 2207 2231
However, the precipitation at station P was not available for the year 1996 because the rain
gauge was out of order. The precipitation observed at the other stations for 1996 was as follows:
Station P Q R S T
Precipitation (mm) ? 2113 2200 2028 2095
Evaluate the precipitation at P during 1996.

Solution:
__
1 _____ _____ _____ _____
(
2400 2400 2400 2400
Precipitation at P (in mm) 4 2332 2113 2431 2200 2207 2028 2231 2095 )
__
1
4 (2174 2172 2205 2253)
2201 mm
4.7.3 WEIGHTED AVERAGE METHOD

The station of which the data is missing, e.g. A, is considered as the origin and the adjacent
rain gauge stations are considered and their distances from A are calculated or measured on
a map.
It is assumed that the rainfall variation between these two stations A and B is inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between them.
Thus,
PB/r21 PC/r22 PD/r32
PA (missing) ___________________
1/r21 1/r22 1/r32
where, r1, r2 and r3 the distances from A of the adjacent stations B, C and D
PB, PCa nd PD the rainfall at the adjacent stations B, C and D for the missing period.
This method is also known as United States National Weather Service (USNWS) method.
Example 4.6
The location coordinates in km of the five rain gauge stations w.r.t. X are as follows:
Station X A B C D
x and y coordinates (km) w.r.t. X 0,0 20,25 40,15 30,20 25,15
The annual precipitation at X for the year 2005 is missing. The annual precipitation at the remain-
ing four stations for 2005 is as follows:
Station A B C D
Precipitation (mm) 2735 2805 2680 2560
Evaluate the missing precipitation at X for the year 2005.
Solution:
The relative positions of the stations A, B, C and D w.r.t. X are shown in Fig. 4.9.
AX √(202 25 2) 32.01 km
BX √(402 15 2) 42.72 km
CX √(302 20 2) 36.05 km
DX √(252 15 2) 29.15 km
PRECIPITATION 69
20 km A
B 40 km
25 km
15 km
15 km
20 km
25 km D
C 30 km
Fig. 4.9 Estimation of missing precipitation data

PA
____ PB
____ PC
____ PD
____
2 2 2
_______________________
AX BX CX DX2
PX ____
1 ____
1 ____
1 ____
1

AX2 BX2 CX2 DX2
______
2735 ______
2805 ______
2680 ______
2560

32.012 42.722 36.052 29.152
_____________________________
______ ______ ______ ______
1 1 1
1
32.012 42.722 36.052 29.152
2.66 1.54 2.06 3.01
______________________________
Precipitation at X
(9.76 5.48 7.69 11.77) 104
9.27 104
_________
34.70 2671 mm
g 4.8 CONSISTENCY VERIFICATION OF RAIN GAUGE
It may happen that the rainfall recorded by a rain gauge station is doubtful. It then becomes neces-
sary to verify the rainfall record of this station. This is known as verification of consistency of a rain
gauge. This may by due to the following reasons:
• Change in the location of the rain gauge
• Change in the surroundings, namely, growth of trees, buildings, and so on.
• Change in the instrument
• Fault developed in the rain gauge
The verification can be done by the double mass curve method.
4.8.1 DOUBLE MASS CURVE METHOD

On a simple graph paper, the mass curve of the precipitation of the doubtful station, e.g. ‘A’ versus
the mass curve of the average precipitation for the remaining rain gauge stations whose data are
available for the corresponding period is plotted.
4500
1941
4000
B B´
1945
Cumulative annual rainfall at station x
3500
3480
α´
3000
1950
α
1953
2500
1955
C
2000
1960
1500
1965
tan α´ = 1.17
tan α = 0.85
1000
1970
500
1975
0 A
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Cumulative average annual rainfall at base stations
Fig. 4.10 A double mass curve plotted for a specific study
Normally, one should get a straight line through origin if the record at A is correct. If there
is inconsistency at A from a particular year, the slope of the straight line may change from that
year. It may, therefore, be concluded that the records of A are incorrect from that year and need
modification.
The slope of the straight line is maintained and extended and the record of A is corrected accord-
ingly. This procedure cannot be applied for studies for storm rainfall or daily rainfall.
A double mass curve plotted for a specific study is shown in Fig. 4.10.
Example 4.7
The average annual precipitation data of six rain gauge stations in a catchment area during
1991–2000 are as follows:
Station A B C D E F
Year Precipitation (mm)
1991 608 704 378 768 576 544

1992 663 768 402 837 628 593
1993 611 707 388 722 519 548
1994 704 815 433 889 668 629
1995 606 702 374 766 575 543
1996 722 836 446 913 685 646
1997 647 748 402 815 612 578
1998 797 924 717 1007 756 713
1999 721 835 700 913 683 646
2000 686 794 680 865 649 612
PRECIPITATION 71
The data observed at station C were doubtful because of some topographical changes there. Verify
whether the data observed at C is consistent and correct it, if necessary.
Solution:
The mass curve coordinates of precipitation at C and also the combined mass curve coordinates of
precipitation at A, B, D, E and F will be as follows:
Mass curve Corrected mass for Corrected Corrected C
Serial no. for C A, B, D, E and F curve for C precipitation at C (mm) Remarks
1 378 3200 — —
2 780 6689 — —
3 1168 9796 — —
4 1601 13501 — —
5 1975 16693 — —
6 2421 20495 — —
7 2823 23895 — — ←Graph
8 3540 28092 3302 479 changes
9 4240 31890 3756 454 slope
10 4920 35496 4173 417
Fig. 4.11 Double mass curve of precipitation
A graph of mass curve of precipitation at A, B, D, E and F versus mass curve of precipitation at C

was plotted on a simple graph paper. It was noticed that the curve follows a straight line up to 1997. It
changes its slope from 1997.
This means that due to the change in topography at C, the observations from 1997 were incorrect. The
straight line graph up to 1997 was extended further and the precipitation at C was corrected (as shown in
Fig. 4.11) from this extended graph for the respective years and entered in the table.
g 4.9 AVERAGE DEPTH OF PRECIPITATION
The precipitation over a catchment area is never uniform. This becomes quite clear from the figures of
the average depth of precipitation of the various rain gauge stations in the catchment area. One of the
basic requirements in the study of a catchment area is the average depth of precipitation over the
entire catchment.
This is also known as equivalent uniform depth of rainfall. The average depth of precipitation
can be calculated by the following methods:
• Arithmetic mean method
• Thiessen polygon method
• Isohyetalm ethod
4.9.1 ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

This method is very simple. The arithmetic mean of average precipitation values of all the rain
gauges within the catchment area is determined, namely,
PA PB PC …
_________________
Pav n
where, Pav Average precipitation over the catchment area
PA, PB, PC Average precipitation at various rain gauge stations A, B, C, …
This method may be adopted when the catchment area is flat and there is not much variation
in the average values of the precipitation of all the rain gauge stations. This method is very simple
for calculations. However, no weightage is given neither to the influence area of the individual rain
gauge nor the topography. This method is also known as unweighted mean method.
4.9.2 THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

A. M. Thiessen suggested this method in 1911 and hence this method takes this name after him.
A regular step-by-step procedure is as follows:
1. Mark the catchment area correctly on a sheet of paper.
2. Mark correctly the locations of all the rain gauge stations within the catchment area. Other
rain gauge stations outside the area but nearby, if any, having hydrological homogeneity may
also be considered. Join the adjacent rain gauge stations by straight lines so as to divide the
catchment area into triangles. (Whenever a quadrilateral is to be divided, the shorter diago-
nal is preferred.)
3. Draw perpendicular bisectors of all the sides of the triangles. The three perpendicular bisectors
of a triangle will meet at a point inside the triangle. Near the ridge line of the catchment, the
perpendicular bisector lines may be extended beyond the ridge line.
Thus, every rain gauge station will be surrounded by a polygon and it is presumed that the rain
gauge station has got an influence on the area of the polygon surrounded by it.
The area of each polygon is measured. The area of influence lying inside the catchment area of
the rain gauge, located outside the catchment, should also be considered. The average precipitation
over the catchment area is worked out as follows:
PA AA PB AB PC AC …
_________________________
Pav
A
where, Pav Average precipitation over the catchment area
PA, PB, PC Average precipitation at various rain gauge stations
PRECIPITATION 73
AA, AB, AC Area of the polygon surrounding the rain gauge stations A, B and C
A Catchment area AA AB AC…
Pav can also be mentioned as follows:
AA AB
___ AC
___
Pav ___ PA A PB A PC …
A
AA ___
___ AB AC
___
and the factors A , A a nd A are called Thiessen’s weights.
In this method, weightage to each rain gauge is given depending upon its influence area. Rain
gauges having hydrologic homogeneity outside the area, if any, are also considered for more accu-
racy. However, no consideration is given to the topography.
Example 4.8
Figure 4.12 shows a typical layout of a catchment area ABCDF. Six rain gauge stations are estab-
lished at A, B, C, D, E and F, as shown in the figure. The precipitation observed at these six stations
in July 2004 is as follows:
Station A B C D E F
Precipitation (mm) 100 120 130 180 125 150
Find the average precipitation over the catchment during July 2004 by Thiessen’s polygon method.
A 4 km B
150° 90°
m
4k
4 km
F 60°
E
4k
m
150° 90°
D 4 km C
A P B
S •E Q
F W
D R C
Fig. 4.12 Rain gauge stations surrounded by a polygon

Solution:
Join the locations of the adjacent rain gauge stations, AB, BC, CD, DA, AE, BE, CE, DE, DF
and FA, and draw their perpendicular bisectors. The perpendicular bisectors will meet at P, Q,
R, S, T, V and W.
Thus, each rain gauge station will be surrounded by a polygon and its area will be as follows:
Serial no. Station Polygon Area (km2)
1 A APSWV 1 2 2 __
__ 1 4 √__
1 __ 3 3.15
2 3 2
2 B BQP 1 2 2 2.00
__________
2
3 C CRQ 1 2 2 2.00
__________
2
4 D DTWSR 1 2 2 __
__ 1 4√__
1 __ 3 3.15
2 3 2
5 E PQRS 4 4 8.00
______
2
__
6 F FVWT 1 _________
__ 1 4 √3 1.15
3 2
Total 19.45 km2
Therefore, average precipitation over catchment in July 2004 is as follows:
3.15 100 2 120 2 130 3.15 180 8 125 1.15 150

______________________________________________________________
19.45
131 mm
4.9.3 ISOHYETAL METHOD

An isohyet may be defined as a line joining locations having equal rainfall. Isohyets are
drawn by the method of simple interpolation of average value of precipitation similar to the
level contours.
The step-by-step procedure to calculate average depth of precipitation by isohyetal method is
as follows:
1. On a sheet of paper, mark correctly the catchment area.
2. Show the locations of the rain gauge stations on the map and mention their average precipi-
tation. Rain gauge stations outside the catchment area if any, but nearby, having hydrologic
homogeneity may also be marked. Join these rain gauge stations to divide the catchment area
into triangles.
3. Isohyets may be drawn at suitable equal intervals by assuming a straight line variation between
the two adjacent rain gauge stations.
4. The area between two isohyets inside the catchment area should be measured accurately.
PRECIPITATION 75
5. The average precipitation of the area between two isohyets may be calculated as follows:
i(2a b)
________ i(a 2b)
________
P1 B or A
3(a b) 3(a b)
where, P1 Average precipitation between two isohyets

A Higher value between the two consecutive isohyets
B Lower value between the two consecutive isohyets
i Isohyetal interval (AB)
a Length of higher value of isohyet A within the catchment’s area
b Length of lower value of isohyet B within the catchment’s area
However, this procedure is complicated.

Alternately, the average precipitation of the area between the two isohyets is calculated by
(AB)
_______
taking a simple mean of the two isohyets, i.e. 2 .
For the area between the higher value isohyet (A) and the ridge line, it is not possible to
calculate the average precipitation. In such case, the average is considered as A only. Similarly
the average precipitation for the area between the lower value isohyet and the ridge line is con-
sidered as only B.
Thus, the average of the catchment area may be calculated as follows:
P1A1 P2A2 P3A3 …

______________________
Pav A
where, Pav Average precipitation over a catchment

P1 Average precipitation between two consecutive isohyets
A1 Area between two consecutive isohyets within the catchment area
A Catchment area A1 A2 A3 …
Drawing isohyets is to some extent a skilled job. While drawing isohyets, one may consider the
topographical effect, and such other things. Since rain gauges outside the area, but nearby, having
hydrologic homogeneity are considered, this isohyetal method is more accurate.
Use of the three methods followed for a specific study is indicated in Fig. 4.13.
Fig. 4.13a Arithmetic mean method

Precipitation Area A x ppt

16.5 18 297
37.1 31 11538
48.8 282 13761
68.3 311 21241
39.1 52 2033
75.7 238 18016
127.0 212 26924
114.3 197 22517
Total 1621 116327
116327
Average precipitation 72 mm
1621
Fig. 4.13b Thiessen polygon method
Isohyet Average Area A x Avg

25 & less 25.0 80 2000
25 & 51 38.0 500 19000
51 & 76 63.5 508 32258
76 & 102 89.0 300 26700
102 & 127 114.5 199 22785
127 & above 127.0 34 4318
Total 1621 107061
107061
Average precipitation 66 mm
1621
Fig. 4.13c Isohyetal method
Example 4.9
The daily precipitation data observed at four rain gauge stations located inside a catchment area on
2 August 2005 are as follows:
Station B D F H
So also the daily precipitation data observed at four other rain gauge stations that are meteorologi-
cally similar but outside the catchment area on the same day are as follows:
Station A C E G
PRECIPITATION 77
Fig. 4.14 Rain gauge surrounded by a polygon inside the catchment area
Figure 4.14 shows the catchment area and the locations of the rain gauge stations. If the catchment
area is 54 km2, find the daily average precipitation over the catchment.
Solution:
The average daily precipitation over the catchment will be calculated by three different
methods as stated below.
1. Arithmetical mean method
2. Thiessen’s polygon method
3. Isohyetalm ethod
1. Arithmetical mean method The average daily precipitation of the catchment area will be
the average of the four rain gauge stations located inside the catchment area.
30 35 50 45
_________________
Average daily precipitation of the catchment area 4 mm
____
160
4 40 mm
2. Thiessen’s polygon method Join the locations of the adjacent rain gauge stations by
straight lines as, AB, AH, BH, BC, BD, CD, DE, DF, EF, FG, GH and HF.
Draw perpendicular bisectors of these lines to meet
• Inside the catchment area at M, N, P, Q, R, S
• The catchment area boundary at a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, y
Each rain gauge will be surrounded by a polygon inside the catchment area and its area will be as
follows:
Serial no. Station Polygon Area (km2)

1 A kSnml 3.5
2 B kSNMj 11.6
3 C jMh 1.5
4 D hMNPQg 11.9
5 E gQd 3.2
6 F dQPRc 9.7
7 G cRa 2.0
8 H aRPNSn 10.6
Total 54.0
Therefore, the average daily precipitation over the catchment area on 2 August 2005 will be
(3.540) (11.630) (1.525) (11.935) (3.245) (9.750) (2.055) (10.645)
__________________________________________________________________________________
3.5 11.6 1.5 11.9 3.2 9.7 2.0 10.6
_____
2158
54 39.96 mm
3. Isohyetal method Taking into consideration the location of the rain gauge stations inside
(B, D, F, H) as well as outside the catchment area (A, C, E, G) and the precipitation recorded
by them, isohyets of 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 mm are drawn and area between them was measured
accurately (Fig. 4.15).
Fig. 4.15 Isohyetal method

PRECIPITATION 79
Serial no. Isohyets Average Area (km2)

1 30 and less 30.0 10.0
2 30 and 35 32.5 11.0
3 35 and 40 37.5 11.3
4 40 and 45 42.5 9.3
5 45 and 50 47.5 7.6
6 50 and above 50.0 4.8
Total 54.0
Therefore, the average daily precipitation over the catchment area on 2 August 2005
3010 32.511 37.511.3 42.59.3 47.57.6 504.8
_________________________________________________________
54
300.0 357.5 423.75 395.25 361.0 240
__________________________________________
54
38.47 mm
g 4.10 RAIN GAUGE DENSITY
Rainfall is the most fundamental data used in the hydrological studies and hence a well distributed
network of rain gauge stations is essential. The average area of influence of the rain gauge stations
is indicated as rain gauge density or network density. The density of rain gauge stations in an area
may be decided taking into consideration the following points:
• Variation in the rainfall in the area. If the area is plain and if there is not much variation in rainfall,
the number of rain gauge stations may be small.
• The nature of study for which rainfall data is required
• Cost involved in establishing and maintaining the rain gauge stations
4.10.1 MINIMUM DENSITY OF RAIN GAUGE STATIONS

The BIS has recommended the following criteria:
• One rain gauge per 520 km2 in plain areas. (For area in the path of low pressure systems, denser
network is necessary.)
• One rain gauge per 260–390 km2 for area where average elevation of the area above mean sea
level is 1000 m and above.
• One rain gauge per 130 km2 in hilly areas with heavy rainfall. (Higher density recommended
wherever necessary.)
The BIS has recommended the following procedure to calculate the optimum number of rain
gauges in a catchment area.
n Number of rain gauge stations existing in an area
P1, P2, P3, …, Pn Average rainfall of the ‘n’ rain gauge stations
Now,
P1 P2 P3 … Pn
_____________________
Pav n
(Pi Pav)2
_________
Standard deviation sx 2 n–1 (i 1, 2, 3, … n)
sx 100
Cv Coeficient of variance _________
Pav
N Number of optimum rain gauge stations ( Cv x)2
x Percentage permissible error in the estimation of average rainfall.
Additional rain gauge stations N – n
It may be noted that both Cv and x be mentioned as percentages.
The additional rain gauge stations may be located in addition to the existing rain gauge stations,
so that they all are evenly distributed over the entire catchment area.
Example 4.10
In a catchment area covering 100 km2, the average annual precipitation observed at five rain gauge
stations is as under.
Station 1 2 3 4 5
Precipitation (mm) 750 1000 900 650 500
Find the number of additional rain gauge stations and also the rain gauge density if the permissible
error is 10%.
Solution:
750 1000 900 650 500
___________________________
Average precipitation 5
760 mm
(750 760)2 (1000 760)2 (900 760)2 (650 760)2 (500 760)2
__________________________________________________________________
sx2 51
_______
157000
4 39250
______
Therefore, sx √ 39250 198.1
_____
198.1
Cv 760 100 26.06%
Since permissible error is 10%,
Number of rain gauge stations required ( Cv/10)2 ( 26.06/10)2
6.79
Additional rain gauge stations required 6.79 5 1.79 艐2
Rain gauge density 100/7 14.30km 2/rainga uge.
Example 4.11
In a catchment area covering 5600 km2, the zone-wise existing rain gauge stations were as follows:
Zone A B C D E Total
Catchment area (km2) 800 500 1600 2500 200 5600

Number of existing stations 1 1 2 3 0 7
PRECIPITATION 81
Additional nine rain gauge stations are to be installed. Indicate the zone-wise distribution of these
nine additional rain gauge stations.
Solution:
The total number rain gauge stations in the catchment N will be 7 9 16.
The additional nine rain gauge stations will be distributed proportional to the area of the zones
and also taking into consideration the number of existing rain gauge stations, as follows.
Zone A B C D E Total
Area (km2) 800 500 1600 2500 200 5600
P Area in decimal of total area 0.143 0.089 0.286 0.447 0.035 1.000
NP 2.288 1.424 4.576 7.152 0.560 16
N P rounded 2 1 5 7 1 16
Number of existing rain gauge stations 1 1 2 3 0 7
Additional rain gauge 1 0 3 4 1 9
4.10.2 MOVING AVERAGE CURVE

The hyetograph plotted in a usual way will not indicate any trend or cyclic pattern. A moving aver-
age curve proposed will smoothen the variables and indicate the trend or the cyclic pattern, if any.
It is also known as moving mean curve.
The moving average period ‘m’ is generally odd, for example 3 or 5, depending upon n where
n is the number of observations.
If X1, X2, X3, …, Xn is the sequence of rainfall of n values, then the moving average curve coor-
dinates are as follows (m 3) .
X1 X2 X3
____________
Y 2 3
X2 X3 X4
____________
Y3 3
Xn–2 Xn–1 Xn
______________
Yn–1 3
when X n, number of Y terms n 1 m,
when m n, it will be a simple arithmetic average
andw hen m 1, it will be a normal hyetograph.
The 3-year moving average for a specific study is shown in Fig. 4.16.
Example 4.12
The average annual precipitation in millimetres observed over a catchment area from 1980 to 1995
is as follows:
1149, 1260, 1425, 1680, 1200, 1400, 1645, 1500,
1155, 945, 875, 1080, 1480, 1625, 1500, 1470
Construct a 3-year moving average curve and plot it along with the original data.
Fig. 4.16 Three-year moving average

Solution:
1149 1260 1425
__________________
The first, 3-year moving average curve coordinate 3 1278
1260 1425 1680
__________________
The second, 3-year moving average curve coordinate 3 1455
Thus, the 3-year moving average curve coordinates will be as under.
1278, 1455, 1435, 1426, 1415, 1515, 1433,
1200, 991, 966, 1145, 1395, 1535, 1531
The number of coordinates in the 3-year moving average curve 16 3 1 14. The
3-year moving curve and the original curve will be as shown in Fig. 4.17.
Fig. 4.17 Three-year moving curve and the original curve

PRECIPITATION 83
g 4.11 PROBABLE MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION
For an area, the maximum depth of precipitation that may occur for a specific duration is known
as possible maximum precipitation or probable maximum precipitation. The usual short form used
is PMP. This data is required for estimating maximum possible flood from a catchment area. The
PMP for a known duration can be correlated as follows:
PMP Pa K sx
where, Pa Average precipitation over the area
sx Standard deviation of rainfall series
K A constant for the area and is in the neighbourhood of 15.
The data of world’s greatest rainfall was analysed and it was observed that it follows a curve
PMP 42 .16 D0 475
where, PMP Precipitation in centimetres
D Duration in hours
4.11.1 RELATION BETWEEN THE EXTREMES AND THE AVERAGE PRECIPITATION

It is observed that normally over a period
The maximum annual rainfall 1.51 average annual rainfall
The minimum annual rainfall 0.60 average annual rainfall.
4.11.2 STATION YEAR METHOD

In case of a specific study, the data of rainfall may be required for a long period. This data may
not be available in some cases. It is then assumed that the rainfall data of n rain gauge stations for
1 year is equivalent to the data of one rain gauge station for n years and the study is continued. This
approach is known as station year method.
4.11.3 RECURRENCE INTERVAL OF A STORM

The number of years within which a given storm may equal or even exceed is known as
recurrence interval or return period and normally is denoted by Tr.
Suppose the record at a station or over an area is available for n years, then the precipitation data
may be arranged in the descending order.
The serial number of a specific value of precipitation in the descending order is known as
ranking of the storm, e.g. m. Then the return period of that specific value of precipitation, Tr n/m.
This means that this precipitation value or more than this occurs m times in nye ars.
Probability
Probability generally denoted by p is reciprocal of the return period, i.e. p m/n 1/ Tr.
Frequency
Probability expressed in terms of percentage is frequency, i.e. frequency p 100 m/n 100
Example 4.13
The precipitation in millimetres observed at a rain gauge station for the last 32 years is as follows:
988, 966, 935, 1007, 992, 1050, 975, 920, 1035, 990, 1095, 1015, 986, 927, 1003, 1055, 1135,
955, 1001, 1045, 1090, 997, 1040, 1100, 948, 972, 1012, 950, 1070, 982, 929, 960
Find 1. The return period and frequency of the precipitation of 997 mm
2. The precipitation of return period of 1.33 and its frequency
Solution:
The precipitation figures in millimetre were arranged in a descending order as follows:
Serial no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1135 1100 1095 1090 1070 1055 1050 1045 1040 1035
Serial no. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1015 1012 1007 1003 1001 997 992 990 988 986 982
Serial no. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
975 972 966 960 955 950 948 935 929 927 920
1. The serial order of 997 mm is 16

Therefore, its return period 32/16 2 and its frequency 1/ 2 100 50% .
2. Return period 1.33 n/m 32/m
Therefore, m 24. The precipitation figure at serial no. 24 is 966 mm and its frequency
will be 24/ 32 100 75% .
g 4.12 INTENSITY DURATION ANALYSIS
It is observed that most intense storms last for a short time. As the intensity reduces, the duration
of the storm increases and vice versa. The study of intensity and its duration is known as intensity
duration analysis.
4.12.1 INTENSITY–DURATION CURVE

For an area, the available data of the duration and its intensity is analysed and a graph of duration versus
intensity is plotted. This graph is known as intensity–duration curve or intensity–duration graph.
It is observed that this graph normally follows the following equation:
PRECIPITATION 85
_______
C
I
(t a)b
where, I Intensity in mm/h

t duration in minutes
C, a, b constants for the specific area.
The intensity duration graph prepared for a specific study is shown in Fig. 4.18.
Fig. 4.18 Intensity–duration curve for a specific study
Example 4.14
A storm occurred over a catchment area as under:
Time (min) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Precipitation (mm) 0 19 22 7 20 23 33 28 8 6
Plot the maximum intensity–duration curve.

Solution:
Time (min) Cumulative precipitation in mm at time interval
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 0
10 19
20 22 41
30 7 29 48
40 20 27 49 68
50 23 43 50 72 91
60 33 56 76 83 105 124
70 28 61 84 104 111 133 152
80 8 36 69 92 112 119 141 160
90 6 14 42 75 98 118 125 147 166
Maximum intensity
198 183 168 156 134 133 130 120 110
(mm/h)
The maximum intensity–duration curve will be as shown in Fig. 4.19.
Fig. 4.19 Maximum intensity–duration curve
4.12.2 INTENSITY–FREQUENCY–DURATION ANALYSIS

If for a catchment area sufficient data, for example for more than 50 years, is available, this data
is analysed for each storm, for its intensity, frequency as well as its duration. This analysis may be
presented as shown in Fig. 4.20.
These graphs are for a specific catchment area and may change for different catchments
depending upon their hydrologic character.
PRECIPITATION 87
Fig. 4.20 Intensity–frequency–duration curve
4.12.3 ISOPLUVIAL MAP

The intensity–frequency–duration, curves are prepared for various adjoining areas. A combined
map for the large area can be prepared for a maximum rainfall depth for various combinations of a
return period and duration.
Such maps for a region for various rainfall depths, return periods and duration are called
isopluvial maps. An isopluvial map is shown in Fig. 4.21.
Fig. 4.21 Isopluvial map of South India

Fig. 4.22 Depth–area–duration curve
4.12.4 DEPTH–AREA–DURATION ANALYSIS

In some cases, the average depth of storm and its duration is required for a specific area. Such study
is called depth–area–duration analysis. The normal short form is DAD study. Every storm has a
centre having maximum precipitation, e.g. Po, and the average precipitation over a specific area,
e.g. Pa. Naturally (Po Pa) is always positive, and its value increases with bigger catchments and
decreases with smaller catchments.
For a catchment, this value may differ for cyclonic, convective, as well as orographic precipita-
tion. A specific study done for an area is shown in Fig. 4.22.
Normally, for each duration, the equation suggested by Horton is
n
Pa Po(KA)
where, Po Maximum precipitation
Pa Averagepr ecipitation
A Area in sq. km
K, n C onstants
4.12.5 TRANSPOSITION OF A STORM

Sometimes, data about storms are not available for a catchment under study, e.g. catchment A.
However, sufficient data about the storms are available for another catchment B, which are meteo-
rologically homogeneous.
A storm occurring over B is considered to be applicable and occurring over A and further stud-
ies are continued for A. This procedure is called transposition of storm. However, this may not be
applicable for hilly catchments.
PRECIPITATION 89
g 4.13 PRECIPITATION OVER INDIA*
Rainfall over India is very erratic in terms of both time and space. The coefficient of variation of
the annual rainfall varies between 15 and 36, and hence it is said that India’s prosperity is a gamble
in the monsoon’s rains.
The average annual precipitation over India is 1140 mm. Both the maximum and the minimum
precipitations in the world are observed in India. The important features affecting precipitation over
India are the following:
1. The orographic features
2. The wind currents
The seasons in the Indian subcontinent can be divided into four major seasons.
1. South-west monsoon (June to September)
2. Post-monsoon (October to December)
3. Winter season (January to February)
4. Pre-Monsoon (March to May)
The chief characteristics of these seasons are as follows.
4.13.1 SOUTH-WEST MONSOON

The south-west monsoon is the principal rainy season of India. Over 70% of the annual pre-
cipitation occurs over the Indian subcontinent during this season.
Except for the south-eastern part of the peninsula and Jammu and Kashmir, the rest of the
country experiences heavy rains during this season. The monsoon enters into the Indian sub-
continent through the southern part of Kerala towards the end of May or beginning of June
with a very good degree of regularity in the statistical sense.
Under normal monsoon conditions, the distribution clearly shows the marked influence of the
effect of orography of the Western Ghats, Khasi–Jantia hills, the Vindhyas, and the Himalayas.
These are the regions with heavy precipitation. There is an increase in precipitation from the
west coast up to the Western Ghats and then it decreases rapidly. For example, Goa gets over
2000 mm of precipitation, while Pune gets less than 600 mm. Immediately, south of Vindhyas
again is the region of heavy precipitation decreasing southwards. There is a constant decrease
of precipitation over the Gangetic plane from east to west decreasing from over 1000 mm over
West Bengal to less than 100 mm over west Rajasthan. There is another region of heavy pre-
cipitation over the foothills of Himalayas reducing sharply towards the west of north-west, with
almost negligible in the Ladakh valley that is on the leeward side.
4.13.2 POST-MONSOON
As the southwest monsoon retreats, low-pressure areas develop in the Bay of Bengal and a north-
easterly flow of air that picks up moisture in the Bay of Bengal is formed. This air mass strikes
the east coast of the southern peninsula, particularly Tamil Nadu, and causes precipitation in those
areas. In addition, during this period several tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and to a
lesser extent in the Arabian Sea. These strike the coastal areas and cause intense precipitation.
*Courtesy of National Institute of Hydrology

Fig. 4.23 Isohyetal map of India

Courtesy: India Meteorological Department
4.13.3 WINTER RAINS

Near about the end of December, disturbances originating in the mid-east travel eastwards across
Afghanistan and Pakistan, known as western disturbances. They cause moderate to heavy precipi-
tation and snowfall in the Himalayas and Jammu and Kashmir. Some light precipitation occurs in
the northern planes. Some precipitation is also experienced in the Tamil Nadu region due to low-
pressure areas formed in the Bay of Bengal.
4.13.4 PRE-MONSOON
There is hardly any precipitation during this season. Convective cells cause some thunderstorms,
mainly in Kerala, West Bengal and Assam. Some cyclone activity, primarily in the eastern coast,
also occurs. Figure 4.23 shows the average annual precipitation over India.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define precipitation. Explain its importance in the study of hydrology.
2. What are the different forms of precipitation?
3. Discuss the factors affecting precipitation.
4. Explain the different types of precipitation.
5. Explain artificial precipitation. Why is it not followed on a large scale in India?
6. Discuss the considerations for selecting the site for a rain gauge.
7. Explain the different types of rain gauges. Discuss their merits and demerits.
PRECIPITATION 91
8. Explain with the help of a neat sketch, the working of a non-recording rain gauge. Discuss its
merits and demerits.
9. Explain with the help of a neat sketch, the working of a siphon bucket-type rain gauge.
10. Explain with the help of a neat sketch, the working of a tipping bucket-type rain gauge.
11. Explain with a neat sketch, the working of a weighing bucket-type rain gauge.
12. Discuss the difficulties experienced during the measurement of precipitation.
13. Why supplementing of rainfall data is required? State the different methods in use.
14. Explain verification of consistency of a rain gauge.
15. Explain the double mass curve method.
16. How the average precipitation over a catchment is calculated? Discuss the different methods
with their merits and demerits.
17. Explain the ISI standards for rain gauge density in a catchment. Also, discuss the procedure
to calculate the optimum number of rain gauge stations in a catchment.
18. What is a moving average curve? What are its advantages? Explain the procedure to draw it.
19. Explain the depth–area–duration analysis.
20. What is an intensity–duration curve?
21. Write a detailed note on precipitation over India.
22. Write a note on frequency of a storm.
23. Write short notes on the following:
a . Terminalve locity b. Orographicpr ecipitation
c. Cloud seeding d. History of measurement of precipitation
e . Use of radar for measurement of precipitation f. Index of wetness
g. Classification of the intensity of rainfall h. Rain gauge density
i. Probable maximum precipitation j. Station year method
k. Recurrence interval of a storm l. Isopluvial map
m. Transposition of a storm
a. Record graph sheets of siphon bucket-type b. Forms of precipitation and types
rain gauge and a weighing bucket-type of precipitation.
rain gauge.
c. Cyclonic precipitation and orographic d. Non-recording-type rain gauge and
precipitation. recording-type rain gauge.
e. Siphon-typer ainga ugea ndw eighing-type
rain gauge.
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1. During a storm, the hourly precipitation data observed was as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Plot the following: (i) Hyetograph

(ii) Ordinate graph
(iii) Massc urve
Ans: The hourly mass curve coordinates are as follows:

Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2. The precipitation coordinates in mm observed on an automatic float-type rain gauge are as follows:
Time (h) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (h) 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Find: (i) Daily precipitation

(ii) Time when siphon operated
(iii) Time of no precipitation
(iv) Maximum intensity of precipitation
Ans: (i) Daily precipitation 5 142 mm
(ii) Time when siphon operated 5 At 21 h
(iii) Time of no precipitation 5 between 13 and 14 h and 2, 3 and 4 h
(iv) Maximum intensity of precipitation 15 mm/h between 15 and 16 h
3. The precipitation coordinates observed on a weighing-type automatic rain gauge were as follows:
Time (h) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (h) 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Find: (i) Dailypr ecipitation

(ii) Time when siphon operated
(iii) Time of no precipitation
(iv) Maximum intensity of precipitation
Ans: (i) Dailypr ecipitation 138 mm
(ii) Time when siphon operated At 21 h
(iii) Time of no precipitation Between 14 and 15 h and 1, 2 and 3 h
(iv) Maximum intensity of precipitation 18 mm/h between 11 and 12 h
4. Five rain gauge stations located in a catchment indicate the average annual precipitation as follows:
Station A B C D E
The precipitation at B was missing for the year 1998 since the rain gauge was out of order.
The precipitation observed at other stations for 1998 are as follows:
Station A B C D E
Precipitation (mm) 2465 ? 2492 2285 2511
Calculate the missing data for B for the year 1998.

Ans: 2348 mm
PRECIPITATION 93
5. The location coordinates in km of five rain gauges w.r.t. P are as follows:

Station P Q R S T
Precipitation (mm) 0,0 25,20 45,17 35,215 35,16
The annual average precipitation at the Station P was missing for the year 2004.
The average annual precipitation at other stations for the year 2004 is as follows:
Station P Q R S T
Precipitation (mm) ? 2735 2800 2831 2655
Evaluate the missing precipitation at P for the year 2004.

Ans: 2750 mm
6. The annual precipitation of the rain gauge Station A for the year 1990–1999 was as given
below. Similarly, the average annual precipitation of the remaining five rain gauge sta-
tions for the same period was as given below. The precipitation recorded at A was doubtful
because there were changes at the location. Verify the precipitation at A is consistent and
correct it if necessary.
Average precipitation of the

Serial no. Year Precipitation at A (mm) five rain gauges (mm)
1 1990 1388 8250

2 1991 1412 8539
3 1992 1398 8157
4 1993 1443 8755
5 1994 1384 8242
6 1995 1456 8852
7 1996 1412 8450
8 1997 1727 9247
9 1998 1710 8848
10 1999 1690 8656
Ans: The precipitation data at Station A is wrong from the year 1996 and the corrected
precipitation figures from 1990 in mm are 1388, 1412, 1398, 1443, 1384, 1456,
1412, 1489, 1464, 1427, respectively.
7. A catchment area is in the form of an equilateral triangle ABC of side 10 km. Four rain gauge
stations are located at A, B, C and D. Station D is the centroid of the triangle. The average annual
precipitation observed at these stations in mm are 1145, 1252, 1184 and 1056, respectively. Find
the average annual precipitation of the catchment area by all the three methods.
Ans: 1101 mm
8. The average annual precipitations of the five rain gauge stations in a catchment are as follows:
Station A B C D E
If the catchment covers an area of 110 km2, find the number of additional rain gauge
stations required. Acceptable permissible error is 10%.
Ans: 4
9. The average annual precipitation in mm observed over a catchment area for the last 16 years is
as follows:
1154, 1265, 1430, 1683, 1205, 1390, 1650, 1497, 1160, 940, 870, 1080, 1490, 1630, 1505, 1475
Construct a 3-year moving average curve and compare with the original data.
10. The average annual precipitation in mm observed at a rain gauge station for the last 32 years
is as follows:
966, 992, 920, 1045, 1012, 1070, 960, 935, 1050, 1035, 1015, 948, 972, 950, 929, 1007, 975,
990, 1095, 986, 988, 927, 1003, 1055, 982, 1135, 955, 1001, 1040, 1090, 997, 1100
Find: (i) The return period and the frequency of the precipitation of 1045 mm
(ii) The precipitation of the return period of 2 and its frequency
Ans: (i) 4,25%
(ii) 997, 50%
11. The storm occurred over a catchment area is a under:
Time (s) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 100
Plot the Maximum intensity duration curve

1. The terminal velocity of a raindrop depends upon
(a) Diameter of the raindrop (b) Velocity of air
(c) Temperature of the air (d) Specific gravity of water
2. Cyclone is also known as
(a) Hurricane (b) Tornado
(c) Typhoon (d) Allt hea bove
3. Raindrop is always
(a) Spherical (b) Conical
(c) Elliptical (d) Cubical
4. Hygroscopic nuclei used for artificial rain are of
(a) Dryi ce (b) Silveri odide
(c) Sodiumc hloride (d) Portlandc ement
(e) Any of the above
PRECIPITATION 95
5. Artificial rain method is normally not followed because

(a) It is a costly process. (b) It may affect the rainfall in the adjoining area.
(c) The success rate is not very high. (d) All the above.
6. In case of a siphon bucket-type rain gauge, the siphon acts when
(a) The rain stops (b) The rain starts
(c) Water in the float chamber (d) After a specific time.
reaches a specific level
7. In case of a mass curve of rainfall, when there is no rainfall, the graph is a
(a) Verticall ine (b) Blank
(c) Horizontall ine (d) Downward line
8. In case of a tipping bucket-type rain gauge, the bucket tips when
(a) The rain starts (b) The bucket receives a rainfall of 25 mm
(c) The rain stops (d) After a specific time
9. In case of a weighing-type rain gauge, when the water level reaches a specific level in the
chamber
(a) The pointer moves down (b) The pointer reverses its movement
(c) The pointer stops (d) The drum stops its rotational movement
10. Cloud seeding is accomplished by the following methods
(a) Emitting the hygroscopic nuclei (b) Using the aeroplanes for spreading
with the help of a special gun the nuclei
(c) Using rockets by suitable (d) Any of the above
deliverys ystems
11. In India, the precipitation received is mostly
(a) Cyclonicpr ecipitation (b) Convective precipitation
(c) Orographic precipitation (d) None of the above
12. Clear distance between the rain gauge and the obstruction should be equivalent to at least
(a) Height of the obstruction (b) Twice the height of the obstruction
(c) Three times the height of (d) Four times the height of the obstruction
the obstruction
13. A plot of time versus rainfall is called a
(a) Hydrograph (b) Hyetograph
(c) Isohyet (d) Noneof t hea bove
14. An isohyet is a line joining
(a) Equal precipitation intensity (b) Equal precipitation depth
(c) Equal storm duration (d) Equal height of stations
15. The characteristics of convective precipitation are
(a) High intensity and long duration (b) High intensity and low duration
(c) Low intensity and low duration (d) Low intensity and long duration
16. The chart fixed to an automatic rain gauge gives

(a) A rainfall hyetograph (b) An intensity–duration curve
(c) An isohyetal map (d) A precipitation mass curve
17. The average annual precipitation over India is
(a) 1000m m (b) 1500m m
(c) 1140m m (d) 1350m m
18. Orographic precipitation occurs due to lifting of air mass because of
(a) Presence of mountain barriers (b) Extratropicalc yclones
(c) Density difference of air mass (d) Difference of air temperature
19. The double mass curve technique is followed to
(a) Check the consistency of (b) Find average rainfall of a station
rainfall at a station
(c) Find number of rain gauge (d) Estimate the missing data of rainfall of a station
stations required in a catchment
20. The probable maximum precipitation is given by the relation
(a) PMP Pa K (b) PMP Pa K
(c) PMP Pae K (d) PMP Pa eK
21. A rain gauge inclined at 10° will catch
(a) 0.5% less as compared to vertical (b) 1.0% less as compared to vertical
(c) 1.5% less as compared to vertical (d) 2.0% less as compared to vertical
22. In olden days, a rain gauge was also known as
(a) Hyetometer (b) Ombrometer
(c) Pluviometer (d) All of the above
23. Radarm eans
(a) Radio Detection and Recording (b) Radio Detection and Ranging
(c) Radiation Detection and Recording (d) Radiation Detection and Ranging
24. A day is known as rainy day when the rainfall during the day is
(a) 2.5 mm or more (b) 5.0 mm or more
(c) 7.5 mm or more (d) 10.0 mm or more
25. Average precipitation over a catchment can be calculated by
(a) Arithmetic mean method (b) Thiessen’s polygon method
(c) Isohyetal method (d) Any of the above methods
26. The density of rain gauge stations in a catchment is decided considering
(a) Variation of rainfall in that area (b) The nature of study for which rainfall data are required
(c) Cost involved in establishing and (d) All the above considerations
maintaining the rain gauge stations
PRECIPITATION 97
27. Over a period, the maximum annual rainfall is equal to

(a) 1.26 times the average annual rainfall (b) 1.51 times the average annual rainfall
(c) 1.75 times the average annual rainfall (d) 1.95 times the average annual rainfall
28. A raindrop deforms and splits because of the resistance of air when it is more than
(a) 4.0m m (b) 5.5 mm
(c) 7.5m m (d) 10.0 mm
29. Over a period the minimum annual rainfall is equal to
(a) 0.50 times the average annual rainfall (b) 0.60 times the average annual rainfall
(c) 0.70 times the average annual rainfall (d) 0.80 times the average annual rainfall
30. Sunspots have a cycle of variation of
(a) 7ye ars (b) 9 years
(c) 11y ears (d) 13ye ars
31. The frequency of a storm in years is given by
(a) n m (b) n m
__
n
(c) n m (d) m
32. The equation of the intensity–duration curve is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
33. A mass curve is a graphical representation of
(a) Rainfall intensity versus time (b) Accumulated rainfall versus time
in chronological order in chronological order
(c) Accumulated rainfall intensity (d) None of the above
versus time in chronological order

1. a 2. d 3. a 4. e 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. b
9. b 10. d 11. c 12. b 13. b 14. b 15. b 16. d
17. b 18. a 19. a 20. a 21. c 22. d 23. b 24. a
25. d 26. d 27. b 28. b 29. b 30. c 31. d 32. a
33. b
*** ***
Infiltration
5
Chapter Outline
5.1 Definition 5.4 Measurement of infiltration

5.2 Process of infiltration 5.5 Expression of infiltration
5.3 Factors affecting infiltration
g 5.1 DEFINITION
Infiltration may be defined as entry and movement of water through the land surface into the sub-
strata below.
5.1.1 INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION

Infiltration includes entry of water into the soil surface and its movement, while percolation is the
movement of water under gravity. These two phenomena are confusing as they are closely related,
but technically there is a difference. Percolation starts after infiltration.
5.1.2 ABSTRACTIONS
When there is precipitation, it may or may not result in overland flow into a stream depending upon
its intensity and duration. The part of precipitation that is not available as surface runoff is referred
INFILTRATION 99
to as precipitation loss or abstraction. The abstractions include (1) interception, (2) depression
storage, (3) evaporation and (4) infiltration.
Generally, interception and depression storages are together termed as ‘surface retention’. Knowledge
of these abstractions, their rate, and so on, is necessary for the determination of the surface flow.
5.1.3 DOMINANT ABSTRACTION

Out of these abstractions, evaporation during precipitation is very negligible. Interception and
depression storage are comparatively small as compared to infiltration. Hence, infiltration is called
as dominant abstraction.
5.1.4 EXCESS RAINFALL

The part of precipitation that is available in the form of surface flow after meeting all the abstrac-
tions is known as excess rainfall. It is also known as effective rainfall.
g 5.2 PROCESS OF INFILTRATION
When rainwater falls on the ground, there is some resistance offered by the soil surface for the
entry of rainwater and also to the flow of water through the soil. There are cracks, vertical as well
as lateral in the soil, so also there are some voids between the soil particles, which are ordinarily
occupied by air or water. Water flows through these cracks and gaps until it reaches the saturated
zone below. Naturally, the passage of water experiences some resistance.
The rate at which water enters the ground surface and then flows downwards is known as
infiltration rate. This rate is high in the beginning because it has to meet the requirements of the dry
soil. However, it attains a steady constant lower value after a passage of time.
The unit for the rate of infiltration is mm/h.
g 5.3 FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION
The factors affecting infiltration are discussed below:
5.3.1 RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS

The duration as well as the intensity of rainfall influences infiltration. If the intensity of rainfall is
more than the infiltration rate, then only surface runoff is noticed. On the contrary, if the intensity of
rainfall is less than the infiltration rate, no surface flow is observed and all the rainfall is abstracted
as infiltration.
The rate of infiltration is high in the beginning and goes on reducing and attains a steady state
after some time. At earlier stage the intensity of rainfall may be less than the rate of infiltration.
Under this condition, the ground will absorb all the rainfall and there will not be any surface flow.
However, when the infiltration rate reduces and becomes less than the intensity of precipitation,
surface flow will be noticed, which might increase till the infiltration rate stabilizes. In addition to
these considerations, rainfall has some additional effects as follows:
• When rainwater strikes the bare soil, there is mechanical compaction of soil due to the impact,
which may reduce the infiltration rate.
• Fine soil particles are carried down due to rain water resulting in choking of the pore spaces in
the soil, and consequently resulting in reducing the infiltration rate.
5.3.2 GROUND SURFACE CONDITION

The land surface that receives rain may be bare, vegetated or covered with mulch or litter. The bare
ground receiving rainfall may be subjected to the effects of impact, and so on. If impervious mate-
rial is exposed at the surface, naturally infiltration is small or negligible.
The vegetated ground reduces the impact effect of the raindrops, avoids dislodging of particles
by mechanical binding action of the roots and hence provides a high rate of infiltration by maintain-
ing open soil structure and also slows down the rate of runoff.
Thus, due to vegetated ground the rate of infiltration increases.
Mulch cover has got a similar effect. Because of mulch and litter, the infiltration rate increases.
This has been proved by the field experiments. Contour ploughing and terracing in the agricultural
land delays the surface flow and increases the infiltration rate.
Small surface slope has little effect on the infiltration rate. If the slope of the ground is steeper than
16, then the rate of infiltration reduces due to the velocity of water causing more overland flow.
5.3.3 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

Soil characteristics have definite effect on infiltration.
A uniformly graded material will have more pores and hence the infiltration rate will be more
than a well-graded material. In clayey soils, because of the removal of moisture due to evaporation,
some shrinkage cracks may be observed. These are termed as Sun cracks. Because of these cracks,
infiltration rate may increase in the initial stage. Subsequently, when the soil gets wet, the cracks
get closed and may not affect the infiltration rate.
Because of the presence of water, some soils have a tendency to form aggregation that reduces
the infiltration rate. Also, the organic material present helps to promote soil aggregation. In some
cases, puddle is formed at the surface where the soil has a fair proportion of clay, which becomes
relatively impervious when it dries.
In the case of urbanization, because of concrete buildings, asphalt pavement, and so on, the
infiltration rate is considerably reduced.
5.3.4 SOIL MOISTURE

Even if the soil contains some moisture, there is no effect, practically, on the rate of infiltration
except that the rate is reduced at the initial stage, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
5.3.5 HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Cultivation of land disturbs the soil structure, closes the openings made by burrowing animals and
insects as well as decaying roots and thus reduces the rate of infiltration.
5.3.6 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

The flow of water through the soil is laminar. Change in temperature may cause change in the vis-
cosity of water and consequently may cause change in the velocity of water, and thus may affect
the rate of infiltration.
INFILTRATION 101
Uniform precipitation
Inf trat on rate n mm/h/m2

Dry soil
Moist soil
Time
Fig. 5.1 Rate of infiltration w.r.t. time
5.3.7 ENTRAPPED AIR

If infiltration process covers a large area, there may not be an exit passage to the entrapped air in the
soil. Also, because of the downward passage of water, the air entrapped may get compressed and
may offer more resistance to the flow, which may result in reducing the infiltration rate.
5.3.8 OTHER MINOR FACTORS

Other factors, such as depth of water on the ground, groundwater table, and so on, have practically
no effect on the infiltration rate.
g 5.4 MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION
The rate of infiltration is initially high. It goes on reducing with time and after some time it becomes
steady. A usual graph of the rate of infiltration is shown in Fig. 5.1. The rate of infiltration for a soil
is measured in the field as well as in the laboratory. These are known as infiltrometers.
The most common types are the following:
• Flooding-type infiltrometers
• Sprinkling-type infiltrometers or rain simulators
5.4.1 FLOODING-TYPE INFILTROMETERS

There are two types of flooding-type infiltrometers:
1. Single-tube flooding infiltrometer
2. Double-tube flooding infiltrometer
30 cm
10 cm G. L .
50 cm
Fig. 5.2 Single-tube infiltrometer
5.4.1.1 Single-tube flooding infiltrometer

The single-tube flooding infiltrometer consists of a metal tube 250–300 mm in diameter with both
ends open. This tube is driven in a vertical position into an open level ground surface up to a depth
of 500 mm, leaving about 100 mm above the ground. The tube is so driven into the ground that the
soil is disturbed to a minimum.
Water is then added to this tube to maintain a constant level, sufficiently deep to submerge the
plant or the grass crowns. If the soil is bare, i.e., there is no vegetation or grass, the soil is protected
by a perforated metal disc to avoid turbidity.
A pointer gauge is used to measure the water level accurately. As the infiltration starts, the water
level may drop down but it is maintained at a constant level by adding a measured quantity of water
at successive time intervals, till a constant rate of infiltration is achieved.
Knowing the quantity of water added, the time interval and the area of tube, the rate of infiltra-
tion can be worked out. The infiltration rate thus worked out is more than the actual value.
Figure 5.2. shows a single-tube infiltrometer. It is also known as single-ring infiltrometer.
5.4.1.2 Double-tube flooding infiltrometer

In the case of a single-tube infiltrometer, water may flow sideways. Such loss is controlled to some
extent by using one more ring outside the test ring. Instead of one tube, two concentric circular
tubes are used. These may be of size 300 and 600 mm in diameter. These are driven 150 mm in the
ground in a vertical position leaving 100 mm above the ground level. The outside metal ring is used
to avoid the side and border effects.
The procedure followed for single tube is followed in this double-tube case also. Water is added
into both the tubes and the same level of water is maintained in both tubes by adding the measured
quantity of water at successive time intervals.
The observations for the inner tube are used for working out the infiltration rate. Knowing the
water added, the time interval and the area of cross section of the inner tube, the infiltration rate
with respect to time can be calculated.
Figure 5.3. shows a double-ring infiltrometer. It is also known as double-ring infiltrometer.
INFILTRATION 103
60 cm
30 cm
10 cm
G. L .
15 cm
Fig. 5.3 Double-tube infiltrometer
5.4.1.3 Drawbacks in tube infiltrometers
The main drawbacks in the tube infiltrometers are as follows:

• The soil is disturbed to some extent when the tubes are driven into the soil.
• There may be lateral flow of infiltrated water. In double-tube infiltrometers, efforts are made to
reduce it, but some lateral flow still occurs.
• Similarly, air entrapped in the soil may escape laterally. In a double-tube infiltrometer, this effect
persists.
• Effect of the raindrop impact on soil is not accounted.
• Effect of the slope of ground is not accounted.
• Experiments cannot be conducted on soil with boulders etc.
• The infiltration is affected because of the ring size. Smaller the diameter of the ring, more will
be the rate of infiltration.
Example 5.1
The quantity of water added to a double-ring infiltrometer of 1.00-m diameter at 30 min interval to
keep the water level constant is as follows:
Time (min) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Quantity of water added (lit) 0 10 9.2 8.6 8.2 8.0 8.0
Find: 1. Rate of infiltration for every 30 min and plot the graph
2. Average rate of infiltration
27
26
Infiltration rate in mm/hour

25
24
23
22
21
20
19
0 1 2 3
Time in hours
Fig. 5.4 Estimation of infiltration rate
Solution:
12 0.786 m2
Area of ring __
4
10 103
________ ___
60
Infiltration rate for 1st 30 min 0.786 103 30 25.44 mm/h
9.2103 ___
60
Infiltration rate for next 30 min _________
0.786 10 30 23.40 mm/h
3
3
________
8.610 ___
60
Infiltration rate for next 30 min 0.786 10 30 21.88 mm/h
3
3
________
8.210 ___
60
3
8103
_______ ___
60
The graph of time in hours versus infiltration rate is as shown in Fig. 5.4.
Total quantity of water added in 150 min till a steady state was achieved 10.0 9.2 8.6 8.2
8.0 44.0 lit
44 103 103 60
___________________
Therefore, average rate of infiltration 150 0.786 22.39 mm/h/m2
5.4.2 SPRINKLING-TYPE INFILTROMETER

This experiment is conducted in the laboratory under controlled conditions.
For this purpose, a very small catchment area, about 5 m2, is selected. Water is sprinkled over the
catchment area to represent rainfall at a uniform rate of about 50 mm/h. Sprinkling of water may be
from a height of 5 m. The trial starts with the sprinkling of water. It is, therefore, called sprinkling-
type infiltrometer. Sprinkling of water represents rain, and hence it is also called rain simulator.
INFILTRATION 105
Catchment area
Ridge line
Discharge
measurement site
Fig. 5.5 Selected catchment area
The surface runoff is measured very accurately at the catchment outlet and thus knowing all the
abstractions such as ‘evaporation, interception, depression storage, surface detention’ and surface
runoff, the infiltration rate during the time of experiment can be worked out.
Consider the following particulars of a specific experiment.
A small catchment was selected for the experiment as shown in Fig. 5.5.
The experiment started at 8:00 a.m. by sprinkling water over the entire catchment area at a uni-
form rate, which was stopped at 12:00 noon. There was no surface runoff noticed up to 8:30 a.m.
The discharge was noticed at 8:30 a.m. and it went on increasing up to 10:00 a.m. and remained
constant up to 12:00 noon. When the sprinkling of water, i.e. rainfall, was stopped, the discharge
went on reducing and finally stopped at 2:00 p.m. as shown in Fig. 5.6.
Uniform precipitation mm/hour

Discharge in mm/hour
Recession curve
8 8-30 9 10 11 12 1 2
Time in hours
Fig. 5.6 Observed discharge

The rainfall P may be accounted for as follows:

P E I DS F SD Q
where, P Precipitation at a uniform rate over the entire catchment in mm/h
E Evaporation in mm/h
I Interception in mm/h
DS Depression storage in mm/h
F Infiltration in mm/h
SD Surface detention (water stored temporarily in channel)
Q Surface runoff in m3/s converted to mm/h over the catchment area
Thus, F P – (E I DS SD Q)
(All these quantities are measured in mm uniformly spread over the entire catchment area.)
The parameters in the bracket were calculated separately, combined together and then subtracted
from the precipitation and thus the infiltration rate was calculated. Infiltration started immediately
at 8:00 a.m. The following assumptions were made:
1. Evaporation being negligible during the experiment was neglected.
2. As usual, interception and depression storage were combined together and treated as SR surface
retention. This abstraction started immediately at 8:00 a.m.
The precipitation was started at 8:00 a.m. and stopped at 12:00 noon. The precipitation graph
with respect to time and its mass curve is shown in Fig. 5.7.
A judgement was taken as to how much water was lost as surface retention, and its requirement
would be first met with completely from 8:00 a.m. to 8.30 a.m. and there would be no addition
Uniform precipitation in mm/hour

Precipitation in mm/hour
Mass curve of precipitation
8 9 10 11 12 1 2
Time in hours
Fig. 5.7 Mass curve of precipitation

INFILTRATION 107
mm/hour
Mass curve of ‘Surface retention’
Surface retention (assumed)
8 8.30 9 10 11 12
Time in hours
Fig. 5.8 Surface retention
in this abstraction after 8:30 a.m. Surface runoff started only after the requirement of the surface
retention was met with. The surface retention and its mass curve is shown in Fig. 5.8.
The discharge was observed from 8:30 a.m. onwards. It went on increasing up to 10:00 a.m. It
was constant from 10:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon and then reduced from 12:00 noon to 2:00 p.m. The
discharge as well as its mass curve is shown in Fig. 5.9.
The SD is in mm/s, i.e. water stored in the channel is a function of depth in a channel. More
the discharge in the channel, more will be the depth in the channel and more will be the storage in
the channel. Thus, indirectly SDwill be a function of discharge. Here the discharge was started at
8:30 a.m. Similarly, SD also started at 8:30 a.m. It went on increasing up to 10:00 a.m. It remained
constant from 10:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon and then was reduced from 12:00 noon to 2:00 p.m.
Mass curve of ‘Discharge’
Discharge
8 8.30 9 10 11 12 1 2
Time in hours
Fig. 5.9 Mass curve of discharge

Q3
Recession curve
Q2
Q1
8 8.30 9 10 11 12 1 2
Time in hours
A3 A2 A1
Fig. 5.10 Estimation of surface detention
Since initially and also after the experiment the channel carried no water, the water stored in the
channel from 8:30 a.m. to 12:00 a.m. was drained completely from 12:00 noon to 2:00 p.m.
When the precipitation stopped at 12:00 a.m., there was still flow in the stream. This was due
to draining the water stored in the channel, i.e. SD. Immediately after the precipitation stopped, the
discharge was maximum. SD was also maximum. The total volume of water stored in the channel
was the area under the recession curve. As the discharge reduced, so also did the storage in the
channel. The storage in the channel will be the area under the recession curve. The recession curve
is shown in Fig. 5.10.
The area under the recession curve is the total channel storage.
A A1 A2 A3
When the discharge is Q1, the channel storage SD is A1.
When the discharge is Q2, the channel storage SD is A1 A2.
When the discharge is Q3, the channel storage SD is A1 A2 A3, which is the area under the
recession curve.
Thus, the relation between Q and SD can be established as shown in Fig. 5.11.
SD can be calculated from this graph and then correlated with time. SD thus calculated will be
in terms of m3 and will have to be worked out in terms of mm over the entire catchment area for
further calculations. The surface detention and its mass curve are shown in Fig. 5.12.
A combined mass curve of (SR Q SD) and mass curve of P is plotted on the graph paper and
the difference between these two mass curves is the infiltration rate w.r.t. time as shown in Fig. 5.13.
From this figure, the infiltration rate w.r.t. time can be plotted. The infiltration rate is more at
the beginning and goes on reducing, and after some time it becomes steady as shown in Fig. 5.14.
INFILTRATION 109
Surface detention in mm
Fig. 5.11 Surface detention w.r.t. discharge
Mass curve of ‘Surface detention’

mm/hour
A1 = A2
A1
8 8.30 9 10 11 12 2
Time in hours
A2
Fig. 5.12 Mass curve of surface detention
5.4.2.1 Drawbacks in sprinkling-type infiltrometer

The main drawbacks in the sprinkling-type infiltrometer are as follows:
• It is very difficult to have a uniform sprinkling of water of a uniform intensity over the entire
catchment area for a sufficient duration.
• The discharge has to be measured very accurately.
• The assumption of SR requires good judgement.
• The area under the experiment being small, lateral flow may be significant.
Mass curve of precipitation
mm/h
Infiltration rate
Combined mass
curve of Sr+Q+Sd
8 8.30 9 10 11 12 1 2
Time in hours
Fig. 5.13 Estimation of infiltration by mass curves
Example 5.2
A field experiment to assess the infiltration capacity of an area was conducted by following the
Sprinkling type infiltrometer technique’. The discharge was measured accurately over a notch at
10 minutes interval.
Fig. 5.14 Horton’s equation of infiltration rate

INFILTRATION 111
The details are as follows.

1. Catchment area 4.5 m2
2. Experiment started at 8:00 a.m.
3. Experiment concluded at 12:50 a.m.
4. Uniform rainfall intensity used 4 cm / h
The discharge measured is as follows.
1 2 3 4
Sr. no. Time Discharge in c. c. /s Discharge in cm / h
1 8–00 0.00 0.00
2 –10 0.00 0.00
3 –20 1.88 0.15
4 –30 5.00 0.40
5 –40 7.38 0.59
6 –50 -10.00 0.80
7 9–00 12.88 1.03
8 –10 16.00 1.28
9 –20 19.25 1.54
10 –30 22.50 1.80
11 40 25.00 2.00
12 –50 27.25 2.18
13 10–00 28.75 2.30
14 –10 29.75 2.38
15 –20 30.75 2.46
16 –30 31.25 2.50
17 –40 31.75 2.50
18 –50 31.75 2.50
19 11–00 17.00 1.36
20 –10 12.25 0.98
21 –20 9.50 0.76
22 –30 7.88 0.63
23 –40 6.63 0.53
24 –50 5.75 0.46
25 12–00 4.63 0.37
26 –10 4.25 0.34
27 –20 3.88 0.31
28 –30 2.50 0.20
29 –40 1.88 0.15
30 –50 0.00 0.00
The discharge measured on the notch in c. c. /s, was converted for simplicity, into depth in cm /h
uniformly distributed over the entire catchment area of 4.5 m2, for these calculations. 12.5 c.c. /s is
equivalent to 1.00 cm /h as follows
1 4.5 106
____________
100 3600 12.5 c.c./s
The discharge measured in c.c./s converted in cm / h is entered in col. 4 in the statement.

The calculations done to evaluate the infiltration rate are tabulated in the following statement.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8567 938 10
Mass Q mass
curve Mass Mass* Mass** SR mass Mass
rainfall curve curve SD curve SD mass curve F Infiltration
Sr. no. Time cm Q cm Q cm SR cm
cm cm cm rate cm
1 8–00 4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 4.00 4.00
2 –10 8 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.15 1.15 6.85 2.85
3 –20 12 0.15 0.15 0.15 2.35 2.65 9.35 2.50
4 –30 16 0.40 0.55 1.50 2.35 4.40 11.60 2.25
5 –40 20 0.59 1.14 1.83 2.35 6.32 13.68 2.08
6 –50 24 0.80 1.94 4.08 2.35 8.37 15.63 1.95
7 9–00 28 1.03 2.97 5.20 2.35 10.52 17.48 1.85
8 –10 32 1.28 4.25 6.14 2.35 12.74 19.26 1.78
9 –20 36 1.54 5.79 6.90 2.35 15.04 20.96 1.70
10 –30 40 1.80 7.59 7.47 2.35 17.41 22.59 1.63
11 –40 44 2.00 9.59 7.88 2.35 19.82 24.18 1.59
12 –50 48 2.18 11.77 8.14 2.35 22.26 25.74 1.56
13 10–00 52 2.30 14.07 8.30 2.35 24.72 27.28 1.54
14 –10 56 2.38 16.45 8.40 2.35 27.20 28.80 1.52
15 –20 60 2.46 18.91 8.43 2.35 29.69 30.31 1.51
16 –30 64 2.50 21.41 8.43 2.35 32.19 31.81 1.50
17 –40 68 2.50 23.91 8.43 2.35 34.69 33.31 1.50
18 –50 72 2.50 26.41 8.43 2.35 37.19 34.81 1.50
19 11–00 72 1.36 27.77 6.37 2.35 36.49 35.51 0.70
20 –10 72 0.98 28.75 4.94 2.35 36.04 35.96 0.45
21 –20 72 0.76 29.51 3.88 2.35 35.74 36.26 0.30
22 –30 72 0.64 30.15 3.04 2.35 35.54 36.46 0.20
23 –40 72 0.53 30.68 2.36 2.35 35.39 36.61 0.15
24 –50 72 0.46 31.14 1.80 2.35 35.29 36.71 0.10
25 12–00 72 0.37 31.51 1.38 2.35 35.24 36.76 0.05
26 –10 72 0.34 31.85 1.04 2.35 35.24 36.76 0.00
27 –20 72 0.31 32.16 0.73 2.35 35.24 36.76 0.00
28 –30 72 0.20 32.36 0.53 2.35 35.24 36.76 0.00
29 –40 72 0.15 32.51 0.15 2.35 35.24 36.74 0.00
30 –50 72 0.00 32.51 0.00 2.35 35.24 36.74 0.00
* Read from the graph in Fig. 5.16.

** Assumed
The experiment was started at 8:00 a.m. by starting sprinkling water at the rate of 4.00 cm / h
over the entire catchment at a uniform rate. There was no flow of water upto 8:10 a.m. since the
requirement of SR [Interception and depression storage] was to be met with.
INFILTRATION 113
It was assumed plot SR is equivalent to 2.35 cm. The discharge started flowing at 8:20 a.m.
but was very low because the requirement of SR was not fully met with. It was assumed that the
requirement of SR of 2.35 cm. was completely met with upto 8:20 a.m.
The discharge as it started at 8:20 went on increasing upto 10:30 a.m. and reached 2.50 cm and
remained constant from 10:30 a.m. upto 10:50 a.m.. This indicated that the infiltration rate has
reached a steady state.
From 10:50 a.m., sprinkling of water was stopped.
Naturally the discharge started reducing from 10:50 a.m. and was completely stopped at 12:50 p.m.
Fig. 5.15. shows the discharge observed.
The storage capacity SD of the channel w.r.t. discharge flowing in the channel is calculated from
the falling graph of discharge from 10:50 a.m. onwards and is shown in Fig. 5.16.
4.0
Discharge in cm / h
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00
Time in hours
Fig. 5.15 Discharge
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
Storage in cm
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Discharge in cm / h
Fig. 5.16 Discharge-Storage curve

4.0
Infiltration rate in cm / h
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 1.0
Time in hours
Fig. 5.17 Infiltration rate
The infiltration rate of the soil will be as

F = P – [Q + SD + SR]
Since SD is a mass curve, all calculations for F are done by preparing mass curves of P and SD
Q + SR. The mass curve of the infiltration thus worked is entered in col. 9 of the statement. The
infiltration rate w.r.t. time is entered in col. 10.
The infiltration rate thus calculated is shown in Fig. 5.17.
The infiltration rate ‘4 cm/h’ is maximum at the beginning. It goes on reducing following a curved
path with concavity upwards. It is constant ‘1.5 cm/h’ for some time indicating a steady state. Then it
goes on reducing. This curve is also having concavity upwards and finally it reduces to zero.
g 5.5 EXPRESSION OF INFILTRATION
The rate of infiltration is expressed as follows:

• An equation for the graph of the rate of infiltration
• Infiltration index
5.5.1 EQUATION
Infiltration rate is higher at the beginning. It goes on reducing w.r.t. time, and finally it attains a
steady rate as shown in Fig. 5.14.
Horton has suggested the following equation for the curve
f fc ( fo fc ) ekt
where, f Infiltration rate at time t
fo Initial infiltration rate
INFILTRATION 115
fc Final infiltration rate

k A constant
t Time in hours
when t 0, ekt 1 then f fo
when t , ekt 0 then f fc
Value of k is normally between 2 to 5.
Example 5.3
The value of k in the Horton’s equation for infiltration is 2. The maximum and the minimum rates
of infiltration are 2 cm/h and 0.5 cm/h. Plot the infiltration rate curve.
Solution:
The Horton’s equation will be:
f 0.5 (2.0 0.5) e2t 0.5 1.52t and the hourly rate of infiltration will be as under:
Serial no. Time (h) t 2t e 2t e2t 1.5 e2t f (cm/h)

1 0 0 0 2.000
2 0.5 1.0 2.718 0.368 0.551 1.051
3 1.0 2.0 7.389 0.135 0.203 0.703
4 1.5 3.0 20.085 0.049 0.074 0.574
5 2.0 4.0 54.598 0.018 0.027 0.527
6 2.5 5.0 148.413 0.007 0.010 0.510
The infiltration rate curve will be as shown in Fig. 5.18.
2
lInfiltration rate in mm/hour
f0.5(2.0 0.5)e2t
1
0 1 2 3
Time in hours
Fig. 5.18 Estimation of infiltration rate

5.5.2 INFILTRATION INDICES

For simplicity in calculations, the infiltration rate is expressed as a uniform average rate. This is
expressed in the following ways:
• index
• W index
• Wmin index
• fAV
5.5.2.1 ␾ index
The most common way of expressing infiltration rate is index.
Now, P E SR SD Q I
or, I P (E SR SD) Q
where, P Precipitation
E Evaporation
SR Surface retention (interception depression storage)
SD Surface detention (finally it flows as surface runoff)
Q Surface runoff
I Infiltration rate
Neglecting E, SR and SD, one can say that
index P Q
Indirectly, index includes all abstractions, e.g. evaporation, surface retention, and so on.
Figure 5.19 shows definition sketch of index.
60
Excess rainfall
50
Precipitation in mm/ hour
40
30
-index
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time in Hours
Fig. 5.19 Definition sketch of index

INFILTRATION 117
5.5.2.2 W index
W index is the rate of infiltration when all other abstractions are accounted, viz,
W index P (E SR SD Q)
Therefore, W index index
5.5.2.3 Wmin index
It is the minimum rate of infiltration when a uniform stage after stabilization is attained.
Wmin index after it is stabilized
k ndex,
i where k will be always less than one
5.5.2.4 fAV
This approach is a slight modification of index. In a storm, when there is no precipitation or
when the precipitation is very low, infiltration is still going on because of the previous high pre-
cipitation. A provision is, thus, made for this infiltration when precipitation is very low from the
previous precipitation when it is high. Consider a storm as shown in Fig. 5.20.
No rain period adjusted

Precipitation in mm/hour
Rainfall exces
Extra period of fav
fav
No rain period
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time in hours
Fig. 5.20 Definition diagram of fAV
A provision for infiltration when there is no precipitation, i.e. between 4 to 5 h, is made from the
storm precipitation between 3 to 4 h and hence is deducted from the excess rainfall from 3 to 4 h. fAV
is calculated and then the excess rainfall is worked out. It is slightly less than index.
Example 5.4
The average precipitation during a storm over a catchment area of 10 km2 is as follow:
1. 40 mm/h for 1 h
2. 60 mm/h for 1 h
3. 30 mm/h for 1 h
The resulting hydrograph was plotted on a graph paper with the following scale.
1 mc 1 h on x-axis
1 mc 10 m3/s on y-axis
If the area of the hydrograph was measured as 30 cm2, find the index of infiltration.
Solution:
Total runoff observed 30 10 3600
1.08 106 m3
Runoff from the storm assuming rate of infiltration to be
(60 ) 1 ____________

(40 ) 1 ___________ (30 ) 1
( ____________
1000 1000 1000 ) 10 10 6
(130 3) 104 m3
Therefore, (130 3) 104 1.08 106

3 22
7.33 mm/h
Example 5.5
The storm over a catchment of 50 km2 was having the following intensity:
1. 40 mm/h for 1 h
2. 70 mm/h for 2 h
3. 30 mm/h for 1 h
The catchment area had infiltration rate as follows:
a. 20% area 10 mm/h
b. 60% area 15 mm/h
c. Balance impervious
Find the runoff due to the storm.
Solution:
A) The runoff from the area having 10 mm/h will be
(7010) 2 ___________
(40 10) 1 ___________ (3010) 1
( ____________
1000 1000 1000 ) 0.2 50 10 6
30 120 20
_____________
1000 0.2 50 106 1.7 106 m3
INFILTRATION 119
B) The runoff from the area having 15 mm/h will be
(70 15) 2 ____________

(40 15) 1 ____________ (30 15) 1
( ____________
1000 1000 1000 ) 0.6 50 10 6
25 110 15
_____________
1000 30 106 4.5 106 m3
C) The runoff from impermeable area will be
70 2 ______
40 1 ______ 30 1
( ______
1000 1000 1000 ) 0.2 50 10
6
_____
210
1000 10 106 2.1 106 m3
Therefore, total runoff 1.7 106 4.5 106 2.1 106

8.3 106 m3
Example 5.6
A catchment area having an average rate of infiltration of 15 mm/h experienced the storm of the
following intensities.
1. 50 mm/h for 2 h
__
1
2. 30 mm/h for 2 h
The resulting runoff was 10 106 m3.
Find the catchment area.
Solution:
(30 15) 0.5
(50 15) 2 ______________
[ ____________
1000 1000 ] A 10 10 10
6 6
70 7.5
Therefore, ( ________
1000 ) A 10
10 1000
_________
A 77.5 129.03 km2
Example 5.7
For a catchment area of 12 km2, a 7-h storm was as follows:
Ti (h) m e 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Precipitation (mm) 20 40 0 30 50 40 5
The discharge observed at the gauging site was as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Discharge (m3/s) 0 7 17 32 66 55 45 36 28 21 15 10 6 3 1 0
Assume evaporation loss to be 0.6 mm/h/m2and seepage loss equal to 50% of the evaporation loss.
Find the index fAV index and W index.
Solution:
Total precipitation (20 40 0 30 50 40 5) 185 mm
∑ Discharge observed
(0 7 17 32 66 55 45 36 28 21 15 10 6 3 1 0) 342 m3/s
index
Assume index x mm/h
Assuming that the value of index will be more than 5 mm/s, the last rainfall slab of 5 mm/s
is neglected.
(20 x) 1 (40 x) 1 (30 x) 1 (50 x) 1 (40 x) 1
{ ________________________________________________________________
1000 } 12 10 6
342 60 60
3.6
________
342
⬖ 180 5x 12
342 3.6
_________
5x 180 12 180 102.6
__________
180102.6
Therefore, x 5 15.48 mm/h
fAV
Assume fAV y mm/h
Even though there is no precipitation between 2 and 3 h, there will be infiltration. This is taken
into consideration. So also the precipitation between 6 and 7 h is far less than the fAV (expected).
Infiltration during this period is also taken into consideration.
(185 7y) 12 106

____________________
1000 342 60 60
Therefore, fAV y 11.77 mm/h
W index
Assume W index z mm/h
Evaporation loss seepage loss 1.5 5 0.6 4.5 mm
(180 4.5 5z)
_______________
1000 12 106 342 60 60
INFILTRATION 121
Therefore, W index z 14.58 mm/h

Figure 5.21 shows the three indices thus worked.
Fig. 5.21 Estimation of indices
Example 5.8
The rate of precipitation in mm/h observed over a catchment of 30 km2 for successive 30 min is as
follows:
16, 20, 24, 36, 28, 12, 4
If the value of 22 mm/h, find
(1) Total precipitation and (2) Runoff in ha. m
Solution:
Since the precipitation observed is for a duration of 1/2 hour, the total precipitation will be as follows:
__
1 ____
140
2 (16 20 24 36 28 12 4) 2 70 mm
Since the rate of infiltration is higher than the first, second, sixth and seventh slab, all the precipi-
tation will be lost in the infiltration and the runoff will be only from third, fourth and fifth slab. It
will be as follows:
__
1
Runoff 2 [ (24 22)(36 22)(28 22)]
__
1
2 ( 2 14 6) 22 11 mm
11 30 106
_____________
1000 33 104 m3 33 ha m
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define infiltration. Explain the process of infiltration.
2. Discuss the factors affecting infiltration.
3. Explain with the help of neat sketches the flooding-type infiltrometers. What are their advan-
tages and disadvantages?
4. Explain sprinkling-type infiltrometer.
5. Discuss the infiltration indices.
a. Dominant abstraction b. Disadvantages of tube infiltrometers
c. Horton’s equation of infiltration rate d. Estimation of index
e. Excess rainfall f. Limitations of sprinkling-type infiltrometer
7. Differentiate between the following:
a. Infiltration and percolation b. Single-tube infiltrometer and double-tube
infiltrometer
c. index and fAV index d. W index and Wmin index
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1. The quantity of water added to a double-ring infiltrometer with 1.0-m inside diameter at
30-min interval to keep the water level constant is as under:
Time (min) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Quantity of water added (l) 0 9.5 9.0 8.4 8.0 7.9 7.9
Find, (i) Rate of infiltration for every 30 min and plot the graph
(ii) Average rate of infiltration
Ans: (ii) 11.49 mm/h/m2
2. The value of K in the Horton’s equation for infiltration is 2.2. And the maximum and mini-
mum rates of infiltration are 2.1 cm/h and 0.5 cm/h. Plot the infiltration rate curve.
3. A catchment area of 13 km2 experiences a storm of average precipitation as: (1) 45 mm/h for
1 h, (2) 50 mm/h for 1.5 h, (3) 25 mm/h for 1 h and (4) 8 mm/h for 1 h.
The resulting hydrograph was plotted on a graph with the following scales:
1 mc 1 h on x-axis
1 mc 10 m3/s on y-axis
The area under the hydrograph thus plotted was measured and was found to be 40 cm2. Find
the index of infiltration.
Ans: 10 mm/h
4. The storm over a catchment of 60 km2 was having the intensity as: (1) 45 mm/h for 1 h,
(2) 60 mm/h for 2 h and (3) 35 mm/h for 1 h.
The catchment area had infiltration rates as under:
(a) for 25% area 10 mm/h
(b) for 50% area 15 mm/h
(c) Balance impervious
Find the runoff due to this storm.
Ans: 8.53 106 m3
INFILTRATION 123
5. For a catchment area of 12 km2, a storm of 6-h duration was observed as under:
Time (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Precipitation (mm) 22 41 0 32 55 6
The discharge observed at the gauging site was measured as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3 0 8 19 34 68 58 48 40 25 19 15 11 6 3 0
Discharge (m /s)
Assume the evaporation loss to be 1 mm/day/m2 and the seepage loss equal to 50% of the
evaporation loss. Find, index, fAV and W index.
Ans: index 10.95 mm/h
fAV index 7.30 mm/h
W index 9.45 mm/h

1. Because of mulch and litter, the infiltration rate
(a) Reduces (b) Increases
(c) Has no effect
2. When the slope of the ground is more than 16°, it has an effect in
(a) Increasing the rate of infiltration (b) Reducing the rate of infiltration
(c) Has no effect on the rate of
infiltration
3. The rate of infiltration observed on a single-tube infiltrometer is
(a) Less than that observed on a (b) More than that observed on a double-ring
double-ring infiltrometer. infiltrometer.
(c) Equal to that observed on a
double-ring infiltrometer.
4. The curve of the infiltration rate is
(a) Concave upwards (b) Concave downwards
(c) A straight line
5. Wmin index will always be
(a) Less than index (b) More than index
(c) Equal to index (d) None of the above
6. Which of the following will have the maximum rate of infiltration?
(a) Forest area (b) Grazed land
(c) Rock outcrops (d) Concrete Pavement
7. Horton’s equation of infiltration rate is given by

(a) f fc ( fo fc) ekt (b) f fc ( fo fc) ekt
kt
(c) f fc ( fo fc) e (d) f fc ( fo fc) ekt

1. b 2. b 3. b 4. a 5. a 6. a 7. a
*** ***
Hydrograph
6
Chapter Outline
6.1 Definition 6.6 Derivation of unit hydrograph

6.2 Separation of base flow 6.7 Averaging of unit hydrograph
6.3 Excess rainfall 6.8 Synthetic unit hydrograph
6.4 Unit hydrograph 6.9 Distribution graph
6.5 Changing of time of unit 6.10 Triangular unit hydrograph
precipitation 6.11 Instantaneous unit hydrograph
g 6.1 DEFINITION
A hydrograph may be defined as a graphical representation of time versus discharge (Fig. 6.1).
6.1.1 UNITS
The unit for time on the x-axis may be:
1. Hours
2. Days
3. Months
Fig. 6.1 Hydrograph
This unit is selected depending upon the purpose and the nature of the study. If the study is
floods or flood routing, then the scale may be in hours. If the study is for estimation of runoff for a
year, then it may be in days or in months.
On the y-axis, the unit for discharge is m3/s. Sometimes, the discharge is expressed in cm/s,
i.e. the depth of water per unit area of the catchment area per second expressed in cm/s/m2.
6.1.2 AREA OF HYDROGRAPH

The area under the hydrograph is the runoff, i.e. the volume of water (Fig. 6.2).
Example 6.1
The scales for the hydrograph are
1 cm 1 h on x-axis
1 cm 10 m3/s on y-axis
If the area under the hydrograph is 45 cm2, (vide Fig. 6.2) find the runoff.
Fig. 6.2 Resultant hydrograph

HYDROGRAPH 127
Solution:
Volume of water 45 (1 3600) (1 10) m3
1620 103 m3 1.62 106 m3 1.62 million m3 162 ha m
6.1.3 ISOLATED STORM
When subsequent storm does not occur before the runoff of the previous storm ceases, that storm
is called isolated storm (Fig. 6.3).
Fig. 6.3 Hydrograph due to an isolated storm
6.1.4 COMPLEX STORM

When subsequent storm occurs before the runoff of the previous storm ceases, such combined
storms are called complex storm (Fig. 6.4).
Fig. 6.4 Hydrograph due to a complex storm

Fig. 6.5 Hydrograph analysis
6.1.5 HYDROGRAPH OF AN ISOLATED STORM

The hydrograph of an isolated storm is represented as follows:
This is the normal way of presenting a hydrograph.
The hyetograph or the total excess rainfall uniformly distributed over the entire catchment area
is shown with an axis parallel to the x-axis of the hydrograph, but the y-axis from a distance and in
the reverse direction (Fig. 6.5).
The discharge Qb is the discharge in the river before the storm. This does not include the storm
runoff. This discharge is known as base flow or basic flow or sustained flow or fair weather runoff.
Thus, a hydrograph covers the base flow as well as storm runoff.
6.1.6 ANALYSIS OF A HYDROGRAPH DUE TO AN ISOLATED STORM

The shape of the storm hydrograph can be analysed as follows:
1. The rising curve AC also known as concentration limb starts at A. From this point, the flood
hydrograph starts. This is also the beginning of excess rainfall. This curve is normally steep and
is concave upwards from A to B, and from B to C it is convex upwards. Point B is, thus, called
the point of contraflexure or point of inflection. The shape of the rising curve depends upon the
catchment characteristics as well as the storm precipitation.
2. BD is the crest segment with the two parts BC and CD having curvature convex upwards.
3. The peak discharge is at C.
4. The falling curve starts from the point C up to E, i.e. from the point of peak discharge to E. The
curve is convex upwards from C to D and then concave upwards from D to E. Point D is also
called point of contraflexure or point of inflection.
The nature of curve changes at the points of contraflexure, viz. B and D. Point D is the point
up to which the surface runoff from the most distant point on the ridge of the catchment area
reaches the gauging site. This time, i.e. from A to D, is called the concentration time or the time
of concentration.
From point D onwards, there is no addition to the surface runoff. However, when the river
flows, there is some water stored in the flowing river channel. The discharge at the gauging site is
HYDROGRAPH 129
due to draining of this water stored in the river channel, i.e. draining of surface retention, and hence
the nature of the recession curve is always the same for a specific catchment. It depends only on the
basin characteristics of the catchment area and is, therefore, independent of the precipitation.
The curve from D to E is called recession curve.
An equation in the following form is derived for the recession curve:
Qt+1 Qt K (tt0)
where, Qt Discharge in m3/s at time t
Qt+1 Discharge in m3/s at time t0
K A constant known as recession constant
By observing recession curves of a number of storm runoffs of a specific catchment, a
master recession curve may be prepared with the help of a tracing paper. This is also known as
composite recession curve, master depletion curve or type curve. Point E denotes the end of sur-
face runoff due to the storm precipitation. The discharge in the stream after E is again the base
flow. It is rather difficult to locate the point E. (Theoretically, the recession curve is tangential
to the base flow at E.)
Thus, the storm hydrograph is from A to E and the time interval from A to E is known as base
period. It may be noted that the period for the rising curve is much less than that of the falling curve.
g 6.2 SEPARATION OF BASE FLOW
The flood hydrograph observed during the storm is a combination of the flood runoff and the base
flow. It is necessary to study the excess rainfall and its corresponding runoff from a catchment. Hence,
it is necessary to separate the base flow from the combined hydrograph to arrive at flood runoff.
When the flood occurs, the water level in the river rises substantially. The groundwater inflow,
if any, depends mainly on the difference between the level of groundwater table and water surface
level in the channel. It is a major portion of the base flow. When the water level in the channel rises,
this inflow may reduce during the floods and may be less than what it was at the beginning.
A typical hydrograph with base flow is shown in Fig. 6.6.
Fig. 6.6 Hydrograph and base flow

6.2.1 PROCEDURE TO SEPARATE BASE FLOW

All the methods for the separation of base flow follow a step-by-step procedure as indicated
below:
1. Locate the point A
2. Locate the point E
3. Join A and E by a suitable curve
The discharge below the line AE is the base flow and above it is the flood runoff.
Normally, locating A is not difficult because there is a sudden rise in the hydrograph from this
point.
The different methods to separate base flow are as follows:
6.2.1.1 Simple judgement

Make a guess. Locate A and E by judgement and join these two points by a straight line (Fig. 6.7).
The discharge below the line AE is the base flow and above it is the flood runoff.
Fig. 6.7 Base flow separation by simple judgement
6.2.1.2 Equation of the recession curve

Locate A. Then locate E from the following equation:
t0 0.84 A0 2
where, t0 Time in hours from the peak discharge, i.e. the point C to E
A Catchment area in km2
Knowing the value of t0, E can be located. Join A and E by a straight line (Fig. 6.8).
The discharge below AE is the base flow and above AE is the flood runoff.
HYDROGRAPH 131
Fig. 6.8 Base flow separation by the equation of recession curve
6.2.1.3 Master depletion curve

Trace the master depletion curve of the catchment area on a paper and try to match it with the
hydrograph in question and then locate E. Join A and E by a straight line (Fig. 6.9).
The discharge below AE is the base flow and above AE is the storm runoff.
Fig. 6.9 Base flow separation by master recession curve
6.2.1.4 Semi-log analysis

Plot the recession curve including some part of the base flow on a semi-log paper (Fig. 6.10).
Since the recession curve is plotted on a semi-log paper, it will be represented by two straight
lines in the region close to E. There will be a sudden change in slope at a point. This will be
Fig. 6.10 Base flow separation by semi-log analysis
E since the recession curve and the base flow curve have different equations and hence will
have different slopes.
Join AE by a straight line.
The flow below AE is the base flow and above AE it is the flood runoff.
6.2.1.5 Recession discharge analysis

Plot a graph of Qn versus Qn+1 and the graph will change its nature from E. Here Qn is the discharge at any
time on the recession curve and Qn1 is the discharge immediately after Qnafter a time lag (Fig. 6.11).
Locate E. Join AE by a straight line.
Flow below AE is the base flow and above AE it is the surface runoff.
Fig. 6.11 Base flow separation by recession discharge analysis

HYDROGRAPH 133
6.2.1.6 Extension of base flow graph

Extend forward the base flow graph, prior to storm, from A up to the peak discharge by a straight
line. Similarly, extend backward the base flow up to the peak point by a straight line. Join these two
straight lines smoothly by making a good judgement (Fig. 6.12).
The flow below this line AE is the base flow and above it is flood discharge.
Fig. 6.12 Base flow separation by extension of base flow graph
6.2.2 REVIEW OF THE METHODS

Firstly, all these methods are arbitrary. Not all may be applicable for a specific hydrograph. Proper
judgement will have to be made before applying any method.
Secondly, if there is some error in assessing the base flow, the result will be as follows:
1. The base flow time T will slightly change.
2. The runoff volume also will slightly change.
However, it will not make much difference in the storm runoff.
6.2.3 BASE FLOW SEPARATION OF A COMPLEX STORM

Separating the base flow from flood hydrograph resulting from a complex storm is a difficult job.
The basic principles are the same and it is a matter of experience.
Figure 6.13 shows the base flow separation for a complex storm.
Example 6.2
Analyse the flood hydrograph (Fig. 6.14).
Solution:
The hydrograph is during an isolated storm. The base flow is separated from the flood hydro-
graph. The base flow goes on reducing and is negative for some period. It then increases and
becomes positive and reaches the point E.
Fig. 6.13 Base flow separation of a complex storm
Fig. 6.14 Combined flood hydrograph

HYDROGRAPH 135
Fig. 6.15 Derived flood hydrograph
The negative flow indicates that prior to the storm there is flow from groundwater to the river
channel. However, during floods the water level in the river channel is raised abruptly, and hence
water flows from river channel to groundwater, i.e. the base flow is negative.
The flood hydrograph will be as shown in Fig. 6.15.
g 6.3 EXCESS RAINFALL
When the base flow is separated from the combined hydrograph, the storm runoff will be arrived
at. The excess rainfall causing this storm runoff can be calculated as follows:
The hydrograph of the storm runoff is plotted and the volume of the storm runoff is calculated
by measuring the area under the storm hydrograph and also taking into consideration the scales
adopted for plotting the hydrograph for time and discharge on x- and y-axes as discussed in Sub-
section 6.1.2.
Assuming a value for index, the storm runoff is also calculated from the storm precipitation in terms
of and equating it to the storm runoff already calculated. The value of can thus be calculated.
Example 6.3
Calculate the excess rainfall when
P1, P2, P3 The storm rainfall in cm/h
3 cm/h; 5 cm/h; 4 cm/h
A Catchment area 50 km2
AH Area of storm hydrograph 100 cm2
S1 Scale of time adopted to plot flood hydrograph: 1 cm 1 h

S2 Scale of Q adopted to plot flood hydrograph: 1 cm 10 m3/s
Fig. 6.16 Flood hydrograph and excess rainfall
Solution:
Assume index of infiltration x cm/h.
Thus,
(3 x) 1 (5 x) 1 (4 x) 1 50 106
______________________________________________ 100 3600 10
100
100 3600 100 10 ____
_____________________ 360
12 3x 50 7.2
50 106
Therefore, 3x 12 7.2 4.8
Therefore, x 1.6 cm/h
And excess rainfall will be 1.4 cm/h; 3.4 cm/h; 2.4 cm/h.
It may be noted that the excess rainfall and the flood hydrograph start at the same time
(Fig 6.16).
g 6.4 UNIT HYDROGRAPH
For identical precipitation, hydrographs observed for different catchments will have different
shapes. This is because the shape of the hydrograph of every catchment depends on the character-
istics of the catchment.
An attempt is made to correlate the hydrograph of each catchment with the precipitation.
This is done by the unit hydrograph theory.The theory of unit hydrograph was first presented
by L. K. Sherman in Engineering News Record in April 1932. Originally, this theory was known
HYDROGRAPH 137
Fig. 6.17 Definition sketch of unit hydrograph
as unit graph. However, this title unit graph was misinterpreted, and hence it was modified as
unit hydrograph.
Subsequent to the introduction of this theory by Sherman, it underwent a number of modifica-
tions, but the basic principle as presented by Sherman remained the same.
6.4.1 DEFINITION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH

When a unit excess rainfall occurs uniformly distributed over a catchment area, then the resultant
hydrograph is known as unit hydrograph (Fig. 6.17).
6.4.2 DEFINITIONS INVOLVED IN UNIT HYDROGRAPH THEORY

The theory of unit hydrograph involves the following definitions.
1. The excess rainfall means the precipitation after all the abstractions, such as interception,
evaporation, depression storage, infiltration, etc., are met with.
2. The excess rainfall is 1 unit. This unit may be 1 cm or 5 cm. If the unit is 1 cm, then the excess
rainfall may be 1 cm/h for 1 h, or 1/2 cm/h for 2 h, or 2 cm/h for 1/2 h. So that the total excess
rainfall will be 1 cm, i.e. 1 unit.
3. The duration of the excess rainfall should be sufficiently less than the time of concentration. Prefer-
t0
__
ably, t 4 .
4. The base period T is the total time of the flood hydrograph at the gauging site.
6.4.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The unit of precipitation as well as intensity of the excess precipitation are the controlling
parameters. The unit hydrograph is, therefore, specified as ‘1 cm–1 h unit hydrograph’. Here
the unit precipitation is 1 cm and the period of precipitation is 1 h. (Naturally, the intensity of
precipitation is 1 cm/h.)
The surface runoff, in case of a 1 cm–1 h unit hydrograph from a catchment area A km2, will
be as below:
The surface runoff (1 cm/100) A 106m 3
( A/100) 106m 3
A 104m 3.
6.4.4 ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH THEORY

The following assumptions are made in the unit hydrograph theory:
1. The excess rainfall is uniformly distributed over the entire catchment area.
2. The base period T of the unit hydrograph depends on the duration of rainfall and the basic
characteristics of the catchment and not on the intensity of rainfall.
3. The combined effect of all the physical characteristics of the catchment, viz. its slope, shape,
Manning’s coefficient, and so on, is reflected in the shape of the hydrograph.
4. The unit hydrograph coordinates are time invariant. This means that the coordinates do not
change with rerpect to period. This means that the hydrograph coordinates will remain unchanged
for any season, any month, any day or even any year.
5. The coordinates of the resulting surface runoff hydrograph are directly proportional to the inten-
sity of rainfall. This is known as principle of linearity or principle of superposition.
This will be clear from the following example (6.4).
Example 6.4
The unit hydrograph coordinates of a 1 cm–1 h unit hydrograph are as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
Discharge (m /s)
Find (A) Flood hydrograph for a storm of 2 cm/h for 1 h.

(B) Thec atchment.
Solution:
(A) For the required flood hydrograph, the time of precipitation is the same as that of unit
hydrograph, but the intensity of precipitation is double that of the unit hydrograph.
The hourly unit hydrograph coordinates are for a precipitation of 1 cm/h for 1 h. The
flood hydrograph coordinates for a precipitation of 2 cm/h for 1 h will be double the coor-
dinates of unit hydrographs, since the intensity of precipitation of the flood hydrograph
required is double the intensity of precipitation of the unit hydrograph.
The flood hydrograph coordinates will be as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge(m3/s) 0 12 26 44 32 22 14 8 4 2 0
The unit hydrograph and the flood hydrograph will be as shown in Fig. 6.18.
HYDROGRAPH 139
Fig. 6.18 Derived hydrograph
(B) By definition of the unit hydrograph, the precipitation over the entire catchment is 1.0 cm.
Therefore, the total expected runoff from catchment A would be A 106 1/100 m3.
A 104m 3
The runoff calculated from the unit hydrograph would be (hourly ordinates) 3600
These two figures should be equal
Therefore, A 104 82 3600
A 29.52 km2.
6.4.5 USE OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH TO DERIVE FLOOD HYDROGRAPH

The flood hydrograph can be derived from a unit hydrograph if the excess rainfall storm is known.
For this purpose, the principle of linearity is used.
Example 6.5
Find the flood hydrograph from a catchment for excess rainfall of 2 cm/h for 1 h followed by
4 cm/h for 1 h followed by 3 cm/h for 1 h.
Given 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph coordinates
Ti (h) m e 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
Discharge (m /s)
Solution:
The flood hydrograph of the excess precipitation mentioned will thus be a summation of three
flood hydrographs, viz.
i. Hydrograph due to 2 cm/h

ii. Hydrograph due to 4 cm/h
iii. Hydrograph due to 3 cm/h
i. The coordinates of the flood hydrograph due to 2 cm/h for 1 h will be as follows:
Time (h)
Serial no. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Unit hydrograph 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
coordinates (m3/s)
2 Flood hydrograph 0 12 26 44 32 22 14 8 4 2 0
coordinates (m3/s)
ii. The flood hydrograph coordinates for 4 cm/h for 1 h excess rainfall would be as follows:
Time (h)
Serial no. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Unit hydrograph 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
coordinates (m3/s)
coordinates (m3/s)
This hydrograph will start 1 h after the hydrograph due to 2 cm/h.

iii. The flood hydrograph coordinates due to 3 cm/h for 1 h excess rainfall would be as follows:
Time (h)
Serial no. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Unit hydrograph 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
coordinates (m3/s)
coordinates (m3/s)
This hydrograph will start 2 h later than the hydrograph due to 2 cm/h and 1 h later than the
hydrograph due to 4 cm/h.
Multiplications of unit hydrograph coordinates by the intensity of respective precipita-
tion are because of the assumed principle of linearity.
The combined hydrograph can be calculated by simple addition of these three hydrographs,
considering the proper time lag, as follows:
Hydrograph Time (h)

3
Serial no. coordinates (m /s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 Due to 2 cm/h 0 12 26 44 32 22 14 8 4 2 0
2 Due to 4 cm/h 0 24 52 88 64 44 28 16 8 4 0
3 Due to 3 cm/h 0 18 39 66 48 33 21 12 6 3 0
4 Combined 0 12 50 114 159 152 106 69 41 22 10 3 0
HYDROGRAPH 141
Fig. 6.19 Derivation of flood hydrograph
Fig. 6.19 shows the combined flood hydrograph.

It may be noted that the base period of the resultant flood hydrograph (Fig. 6.19) is equal to
T x t 10 3 1 12 h
where, T Base period of unit hydrograph

x Total time of excess rainfall storm
t Time of excess rainfall in unit hydrograph
Example 6.6
Derive a flood hydrograph from a 1 cm–1 h unit hydrograph for the storm of excess rainfall of
2 cm/h for 1 h followed by 4 cm/h for 2 h then there is a gap of 1 h then 1 cm/h for 1 h.
The 1 cm–1 h unit hydrograph coordinates are as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3
Discharge (m /s) 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
Solution:
The calculations for the flood hydrograph are as per the table below. It may be noted that the
precipitation of 4 cm/h for 2 h is split into two parts each of 4 cm/h for 1 h and their hydrographs
worked separately. The hydrograph due to 1 cm/h precipitation is taken after a gap of 2 h since
there is a gap of 1 h after the 4-cm/h precipitation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 3 3 3 3
Time (h) A (m /s) B (m /s) C (m /s) D (m /s) E (m /s) F (m3/s)
0 0 0 – – – 0
1 6 12 0 – – 12
2 13 26 24 0 – 50
3 22 44 52 24 – 120
4 16 32 88 52 0 172
5 11 22 64 88 6 180
6 7 14 44 64 13 135
7 4 8 28 44 22 102
8 2 4 16 28 16 64
9 1 2 8 16 11 37
10 0 0 4 8 7 19
11 – – 0 4 4 8
12 – – – 0 2 2
13 – – – – 1 1
14 – – – – 0 0
Figure 6.20 shows the computed flood hydrograph.
Fig. 6.20 Computation of flood hydrograph

HYDROGRAPH 143
Here, A 1 cm–1 h unit hydrograph coordinates

B Hydrograph due to 2-cm/h precipitation
C Hydrograph due to 4-cm/h precipitation
D Hydrograph due to 4-cm/h precipitation
E Hydrograph due to 1-cm/h precipitation
F Resulting flood hydrograph
The flood hydrograph is as per column F with maximum discharge of 180 m3/s.
It may be noted that the base period of the flood hydrograph is 14 h, which is equal to
10 5 1 14. (10 is the base period of the unit hydrograph, 5 is the period of storm.)
6.4.6 S HYDROGRAPH
Consider a 1 cm–1 h unit hydrograph as follows: (Fig. 6.21).
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge (m3/s) 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
Fig. 6.21 Unit hydrograph
Now imagine that the unit excess rainfall of the same intensity occurs for a period that tends to
infinity means the excess rainfall of that intensity occurs continuously up to infinite time.
This excess precipitation tending to infinity can be divided into time intervals equal to unit
hydrograph excess precipitation of 1 cm/h for 1 h one after another, tending to infinity.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 cm/h 1 cm/h 1 cm/h 1 cm/h 1 cm/h 1 cm/h
→∞
Table 6.1 Resulting ‘S’ hydrograph

Discharge (m3/s) due to each slab Total
resulting
Time hydrograph
(h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 (m3/s)
0 0 0
1 6 0 6
2 13 6 0 19
3 22 13 6 0 41
4 16 22 13 6 0 57
5 11 16 22 13 6 0 68
6 7 11 16 22 13 6 0 75
7 4 7 11 16 22 13 6 0 79
8 2 4 7 11 16 22 13 6 0 81
9 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 13 6 0 82
10 0 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 13 6 0 82
11 0 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 13 6 82
12 0 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 13 82
13 0 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 82
14 0 1 2 4 7 11 16 82
→
→ⴥ
Naturally, each slab of excess precipitation will have one hydrograph, which is equivalent to
unit hydrograph one after another with a time lag of 1 h as follows:
The resulting hydrograph coordinates will be as shown in Table 6.1.
The S hydrograph coordinates will be as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Constant value of

82 m3/s tending
Q (m3/s) 0 6 19 41 57 68 75 79 81 82 82 82 82 to infinity
The graphical representation will be as shown in Fig. 6.22.

The resulting hydrograph resembles the letter S. Hence, it is called S hydrograph.
Thus, an S hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph observed at a catchment outlet, when
the excess precipitation uniformly distributed over the entire catchment occurs for a period which
tends to infinity.
Note the following:
1. The S hydrograph is a mass curve.
2. The S hydrograph discharge is constant (82) after the base period T (10 h).
3. The constant value of discharge is the summation of all the unit hydrograph coordinates (82 m3/s).
4. Being a mass curve, it will not have negative slope at any point. The slope is horizontal after
the base period T.
It may also be noted here that, in practice, there are so many errors committed in observing the
discharge flowing in a river, and as such the S curve plotted from the field observations is normally
not a smooth curve as shown in Fig. 6.23.
In such case, a smooth curve is drawn and used for further calculations.
HYDROGRAPH 145
Fig. 6.22 Definition sketch of S hydrograph
Fig. 6.23 Modification of S hydrograph
6.4.7 LIMITATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH THEORY

The limitations of the unit hydrograph theory are as follows:
1. The basic assumption that the excess rainfall is uniformly distributed over the entire area may
not be practicable. It is very difficult to have this condition fulfilled in practice.
2. The principle of linearly assumed is not correct.
3. The unit hydrograph theory is not applicable for surface runoff originated from snow and ice.
4. The unit hydrograph theory is applicable to in-bank floods only. If the flood water overtops the
bank, this theory will not be applicable.
5. The unit hydrograph theory is applicable for catchments less then 5000 km2.
6. The theory is not applicable to narrow elongated catchments because it is not possible to have a
uniform precipitation over the entire catchment.
7. The theory is not applicable if there are storages on the channel or on its tributaries in the catch-
ment upstream of the gauging station.
g 6.5 CHANGING OF TIME OF UNIT PRECIPITATION
At times, the time of excess precipitation in case of a unit hydrograph, keeping the unit precipita-
tion the same, is required to be changed depending upon the storm period t.
This time of excess precipitation may be increased or decreased.
6.5.1 INCREASE IN THE TIME OF UNIT PRECIPITATION

Suppose the unit hydrograph of 1 h–1 cm precipitation is available as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
(m3/s)
A 2 h–1 cm unit hydrograph is required. (Intensity of precipitation will be 1/2 cm/h for 2 h.) This
can be derived by four methods as follows:
6.5.1.1 Method 1
The step-by-step procedure is as follows:
1. Plot the given 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph.
2. Plot the same 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph by a time lag of 1 h.
3. Add together these two flood hydrograph coordinates. Thus, resultant hydrograph after addition
will be a 2 h–2 cm hydrograph (Fig. 6.24).
4. Divide the resultant hydrograph by 2 to arrive at the required 2 h–1 cm hydrograph (The intensity of
precipitation will be 1/2 cm per hour for 2 h.) This procedure will be clear from Table 6.2.
The same procedure can also be followed graphically.
This new flood hydrograph will be 2 h–1 cm unit hydrograph with an intensity of 1/2 cm/h for
2 h, resulting into unit precipitation of 1 cm.
It should be noted that,
1. Maximum discharge has reduced.
2. The base period has increased by 1 h (2 1 1 h).
3. The total of the new unit hydrograph coordinates (2 h–1 cm) remains the same (82 m3/s).
HYDROGRAPH 147
Table 6.2 Increasing time of unit precipitation

1 2 3 4 534 6
Unit Hydrograph
coordinates Required unit
Unit Hydrograph after a lag of 1 h hydrograph
Serial no. Time (h) coordinates (m3/s) (m3/s) Total (m3/s) (m3/s)
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 6 0 6 3
3 2 13 6 19 9.5
4 3 22 13 35 17.5
5 4 16 22 38 19.0
6 5 11 16 27 13.5
7 6 7 11 18 9.0
8 7 4 7 11 5.5
9 8 2 4 6 3.0
10 9 1 2 3 1.5
11 10 0 1 1 0.5
12 11 0 0 0 0
3 3 3
Total 82 m /s 82 m /s 164 m /s 82 m3/s
Fig. 6.24 Method 1 for increasing the time of unit precipitation
6.5.1.2 Method 2
The same procedure can be followed by a different step-by-step procedure as follows:
1. Plot the given 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph.
2. Divide these unit hydrograph coordinates by 2, so that a 1 h–1/2 cm hydrograph is obtained.
3. Plot this 1 h–1/2 cm hydrograph by a time lag of 1 h.
4. Add these two 1 h–1/2 cm hydrographs to arrive at the required 2 h–1 cm unit hydrograph.

1 2 3 4 534
Unit hydrograph
Unit hydrograph coordinates
Unit hydrograph coordinates divided by 2, with Total
coordinates divided by 2, a time lag of required unit
Serial no. Time (h) (m3/s) (m3/s) 1 h (m3/s) hydrograph (m3/s)
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 6 3 0 3
3 2 13 6.5 3 9.5
4 3 22 11.0 6.5 17.5
5 4 16 8.0 11.0 19.0
6 5 11 5.5 8.0 13.5
7 6 7 3.5 5.5 9.0
8 7 4 2.0 3.5 5.5
9 8 2 1.0 2.0 3.0
10 9 1 0.5 1.0 1.5
11 10 0 0 0.5 0.5
12 11 0 0 0 0
Total 82 41 41 82
This procedure will be clear from Table 6.3.

This procedure can also be followed graphically as shown in Fig. 6.25.
It can be seen that the results obtained by following the procedures mentioned in Sections
6.5.1.1 and 6.5.1.2 are identical.
Use of S hydrograph
S hydrograph can also be used to increase the time of precipitation.

HYDROGRAPH 149
6.5.1.3 Method 3
The step-by-step procedure will be as follows:
1. Prepare an S hydrograph of 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph and plot the S hydrograph.
2. Plot the same S hydrograph by a time lag of 2 h, say S1.
3. Deduct the second, i.e. S1 hydrograph from the first one S.
4. After deducting S1 hydrograph from S hydrograph, divide the resultant hydrograph by 2 to arrive
__
1
at the required 2 h–1/2 cm unit hydrograph. The intensity of precipitation will be 2 c m/h.
The procedure will be clear from Table 6.4.
The same procedure can also be followed graphically as shown in Fig. 6.26.
Table 6.4 Increasing time of unit precipitation by S curve

1 2 3 4 5 6 (4 5)/2
1
S hydrograph Required unit
Unit hydrograph S hydrograph coordinates hydrograph
coordinates coordinates after 2-h time coordinates
Serial no. Time (h) (m3/s) (m3/s) lag(m3/s) (m3/s)
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 6 6 0 3
3 2 13 19 0 9.5
4 3 22 41 6 17.5
5 4 16 57 19 19.0
6 5 11 68 41 13.5
7 6 7 75 57 9.0
8 7 4 79 68 5.5
9 8 2 81 75 3.0
10 9 1 82 79 1.5
11 10 0 82 81 0.5
12 11 0 82 82 0
Total 82 82

6.5.1.4 Method 4
The same procedure as followed in Section 6.5.1.3. in a different step-by-step procedure can be
followed as follows:
1. Prepare the S hydrograph of the given 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph and plot it.
2. Divide these S hydrograph coordinates by 2 so that it will be a 1 h–1/2 cm S1 hydrograph. Plot
this S1 hydrograph with a time lag of 2 h.
3. Deduct this S1 hydrograph from the original S hydrograph to arrive at the required 2 h–1/2 cm
__
1
unit hydrograph. (The intensity of precipitation will be 2 cm for 2 h.)
The same procedure can be followed graphically as shown in Fig. 6.27.
Table 6.5 Increasing time of unit precipitation by S curve

1 2 3 4 5 645
S hydrograph S1 hydrograph Required unit
Unit hydrograph coordinates coordinates hydrograph
Time (h) coordinates (m3/s) after coordinates
Serial no. coordinates (m3/s) lag (m3/s) 2-h time (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 6 6 3 0 3
2 13 19 9.5 0 9.5
3 22 41 20.5 3 17.5
4 16 57 28.5 9.5 19.0
5 11 68 34.0 20.5 13.5
6 7 75 37.5 28.5 9.0
7 4 79 39.5 34.0 5.5
8 2 81 40.5 37.5 3.0
9 1 82 41.0 39.5 1.5
10 0 82 41.0 40.5 0.5
11 0 82 41.0 41.0 0
Total 82 82

HYDROGRAPH 151
Example 6.7
Derive a 1 cm–5 h unit hydrograph from a 1 cm–3 h unit hydrograph.
The 1 cm–3 h unit hydrograph coordinates are as under:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Discharge 0 2.00 6.34 13.66 17.00 16.32 11.34 7.34 4.34 2.32 1.00 0.33 0
(m3/s)
Solution:
The given unit hydrograph period 3 h and the required unit hydrograph period 5 h are not exact mul-
tiples of each other. Therefore, the required unit hydrograph can be derived only from the S curve.
The step-by-step solution will be as follows: vide Table 6.6
1. Write down the given unit hydrograph coordinates. (Since the given unit hydrograph is 1 cm–3 h,
__
1
the intensity of the precipitation is 3 cm/h.) (column A)
2. Repeat these coordinates each after 3 h to obtain the S hydrograph. (Even though the given unit
hydrograph is of 3 h, the unit hydrograph coordinates are at 1-h interval.) (columns B, C, D, E, F)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time A B C D E F G H I J
(h) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
0 0 – – – – – 0 – 0 0
1 2.00 – – – – – 2.00 – 2.00 1.20
2 6.34 – – – – – 6.34 – 6.34 3.80
3 13.66 0 – – – – 13.66 – 13.66 8.20
4 17.00 2.00 – – – – 19.00 – 19.00 11.40
5 16.32 6.34 – – – – 22.66 0 22.66 13.60
6 11.34 13.66 0 – – – 25.00 2.00 23.00 13.80
7 7.34 17.00 2.00 – – – 26.34 6.34 20.00 12.00
8 4.34 16.32 6.34 – – – 27.00 13.66 13.34 8.00
9 2.32 11.34 13.66 0 – – 27.32 19.00 8.32 5.00
10 1.00 7.34 17.00 2.00 – – 27.34 22.66 4.68 2.80
11 0.33 4.34 16.32 6.34 – – 27.33 25.00 2.33 1.40
12 0 2.32 11.34 13.66 0 – 27.32 26.34 1.00 0.60
13 – 1.00 7.34 17.00 2.00 – 27.34 27.00 0.34 0.20
14 – 0.33 4.34 16.32 6.34 – 27.33 27.33 0 0
15 – 0 2.32 11.34 13.66 0 27.32 27.33 0 0
16 – – 1.00 7.34 17.00 2.00 27.34 27.34 0 0
– – – – – – – 27.33 27.33 – –
– – – – – – – 27.32 27.32 – –
– – – – – – – 27.34 27.34 – –
Total 82.00 82.00 _ _ _ _ – – 136.67 82.00
3. Add the repeated coordinates (column A column B column C column D column E

__
1
column F) so that a 3 -cm/h S hydrograph will be obtained. (column G)
4. Write down the S hydrograph coordinates after 5 h (column H) and deduct them from the S
__
5
hydrograph in column G to arrive at a hydrograph of 3 -cm/h precipitation for 3 h (column I)
__
5
(Actually, this is a 5 h– 3 cm unit hydrograph.)
5. Multiply the coordinates of the 5 h–5/3 cm unit hydrograph in column I by 3/5 to arrive at the
required 5 h–1 cm unit hydrograph (column J). Here the intensity will be 1/5 cm/h.
The required 1 cm–5 h unit hydrograph is as per column J.
6.5.2 REDUCTION IN THE TIME OF UNIT PRECIPITATION

Sometimes the time of unit hydrograph is required to be reduced to suit the field conditions.
Consider a 2 h–1 cm unit hydrograph as follows:
Ti (h)m e 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Discharge (m3/s) 0 3.0 9.5 17.5 19.0 13.5 9.0 5.5 3.0 1.5 0.5 0
A 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph is to be derived from this 2 h–1 cm unit hydrograph.

If a similar procedure, as discussed in Sections 6.5.1.1–6.5.1.2, is attempted to reduce the
time of precipitation of a unit hydrograph, then at some step, negative values are arrived at.
Thus, the procedures followed in Sections 6.7.1.1–6.7.1.2 cannot be applied here.
Hence, the only method to reduce the time of precipitation of a unit hydrograph is to use the S
hydrograph approach, which can be done by two methods.
6.5.2.1 Method 1
The step-by-step procedure will be as follows:
1. Prepare an S hydrograph from the given 2 h–1 cm unit hydrograph and plot it.
2. Plot this S hydrograph with a time lag of 1 h, say S1 hydrograph and plot it.
3. Deduct this S1 hydrograph from S hydrograph. After deduction, multiply it by 2 to arrive at the
required 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph (Fig. 6.28).
Fig. 6.28 Method 1 for reducing the time of unit precipitation

HYDROGRAPH 153
Table 6.7 Reducing time of unit precipitation by S hydrograph

1 2 3 4 5 2 (3 4)
Unit hydrograph S hydrograph S1 hydrograph Required unit
coordinates coordinares coordinate after 1-h hydrograph
coordinates
Time (h) (m3/s) (m3/s) time lag (m3/s) (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0
1 3.0 3 0 6
2 9.5 9.5 3 13
3 17.5 20.5 9.5 22
4 19.0 28.5 20.5 16
5 13.5 34.0 28.5 11
6 9.0 37.5 34.0 7
7 5.5 39.5 37.5 4
8 3.0 40.5 39.5 2
9 1.5 41 40.5 1
10 0.5 41 41 0
Total 82 82

The same procedure can be followed graphically as under.
6.5.2.2 Method 2
The same procedure can be followed in a different step-by-step procedure as below:
1. Prepare the S hydrograph from the given 2 h–1 cm unit hydrograph and plot it.
2. Multiply the coordinates of this S hydrograph by 2 so that a 2 h–2 cm S1 hydrograph is obtained.
3. Enter this S1 hydrograph with a time lag of 1 h.
4. Deduct the S1 hydrograph from the S hydrograph to arrive at the required 1 h–1 cm unit hydro-
graph (Fig. 6.29).
Fig. 6.29 Method 2 for reducing the time of unit precipitation

The above procedure will be clear from Table 6.8.

The same procedure can be followed as under.
Table 6.8 Reducing time of unit precipitation by S hydrograph

1 2 3 4 5 645
1
Unit S S hydrograph
hydrograph S hydrograph hydrograph coordinates Required unit
coordinates coordinates coordinates after 1-hour hydrograph
Time (h) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) time lag (m3/s) (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 3 3 6 0 6
2 9.5 9.5 19 6 13
3 17.5 20.5 41 19 22
4 19.0 28.5 57 41 16
5 13.5 34.0 68 57 11
6 9.0 37.5 75 68 7
7 5.5 39.5 79 75 4
8 3.0 40.5 81 79 2
9 1.5 41 82 81 1
10 0.5 41 82 82 0
11 0 41 82 82 0
Example 6.8
Derive a 1 cm–3 h unit hydrograph from a 1 cm–4 h unit hydrograph.
The 1 cm–4 h unit hydrograph coordinates are as under:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Discharge 0 1.50 4.75 10.25 14.25 15.50 14.00 9.50 6.00 3.50 1.75 0.75 0.25 0
3
(m /s)
Solution:
The given unit hydrograph period 4 h and the required unit hydrograph period 3 h are not exact
multiples of each other. Therefore, the required unit hydrograph can be derived only from the
S curve.
The step-by-step solution will be as follows: vide Table 6.9
1. Write down the given unit hydrograph coordinates. (Since the given unit hydrograph is
__
1
1 cm–4 h, the intensity of the precipitation is 4 cm/h.) (column A)
2. Repeat these coordinates each after 4 h to obtain the S hydrograph. (Even though the given unit
hydrograph is of 4 h, the unit hydrograph coordinates are at 1-h interval.) (columns B, C, D)
HYDROGRAPH 155
Table 6.9 Reducing time of unit precipitation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (h) A (m3/s) B (m3/s) C (m3/s) D (m3/s) E (m3/s) F (m3/s) G (m3/s) H(m3/s)
0 0 – – – 0 – 0 0
1 1.50 – – – 1.50 – 1.50 2.00
2 4.75 – – – 4.75 – 4.75 6.33
3 10.25 – – – 10.25 0 10.25 13.67
4 14.25 0 – – 14.25 1.50 12.75 17.00
5 15.50 1.50 – – 17.00 4.75 12.25 16.33
6 14.00 4.75 – – 18.75 10.25 8.50 11.33
7 9.50 10.25 – – 19.75 14.25 5.50 7.33
8 6.00 14.25 0 – 20.25 17.00 3.25 4.33
9 3.50 15.50 1.50 – 20.50 18.75 1.75 2.33
10 1.75 14.00 4.75 – 20.50 19.75 0.75 1.00
11 0.75 9.50 10.25 – 20.50 20.25 0.25 0.33
12 0.25 6.00 14.25 0 20.50 20.50 0 0
13 0 3.50 15.50 1.50 20.50 20.50 0 0
14 0 1.75 14.00 4.75 20.50 20.50 0 0
15 0 0.75 9.50 10.25 20.50 20.50 0 0
16 0 0.25 6.00 14.25 20.50 20.50 0 0
Total 82.00 82.00 82.00 82.00 – – 61.50 81.98
3. Add the repeated coordinates (column A column B column C column D) so that a

1/4 cm/h S hydrograph will be obtained. (column E)
4. Write down the S hydrograph coordinates after 3 h (column F) and deduct them from the S
__
1
hydrograph in column E to arrive at a hydrograph of 4-cm/h precipitation for 3 h. (column G)
__
3
(Actually, this is a 3 h 4 cm unit hydrograph.)
__
3 __
4
5. Multiply the coordinates of the 3 h– 4 cm unit hydrograph in column G by 3 to arrive at the
__
1
required 3 h–1 cm unit hydrograph (column H). Here the intensity will be 3 c m/h.
The required 1 cm–3 h unit hydrograph is as per column H.
g 6.6 DERIVATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Unit hydrograph may be derived from the observed rainfall and its resultant hydrograph. For this,
the available data will have to be scanned before it is used.
The step-by-step procedure is as follows:
1. From the observed data, select an isolated storm and its resultant hydrograph.
2. Check the precipitation data for the accuracy of any rain gauge station. If required, evalu-
ate the missing data. Find the average hourly precipitation over the catchment and plot the
hyetograph.
If the unit hydrograph required is for t hours, then the hyetograph may be divided into
slabs of t hours. Assuming a index for infiltration, evaluate the average hourly excess
rainfall hyetograph.
3. Check the resultant hydrograph for its accuracy. Separate the base flow. Then the correct
observed flood hydrograph will be arrived at.
Then the observed corrected data of excess precipitation and its resultant storm hydrograph
can be used for further analysis.
Consider a specific case

After scanning the data, the excess rainfall hyetograph and the resultant storm hydrograph are as
follows:
Excess precipitation: 2 cm/h for 1 h followed by 4 cm/h for 1 h followed by 3 cm/h for 1 h. The
resultant flood hydrograph is as below:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 0 12 50 114 159 152 106 69 41 22 10 3 0
Discharge (m /s)
This scanned data can be represented graphically as shown in Fig. 6.30.

A 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph is to be derived. After examining the observed data,
Following observations can be made:
1. The storm is of 3 h.
2. The base period of the combined flood hydrograph is 12 h.
3. For the 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph, the base period T will be 12 3 1 10h.
4. The total resultant flood hydrograph is the summation of three hydrographs, viz.
(a) Flood hydrograph due to 2-cm/h precipitation
(b) Flood hydrograph due to 4-cm/h precipitation with a time lag of 1 h from the beginning
(c) Flood hydrograph due to 3-cm/h precipitation with a time lag of 2 h from the beginning
Since the unit hydrograph base period is 10 h, assume the unit hydrograph coordinates for 10 h
to be U0, U1, U2, U3, U4, U5, U6, U7, U8, U9, U10 out of which U0 and U10 are equal to zero.
The unit hydrograph can be derived by the following methods.
Fig. 6.30 Scanned flood hydrograph

HYDROGRAPH 157
6.6.1 VEN TE CHOW’S FORWARD SUBSTITUTION METHOD

The total resultant flood hydrograph is the summation of the three hydrographs. Thus, the total flood
hydrograph can be expressed in terms of the assumed hourly unit hydrograph coordinates as follows:
Q0 0
Q1 2U1 12
Q2 2U2 4 U1 50
Q3 2U3 4 U2 3 U1 114
Q4 2U4 4 U3 3 U2 159
Q5 2U5 4 U4 3 U3 152
Q6 2U6 4 U5 3 U4 106
Q7 2U7 4 U6 3 U5 69
Q8 2U8 4 U7 3 U6 41
Q9 2U9 4 U8 3 U7 22
Q10 2U104 U9 3 U8 10
Q11 2U114 U10 3U9 3
Q12 2 U124 U11 3U10 0
From the above equations
Q0 0 U0 U0 0
Q1 12 2U1 U1 6
Q2 50 2U2 4 U1 2U2 4 6 U2 13
Q3 114 2U3 4 U2 3 U1 2U3 4 13 3 6 U3 22
Q4 159 2U4 4 U3 3 U2 2U4 4 22 3 13 U4 16
Q5 152 2U5 4 U4 3 U3 2U5 4 16 322 U5 11
Q6 106 2U6 4 U5 3 U4 2U6 4 11 3 16 U6 7
Q7 69 2U7 4 U6 3 U5 2U7 4 7 3 11 U7 4
Q8 41 2U8 4 U7 3 U6 2U8 4 4 3 7 U8 2
Q9 22 2U9 4 U8 3 U7 2U9 4 2 3 4 U9 1
Q10 10 2U10 4U9 3U8 2U10 41 3 2 U10 0
Q11 3 2U11 4U10 3U9 31 U11 0
From the first equation, we get Q0 0. Substitute its value in the next equation and we get
Q1 6. Thus, by substituting the unit hydrograph coordinate, calculated in the previous step, in the
next step, all the unit hydrograph coordinates can be evaluated.
The procedure was first suggested by Prof. Dr Ven Te Chow, hence this method is known as Ven
Te Chow’s forward substitution method.
6.6.2 VEN TE CHOW’S BACKWARD SUBSTITUTION METHOD

The same analogy as followed for the forward substitution method can be applied here and the unit
hydrograph coordinates can be worked out by backward substitution as follows:
Consider the last equation. Solve it. We get U9 1. Substitute this value in the previous equa-
tion. We get U8 2. Thus, by substituting the values in the previous equation, all the coordinates
can be evaluated.
Q11 3 3U9[ U10, U11, U12, … are equal to zero] U9 1
Q10 10 3U8 4 U9 3 U8 41 U8 2
Q9 22 3 U7 4 U8 2 U9 3 U7 4 2 2 1 U7 4
Q8 41 3U6 4 U7 2 U8 3U6 44 2 2 U6 7
Q7 69 3U5 4 U6 2 U7 3U5 47 2 4 U5 11
Q6 106 3U4 4 U5 2 U6 3U4 4 11 2 7 U4 16
Q5 152 3U3 4 U4 2 U5 3U3 4 16 2 11 U3 22
Q4 159 3U2 4 U3 2 U4 3U2 4 22 2 16 U2 13
Q3 114 3U1 4 U2 2 U3 3U1 4 13 2 22 U1 6
Q2 50 4 U12 U2
Q1 12 2 U1
This backward substitution method was also suggested by Prof. Dr Ven Te Chow, and hence it
is known as Ven Te Chow’s backward substitution method.
For both the methods, the unit hydrograph is checked so that the area of the hydrograph is one
unit for unit excess precipitation uniformly distributed over the basin. The unit hydrograph thus
derived by both the methods is shown in Fig. 6.31.
Fig. 6.31 Derived unit hydrograph

HYDROGRAPH 159
6.6.3 COLLIN’S METHOD

This is a trial and error method, very commonly used for deriving unit hydrograph from a complex
storm and resultant hydrograph.
The procedure followed is as follows:
1. The numerical values of the unit hydrograph coordinates are assumed. The flood hydrograph
coordinates for the excess rainfall calculated are worked out and then compared with the
observed ones. These two coordinates may not tally initially.
2. The assumed unit hydrograph coordinates are modified suitably and the flood hydrographs for
these modified coordinates and the excess precipitation are again worked out and compared
with the observed ones.
3. Again, the modified coordinates of the unit hydrograph are remodified, and this trial and error
is continued till the calculated hydrograph tallies with the observed hydrograph, with an accept-
able error.
Then the unit hydrograph coordinates are finalized.
g 6.7 AVERAGING OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
There are a number of assumptions made in the unit hydrograph derivation. So also there might
be some errors in the observed precipitation and the discharge data, and hence unit hydrographs
derived from the different observed data for the same catchment may not tally with each other.
Thus, an average of all the unit hydrographs derived is worked out for further studies.
The procedure followed is as stated below:
Plot all the unit hydrographs on a simple graph paper
t1t2t3…tn
______________
tp= n
where, t1, t2, t3 Time in hours of the maximum discharge from the beginning of the differ-
ent unit hydrographs derived
tp Time in hours of the maximum discharge from the start of the final average
unit hydrograph
Q1 Q2 Q3…Qn

Q ___________________
n
Q1, Q2, Q3 Maximum flood discharge of the various unit hydrographs in m3/s
Q Maximum flood discharge of the final average unit hydrograph
T1T2T3…Tn
________________
T n
T1, T2, T3 Base period of the various unit hydrograph in hours

T Base period of the final average unit hydrograph in hours
The average unit hydrograph may be plotted taking into consideration the parameters of Q,
T and tp.
Fig. 6.32 Definition sketch of averaging unit hydrograph
An average unit hydrograph developed in a specific case is shown in Fig. 6.32.

It should be checked that the total area under the average unit hydrograph is unity.
Example 6.9
The unit hydrographs derived from different storms for a catchment are as follows:
Derive the average unit hydrograph.
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total

First Set 0 7 18 23 17 9 7 1 0 – 82
Second Set 0 11 22 22 13 7 4 2 1 1 0 83
Third set 0 6 14 21 21 11 4 3 2 0 – 82
Total 0 24 54 66 51 27 15 6 3 1 – 247
Average 0 8 18 22 17 9 5 2 1 0 – 82
324
Average tp ________ 3 h
3
8 10 9
__________
Average T 3 9h
Average maximum Discharge
23 22 21
Qm ____________
3 22 m3/s
The resulting average unit hydrograph is as shown in Fig. 6.33.

HYDROGRAPH 161
Fig. 6.33 Average unit hydrograph
Example 6.10
The peak of the flood hydrograph resulting from a 3-h 2.5-cm/hour storm is 320 m3/s. If the
value of infiltration is 5 mm/s, find the peak value of the 3 cm–3 h unit hydrograph. Assume the
base flow to be 20 m3/s.
Solution:
After deducting the base flow, the peak discharge of the flood hydrograph resulting due to the
storm only will be 320 20 300 m3/s.
The excess uniform precipitation after deducting the infiltration rate will be 2.5 0.5 2 cm/h
for 3 h. The excess precipitation for a 3 cm–3 h unit hydrograph will have to be 1 cm/h for 3 h.
__
1
Therefore, the peak discharge for a 3 cm–3 h unit hydrograph will be 2 300 150 m3/s.
g 6.8 SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH
When sufficient observed data are not available for the derivation of a unit hydrograph, then the
unit hydrograph is framed based on the catchment characteristics.
6.8.1 SNYDER METHOD

F. F. Snyder analysed a number of unit hydrographs in the Appalachian mountain region in USA and
presented a set of equations for the synthetic unit hydrograph based on the following three catchment
area characteristics viz. A, L & Lc (Fig. 6.34).
L Length of main stream in km
Lc Distance in km along the main stream from the outlet up to a point nearest to the centre
of gravity (CG) of the catchment area
t Duration of unit hydrograph in hours
Fig. 6.34 Assumed catchment area
tp Time between the CG of effective rainfall to the peak discharge in hours (basin lag in
hours)
Qp Peak discharge in m3/s
T Base period in hours
W75 Width of unit hydrograph for 75% of Qp
W50 Width of unit hydrograph for 50% of Qp
Ct A constant depending upon the slope and SD of the catchment area. (Value is normally
between 1.35 to 1.65.)
Cp A coefficient ranging from 0.56 to 0.69
The equations suggested are:
tp Ct (L·Lc)0 3
Qp 2.778 (Cp /tp) A
T 5.455 tp
W50 2.14 (Qp /A)1 08
W75 1.22 (Qp/A)1 08
t 2 tp/11
The widths of unit hydrographs W50 and W75, respectively, may be divided into two parts such
that 1/3 lies in the rising curve and 2/3 in the recession curve.
The unit hydrograph can be framed, based on the above set of equations. As a check, the area of
the unit hydrograph may be checked and corrected for a value of unit precipitation (Fig. 6.35).
Example 6.11
Derive a unit hydrograph for the catchment area shown in Fig 6.36
Solution:
Here A 250 km2, L 20 km, Lc 5.0 km
To suit the characteristics of the catchment, the values of the of constants assumed are Cp 0.6,
Ct 1.50.
HYDROGRAPH 163
Fig. 6.35 Definition sketch of synthetic unit hydrograph
Fig. 6.36 Given catchment area
As per Synder’s equations, the various parameters will be as follows:
tp Ct (L·Le)0 3 1.5 (20 5)0 3 5.97 h 6.0 h

Qp (2.778 Cp A)/tp (2.778 0.6 250)/5.97 69.8 m3/s
T 5.455 tp 5.455 6.0 32.73 h 33 h
W50 2.14 (Qp/A)1 08 2.14 (69.8/250)1 08 8.49 h
W75 1.22 (Qp/A)1 08 1.22 (69.8/250)1 08 4.84 h
Q50 69.8 0.5 34.9 m3/s and Q75 69.8 0.75 52.35 m3/s
t Unit time of excess precipitation 2 tp /11 2 6/11 1.090 h 1 h
The unit hydrograph thus derived is shown in Fig. 6.37.

After plotting the unit hydrograph, the area of the unit hydrograph was measured. The shape
of the unit hydrograph was modified slightly so that it works to be unit.
Fig. 6.37 Derivation of synthetic unit hydrograph
Example 6.12
Derive a synthetic unit hydrograph for a catchment area having a shape of an isosceles triangle of
base width 6 km and height 10 km with the main stream along the medium bisecting the base.
Assume Ct 1.5 and Cp 0.6
Solution:
Fig. 6.38 Derivation of synthetic unit hydrograph for triangular catchment
__
1
Here, i. Area of catchment 2 10 6 = 30 km2
ii. Length of the main stream 10 km
HYDROGRAPH 165
iii. Length of the main stream from a point nearest to the CG up to outlet 6.67 km
From these characteristics, the following parameters can be derived:
tp Ct (L Le)0 3 1.5 (10 6.67)0 3 5.28h 5.3 h
Qp 2.778 (Cp/tp) A 2.778 (0.6/5.0) 30 10.31 m3/s
T 5.455 tp 5.455 5.0 27.275 27 h
t 2 tp/11 2 5/11 0.909 1.0 h
W50 2.14 (Qp/A)1 08 2.14 (10.31/30)1 08 6.78 h
W75 1.22 (Qp/A)1 08 1.22 (10.31/30)1 08 3.86 h
The shape of the catchment area and the unit hydrograph thus derived will be as shown is Fig. 6.38.
The area under the unit hydrograph measured 42 cm2
Volume of unit hydrograph 42 2 3600 1 30.24 104m 3
This should be the volume due to unit uniform precipitation over the catchment.
x A 10 6
___________
Therefore, 100 30.24 104
x 1.008 1.0 cm
Therefore, the unit precipitation for the unit hydrograph is 1 cm.
6.8.2 CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION METHOD FOR INDIAN CATCHMENTS

The Central Water Commission (CWC), India, has recommended the following procedure for the
construction of a synthetic unit hydrograph. This is based on the number of catchments in India of
various shapes and sizes.
The recommended formulae are
Qpd 4.44 A3/4 for S 1 in 360
Qpd 2.22 A3/4 for S 1 in 360
tp ________
3.95
(Qpd/A)0 9
D 1.1 tp
where, Qpd Peak discharge in m3/s
S Weighted mean slope of the catchment
tp Time in hours from the centroid of the effective rainfall to the peak discharge
D Duration of effective rainfall
6.8.3 DIMENSIONLESS UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The United States, Soil Conservation Service (SCS) proposed a dimensionless unit hydrograph on
the basis of the unit hydrographs derived for different basins having different catchment areas. This
unit hydrograph is in the dimensionless form.
On the y-axis, Qt /Qp is expressed and on the x-axis, the ratio of t/tp is expressed. The base period
t/tp is taken to be equal to 5.
Where, Qt Discharge at time t
Fig. 6.39 Dimensionless unit hydrograph
Qp Maximum discharge
t Time when Qt is observed from the beginning of the unit hydrograph
tp Time when the maximum discharge is observed
The shape of the unit hydrograph thus derived is in agreement of the hydrograph expected for
the catchment. For averaging the unit hydrographs derived for various catchments, this method is
more effective. The unit hydrograph derived for the neighbouring catchments can be converted into
a dimensionless form and transposed to an ungauged catchment.
The dimensionless unit hydrograph derived for a basin is shown in Fig. 6.39.
t/tp 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Q/Qp 0 0.43 1.0 0.66 0.32 0.16 0.075 0.036 0.018 0.009 0
g 6.9 DISTRIBUTION GRAPH
Barnard proposed a unit hydrograph in this distribution form. It is a dimensionless representation

of a unit hydrograph in the form of a bar chart. The base period of a unit hydrograph is divided into
a number of equal time intervals. The runoff in each of this interval is first calculated and then its
percentage with respect to the total runoff is worked out. The area during that interval is divided by
the total area of the unit hydrograph. It is then represented on y-axis for that interval.
Figure 6.40 below shows a distribution graph in a specific case.
This unit hydrograph is in the form of percentage for each time interval. It is known as a
distribution graph. The total of all percentages will be 100%. All unit storms irrespective of their
intensity for a catchment have practically the same distribution graphs.
HYDROGRAPH 167
Fig. 6.40 Distribution graph
Example 6.13
The unit hydrograph coordinates of a basin are as under. Prepare the distribution graph.
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge (m3/s) 0 6 13 22 16 11 7 4 2 1 0
Solution:
The percentage runoff during each hour is calculated as under. The table is self-explanatory.
1 2 3 4 5
Unit hydrograph
Serial no. Time (h) Average runoff (m3/s) Runoff (%)
(m3/s)
1 0 0 – –
2 1 6 3 3.66
3 2 13 9.5 11.59
4 3 22 17.5 21.34
5 4 16 19.0 23.17
6 5 11 13.5 16.46
7 6 7 9.0 10.98
8 7 4 5.5 6.70
9 8 2 3.0 3.66
10 9 1 1.5 1.83
11 10 0 0.5 0.61
Total 82 82 100
The graphical representation of the distribution will be as shown in Fig. 6.41.

Fig. 6.41 Derived distribution graph
Example 6.14
The distribution graph coordinates as stated below are to be applied to a neighbouring catchment cov-
ering an area of 360 km2. Evaluate the flood hydrograph when the excess rainfall is 2.0 cm/h for 2 h.
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Distribution graph (%) 0 4 11 21 23 16 11 7 4 2 1
Solution:
The base period of the unit hydrograph 10 h.
If precipitation of p cm/h occurs uniformly distributed over a catchment of A km2, then the
uniform discharge may be Q.
Distribution Discharge due to Discharge due to

graph coordinates firstspell of 2 cm/h second of spell 2 Total discharge
Time (h) (%) (m3/s) cm/h (m3/s) (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0
1 4 80 0 80
2 11 220 80 300
3 21 420 220 640
4 23 460 420 880
5 16 320 460 780
6 11 220 320 540
7 7 140 220 360
8 4 80 140 220
9 2 40 80 120
10 1 20 40 60
11 0 0 20 20
Total 100% 2000 2000 4000
HYDROGRAPH 169
Therefore,
p A 106 2.77 p A
Q____ _______
100 3600
____
x
Therefore, discharge with x% distribution = 100 2.77 p A
0.0277 x p A
The flood hydrograph due to the precipitation of 2 cm/h for 2 h is tabulated as under.
g 6.10 TRIANGULAR UNIT HYDROGRAPH
For simplicity, sometimes, a unit hydrograph is expressed in the form of a triangle with its
base parallel to the x-axis. In this case, the base of the triangle represents the base period and
the height of the triangle represents the peak discharge of the unit hydrograph as shown in
Fig. 6.42.
Fig. 6.42 Definition sketch of triangular unit hydrograph
Example 6.15
The 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph of a catchment is in the form of a triangle of base width of 15 h and
peak discharge of 80 m3/s occurring after 5 h from the start. Find the catchment area.
Solution:
The unit hydrograph diagram will be as shown in Fig. 6.43.
Let the catchment area Akm 2
i. The total runoff will be the area under the graph.
Area under the graph __12 15 80 600 m3/s 1 h 600 m3/s 3600 s
216 104m 3.
i. The runoff from the catchment area A km2 from a precipitation of 1 cm/h for1h
(A 106) 1/100 A 104m 3
Fig. 6.43 Triangular unit hydrograph
The runoff calculated in (i) and (ii) should be equal.

i.e, A 104 216 104
Therefore, A 216 km2.
g 6.11 INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The characteristics of a unit hydrograph such as base time, maximum discharge, etc. depend upon
the following factors:
• Catchmentc haracteristics
• Intensity of the unit precipitation
• Time of unit precipitation
In order to simplify the unit hydrograph, it is assumed that the unit precipitation occurs uni-
formly over the entire catchment instantaneously, i.e. t 0 or t → 0.
It is a conceptual fictitious unit hydrograph.
This is a hypothetical case. It is incorrect to assume that the unit precipitation occurs instantly.
However, further analysis of unit hydrograph theory is simplified. With this assumption, one factor
(time of unit precipitation) influencing unit hydrograph is eliminated. Thus, a unit hydrograph of a
catchment area, resulting from a unit precipitation occurring instantly, uniformly distributed over
the entire catchment, is known as instantaneous unit hydrograph as shown in Fig. 6.44.
It is normally denoted as IUH and its shape is similar to a single peak hydrograph.
It may be noted that the basic principles of linearity and time invariance, assumed in the unit
hydrograph theory, hold good for IUH also.
Indirectly, a unit hydrograph of time of precipitation of t → 0 is an IUH.
6.11.1 DERIVATION OF INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH

A lot of work and research is being done for the derivation of an instantaneous unit hydrograph. It
can be derived from the unit hydrograph or from an S hydrograph. A number of conceptual models
have been proposed. The most important are the following:
• Clarkm odel
• Nash cascade model
• Chow–Kulandaiswamim odel
• Doogem odel
HYDROGRAPH 171
Fig. 6.44 Definition sketch of instantaneous unit hydrograph
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define hydrograph. Discuss the normal units used to draw a hydrograph.
2. What is a complex storm? Sketch a complex storm and the resulting hydrograph.
3. Sketch a hydrograph resulting from an isolated storm and explain its features.
4. What is base flow? Why is it necessary to separate it from the hydrograph? Explain the dif-
ferent methods to separate it.
5. Explain with a neat sketch as to how the base flow is separated from a hydrograph resulting
from a complex hydrograph.
6. Define unit hydrograph. Discuss the different definitions involved in this theory.
7. Explain the assumptions made in the unit hydrograph theory.
8. Explain how the unit hydrograph is used to find the flood hydrograph.
9. Discuss the limitations of unit hydrograph theory.
10. What is an S hydrograph? How is it derived from a unit hydrograph?
11. How is an S hydrograph used to change the period of the unit hydrograph?
12. Discuss the different methods followed to increase the time of the unit hydrograph.
13. Discuss the different methods to derive a unit hydrograph from observed data.
14. What is averaging of unit hydrograph? Why is it necessary?
15. What is a synthetic unit hydrograph? Why is it necessary?
16. Explain Snyder’s method of framing a synthetic unit hydrograph.
17. Explain distribution graph.
18. Explain dimensionless unit hydrograph.
19. Write a detailed note on instantaneous unit hydrograph.
20. Write short notes on:
a. Excessr ainfall b. Masterde pletionc urve
c. Specifications of unit hydrograph d. Collin’s method of derivation of unit
hydrograph
e. Ven Te Chow’s forward substitution f. Ven Te Chow’s backward substitution
method method
g. Dimensionlessuni thydr ograph h. Distributiongr aph
i. Principle of linearity j. Principle of time invariance
k. Time of concentration

a. Synthetic unit hydrograph and b. Isolated storm and complex storm
instantaneous unit hydrograph
c. Rising curve and falling curve in d. Distribution graph and dimensionless
a hydrograph unit hydrograph
e. Base flow and inter flow
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
6.1. The flood hydrograph co-ordinates resulting from an isolated storm and the base flow
co-ordinates after separation are as under. Study and discuss the hydrograph.
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge in m3/s 10 14 18 24 16 13 1 10 9 10 10
Base flow in m3/s 10 8 5 2 0 2 4 6 7 9 10
6.2. The unit hydrograph co-ordinates of a 1 hour 1 cm unit hydrograph are as follows
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Discharge in m3/s 0 5 13 25 40 29 20 13 8 3 2 1 0
Calculate the flood hydrograph for the following excess precipitation.

4 cm/hour for 1 hour followed by 7 cm/hour for 2 hours, no precipitation for next 1 hour fol-
lowed by 2 cm/hour for 1 hour.
Assume a uniform base flow of 5 m3/s
Ans: The flood hydrograph co-ordinates will be as follows
Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
in Hours
Discharge
5 25 92 331 586 594 450 348 225 130 70 42 18 9 7 5
in m3/s
6.3. A 2 hours 1 cm, unit hydrograph co-ordinates are as under.
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Discharge in m3/s 0 2.5 9.0 19.0 32.5 34.5 24.5 16.5 10.5 5.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 0
Derive a 3 hours, 1cm, unit hydrograph. Calculate also the catchment area.
Ans: The 3 hours 1 cm, unit hydrograph co-ordinates will be as follows.
Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
in Hours
Discharge
0 1.67 6.00 14.34 26.00 31.34 29.67 20.67 13.67 8.00 4.34 2.00 1.00 0.34
in m3/s
The catchment area = 57.24 km2

HYDROGRAPH 173
6.4. A 2 hours, 1 cm, unit hydrograph co-ordinates are as under.
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
3
Discharge in m /s 0 2.5 9.0 19.0 32.5 34.5 24.5 16.5 10.5 5.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 0
Derive a 1 hour, 1cm, unit hydrograph. Draw the ‘S’ curve.

Ans: The 1 hour 1 cm, unit hydrograph co-ordinates will be as follows.
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Discharge in m3/s 0 5 13 25 40 29 20 13 8 3 2 1 0
6.5. A catchment area covering 50 km2 experienced the following storm.

(1) 5 cm/hr for 1 hour followed by
(2) 9 cm/hr for 1 hour followed by
(3) 6 cm/hr for 1 hours
The resulting hydrograph was as under
Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
in Hours
Discharge
5 19 79 191 352 472 430 300 198 122 64 34 19 9 5 5
in m3/s
Assuming a base flow of 5 m3/s and

index equal to 2 cm/hr, derive the unit hydrograph.
Ans: The 1 hour, 1 cm unit hydrograph co-ordinates will be as follows
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Discharge in m3/s 0 5 13 25 40 29 20 13 8 3 2 1 0
6.6. Derive a 1 hour, 1cm unit hydrograph for a catchment with the following details.
i) Catchment area ____________________________ 1 00 km 2
ii) Length of main stream _______________________ 18 km
iii) Distance along the main stream from the outlet upto a point nearest to the C. G. of the
catchment area. ______________________________ 5 km.
Assume Cp and Ct in Snyder’s method to be ‘0.5 and 1.4 resp.
Ans: The required 1 hour, 1 cm unit hydrograph details will be as follows
(1) Maximum discharge :— Qp 2 42 m3/s,
(2) Time of maximum discharge :— tp 5 4 hours.
(3) Base period :— T 5 22 hours.
(4) Time of unit precipitation :— 1 hour.
(5) Q50 5 21 m3/s, W50 5 5.46 hours.
(6) Q75 32 m3/s, W75 3.11 hours.
6.7. A 1 hour, 1cm unit hydrograph co-ordinates are as under
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Discharge in m3/s 0 5 13 25 40 29 20 13 8 3 2 1 0
Derive the distribution graph.

Ans: The distribution graph co-ordinates will be as under.
Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
in Hours
Run-off
0 1.57 5.66 11.94 20.44 21.69 15.40 10.30 6.60 3.46 1.57 0.94 0.31
in Percentage
6.8. The 1 hour, 1 cm unit hydrograph of a catchment area is in a triangular shape. The details as
follows
(i) Catchment a rea ________________________________ 25 km 2
(ii) Base period ___________________________________ 10 hours
(iii) Maximum discharge ____________________________ 21 m3/s
(iv) Time of max discharge ___________________________ 3 hours
Calculate the flood hydrograph for the following storm.
4 cm / hour for 1 hour followed by 7 cm / hour for 2 hours followed by 2 cm/hour for 1 hour.
Assume a uniform base flow of 5 m3/s
Ans: The flood hydrograph will be as under
Time in Hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Discharge in m3/s 5 33 110 236 336 366 326 266 206 146 86 38 11 5

1. Point of contraflexure on the recession curve of the hydrograph indicates the end of
(a) Theba se flow (b) Thepr ecipitation
(c) Theove rland flow (d) The interflow
2. The theory of unit hydrograph was first introduced by
(a) Snyder (b) Ven TeC how
(c) Bernard (d) L. K.S herman
3. The term ‘unit’ in unit hydrograph theory refers to
(a) Unit area of basin (b) Unit precipitation
(c) Unit discharge (d) Unit duration of precipitation
4. If the base period of a 4-h unit hydrograph is 48 h, then the hydrograph of a storm of 8 h,
derived from this unit hydrograph, will be having a base period of
(a) 44h (b) 48h
(c) 52h (d) 56 h
5. The upper limit of area of a basin for the application of unit hydrograph is
(a) 1000km 2 (b) 1500 km2
2
(c) 5000km (d) 10,000 km2
6. The basic principles of unit hydrograph theory are
(a) Linearity and time variance (b) Non-linearity and time variance
(c) Linearity and time invariance (d) Non-linearity and time invariance
HYDROGRAPH 175
7. The S hydrograph is used to derive

(a) Synthetic unit hydrograph (b) Unit hydrograph from a complex storm
(c) To change the period of unit hydrograph (d) Flood hydrograph from a complex storm
8. The unit of time on x-axis of a hydrograph may be
(a) Hours (b) Days
(c) Months (d) Anyof t hese
9. The discharge in the river before the storm is known as
(a) Basef low (b) Basicf low
(c) Sustainedf low (d) Fairw eatherf low
(e) Any of these
10. The recession curve of a hydrograph depends on
(a) The period of precipitation (b) The intensity of precipitation
(c) The basin characteristics of the basin (d) All the above
11. The master recession curve is also known as
(a) Composite recession curve (b) Master depletion curve
(c) Type curve (d) Any of the above
12. The base period of a unit hydrograph depends upon
(a) Basin characteristics of the basin and (b) Duration and the intensity of
the duration of the unit precipitation unit precipitation
(c) Basin characteristics of the basin and (d) None of the above
the intensity of the unit precipitation
13. The effect of the following physical characteristic of the basin is reflected in the shape of the
unit hydrograph
(a) Slope (b) Shape
(c) Manning’s coefficient (d) All the above
14. The slope to the S hydrograph curve is
(a) Never negative (b) Horizontal at the beginning
(c) Horizontal after the base period time (d) All the above
15. The peak discharge in case of the Snyder synthetic unit hydrograph is given by
2.778AC
(a) Qp ______
2.778A (b) Qp ________p
Cptp tp
2.778Cptp 2.778t
(c) Qp ________ (d) Qp ______p
A ACp
16. The basic principle of instantaneous unit hydrograph is
(a) Linearity and time variance (b) Non-linearity and time variance
(c) Linearity and time invariance (d) Non-linearity and time invariance
17. In a dimensionless unit hydrograph, the base period ratio is generally taken to be
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
18. Collin’s method is used to derive

(a) Unithydr ograph (b) Syntheticuni thydr ograph
(c) Instantaneousuni thydr ograph (d) Dimensionless unit hydrograph
19. Bernardpr oposed

(c) Instantaneous unit hydrograph (d) Distribution graph
20. Conceptual models are proposed to derive
(c) Instantaneous unit hydrograph (d) Distribution graph
21. The distribution graph for a catchment is practically the same irrespective of
(a) Intensity of precipitation (b) Duration of precipitation
(c) Catchmenta rea (d) Characteristicsof c atchment
22. In the instantaneous unit hydrograph, the effect of the following parameter is
eliminated.
(c) Catchmenta rea (d) Characteristicsof c atchment
23. Principle of linearity means that the coordinates of the flood hydrograph are directly proportional to
(c) Catchment area (d) All of the above
24. The triangle representing a triangular unit hydrograph is a

(a) Right angled triangle (b) Isosceles triangle
(c) Equilateral triangle (d) None of the above
25. In Snyder’s method, the widths of the unit hydrograph for 75% and 50% of maximum dis-
charge are divided in the rising and falling curves in the ratio of
(a) 1:1 (b) 1:2
(c) 1:3 (d) 1:4

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d)
9. (e) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (c)
17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (c) 21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d)
25. (b)
*** ***
Runoff
7
Chapter Outline
7.1 Definition 7.8 Factors affecting runoff

7.2 Catchment area 7.9 Sources or components of runoff
7.3 Classification of catchment areas 7.10 Estimation of runoff
7.4 Catchment flow characteristics 7.11 Dependable flow
7.5 Process of runoff 7.12 Flow duration curve
7.6 Classification of streams 7.13 Runoff coefficient
7.7 Stream patterns 7.14 Runoff cycle
g 7.1 DEFINITION
‘Runoff’ is that part of precipitation that appears in a drainage channel as surface flow in a peren-
nial or an intermittent form. It is that part of water, which can be used for engineering purposes and
hence is also known as yield of catchment.
The yield from a catchment is generally expressed in terms of volume, in a season or a year.
Fig. 7.1 Topographic divide
7.1.1 UNITS OF RUNOFF

Runoff is expressed as the rate of flow during a specific period of flow, i.e. Q in time T and is indi-
rectly a volume over the period. Thus, the unit for runoff is million cubic metres (106 m3or million m3),
or ha m (denoting 1-m depth of water over an area of 1 ha).
Thus 1 million m3 102 ha m
The runoff is also sometimes expressed in metres or millimetres as the depth of water spread
uniformly over the entire catchment. For instance, 90.0 mm yield from a catchment of 50 km2
90
50 106 1000 4.5 million m3 or 450 ha m.
7.1.2 RIDGE LINE

The line that demarcates the drainage area and hence the surface runoff of two adjacent rivers or
drainage basins, is called the ridge line. It is also called the topographic divide, topographic water
divide, watershed divide or simply divide. The precipitation on either side of the ridge line will flow
in the opposite directions. Figure 7.1 shows a specific case of the topographic divide.
7.1.3 GROUNDWATER DIVIDE LINE

The line that marks the direction of the groundwater movement of the two adjacent river basins is
called the groundwater divide. It is also known as the phreatic divide.
It is very difficult to locate groundwater divide in hilly regions as well as in plains. Hence, for
practical purpose, the groundwater divide is considered the same as topographic divide.
Figure 7.2 shows a specific case of a groundwater divide.
g 7.2 CATCHMENT AREA
Catchment area may be defined as the area from which the surface runoff is derived. It is also
known as the watershed area, drainage area, drainage basin or simply basin or catchment.
RUNOFF 179
Fig. 7.2 Groundwater divide
The unit for the catchment area is km2. If the catchment area is less than 25 km2, it is mentioned in
terms of hectares. The catchment areas formed by the divide lines at A and B are shown in Fig. 7.3.
Fig. 7.3 Catchment areas formed by the divide lines at A and B
7.2.1 STREAM ORDER

The classification reflecting the degree of branching or bifurcation of stream channels within a basin is
known as stream order. Consider a map of the catchment area showing the channel network as shown
in Fig. 7.4.
Fig. 7.4 Ordering of streams
The smallest drainage channels near their origin are grouped under Order 1. When two channels
of Order 1 meet, a channel of Order 2 is formed. Similarly, when two channels of Order 2 meet, a
channel of Order 3 is formed and so on. This ordering of stream is shown in Fig. 7.4. Thus, the order
of the main stream indicates the extent of branching in the catchment area. It is dimensionless.
7.2.2 DRAINAGE DENSITY

Drainage density is the total length of the streams of all the orders divided by the catchment area.
The unit will be m1. It is a measure of closeness of spacing of the stream channels. Low-drainage
density indicates poor drainage conditions.
7.2.3 STREAM DENSITY

Stream density is the ratio of the number of streams in a catchment and the catchment area in km2.
The unit would be m2. It is also known as the stream frequency.
7.2.4 LENGTH OF STREAM

The length measured along the main stream from the catchment outlet to the remotest point on the
catchment boundary is called the length of the stream or watershed length. Naturally, the unit is
expressed in metres.
7.2.5 FORM FACTOR OF CATCHMENT AREA

Form factor is defined as the ratio of the catchment area to the square of its length of the main
stream. It is dimensionless.
RUNOFF 181
7.2.6 CIRCULARITY RATIO

The circularity ratio is defined as the catchment area divided by the area of a circle whose perim-
eter is equal to the length of the ridge line of the basin. It is dimensionless.
7.2.7 ELONGATION RATIO OF THE CATCHMENT AREA

The elongation ratio of a catchment area is defined as the diameter of a circle whose area is equal
to the catchment area divided by the length of the basin. It is dimensionless.
7.2.8 SHAPE FACTOR

The shape factor is the ratio of the square of the watershed length and the watershed area. It is
dimensionless.
7.2.9 RELIEF OF CATCHMENT AREA

The relief of a catchment area may be defined as the difference in elevations between the highest
point on the ridge line and the basin outlet. The units would be expressed in metres.
7.2.10 COMPACTNESS COEFFICIENT

The compactness coefficient is defined as the ratio of the perimeter of the basin to the perimeter of
the circle whose area is equal to the catchment area. It is dimensionless.
Example 7.1
The details of a catchment collected from a toposheet are as follows.
Here the scale of the map is 1:50,000.
The required data were collected from the map and are given as under.
1. Area of the catchment: 28 cm2 (on the map) 7.0 km2 (actual)
2. Length of the main stream: 12 cm (on the map) 6 km (actual)
3. Length of the ridge line: 27 cm (on the map) 13.5 km (actual)
4. Level of the highest point on the ridge: 325 m
5. Level of the lowest point, i.e. at the outlet: 230 m
6. The order of all the streams was marked on the map and their lengths were measured as follows:
Order of the stream No. of streams

1 22
2 11
3 6
4 1
Total 40
7. Total number of streams: 40

8. Length of all streams of all orders: 55.7 cm (on the map) 27.85 km (actual)
Calculate the characteristics of the catchment by studying the data given.
Solution:
Taking into consideration the scale of the map, 1:50,000, the corresponding prototype values
are also mentioned.
The diameter of a circle whose perimeter is equal to the length of the ridge line
D 13.5
____
13.5
Therefore, D 4.29 km
D2
____
The diameter of a circle whose area is equal to the catchment area 4 7.0
Therefore, D ___ ( )
28 1/2 2.98 km

The characteristics of the catchments will be as follows:
a. Stream order of the catchment 4

27.85 3.97 m1
b. Drainage density _____
7
___
40
c. Stream density 7 5.71 m2
d. Form factor __ 7 0.194
62
__________
7
e. Circularity ratio 0.482
4.292/4
____
2.98
f. Elongation ratio 6 0.496
g. Shape factor __62 5.14
7
h. Relief of the catchment 325 230 95 m
_____
13.5
i. Compactness coefficient 2.98 1.44
7.2.11 SLOPE OF A CATCHMENT AREA

It is noticed that the slope of a channel is normally steep at the early stage and it goes on reducing
as it flows downstream. The average slope of the catchment area is calculated as in Fig. 7.5.
Draw the ‘L’ section of the main stream. Divide the length of the main channel into equal hori-
zontal segments taking into consideration its slope.
S S S ...S
S[ ]
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 2
______________________
1 2 3 n
Thus, n
where, S Slope of the catchment area
S1, S2, S3, ... Slope of the main stream in various segments
n Number of segments
Example 7.2
The L section along the main stream of a channel is shown in Fig. 7.6. Find the average slope of
the channel.
RUNOFF 183
Fig. 7.5 Slope of a catchment area
Fig. 7.6 Estimation of the slope of a catchment

Solution:
Divide the L section into eight equal horizontal segments. Each will be of 10 km. The bed slope
of each segment is as follows:
(a) 1 in 10,000 (b) 3 in 10,000 (c) 5 in 10,000 (d) 6 in 10,000 (e) 8 in 10,000 (f) 13 in 10,000
(g) 21 in 10,000 (h) 38 in 10,000
The average slope S of the channel will be
S11/2S21/2S31/2...
[ ]
2
S _________________
N
]
2
(1/10000) (3/10000) (5/10000) (6/10000) (8/10000) (13/10000) (21/10000) (38/10000)

[ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
1/2 1/2 1/2
8
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1 1.73 2.23 2.45 2.82 3.60 4.58 6.16 2

1
[
____
100
_____________________________________________
8 ]
9.43 in 10000
7.2.12 RELATION OF CATCHMENT AREA WITH ITS LENGTH

After analysing a number of catchment areas, the following relation is noticed.
L 1.2736 A0 6
where, L Length in kilometre of the main channel
7.2.13 WATERSHED LEAKAGE

Water infiltrates into the ground. Because of some subsurface impervious layer sloping in a dif-
ferent direction away from the surface slope, the groundwater from a catchment may flow into the
adjoining catchment area. This is known as watershed leakage.
g 7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS
The catchment areas are classified depending upon the shape as follows (Fig. 7.7):
1. Fan shape
2. Fern leaf-type or elongated
Fan shape: The shape of a catchment may be similar to a fan, i.e. circular. This will affect the
flood intensity from the catchment.
Fern leaf-type: The shape of a catchment may be similar to a fern leaf, i.e. elongated. This will
affect the flood intensity from the catchment.
Karst topography
Regions underlain by soluble rock formations like limestone have characteristic undulating surfaces
with conical round hillocks and circular sinks. Such regions are said to have Karst topography
and are known as Karstic regions. The runoff from such areas is excluded from the surface runoff
RUNOFF 185
Fig. 7.7 Classification of catchments
estimation, since the precipitation over such areas may be lost into the underground passages to far
distant streams, lakes or even sea.
g 7.4 CATCHMENT FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
7.4.1 OVERLAND FLOW

Precipitation falling on a ground surface, after satisfying the infiltration demand, is temporarily
detained on the ground surface. When sufficient depth is built, it travels over the ground surface
towards the stream. It is somewhat like a sheet flow. It is a laminar flow and may not continue for
more than 50 m. Then it forms small streams. This is called overland flow.
The overland flow stops shortly after the precipitation stops.
7.4.2 BANK STORAGE

When the river is in flood, the water surface level in the river rises abruptly and is much higher
than the groundwater table in the vicinity. Under such condition, water flows from the river into the
banks of the river and is stored there temporarily.
The quantity of water thus stored by the banks temporarily is known as bank storage.
When the flood recedes, the water surface level in the river drops. The banks may retain substantial
quantity of water, which may flow back into the river or enter the groundwater storage (Fig. 7.8).
7.4.3 VALLEY STORAGE
When heavy precipitation occurs, there is likelihood of flood in the river. However, this flood flow
may reduce as it travels downstream because of the storage in channels and depressions. Such
storage in channels and depressions is known as valley storage.
Fig. 7.8 Bank storage
7.4.4 ANTECEDENT PRECIPITATION INDEX

Precipitation occurring in late summer, when soil moisture is very low, may produce very low runoff
and as against flood, due to equal precipitation occurring in rainy season, may contribute comparatively
more runoff or high flood. This is because of the moisture present in the soil. This soil moisture depends
on the precipitation, which has occurred previously, i.e. antecedent precipitation.
The antecedent precipitation index (API) is a measure of the soil moisture condition existing on
the day of precipitation. It is generally denoted by—
It k I t1
where, It API on the day of precipitation

It1 API on the previous day of precipitation
k A constant known as recession factor
The value of k ranges from 0.85 to 0.98. The API is taken into consideration while assessing the
runoff or flood from a catchment area.
g 7.5 PROCESS OF RUNOFF
Whenever there is precipitation, the requirement of interception and depression storage is first met
with. The infiltration also starts immediately. If the rate of precipitation is more than these abstrac-
tions, overland flow results. Otherwise, all precipitation water is lost in these abstractions. This
overland flow is collected in small streams leading to a channel or a river.
Before and after this storm, there may be some discharge in the river. This may be due to inter-
flow, delayed interflow or flow from the groundwater appearing into the channel. The surface flow
observed in the river immediately after the precipitation is the combined flow due to the precipita-
tion and the flow in the river before the precipitation.
RUNOFF 187
g 7.6 CLASSIFICATION OF STREAMS

The streams may be classified as follows:
7.6.1 INFLUENT STREAM

When there is flow in a channel and the groundwater table is lower than the water level in the river,
water from the channel may flow into the groundwater storage. A stream that feeds some flow to
the groundwater storage is known as influent stream.
7.6.2 EFFLUENT STREAM

If the groundwater table level is higher than the water level in the channel then water may flow
from the groundwater to the channel. A stream that receives some flow from the groundwater stor-
age is known as effluent stream. Figure 7.9 shows these two types of flow.
A stream cannot be classified as influent stream or effluent stream for its entire length. It may
change its nature depending upon the groundwater table.
7.6.3 INTERMITTENT STREAM

A stream that acts as an influent stream for some period in a year and for the rest of the period as
effluent stream is called as intermittent stream.
Fig. 7.9 Classification of streams

7.6.4 EPHEMERAL STREAM

A stream that carries discharge in rainy days only and dries during hot weather is known as
ephemeral stream or seasonal stream.
7.6.5 PERENNIAL STREAM

A stream that carries discharge throughout the year is known as perennial stream.
g 7.7 STREAM PATTERNS
The combined effect of climate, soil structure and geology of the catchment area is noticed in the
network of channel or stream pattern. The usual patterns observed are as follows (Fig. 7.10):
• Dendrite type or tree like
• Radial pattern
• Trellis pattern
• Pinnate type
• Anastomising pattern
• Parallel
• Rectangular
These stream patterns have a significant effect on the draining period and the flow intensity of
the surface runoff and indirectly on infiltration and total runoff.
g 7.8 FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF
The factors affecting the runoff are as follows:

• Precipitation
• Size and shape of catchment
• Geographical characteristics of the catchment
• Meteorological characteristics of the catchment
• Effect of drainage net
• Other factors
7.8.1 PRECIPITATION
The runoff is clearly a function of precipitation, its intensity, its duration and its coverage. More
the intensity, more will be the runoff. The infiltration rate reduces after some time; hence more the
duration, proportionately more will be the runoff. Similarly, more the area covered by the storm,
more will be the runoff.
Direction of movement of a storm over the catchment area has a definite effect on the
runoff. If the storm moves in the direction of the flow, the base period of hydrograph will
be less and more peak flow may be expected. On the other hand, if the storm moves against the flow direc-
tion, then the base period will be comparatively more and less peak flow may be expected (Fig. 7.11).
7.8.2 SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE CATCHMENT AREA

The size of catchment has a definite effect on the runoff. More the area, more will be the runoff. So
also, the shape will have a definite effect on the runoff.
RUNOFF 189
Fig. 7.10 Stream patterns
In case of a fan-shaped catchment area, the base period of the resulting hydrograph will be less
and thus more peak flow may be expected. In case of an elongated catchment, the base period of
the resulting hydrograph will be comparatively more and thus more will be the infiltration losses
and less will be the runoff (Fig. 7.12).
The average value of (1) Manning’s coefficient, (2) the shape factor, (3) stream order, (4) drainage
density, (5) stream density, (6) circularity ratio, (7) elongation ratio, (8) compactness coefficient, (9) the
slope of the channel and so on of the catchment thus definitely influence the runoff.
Fig. 7.11 Effect of the storm movement on runoff
Fig. 7.12 Effect of the shape of catchment on runoff

RUNOFF 191
7.8.3 GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS

The nature of the soil, its permeability, has an effect on the infiltration rate and has indirect effect on
the runoff. Impervious rock outcrops will increase the runoff. Also, impervious sub-surface layers
at higher levels than groundwater table level increase the runoff.
Faults, fissures and cracks in the surface formations will allow more infiltration of the overland
flow and the water thus infiltrated may find its opening in the adjoining catchment area or the same
catchment somewhere else and may indirectly affect the runoff.
7.8.4 METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

The temperature has an effect on the evaporation and infiltration and may indirectly affect the
runoff. The barometric pressure, altitude and wind will not only affect the storm and its movement,
but may also affect the runoff.
7.8.5 DRAINAGE NET

The rainwater after meeting all abstractions, first flows through small rivulets and then flows to
bigger ones. The pattern of the various tributaries normally known as drainage net or drainage
pattern will affect drainage of the surface flow. In each case, the draining time will differ and will
affect the infiltration and thus indirectly the runoff.
7.8.6 OTHER FACTORS

(1) Cultivation in an area, (2) contour bunding, (3) ploughing, (4) deforestation, (5) urbanization
and so on have a direct effect on the runoff.
g 7.9 SOURCES OR COMPONENTS OF RUNOFF
The sources and components of runoff from a catchment area are as follows:
7.9.1 DIRECT PRECIPITATION ON THE STREAM CHANNEL

When the river is in floods, there will be a spread of flood water. The precipitation occurring
directly over this water surface contributes to the runoff without any abstractions therefrom.
However, this quantity is very small and normally neglected.
7.9.2 SURFACE RUNOFF

This is the major part of the runoff. The water quantity that reaches the stream from the overland flow
and is carried by the stream on its surface is the surface runoff. It is also known as quick flow.
7.9.3 INTERFLOW
All the water, which infiltrates into the ground, may not reach up to the groundwater table
if it meets a local impervious layer. This water may move laterally as per the slope of this
impervious local layer and may find an outlet into the stream. This component of runoff is
known as interflow.
If this inflow is observed in a short period, it is called prompt interflow; otherwise it is called
delayed interflow. This inflow moves slowly as compared to the overland flow and its contribution
depends upon the orientation of the impervious layer as well as the soil characteristics. This is also
known as subsurface runoff, subsurface storm flow, storm seepage, secondary base flow, through
flow or quick return flow.
7.9.4 GROUNDWATER FLOW

The water that infiltrates may reach the groundwater storage if not obstructed by any impervious
layers in between.
If the groundwater table level is higher than the water level in the stream or the bed level of
the stream when it is dry, then the water will flow from the groundwater storage into the stream.
The flow may lag behind the occurrence of rainfall by days or by weeks, or even by months.
But the flow evens out and is regular over a longer period. This represents the long-term component
of the total runoff and is important during the long dry spells when there is no precipitation and
hence no surface runoff.
7.9.5 REGENERATION
When water is supplied to the fields for irrigation, a small portion of it is utilized for the growth of
the crops. Remaining portion infiltrates. A part of the infiltrated water finds its way into the adjoin-
ing stream and is called regeneration. The remaining flows to the groundwater.
For the regenerated water, the lag time is small. Normally, regeneration is considered to be 20%
of the water applied for irrigation.
g 7.10 ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF
The runoff from a catchment is estimated by the following methods:

• Standard tables
• Empirical formulae
• Rainfall runoff correlation
All these methods give a rough estimate, since none of them is accurate.
7.10.1 STANDARD TABLES

Observations of precipitation and the resulting runoff were taken for a number of catchments
having different characteristics. Tables are prepared showing the relation between precipita-
tion and the resulting runoff, taking into consideration the catchments. The following tables
are in use.
7.10.1.1 Binnie’s table

Sir Binnie suggested runoff as a percentage of total annual precipitation by observing rivers in
Madhya Pradesh, India, as follows:
RUNOFF 193
Table 7.1 Binnie’s table

Average annual rainfall Runoff % of
Serial no. in the catchment (mm) annual rainfall
1 500 15
2 600 21
3 700 25
4 800 29
5 900 34
6 1000 38
7 1100 40
The observations covered areas that were not having heavy rainfall but were having a precipita-
tion up to 1100 mm. Hence, these percentages are not applicable for high-rainfall areas.
Example 7.3
The average annual precipitation over a catchment of 120 km2 and its percentage is as follows:
Serial no. % of area Average annual precipitation (cm)
A1 20 50
A2 15 75
A3 40 90
A4 25 110
Find the runoff from the catchment using Binnie’s table.
Solution:
The Binnie’s coefficients corresponding to the average annual precipitation for each area and
the corresponding runoff will be as follows:
Serial no. Area (km2) Binnie’s coefficient Runoff (m3)

1 120 0.20 24 0.15 24 106 0.50 0.15 1.800 106
2 120 0.15 18 0.27 18 106 0.75 0.27 3.645 106
3 120 0.40 48 0.34 48 106 0.90 0.34 14.680 106
4 120 0.25 30 0.40 30 106 1.10 0.40 13.200 106
Total 33.325 106 m3
7.10.1.2 Rainfall–Runoff correlation

Runoff is correlated to rainfall as follows:
Runoff K (annual rainfall)
where, K Constant and its value for various types of catchment areas are shown in Table 7.2.
This method is applicable mainly to small urban catchment areas.
Table 7.2 Values of constant K for various types of catchment areas

Serial no. Type of catchments Value of K
1 Urban 0.05--0.5
2 Forest 0.2--0.5
3 Commercial and industrial 0.9
4 Parks and farms 0.3--0.5
5 Concrete pavements 0.85
Example 7.4
A catchment area of 150 km2 has the following type of distribution:
Area Type %
A1 Urban 20
A2 Forest 35
A3 Commercial and industrial 30
A4 Concrete pavement 15
Find the annual runoff from the catchment when the average annual precipitation is 90 cm.
Solution:
The runoff coefficient K for the respective type of catchment and the annual runoff from each
type of catchment will be as follows:
Serial no. Area (km2) K Runoff (m2)
A1 150 0.20 30.0 0.25 30.0 106 0.9 0.25 6.75 106
A2 150 0.35 52.5 0.45 52.5 106 0.9 0.45 21.26 106
A3 150 0.30 45.0 0.90 45.0 106 0.9 0.90 36.45 106
A4 150 0.15 22.5 0.85 22.5 106 0.9 0.85 17.21 106
Total 81.67 106
7.10.1.3 Strange’s Coefficient

W. L. Strange suggested that rainfall–runoff relationship depends upon the nature of catchment
as well as soil condition. The relation was developed on the basis of observations in the former
Bombay State in India. The relation has been presented in the form of tables as well as curves.
The catchment is classified as (i) dry, (ii) damp and (iii) wet. It is also classified as (a) good,
(b) average and (c) bad. The percentage coefficients for these classifications are given in Table 7.3.
It was also recommended to add 25% to the runoff figures for good catchments and deduct 25%
for the bad catchments. The precipitation range as well as the type of catchment is covered in this
approach. Still the results are not accurate. The daily runoff is calculated whenever there is rain and
is added to calculate the seasonal or annual runoff.
RUNOFF 195
Table 7.3 The percentage coefficient of different classes of the catchment

Runoff (%)
Serial no. Daily rainfall (mm) Dry Damp Wet
1 6.25 – – 8
2 12.50 – 6 12
3 25.00 3 11 18
4 37.50 6 16 25
5 50.00 10 22 34
6 75.00 20 37 55
7 100.00 30 50 70
Example 7.5
The daily rainfall over a catchment of 140 km2 is 5, 30 and 80 mm, respectively. The area is
classified as follows:
1. Dry—30%
2. Damp—45%
3. Wet—25%
Find the runoff from this storm using Strange’s coefficient. The area is classified as good catchment.
Solution:
The rainfall and the corresponding Strange’s coefficient for the classification of the catchment
will be as follows:
Strange’s coefficient (%)

Serial no. Day Precipitation (mm) Dry Damp Wet
1 1 5 – – 0.08
2 2 30 0.035 0.13 0.20
3 3 80 0.230 0.40 0.62
The runoff, in mm, for each day for the three classifications will be as follows:
Runoff (mm)
Serial no. Day Rainfall (mm) Dry Damp Wet
1 1 5 -- -- 0.08 5 0.40
2 2 30 0.035 30 1.05 0.13 30 3.9 0.20 30 6.00
3 3 80 0.230 80 18.40 0.40 80 32.0 0.62 80 49.60
Total 19.45 35.9 56.00
The runoff in m3 from the three classifications will be as follows:
Serial no. Day Area (km2) Runoff (m)

1 1 140 0.30 42 42 10 19.45 103 0.817 106
6
2 2 140 0.45 63 63 106 35.90 103 2.262 106

3 3 140 0.25 35 35 106 56.00 103 1.960 106
Total 5.039 106 m3
Since the area is classified as ‘good’, the runoff from the catchment will be increased by 25%
and the runoff from the catchment will be 1.25 5.039 106
6.30 10 6 m3
7.10.1.4 Barlow’s method

Barlow suggested percentage coefficients for small catchment areas depending on the nature of the
catchment for different categories as given in Table 7.4.
These percentages were modified by multiplying them by a coefficient depending on the rainfall
as given in Table 7.5.
Table 7.4 Percentage coefficient of small catchment areas depending on the nature of the catchment
Serial no. Class Nature of catchment Runoff (%)
1 A Flat, cultivated black cotton soil area 10
2 B Flat partly cultivated consisting of different soils 15
3 C Average land 20
4 D Hills and plains with little cultivation 35
5 E Very hilly and steep slopes with hardly any cultivation 45
Table 7.5 Coefficient depending on the rainfall

Coefficient
Serial no. Nature of rainfall A B C D E
1 Light rain 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
2 Average rain 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
3 Continuous downpour 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
Example 7.6
A catchment covering an area of 200 km2 has the following classification:
A1. Flat cultivated land 20%
A2. Hills and plain with little cultivation 40%
A3. Very hilly and steep slopes with no cultivation 40%
RUNOFF 197
The average precipitation over the catchment during a storm for 3 days was as under
1. Light rain 10 mm
2. Average rain 50 mm
3. Heavy rain 150 mm
Find the runoff from the catchment.
Solution:
The runoff is in metre for the classification of the catchment, as per Barlow’s table, the coefficient
being as follows:
Nature
Serial Nature of Runoff of Rainfall Rainfall
no. Day catchment coefficient Rainfall coefficient (m) Runoff (m)
1 1 A1 0.10 Light 0.7 0.01 0.1 0.7 0.01 0.0007
2 2 A1 0.10 Average 1.0 0.05 0.1 1.0 0.05 0.005
3 3 A1 0.10 Heavy 1.5 0.15 0.10 1.5 0.15 0.0225
0.0282 m
Total
4 1 A2 0.35 Light 0.8 0.01 0.35 0.8 0.01 0.0028
5 2 A2 0.35 Average 1.0 0.05 0.35 1.0 0.05 0.0175
6 3 A2 0.35 Heavy 1.7 0.15 0.35 1.7 0.15 0.0893
Total 0.1096 m
7 1 A3 0.45 Light 0.8 0.01 0.45 0.8 0.01 0.0036
8 2 A3 0.45 Average 1.0 0.05 0.45 1.0 0.05 0.0225
9 3 A3 0.45 Heavy 1.8 0.15 0.45 1.8 0.15 0.122
Total 0.1481 m
The runoff in m3 from the three classifications of the catchment will be as under.
Nature of
Serial no. catchment Area (m2) Runoff (m) Runoff (m3)
1 A1 200 106 0.2 0.282 20 106 0.0282 0.564 106
2 A2 200 10 0.4
6 0.1096 40 106 0.1096 4.384 106
3 A3 200 16 0.4
6 0.1481 40 106 0.1481 5.924 106
Total 10.872 106 m3
7.10.2 EMPIRICAL FORMULAE

There are several empirical formulae in use. These involve the following parameters:
• Catchment area
• Annual rainfall
• Nature of catchment
• Average temperature
The formulae normally followed are as follows:
7.10.2.1 Sir Inglis formula

Sir Inglis suggested two formulae, based on the observations in the former Bombay State, India.
(A) Ghat-fed catchments:
R 0.85 P30.5
(B) Plain areas in water shadow regions:
P (P 17.8)
R _____________
254
where, P and R are in cm.
A catchment area may be partly in the ghat and partly in the plains. Runoff from both the types
may be calculated separately and then added together.
Example 7.7
A catchment area of 200 km2 has the following classification:
1. Ghat-fed—40%
2. Plain—60%
Find the runoff, if the annual average precipitation is 750 mm.
Solution:
The runoff is calculated by using the Inglis formula.
1. Ghat-fed area:
____
750
R 0.85 P 30.5 0.85 10 30.5 33.25 cm 0.34 m
2. Plain area:
P (P 17.8) __________________
_____________ 750/10(750/1017.8) 75 57.2
_________
R 254 254 254
16.88 cm
0.168 m
Total runoff 200 0.4 106 0.34 200 0.6 106 0.168
27.2 106 20.16 106
47.36 106 m3
RUNOFF 199
7.10.2.2 Khosla’s formula

Dr Khosla suggested the following formula:
R P – 5T
where, R Runoff in mm
P Average precipitation in mm
T Average temperature in oC
The formula is modified further when the average temperature is less than 4 oC. The formula is used
to calculate the runoff for each month and then the values are added to arrive at the annual runoff.
Example 7.8
The mean monthly temperature and monthly precipitation figures observed for the year 2004 for a
catchment area, covering an area of 160 km2, are as under.
Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Precipitation (cm) 5 5 2 0 3 13 33 30 16 2 1 1
Temperature (oC) 13 17 21 28 32 35 32 30 29 27 20 14
Find the annual runoff.
Solution:
Using Khosla’s formula, the monthly precipitation, monthly temperature, monthly loss and
monthly runoff, for the year 2004, are tabulated as follows:
Monthly Monthly Monthly loss Monthly runoff

Serial no. Month precipitation (cm) temperature (°C) (cm) (cm)
1 January 5 13 6.5 0
2 February 5 17 8.5 0
3 March 2 21 10.5 0
4 April 0 28 14.0 0
5 May 3 32 16.0 0
6 June 13 35 17.5 0
7 July 33 32 16.0 17
8 August 30 30 15.0 15
9 September 16 29 14.5 1.5
10 October 2 27 13.5 0
11 November 1 20 10.0 0
12 December 1 14 7.0 0
Total 33.5
____
33.5
Therefore, total annual runoff 160 106 100 53.6106 m3
7.10.2.3 Rational formula

The runoff from a catchment can be estimated by using a rational formula for small catchments
as follows:
R CAP
where, R Runoff in million m3
C Constant
A Area in km2
P Average annual precipitation in metres.
Table 7.6 gives the value of C as suggested by Richard.
The catchment area may be divided into sub-areas as per the type mentioned above. The
runoff from each catchment area is evaluated separately and then added together to arrive at
the total runoff.
Table 7.6 Value of C as suggested by Richard

Serial no. Types of catchment Value of C
1 Rocky and impermeable 0.8--1.0
2 Slightly permeable 0.6--0.8
3 Cultivated or covered with vegetation 0.4--0.6
4 Cultivated absorbent soil 0.3--0.4
5 Sandy soil 0.2--0.3
6 Heavy forest 0.1--0.2
Example 7.9
The classification of a catchment covering an area of 110 km2 is as follows:
1. Rocky, impermeable—10%
2. Cultivated—60%
3. Forest—30%
Using the rational formula and the coefficients suggested by Richard, find the annual runoff
from the catchment when the average annual precipitation is 800 mm.
Solution:
The catchment area, its classification, Richard’s coefficients and the annual runoff is tabulated
below.
Serial no. Catchment area (m2) Richard’s coefficient Annual runoff (m2)
1 0.1 110 106 11 106 0.9 0.9 11 106 0.8 7.92 106
2 0.6 110 106 66 106 0.5 0.5 66 106 0.8 26.40 106
3 0.3 110 106 33 106 0.15 0.15 33 106 0.8 3.96 106
Total 38.28 106
RUNOFF 201
7.10.3 DEDUCTING ABSTRACTIONS FROM PRECIPITATION

The runoff can also be estimated by deducting all abstractions from the precipitation. These abstrac-
tions are evaporation, surface retention and infiltration; however, it calls for a correct estimation of
these abstractions.
7.10.4 RAINFALL–RUNOFF CORRELATION
From the data available from past records, a graph can be plotted to correlate runoff and rainfall.
The graph will normally be a straight line having the following equation (Fig. 7.13):
R m (p – x)
where, R Runoff in million m 3
m A constant
p Rainfall in mm
x Interception of the straight-line relationship on the x-axis.
The relation thus derived will be applicable for a specific catchment and is normally not used for
other catchment areas. There are several changes carried out by humans every year and the relation
has to be modified every year to account for them. However, it gives a rough estimate.
Fig. 7.13 Rainfall runoff co-relation
Example 7.10
The annual runoff and the annual precipitation observed over a catchment are as follows:
Serial no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Precipitation (mm) 1000 1700 1200 1500 1360 1620 1100 1370 1630 1420 1400 1260
Runoff (million m3) 553 1105 651 903 750 992 605 781 1005 875 854 751
Fig. 7.14 Rainfall--runoff correlation
Derive the rainfall–runoff relation for the catchment and also find the possible runoff when the
precipitation will be 1160 mm.
Solution:
The rainfall–runoff for the catchment is plotted on a simple graph paper as shown in Fig. 7.14. From
the graph the interception on the x-axis is 320 mm and the slope is 0.76. Thus the relation works to be
as follow:
R 0.76 (P – 320)
where, R Runoff in million m3
P Annual average precipitation in mm
From this relation, the runoff for a precipitation of 1160 mm will be 638 106 m3.
g 7.11 DEPENDABLE FLOW
In the case when the annual runoff figures are observed and are available for n years, these
figures are arranged in a descending order. The serial number m of a specific value of runoff
is known as ranking. It can then be said that this specific value of runoff or more than that is
available for m years out of n years and the percentage dependability of this value will be as
follows:
m
__
% dependability n 100
For instance, if the data of annual runoff are available for 40 years and if these are arranged in
a descending order, then the percentage dependability of the runoff value at Serial no. 30 will be
30/40 100 75%.
Similarly, the percentage dependability of 50% will be the runoff figure at Serial no. 20.
RUNOFF 203
Fig. 7.15 Flow duration curve
g 7.12 FLOW DURATION CURVE

A graph of percentage dependability on x-axis and the corresponding runoff value on the
y-axis are plotted and is known as flow–duration curve. It is also known as discharge
frequency curve.
A flow–duration curve is shown in Fig. 7.15.
Example 7.11
The annual yield in million m3 from a catchment for the last 20 years is as follows: 240, 350, 680,
400, 290, 160, 110, 105, 300, 600, 800, 540, 280, 130, 320, 810, 740, 220, 190 and 480.
Find the following:
(1) 80% dependable yield
(2) 45% dependable yield
(3) The % dependability of the yield of 540 million m3
(4) Plot the flow–duration curve
Solution:
The annual yield in million m3 for the 20 years is arranged in descending order. The yield for
(1) 80% dependability will be at 200.80 16 (serial order) and (2) 45% dependability will be
at 20 0.45 9 (serial order).
Serial no. Yield (million m3) Dependability (%) Remarks

1 810 5.0
2 800 10.0
3 740 15.0
4 680 20.0
5 600 25.0
6 540 30.0
7 480 35.0
8 400 40.0
9 350 45.0 45% dependable
10 320 50.0
11 300 55.0
12 290 60.0
13 280 65.0 65% dependable
14 240 70.0
15 220 75.0
16 190 80.0 80% dependable
17 160 85.0
18 130 90.0
19 110 95.0
20 105 100.0
1. 80% dependable yield 190 106 m3

2. 45% dependable yield 350 106 m3
___
6
3. Since 540 106 m3 is at Serial no. 6, its dependability will be 20 30.0%
4. The flow–duration curve is plotted in Fig. 7.15.
g 7.13 RUNOFF COEFFICIENT
All the water after precipitation will not flow to the river. There are some abstractions. After meet-
ing the requirements of these abstractions, the balance water will flow to the river as runoff. Thus
runoff will be less than the precipitation.
The runoff coefficient is the ratio of runoff and precipitation. It will be always be less than 1.
g 7.14 RUNOFF CYCLE

It is a descriptive term used for a part of the hydrological cycle. When precipitation occurs over
the land area, some part of the precipitation flows into a river channel as overland flow, while part
of the precipitation enters into the ground as infiltration. This quantity of infiltrated water finds its
RUNOFF 205
way into the river channel as interflow. Part of water precipitated returns to the atmosphere through
evapo-transpiration.
This process, which is part of the hydrological cycle, is known as runoff cycle.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define runoff. Discuss the various components of runoff.
2. How is the average slope of a catchment area calculated?
3. Explain watershed leakage, with the help of a neat sketch. How does it affect the runoff from
the catchment?
4. How are the catchment areas classified based on the shape of the catchment? Discuss their
effect on the runoff.
5. Explain bank storage, with the help of a neat sketch.
6. What do you understand by Karst topography?
7. How are the streams classified based on the flow consideration?
8. Discuss the factors affecting runoff.
9. What are the sources of runoff?
10. How is runoff from a catchment estimated?
11. State and explain the different formulae used to estimate runoff from a catchment. Discuss
their limitations also.
12. Explain Binnie’s table to estimate the runoff from a catchment. What are its limitations?
13. What are Strange’s coefficients? Discuss their limitations.
14. What is a dependable yield? How is it calculated for a given dependability?
15. What is a flow-duration curve? How is it constructed?
a. Ridge line b. Valley storage
c. Groundwater divide line d. Antecedent precipitation index
e. Drainage area f. Process of runoff
g. Stream order h. Stream pattern
i. Drainage density j. Rainfall runoff correlation
k. Steam density l. Runoff cycle
m. Length of stream n. Ephemeral stream
o. Form factor p. Compactness coefficient
q. Circulatory ratio r. Relief of catchment area
s. Elongation ratio t. Shape factor
17. Is there any relation between area of the catchment and its length? Discuss.
18. Distinguish between the following:
a. Topographic divide and groundwater b. Shape of the catchment and pattern of the
divide catchment
c. Influent stream and effluent stream d. Intermittent stream and perennial stream
e. Drainage density and stream density f. Form factor and shape factor
g. Circulatory ratio and elongation ratio h. Fan-shaped catchment and elongated
catchment
i. Overland flow and interflow j. Binnie’s table and Barlow’s table for the
estimation of runoff
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
7.1. The levels taken along the cross-section of a channel at a regular interval of 1000 m are as
follows.
Section 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Level in m 245 246 248 251 255 260 266 273
Calculate the average slope of the channel.

Ans: The average slope of the channel 3.69 in 1000
7.2. The annual average precipitation in mm of a catchment covering 1000 km2 is 1000 mm . Out
of this catchment 60% is ghat-fed and the rest is plain. Find the run-off from the catchment.
Ans: 45.69 106m3
7.3. The mean average annual precipitation and the run-off from a catchment observed over the
last 10 years is as follows
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Precipitation in mm 541 581 739 942 838 1022 703 903 781 603
Run-off in mm 263 341 438 705 581 743 442 603 526 408
Derive a relation between precipitation and run-off, for the catchment. Also calculate the
possible run-off when the precipitation is 720 mm
Ans:
(1) The relation between run-off and precipitation is R 0.909 ( P 203 )
(2) The run-off when the precipitation is 720 mm 470 mm
7.4. The annual yield in million m3 from a catchment for the last 20 years is as follows
1410 1310 1100 935 1370 1020 1203 930 1440 1290
980 1400 1176 1425 1340 1261 1130 1300 1480 1280
Calculate
(1) 75 % dependable yield
(2) 50 % dependable yield
(3) the % dependability for 1300 106 m3
Ans:
(1) 75 % dependable yield ______________ 1130 106 m3
(2) 50 % dependable yield ______________ 1290 106 m3
(3) the % dependability for 1300 106 m3 ______________ 45 %

1. Normally the regeneration of irrigated water is considered to be
(a) 30% (b) 25%
(c) 20% (d) 15%
RUNOFF 207
2. Interflow is also known as

(a) Subsurface runoff (b) Subsurface storm flow
(c) Storm seepage (d) Secondary base flow
(e) All the above
3. Catchment area is also known as
(a) Watershed area (b) Drainage area
(c) Drainage basin (d) Catchment
(e) Basin (f) All the above
4. A stream that carries discharge in rainy season and dries during hot weather is known as
(a) Intermittent stream (b) Influent stream
(c) Ephemeral stream (d) Effluent stream
5. A stream that carries discharge throughout the year is known as
(a) Seasonal stream (b) Perennial stream
(c) Influent stream (d) Effluent stream
6. The graph showing the relation of rainfall runoff has the following relation with usual notations
(a) R mp x (b) R mx p
(c) R m (p x) (d) R mpx
7. For calculating the dependable yield, the annual runoff figures are arranged in
(a) Descending order (b) Ascending order
(c) Chronologically
8. Flow–duration curve is normally plotted on
(a) Normal graph paper (b) Semi-log paper
(c) Log-log paper
9. Ridge line is also known as:
(a) Topographic water divide (b) Watershed divide
(c) Topographic divide. (d) All the above
10 Groundwater divide line is also known as
(a) Topographic water divide (b) Watershed divide
(c) Phreatic divide (d) All the above
11. The runoff is expressed in
(a) m of depth of water uniformly (b) Million m3
spread over the entire area
(c) ha m (d) All the above
12. The peculiarity of the Karst topography is that it
(a) Does not produce any runoff (b) Produces only direct runoff
and no base flow
(c) Produces only base flow and (d) None of the above
no direct runoff
13. The runoff from a catchment area of 50 km2 receiving an excess rainfall of 100 mm will be
equal to
(a) 5 million m3 (b) 5 102 ha m
(c) 0.1 m of water (d) All are correct
14. The slope of a catchment area with usual notations is given by

S1 S2 S3 … Sn
____________________ S10 5 S20 5 S30 5 … Sn0 5
__________________________
(a) n (b) n
S1 S2 S3 … Sn S1L1 S2L2 S3L3 … SnLn
(c) ( 1/2 1/2 1/2
___________________________
n )
1/2 2
(d)
___________________________
L1 L 2 L 3 … Ln

1. c 2. e 3. e 4. c 5. b 6. c 7. a 8. a
9. d 10. c 11. d 12. a 13. d 14. c
*** ***
Flood
8
Chapter Outline
8.1 Definition 8.5 Gumbell’s distribution

8.2 Factors affecting flood 8.6 Log-Pearson type III distribution
8.3 Classification of floods 8.7 Risk
8.4 Estimation of floods
g 8.1 DEFINITION
Any flow of water that is relatively high and that may overtop the natural or the artificial banks in
a reach of a channel may be called as flood.
Water may overtop the bank at some location where it may be treated that the channel is in
floods. However, at some other location of the same channel, water may be contained within the
banks of the channel. Thus, the same channel may not be considered in floods at that location.
In large rivers, an arbitrary level is decided keeping in mind the habitation or the farmland and
other properties so that when water level rises above this level, the river is designated to be in flood.
8.1.1 FEATURES OF FLOOD

The features of flood are mentioned as follows:
• When the river is in flood, normally the maximum discharge in m3/s it carries, is the consideration
of the flood.
• In some cases, the maximum level reached by the flood water is the consideration.
• The spread of water, i.e. the area inundated during the flood is also a consideration.
• The duration of the high water spread may be a consideration.
However, all these considerations are interdependent.
8.1.2 CAUSES OF FLOOD

Flood may be due to the following reasons:
• Whenever there is heavy precipitation over the catchment in terms of intensity, duration and
spread, the river will carry high discharge and thus this is the main reason of a river to be in
flood.
• Whenever there is a heavy landslide in the river, it may cause flood on the u/s side due to arrest
of flow and consequent rise in water level.
• Sometimes, because of earthquake, it may so happen that the river bed is raised. This may cause
flood on the u/s due to the arrest of flow as well as on the d/s, for some distance for a short
period.
• In case there is breach of a dam, the reservoir water may rush towards the d/s side causing heavy
flood for a short period.
• Floods may be caused due to heavy melting of snow and ice.
8.1.3 WATER YEAR

The 12 months of the year selected for maintaining or presenting records of flow is known as a
water year. It is also known as hydrological year.
g 8.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD
The factors that may affect the flood intensity are discussed below:
8.2.1 PRECIPITATION
It is obvious that precipitation will affect the flood. More the intensity, more the duration and more
the coverage of the storm, more will be the flood.
8.2.2 SIZE AND SHAPE OF BASIN

It is obvious that larger the size of the catchment more will be the flood.
The shape of the basin also definitely affects floods. For a fan-shaped catchment, the time of
concentration will be less and hence the storm hydrograph base period will be less and the peak
discharge will be more. As against this, in the case of an elongated-shaped catchment of equal area
FLOOD 211
Fig. 8.1 Effect of shape of catchment on floods
and the same storm, the time of concentration will be more. Thus, the storm hydrograph base period
will be more and the peak discharge will be comparatively less.
Figure 8.1 shows the two flood hydrographs in the case of a fan-shaped catchment and an
elongated catchment.
8.2.3 MOVEMENT OF STORM

When the catchment is large, the storm may not cover the entire catchment area, but may cover a
part of the area and then move towards other parts. If the storm moves along the flow direction,
the time of concentration will be less, the base period will be less and peak discharge will be more.
If the storm moves against the flow direction, for the same storm and the same basin, the time of
concentration will be more, the base period will be more and the peak discharge will be less.
Figure 8.2 shows the two flood hydrographs when the storm moves along the flow and against
the flow.
8.2.4 ANTECEDENT PRECIPITATION INDEX

When precipitation occurs, the soil may be wet because of the precipitation on the previous day. In
this case, the antecedent precipitation index (API) may be high and hence the infiltration rate of the
soil will be low resulting into high value of surface runoff. This may result in higher value of flood
discharge also. Thus, higher value of API results in higher flood.
Fig. 8.2 Effect of storm movement on floods
8.2.5 OTHER FACTORS

The following factors, which affect the infiltration rate, also indirectly affect the flood.
• Physical factors: Manning’s coefficient, slope of catchment, form factor, drainage density,
drainage pattern, etc.
• Geographical factors: Nature of soil, permeability of soil, rock outcrops, impervious layers in
the ground at higher levels, faults, fissures, cracks, vegetation, conservation measures such as
contour bunding.
• Climatic factors: Temperature, barometric pressure, altitude, wind speed and so on.
g 8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOODS
Floods may be classified as under:

• Annual flood: The maximum discharge observed in a water year is known as ‘Annual flood.’
• Maximum observed flood: The maximum flood observed during the period for which data is
available is known as ‘Maximum observed flood.’
• Mean annual maximum flood: The average of all the annual floods recorded is known as ‘Mean
annual maximum flood.’
• Maximum-probable flood: The maximum probable flood can be defined as the flood that may
be expected from the most severe combination of meteorological conditions. It is normally a very
large flood. It is also known as maximum possible flood. The normal short form used is MPF.
• Design flood: The discharge adopted for the design of a structure is known as ‘Design flood.’
Design flood is finalized considering the nature of the structure, etc. For less important struc-
tures, the design flood may be less than the MPF.
FLOOD 213
• Flash flood: A flood of short duration and abrupt rise with a relatively high-peak rate of flow,
usually resulting from a high intensity of rainfall, is known as ‘Flash flood’.
• N-year flood: A flood that has a probability of being equalled or exceeded once in N years is
known as an ‘N-year flood’.
g 8.4 ESTIMATION OF FLOODS
Floods may be estimated by the following methods:

• Estimating the observed flood and increasing it by certain percentage
• Envelope curves
• Empirical formulae
• Unit hydrograph application
• Statistical methods
8.4.1 ESTIMATION AND INCREASE OF OBSERVED FLOODS

The maximum observed flood may be increased by some percentage depending upon the
importance of the structure.
If sufficient observed data are not available, then, by local inquiry, the maximum water level
reached or recorded on some building or bridge or any other structure may be noted or may be
obtained from the old persons residing in the locality. The flood discharge for this maximum water
level can be calculated from the following data about the river:
• River cross section at the flood level observed
• Manning’s coefficient (an appropriate judgement)
• The river bed slope
The flood discharge thus calculated may be increased or decreased suitably for design purposes,
depending upon the importance of the structure.
Example 8.1
In a village, the maximum water level reached in the last 32 years was recorded on the
compound wall of the Town hall as 105.00 m corresponding to the bed of the river at
100.00 m.
A survey was conducted at this cross section and levels were taken. These are as follows:
Chainage (m) 0.0 5.00 10.0 17.5* 27.5 32.5 35.0 40 .0
Level (m) 106.00 104.00 101.00 100.00 101.00 103.00 105.00 106.0
*
River bed
The river bed slope at this location was observed to be 1 in 2500. The Manning’s coefficient
corresponding to the topography of the river was 0.030.
Find the flood discharge corresponding to the maximum water level reached.
Solution:
The cross section of the river is plotted to scale as shown in Fig. 8.3.
Fig. 8.3 Cross Section of a river
The area of flow corresponding to this HFL calculated by a plannimeter was 112.5 m2.
The wetted perimeter corresponding to this HFL was 35.6 m.
_____
112.5
Therefore, hydraulic mean depth R 35.6 3.16 m
Using Manning’s formula
3.162/3 ( 1/2500)1/2
R2/3 S1/2 112.5 __________________
Now, Q A V A __________
n 0.03
162.0 m /s
3
8.4.2 ENVELOPE CURVE

The observed or the calculated flood discharges of catchment areas, hydrographically and
meteorologically homogenous regions are considered and plotted on a simple graph paper.
A curve covering all these points is drawn. This is known as envelope curve.
Figure 8.4 shows such a curve drawn for a catchment area.
Fig. 8.4 Envelope curve for flood discharge

FLOOD 215
The flood discharge from this curve for the required basin may be calculated. Following equation
for such an envelope curve is derived.
__________
3010 A
Q (8.1)
(277 A)0 78
where, Q Flood discharge in m3/s
The flood discharge used for plotting the curve are all observed ones and hence the flood
discharge calculated from such an envelope curve has to be increased suitably depending upon
the importance of the structure.
Example 8.2
The catchment area of a proposed bandhara is 100 km2. The maximum average annual flood
discharges in the adjoining area with hydrologically homogeneous catchments are as follows:
Catchment A B C D E F G
2 32.0 120.0 60.0 90 155 80.0 140.0
Catchment area (km )
Maximum flood
1600 3300 2100 2900 3700 2800 3500
discharge (m3/s)
Find the maximum annual flood discharge at the site of the bandhara.
Solution:
On a simple graph paper, catchment area vs discharge, is plotted as shown in Fig. 8.5.
A curve by free hand covering all these points is drawn (envelope curve).
Fig. 8.5 Derived envelope curve for flood discharge

The maximum annual flood discharge at the bandhara site, with a catchment area equal to
100 km2, was read from this envelope curve. It is 3400 m3/s.
Example 8.3
For a catchment area of 100 km2, find the annual average flood discharge by using the envelope
curve equation.
Solution:
The envelope curve equation is as follows:
___________
3010 A
Q
(277 A)0 78
Substituting the value of A,
3010 100
_____________ 3010 100
Q __________
(277 100)0 78 102.22
Q 2944 m3/s.
8.4.3 EMPIRICAL FORMULAE

There are innumerable empirical formulae derived to suit the topographical, climatological and
geological conditions of the catchment area.
In most of these empirical formulae, the catchment area is the main factor and to suit the
location of the catchment area as well as its characteristics, one or two constants are used.
Some of the formulae used for estimating the flood discharge are as follows:
8.4.3.1. Dickens formula

Q CA3/4 (8.2)
A Area of catchment in km2
C A constant. Its value ranges from 11 to 20 for plain areas and 22 to 25 for ghat-fed
catchments.
Normally, this formula is used for central and northern India.
8.4.3.2. Sir Inglis formula

___________
124 A
Q _________ (8.3)
√ 10.4)
(A
A Area of catchment in km2
Normally, this formula is used for ghat-fed catchments.
8.4.3.3. Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur formula

___
1
0 925 14 log10 (0 3906 A)
Q C(0.39006 A) (8.4)
where, Q and A have the usual notations as in Eqs. (8.2) and (8.3) and C is a constant whose value
ranges from 48 to 60.
Normally, this formula is used for old Hyderabad state and South India.
8.4.3.4. Rational formula

Originally, it was derived for British system without any conversion factor. Hence, it was called
rational formula. However, in SI system, it is modified as under.
Q 2.778 C A I (8.5)
FLOOD 217

C Coefficient ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 depending upon the nature of the catchment
A Area in km2
I Maximum intensity of rainfall in cm/h
Example 8.4
Find the maximum flood discharge by using the empirical formulae for a catchment area of 80 km2
having a maximum precipitation intensity of 4 cm/h.
Assume
C in Dicken’s formula = 22
C in Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur formula = 50
C in rational formula = 0.35
Solution:
The flood discharge Q by using the various empirical formulae will be as follows:
1. Dicken’s formula
Q CA3/4 22 803/4 22 26.74
588 m3/s
2. Inglis formula
124 A
___________ 124 80
____________ 124 80
________
Q _________ __________ 9.51
√ (A 10. 4) √ (80 10.4)
1043 m3/s
3. Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur formula
___
1
0 925 14 log (0 3906 A)
Q C(0.39006 A) 10
___
1
0 925 14 log10 (0 3906 80)
50 (0.39006 80)
50 31.20 819
837 m3/s
4. Rational formula
Q 2.778 CAI 2.778 0.35 80 4
311 m3/s
8.4.4 UNIT HYDROGRAPH PROCEDURE
The unit hydrograph theory and procedure can be used to estimate the flood. For this purpose, the
following data are required:
1. Possible maximum precipitation: The possible maximum precipitation (PMP) that can be
expected over the basin can be worked out from the available data. India Meteorological
Department (IMD) has divided India in various zones for this purpose, PMP in each zone has
been indicated. This data can also be used.
2. Unit hydrograph: The unit hydrograph derived for the catchment area up to the basin outlet is
necessary. If such a unit hydrograph is not available, then synthetic unit hydrograph up to the
basin outlet may be derived.
By using the PMP and the unit hydrograph, the flood hydrograph up to the basin outlet can be
estimated.
The peak discharge in the flood hydrograph thus derived may be considered as the design
flood. With the use of this unit hydrograph procedure, not only the flood discharge is estimated
but the flood hydrograph thus derived can also be used for the design of a spillway of a dam for
flood routing purposes.
Example 8.5
For a catchment area of 50 km2, the 1 h–1 cm unit hydrograph coordinates are as follows:
Ti (h) m e 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge
0 6 28 35 27 20 14 9 5 2 0
(m3/s)
The worst possible storm covering the entire catchment area is 2 cm/h for 3 h. Find the maximum
flood discharge.
Solution:
Since the unit hydrograph is for 1 h, the storm will be divided into three parts each one of 1-h duration.
Discharge due to these three parts of the storm with a time lag of 1 h will be as follows:
Unit
hydrograph Discharge
Serial no. Time (h) coordinates due Total
First part Second part Third part
1 0 0 0 — — 0
2 1 6 12 0 — 12
3 2 28 56 12 0 68
4 3 35 70 56 12 138
5 4 27 54 70 56 180
6 5 20 40 54 70 164
7 6 14 28 40 54 122
8 7 9 18 28 40 86
9 8 5 10 18 28 56
10 9 2 4 10 18 32
11 10 0 0 4 10 14
12 11 — — 0 4 4
13 12 — — — — 0
Therefore, the maximum flood discharge is 180 m3/s.

FLOOD 219
8.4.5 STATISTICAL METHODS

The observed data can be used to predict future flood of a particular probability or return period.
For this purpose, adequate reliable flood data should be available for a minimum of 20–25 years.
The longer the period, more reliable will be the results. The data should also be correct. If required
the data may be corrected or adjusted before use.
It is based on the assumption that the combination of numerous factors, which affect flood, is a
pure chance and therefore is subject to analysis as per the theory of probability.
There are two methods of collecting the flood discharge data.
1. Annual flood series
2. Partial duration flood series
In the case of annual flood series, only the highest flood in each year is taken for analysis,
whereas in the case of partial duration flood series, all the flood discharges above a selected peak
are used. In this case, two or more peaks in a year may have to be used.
However, the results obtained by using both the approaches do not vary much.
The following statistical terms are generally referred to:
1. Recurrence interval: If the annual flood discharges of n (say 100) years are arranged in a
descending order, then there will be some discharge figure (say 1000 m3/s) at serial order at m
(say 25). Then it can be said that this discharge of 1000 m3/s at m or more than this will occur
in m (25 years) out of n (100 years), i.e. its recurrence interval is 25/100 1/4, i.e. once in
4 years.
It is also known as return period and generally represented by Tr.
Here,Tr 4. This does not mean that in every 4 years it will occur once, but on an average in
40 years it will occur 10 times or in 80 years it will occur 20 times.
2. Probability: In the example stated above, the probability of flood discharge of 1000 m3/s or
more, occurring in 100 years is 1/4. It is generally denoted as p. Probability is reciprocal of
recurrence interval, i.e. p 1/Tr. In this case, it is 0.25.
Thus, probability is always a fraction, i.e less than 1.
3. Frequency: Probability expressed in terms of percentage is frequency. In the above example,
the frequency is p 100 1/Tr 100 25%.
From the available data, the recurrence interval and the probability of a specific discharge can
be calculated as follows:
8.4.5.1 Probability plotting

Arrange the available discharge figures (say n in total) in descending order. Let the serial order of
this specific discharge Q be m. This serial order m is called rank or order of the observation. The
recurrence interval and the probability of the specific discharge Q in the series can be calculated by
the following methods.
1. California formula,
__
n
Tr m
2. Hazen’s formula,
________
n
Tr m 0.50
3. Weibull’s formula,
n1
_____
Tr m
4. Gumbell’s formula,
__________
n
Tr m C 1
Here, C is called gumbell’s correction. Its value depends on m and n as given in the following
table.
m/n 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.04
C 1 0.95 0.88 0.845 0.78 0.73 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.4 0.28
Once recurrence interval Tr is calculated, the probability p can be calculated, since Tr = 1/p.
Weibul’s formula is generally used.
Example 8.6
The maximum annual flood discharges in m3/s observed at a proposed dam site from 1973 to 2004
(32 years) are as follows:
395, 619, 766, 422, 282, 887, 705, 528, 520, 436, 697, 624, 496, 489, 598, 359, 696, 726, 527, 310,
408, 721, 814, 459, 440, 632, 343, 634, 464, 373, 289, 371
Find the return period for all the discharges by using the following formulae:
(1) California formula, (2) Hazen’s formula, (3) Weibul’s formula and (4) Gumbell’s formula.
Solution:
The four formulae referred to are as follows.
__
n
1. California formula, Tr m
________
n
2. Hazen’s formula, Tr m 0.50
n1
_____
3. Weibul’s formula, Tr m
__________
n
4. Gumbell’s formula, Tr m C 1
The series of 32 discharges was arranged in the descending order. The return period
calculated by the first three formulae are tabulated in Table A. Since the procedure for the
fourth method is slightly different, the return period worked out by this method is tabulated
in Table B.
FLOOD 221
Table A
Discharge in
descending Tr
Serial no. Discharge(m3/s) order (m3/s)
California Hazen’s Weibull’s
formula formula formula
1 395 887 32 64 33
2 619 814 16 21.33 16.5
3 766 766 10.67 12.80 11
4 422 726 8 9.14 8.25
5 282 721 6.40 7.11 6.6
6 887 705 5.33 5.81 5.5
7 528 697 4.57 4.92 4.71
8 705 686 4 4.27 4.12
9 520 634 3.55 3.76 3.67
10 436 632 3.2 3.36 3.3
11 697 624 2.9 3.04 3
12 624 619 2.67 2.78 2.75
13 496 598 2.46 2.56 2.54
14 589 589 2.28 2.37 2.36
15 598 528 2.13 2.2 2.2
16 359 527 2 2.06 2.06
17 686 520 1.88 1.94 1.94
18 726 496 1.77 1.82 1.83
19 527 464 1.68 1.73 1.74
20 310 459 1.6 1.64 1.65
21 408 440 1.52 1.56 1.57
22 721 436 1.45 1.49 1.5
23 814 422 1.39 1.42 1.43
24 459 408 1.33 1.36 1.38
25 440 395 1.28 1.31 1.32
26 632 373 1.23 1.25 1.27
27 343 371 1.18 1.21 1.22
28 634 359 1.14 1.16 1.18
29 464 343 1.1 1.12 1.13
30 373 310 1.06 1.08 1.1
31 289 289 1.03 1.05 1.06
32 371 282 1 1.02 1.03
Table B
Discharge in
Discharge descending
m__ Tr
Serial no. (m3/s) order (m3/s) n C mC1
1 395 887 0.030 0.27 0.27 118.5
2 619 814 0.0620 0.29 1.29 24.8
3 766 766 0.09 0.38 2.38 13.44
4 422 726 0.125 0.42 3.42 9.35
5 282 721 0.156 0.46 4.46 7.17
6 887 705 0.187 0.51 5.51 5.8
7 528 697 0.218 0.52 6.52 4.9
8 705 686 0.25 0.53 7.53 4.25
9 520 634 0.289 0.595 8.55 3.74
10 436 632 0.312 0.58 9.58 3.34
11 697 624 0.344 0.59 10.59 3.02
12 624 619 0.375 0.64 11.64 2.75
13 496 598 0.406 0.65 12.65 2.53
14 589 589 0.437 0.69 13.69 2.33
15 598 528 0.469 0.71 14.71 2.17
16 359 527 0.5 0.73 15.73 2.03
17 686 520 0.531 0.75 16.75 1.91
18 726 496 0.562 0.77 17.77 1.86
19 527 464 0.593 0.78 18.78 1.71
20 310 459 0.625 0.79 19.79 1.62
21 408 440 0.656 0.81 20.81 1.54
22 721 436 0.689 0.84 21.84 1.46
23 814 422 0.718 0.85 22.85 1.4
24 459 408 0.75 0.86 23.75 1.35
25 440 395 0.781 0.87 24.87 1.29
26 632 373 0.812 0.89 25.89 1.24
27 343 371 0.843 0.91 26.91 1.19
28 634 359 0.875 0.93 27.93 1.14
29 464 343 0.906 0.95 28.95 1.11
30 373 310 0.937 0.967 29.97 1.07
31 289 289 0.969 0.99 30.99 1.03
32 377 282 1.0 1.0 31.00 1.02
All these formulae will give the recurrence interval and probability for any value covered in the
series. But if the recurrence interval and the probability of any value more than the values in the
series are required, then this can be obtained by extrapolation by using the following graphs:
FLOOD 223
1. Natural scale
2. Semi-log
3. Log-log
The results obtained by using log-log plot are considered more accurate.
Example 8.7
For the data in Example 8.6, find the discharge with a return period of 50.
Solution:
The return periods for all the 32 discharges have been worked out by four different formulae in
Example 8.6. These results will be extrapolated on graph paper. The following three types of graph
papers will be used.
1. Natural scale graph paper (Fig. 8.6)
2. Semi-log scale graph paper (Fig. 8.7)
3. Log-log scale graph paper (Fig. 8.8)
Fig. 8.6 A simple graph of the discharge for the return period of 50
Fig. 8.7 A semi-log graph of discharge for the return period of 50

Fig. 8.8 A log-log graph of the discharge for the return period of 50
The discharges calculated from the three graph papers for a return period of 50 years are
tabulated below.
Serial no. Formula Discharge (m3/s)

Simple graph Semi-log graph Log-log graph
1 California 932 948 920
2 Hazen’s 880 865 840
3 Weibul’s 928 920 910
4 Gumbell’s 854 850 820
8.4.5.2 Probability of extreme conditions

In the case of any hydraulic structure, probability in respect of the following has to be considered.
(A) Probability of occurrence r times in n successive years
(B) Probability of occurrence at least once in n successive years
(C) Probability of occurrence not at all in n successive years
(A) For a discharge having a probability p, the probability of occurrence pr, r times in n successive
years is given as follows:
n! pr (1 p)n r
________________
pr
(n r)! r!
(B) For a discharge having a probability p, the probability of occurrence pr at least once in n succes-
sive years is given as follows:
pr 1 (1 p )n
(C) For a discharge having a probability of p, the probability pr of this discharge not occurring at
all in n successive years is given as follows:
pr (1 p)n
FLOOD 225
Example 8.8
For a dam, the designed discharge of 1000 m3/s has a return period of 50 years. Find the
probability that
(a) This discharge occurs twice in 20 years.
(b) This discharge occurs once in 15 years.
(c) This discharge will not occur at all in 25 years.
Solution:
1
p __
50 0.02
20! 0.022 (1 0.02)(20 2)

__________________________
(a) pr 0.0528
(20 2)! 2!
(b) pr 1 (1 0.02)15 0.262
(c) pr (1 0.02)25 0.603
Note: The procedure discussed in this sub-chapter is applicable to all hydrological parameters,
e.g. precipitation, runoff, etc.
g 8.5 GUMBELL’S DISTRIBUTION
For the estimation of floods of higher recurrence intervals and probabilities, Gumbell’s distribution
is widely used. Gumbell considered the annual flood series.
Let Q1, Q2, Q3, … Qn be the discharge series of n figures arranged in descending order. As per
this distribution, the probability of occurrence of a discharge figure is given by
y
p 1 e e (8.6)
where, p Probability,
y Reduced variate that is a dimensionless number
The value of y a(Q Qf ) (8.7)
Here, a and Qf are the parameters of the distribution.
a ␴n/sx
__
and Qf Q (yn / ␴n) sx
__
where, Q and sx are the mean and standard deviation, respectively, of the discharge series and
n and yn depend on n, i.e. the number of discharge series. These values are given in following
table.
n ␴n yn n ␴n yn n ␴n yn
10 0.9497 0.4952 32 1.1193 0.5380 52 1.1638 0.5493

12 0.9833 0.5035 34 1.1255 0.5396 54 1.1667 0.5501
14 1.0095 0.5100 36 1.1313 0.5410 56 1.1696 0.5508
16 1.0316 0.5157 38 1.1363 0.5424 58 1.1721 0.5515
18 1.0493 0.5202 40 1.1413 0.5436 60 1.1746 0.5521
20 1.0629 0.5235 42 1.1458 0.5448 62 1.1770 0.5527
22 1.0754 0.5268 44 1.1499 0.5458 64 1.1793 0.5533
24 1.0864 0.5296 46 1.1538 0.5468 66 1.1814 0.5538

26 1.0961 0.5320 48 1.1574 0.5477 68 1.1834 0.5543
28 1.1047 0.5343 50 1.1607 0.5485 70 1.1854 0.5548
30 1.1124 0.5362 72 1.1873 0.5552
Yn reduced mean
n reduced standard deviation
Consider Eq. 8.6,

y
p 1 e e
y
1 p e e
But,
__
1
pT
r
__
1 Tr 1
______
Therefore, 1p1T T
r r
y Tr 1
______
Therefore, e e Tr
Taking logarithms of both sides,
(Tr 1)
_______
ey loge Tr
(Tr 1)
_______ (Tr 1)
_______ Tr
_______
ey loge 2.303 log10 2.303 log10
Tr Tr (Tr 1)
Again, taking logarithms of both sides,
Tr
(______
y loge 2.303 loge log10 T 1
r
)
⬖ [ Tr
______
y loge 2.303 loge log10 T 1
r
( )]
Therefore, [ Tr
______
y 0.834 2.303 log10 log10 T 1
r
( )] (8.8)
For Q QT , y will be yT , probability will be pT and return period will be Tr.

FLOOD 227
Equation 8.7 can be written as
yT a (QT Qf)
__
␴n yn
___
[ ___
{
( sx ) QT Q ␴n sx ( ) }]
__ yn
___
sx ___ ( )
yT ( ␴n ) QT Q ␴n sx
__ yn
___
sx ___( )
Therefore, QT Q yT ( ␴n ) ␴n sx
__ y yn
QT Q sx [ ( ___
␴n ) ( ␴n ) ]
T ___
__ y yn
Q ( _______
T
␴n ) sx (8.9)
__
Q KT sx.
KT is known as frequency factor (yT yn)/␴n.
The step-by-step procedure to follow Gumbell’s distribution is as follows:
1. Arrange the discharge series for
__ n years in the descending order.
2. Find out the mean discharge Q and standard deviation sx of the discharge series.
3. From Table 8.2, find the values of yn and n corresponding to n.
4. From Eq. 8.8, find the value of yT for the desired value of Tr.
5. From Eq. 8.9. find the value of QT .
Thus, QT will be the discharge having a return period of Tr .
Gumbell’s distribution procedure can also be used by following a graphical solution. A special
graph Gumbell probability paper, generally known as Powell’s probability paper, can be used. This
graph paper is shown in Fig. 8.9.
Fig. 8.9 Gumbell’s probability paper

On the x-axis, the return period Tr is plotted and on the y-axis, the discharge is plotted. This
graph is a straight line. From this graph, the discharge for any return period can be calculated.
g 8.6 LOG-PEARSON TYPE III DISTRIBUTION
This type of distribution is used for anticipating flood of higher return period. It is commonly used
in the USA.
Let the observed flood discharge series be Q1, Q2, Q3, …, Qn of n figures, arranged in the
descending order. This discharge series is converted into a new log series, viz. log Q1, log Q2,
log Q3, …. Of course, the number of terms, i.e. n will remain unchanged. The base for the loga-
rithms should be 10.
This new log series will now be considered further. The value of the variate yT for a return
period Tr is given as follows:
_
yT = y K sx (8.10)
where, yT = Reduced variate
_
y = Mean of the log series
K = Frequency factor
sx = Standard deviation of the log series
The coefficient of skew g will be as follows:
_
n∑ (y y)3
_______________
g=
(n 1) (n 2)sx3
The frequency factor K is a function of Tr and g.
The following table gives the values of K for various values of Tr and g.
Different values of K for various values of Tr and g

g Tr
2 5 10 25 50 100 200 1000

3.0 0.396 0.420 1.180 2.278 3.152 4.501 4.970 7.250
2.5 0.360 0.518 1.250 2.262 3.048 3.845 4.652 6.600
2.0 0.307 0.609 1.302 2.219 2.912 3.605 4.298 5.910
1.5 0.240 0.690 1.333 2.146 2.743 3.330 3.910 5.250
1.0 0.164 0.758 1.340 2.043 2.542 3.022 3.489 4.540
0.5 0.083 0.808 1.323 1.910 2.311 2.686 3.041 3.815
0.0 0.000 0.842 1.282 1.751 2.054 2.326 2.576 3.090
0.5 0.083 0.856 1.216 1.567 1.777 1.955 2.108 2.400
1.0 0.164 0.852 1.128 1.366 1.492 1.588 1.664 1.880
1.5 0.240 0.825 1.018 1.157 1.217 1.256 1.282 1.373
2.0 0.307 0.777 0.895 0.959 0.980 0.990 0.995 1.000
2.5 0.360 0.711 0.771 0.793 0.798 0.799 0.800 0.802
3.0 0.396 0.636 0.660 0.666 0.666 0.667 0.667 0.668
FLOOD 229
From the value of g calculated for the log series and Tr, the value of yT can be calculated from
Eq. 8.10.
From yT , the value of QT can be calculated as follows:
QT = Antilog ( yT) (8.11)
The step-by-step procedure to follow the Log-Pearson type III distribution is as follows:
1. Arrange the flood discharge series of n terms in descending order.
2. Convert this series into logarithmic series,
_
taking the base as 10.
3. For this log series, find out the mean, y ; standard deviation, sx and the skew coefficient, g.
4. For the required return period Tr and g, find out the value of K from Table 8.3.
5. Find yT from Eq. 8.10.
6. Obtain the value of QT from equation 8.11.
QT is the discharge with the required return period Tr.
Example 8.9
For the data given in Example 8.6, find the discharge with a return period of 50 years using
1. Gumbell’s distribution 2. Log-Pearson Type III distribution.
Solution:
1. Gumbell’s distribution
From the data, the following were computed:
(a) Number of terms in the series n
__ 32
(b) Mean discharge Q 535 m3/s
(c) Standard deviation sx 162.93
(d) From Table 8.2, for n 32 ␴n 1.1193
and yn 0.5380
Now, { ( Tr
_____
yT 0.834 2.303 log10 log10 T 1
r
)}
Substituting the value of Tr 50,
We get,
{ ______
(50
yT 0.834 2.303 log10 log10 50 1 )}
3.9028
(yT yn)
__
Now, QT Q+ sx {
________
␴n }
Substituting the values of sx, yT , yn and ␴n,
(3.9028 0.5380)
We get, QT 535162.93 { ________________
1.1193 } 535 490
1025 m3/s.
2. Log-Pearson Type III distribution

The original series of 32 discharges was arranged in the descending order. This was then
converted into logarithm series taking the base as 10 and tabulated in Table C.
Table C
3
Serial no. Q (m /s) Q (m3/s) log10Q (m3/s)
1 395 887 2.9479
2 619 814 2.9106
3 766 766 2.8842
4 422 726 2.8609
5 282 721 2.8579
6 887 705 2.8481
7 528 697 2.8432
8 785 686 2.8363
9 520 634 2.8020
10 436 632 2.8007
11 697 624 2.7951
12 624 619 2.7916
13 496 598 2.7767
14 589 589 2.7701
15 598 528 2.7226
16 359 527 2.7218
17 686 520 2.7160
18 726 496 2.6954
19 527 464 2.6665
20 310 459 2.6618
21 408 440 2.6434
22 721 438 2.6394
23 814 422 2.6253
24 459 408 2.6106
25 440 395 2.5965
26 632 373 2.5717
27 343 371 2.5693
28 634 359 2.5550
29 464 343 2.5352
30 373 310 2.4913
31 289 289 2.4608
32 377 282 2.4502
Mean log10 Q 2.7080, Standard deviation, sx 0.1377

FLOOD 231
From Table A, we get,

(a) Number of terms, n 32
__
(b) Mean log Q, Q 2.7080
(c) Standard deviation, sx 0.1377
_
n⌺ (y y)3
_________________
(d) Coefficient of skew, g
(n 1) (n 2) (sx)3
32 (0.0148)
__________________
31 30 0.002610
0.195
For Tr 50 and g 0.195, K 1.946
Now, _
yT y+ K sx 2.7080 + (1.946 0.1377) 2.9759
QT Antilog 2.9759 946 m3/s.
g 8.7 RISK
Any hydraulic structure is designed for a discharge having a probability of p. So also this hydraulic
structure is expected to have a useful life of N years. There is a probability that this discharge or
more than that may occur in the lifetime of the structure. Thus, there is some sort of risk involved
in this.
This risk R is given as follows:
R 1 (1 p)N
__ N
or,
1
R1 1T ( r
)
On percentage basis, R [1 (1 p)N] 100
or, [ ( __
1
R 1 1T
r
) ] 100
N
Naturally, in practice the acceptable risk is decided by the economic and policy considerations.
1 N
__
And reliability will be 1 R (1 p)N 1 T
r
( )
Example 8.10
A cofferdam is designed for a return period of 30 years. It will require 3 years to complete the dam.
Find 1. The risk that the cofferdam may get washed away.
2. If the risk is expected to be only 5%, what will be the return period for which the
cofferdam should be designed?
Solution:
__ N 3
( 1
1. R 1 1 T
r
) 1 ( 1 ___301 ) 8.74%.
__ 3
( 1
2. 0.05 1 1 T
r
)
Therefore, Tr 59 years
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is flood? Discuss the various features of flood.
2. Discuss the various causes of floods.
3. What are the factors affecting flood?
4. How floods are classified?
5. When there are no observed data available, how the flood is estimated at a river outlet?
6. What is an envelop curve? How is it used to estimate for estimating flood at a site?
7. Which are the different empirical formulae used to estimate the flood discharge?
Write a note on the rational formula used to estimate the flood at a site.
9. Explain how the unit hydrograph theory is used to estimate flood discharge from a
catchment area.
10. Differentiate between annual flood series and partial duration flood series.
11. Explain:
a. Recurrence interval
b. Probability
c. Frequency of floods
12. Explain the procedure to evaluate the probability of a specific discharge in an observed
discharge series. Discuss the various formulae used to asses these.
13. The probability of a specific discharge, which is more than the observed discharge series,
is to be calculated. Discuss the various methods.
14. Describe the method of estimating a Tr-year flood using Gumbell’s distribution.
15. Describe the procedure of estimating a Tr-year flood using Log-Pearson type
distribution.
16. How is the risk in the design that a structure may fail in its lifetime calculated?
a. Frequency factor
b. Rank of observation
c. N-year flood
d. Effect of the shape of catchment on the flood
e. Gumbell probability paper
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1. In a village, the maximum water level reached on the wall of the school temple is 105 m. The
cross section of the river is in the form of a symmetrical triangle with vertical angle 90 and
apex at a level of 100 m.
Assuming the slope of the river to be 1 in 3600 and the Manning’s coefficient to be 0.035, find
the discharge corresponding to this maximum water reached.
Ans: 17.38 m3/s
FLOOD 233
2. The catchment area of a proposed weir is 80 km2. The maximum flood discharges in the
adjoining area with hydrological homogeneous catchments are as follows:
Catchment A B C D E F
Catchment area (km2) 103 176 48 141 72 220
Flood discharge (m3/s) 1122 1478 380 1362 1007 1645
Evaluate the maximum flood discharge at the proposed weir.

Ans: 1020 m3/s
3. Using the empirical formulae, find the maximum flood discharge for a catchment of 100 km2,
having the maximum intensity of precipitation of 4.0 cm/s.
Ans: Inglis formula 1180 m3/s; Dicken’s formula 790 m3/s;
Rational formula 388 m3/s; Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur formula 979 m3/s
4. For a weir, the design discharge of 500 m3/s has a return period of 30 years.
Find: (i) This discharge occurs twice in 25 years
(ii) This discharge occurs once in 25 years
(iii) This discharge will not occur at all in 20 years
Ans: (i) 12.7%, (ii) 56%, (iii) 51%
5. The maximum flood discharges in m3/s observed at a proposed dam site for 1985–2004
(20 years) are as follows:
825, 480, 713, 671, 451, 870, 462, 648, 601, 425, 890, 620, 540, 580, 705, 465, 790, 680,
733, 540
Find the discharge with a return period of 25 years using
(i) Gumbell’s distribution
(ii) Log-Pearson type III distribution
Ans: (i) 1020 m3/s, (ii) 931 m3/s
6. A cofferdam is a design period of 25 years. It will require four rears to complete the dam.
Find: (i) The risk that the cofferdam may get washed away
(ii) If the risk is expected to be only 5%, the return period for which the cofferdam
should be designed
Ans: (i) 15% (ii) Tr 76 years
1. As per Weibull’s formula, the return period is

__
n _______
n
(a) m (b)
(m 1)
_______
n (n 1)
_______
(c) (d)
(m 1) m
2. As per Hazen’s formula, the return period is

__
n ________
2n
(a) m (b)
(2m 1)
(2n 1)
________ ________
n
(c) (d)
m (2m 1)
3. As per California formula, the return period is
__
n ________
2n
(a) m (b)
(2m 1)
(2n 1)
________ ________
n
(c) (d)
m (2m 1)
4. As per Gumbell’s formula, the return period is
(n C 1)
___________ (n C 1)
__________
(a) m (b) m
___________
n ___________
n
(c) (d)
(m C 1) (m C 1)
5. The most commonly used formula for calculating the return period is
(a) California formula (b) Hazen’s formula
(c) Weibul’s formula (c) Gumbell’s formula
6. A flood with a return period of 100 years is the flood that occurs
(a) After every 100 years (b) Once in 100 years
(c) Only after 100 years in the future (d) None of these
7. The probability that a flood of return period of Tr occurs in a year is
__
1 __
1
(a) T 1 (b) T
r r
__
1 __
1
(c) T 1 (d) 1 T
r r
8. A structure having a life of N years is designed for a return period of Tr years. The probability
that it will not fail during its life period is
__
1
(a) 1 __1 (b) 1 T
Tr r
__
1 N
(c) (1 ) __
1 N
(d) (1 T )
Tr r
9. Dicken’s formula for calculating the maximum flood discharge from a catchment is given by
(a) Q CA4/3 (b) Q CA3/4
(c) Q CA2/3 (d) Q CA3/2
10. Inglis formula for calculating the maximum flood discharge from a catchment is given by
124 (A __ 10.4)
_____________ 124 (A __ 10.4)
_____________
(a) Q (b) Q
√A √A
___________
124 A ___________
124 A
(c) Q _________ (d) Q _________
√ (A 10.4) √ (A 10.4)
FLOOD 235
11. As per Gumbell’s distribution, the probability of occurrence of a discharge figure is given by
y y
(a) p = 1 e e (b) p = 1 e e
y y
(c) p = 1 e e (d) p = 1 e e
12. For a hydraulic structure designed for a return period of Tr years and having a useful life of
N years, the risk that this flood may occur during the useful life is
[ ( )]
(a) R = 1 1 T
__
1 N
r
100 [ ( )]
(b) R = 1 1 T
__
1 N
r
100
(c) R = [ 1 ( 1 T ) ] 100 (d) R = [ 1 ( 1 T ) ] 100

__
1 N __
1 N
r r

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (b)
*** ***
Discharge
Measurement
9
Chapter Outline
9.1 Definition 9.8 Hydraulic model method

9.2 The stage of a river 9.9 Ultrasonic method
9.3 Measurement of discharge 9.10 Electromagnetic induction method
9.4 Area–slope method 9.11 Moving-boat technique
9.5 Area–velocity method 9.12 Stage discharge relation
9.6 Salt titration method 9.13 Stream gauging network
9.7 Discharge measurement
by hydraulic structures
g 9.1 DEFINITION
Discharge is defined as the rate of flow, i.e. volume flowing per unit time.
9.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

All over the world, there is always a demand for surface water resource and hence it is essential
to assess the available water resource as accurately as possible. It can be assessed theoretically by
DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT 237
following some empirical formulae, but this will not be accurate. Even for the derivation of an
empirical formula, observed discharge data are required.
The surface water resource can be evaluated by measuring discharge in a stream continuously
over a period. The surface water resource available at a site can be evaluated by scanning the
observed data. This will give more realistic estimate and may involve less error.
9.1.2 UNITS OF DISCHARGE

The normal unit of discharge is m3/s. The term Cumecs is also used instead of m3/s. If the discharge
is small as in a laboratory, then the unit lits or ccs is used. The discharge from a specific catch-
ment is sometimes expressed as Discharge Per Unit Catchment Area as m3/s/km2 m/s, per unit
area of the catchment.
Thus, a discharge of 1 mm/h from a catchment area of 25 km2 will be
(11,000)
________
3600 (2510 ) 6.9 m /s
6 3
9.1.3 OBJECTIVES OF DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

The objectives of discharge measurement are as follows:
1. To assess the available surface water accurately from the catchment area of a project—may be
for irrigation, hydroelectricity generation, flood control or water supply
2. To study the relation between precipitation and runoff
3. To study the variation in runoff
4. To evaluate the maximum water level that may be reached in the case of a bridge or a culvert for
the largest possible flood by extrapolation from the observed stage-discharge record
5. To study the regeneration of water due to irrigation on the banks of the river
9.1.4 THE BASIC PRINCIPLE

The basic principle followed in all the discharge measurement methods is the continuity
equation
Q AV
where, Q Discharge in m3/s
A Area of cross section in m2 at right angles to the velocity of flow
V Average velocity of flow in m/s
The two parameters A and V are measured and the discharge is calculated.
In recent years, some modern techniques are used so that the discharge flowing in a stream is
calculated without measuring the velocity and the area of flow.
9.1.5 WATER POTENTIAL

Water potential is the volume of water at a site during a specific time, say, a year, a season or even
a month.
9.1.6 UNITS OF WATER POTENTIAL

The normal units of water potential are m3 or million m3 (106 m3), normally denoted by million m3
or ha m (104 m3).
1 m3/s a day 86,400 m3 0.0864 million m3 8.64 ha m
The water potential from a catchment area is sometimes mentioned as m/km2, i.e. the potential
per unit area of the catchment area. It means that so many metres of water depth are uniformly spread
over the entire catchment. If the water potential from a catchment area of 100 km2 is 2.00 m, the
potential in usual volume terms will be:
2 100 106 200 106 m3
200 million m3
2 104 ha m
9.1.7 THE STREAM

A stream is that through which water flows naturally. When the stream is small, it is also called
runnel, br ook, bourne, nalla or rivulet . A river is termed for a stream when the discharge is
comparatively more. Channel is a term also used for a river. Canal is a term normally used for
a man-made channel.
g 9.2 THE STAGE OF A RIVER
The depth of water flowing in a river is known as The Stage of the River at that time. The stage
of the channel is measured because from this observation, the area of flow can be calculated. The
stage of the river is expressed in metres with datum as mean sea level. However, sometimes it is
also mentioned with datum as lowest bed level.
9.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF A STAGE

Different methods are followed to measure the stage of the channel depending upon the channel,
whether small or large. These are as follows:
• Actual wading through the stream with a staff gauge
• Fixing gauges along the cross section
• By suspending a gauge from a structure
• Recording type of gauge
• Automatic water-stage recorder
9.2.1.1 Wading the stream

A person with a gauge in hand may move across the stream and record the depth of flow at a
location by the gauge in his hand. This method is crude and may be adopted if the stream is small.
The person standing in the stream may cause an obstruction to the flow and may affect the gauge
reading. The stage thus recorded will be at a specific location and at a specific time.
Fig. 9.1 Vertical staff gauges and inclined gauges.
9.2.1.2 Fixing gauges

The stage of a stream can be measured by installing gauges in the stream.
Vertical staff gauges may be fixed along the cross section of the river on one bank and may be corre-
lated to each other with a minimum overlap of 0.5 m between two successive staves as shown in Fig. 9.1.
However, these gauges form an obstruction to the flow. Alternately the gauges may be fixed or
painted on a bridge pier, a culvert or any other hydraulic structure, if available.
Inclined gauges
Gauges along the slope of the cross section of the stream may be fixed as shown in Fig. 9.1. While
marking the depth of flow on the gauge, the side slope of the stream has to be taken into consider-
ation. Such gauges will not cause any obstruction to the flow.
In both the cases, the water level will have to be observed from the banks of the stream. Know-
ing the water level and the bed level of the stream, the depth of flow can be evaluated.
By following this procedure, the stage of the river can be found out at that moment. However, the
maximum and the minimum stages reached cannot be found out unless observed at those instances.
9.2.1.3 Suspension weight method

In this method, a weight attached to a rope may be lowered from a bridge, a culvert or any hydraulic
structure, until it touches the water surface. The length of the rope touching the water surface from
a specific reference point may be read.
This will give the vertical length of the water surface from the specific suspension point. Know-
ing the vertical length of the rope up to the bed of the stream when it is dry, the stage of the stream
can be found out.
9.2.1.4 Water-stage recorder

A stilling well may be constructed on one of the banks of the stream as shown in Fig. 9.2. The well may
be square or circular, uniform in cross section of suitable cross-sectional area connected to the stream
by horizontal pipes at different levels at right angles to the flow to avoid the effect of the velocity of
flow. The diameter of these pipes be such that the floating material will not choke the pipes.
Fig. 9.2 Water stage recorder
• These pipes should be cleaned regularly.

• A vertical gauge may be painted or fixed on the inside of one of the walls.
Thus, the water level in the stream will be transferred to the water column in the well through the
pipes without any effect of the velocity of flow. The water level in the well can be comfortably read
since the oscillations in the river will be dampened and a steady water level in the well be noticed.
Knowing the water level and the bed of the stream, the stage of the river can be worked out.
9.2.1.5 Automatic water level recorder

The water level in a stilling well is automatically recorded by the following methods:
1. Float method
2. Electrical resistance method
Float-type automatic water level recorder

In this method, a float is used to identify the water level in the well. The level indicated by the
float and the time is transferred by a suitable mechanism by a pointer on a graph paper wound on a
drum. The drum is kept rotating uniformly by a clock work so that it makes one rotation a day or a
week. This type of mechanism is similar to the one used in automatic rain gauge. This graph paper
has to be changed every day or week as the case may be. The minimum and maximum water levels
reached and the time when reached are automatically recorded.
Electric resistance-type water level recorder

In this method, two electrodes are dipped vertically in the observation well keeping the distance
between these two electrodes constant. An electric current flows between these two electrodes. The
resistance between these two electrodes varies due to the change in water level.
The change in resistance will be a measure of the water level and is transferred by a suitable mechanism
to a graph paper mounted on a drum by a pen pointer. This drum is kept rotating uniformly by a clock
work and it makes a rotation a day or a week. This graph paper will have to be changed every day or
a week as the case may be. The maximum and minimum water levels reached and the time when reached
are automatically recorded.
In recent years, the water levels thus recorded are transferred by a wireless arrangement to a central
recording station, where all meteorological data in that region are collected.
Crest gauge
When it is not possible to install an automatic water level recorder due to any reason, a crest gauge
may be installed in the observation well. This crest gauge will record the maximum water level
reached. This can be done by two ways:
1. It consists of a small float that rises as the water level rises in the well but will not move down as the
water level in the well reduces. Thus, the maximum water level reached in the well is recorded.
2. One of the sides of the well or a bridge pier may be painted by a water-soluble paint, of course,
well protected from rain. As the water level rises, the portion of the paint coming in contact with
the water will get washed away and thus the maximum water level reached can be obtained.
g 9.3 MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE
The different methods followed to measure discharge in a stream are as follows:

• Area–slope method
• Area–velocity method
• Salt titration method
• Measurement by hydraulic structures
• Hydraulic model method
• Modern methods
However, in spite of the development in different sciences and in instrumentation, it is still not
possible to measure the discharge in a stream accurately.
9.3.1 SELECTION OF A SITE

For the measurement of discharge by any method, certain field observations are required to be
taken at a suitable site on the stream. Following are the requirements of a site for the measurement
of discharge:
• The reach of the stream should be a straight one. No other stream should join the stream in this
reach nor some discharge withdrawn from it.
• The reach should be preferably three to four times the width of the river during flood.
• The cross section of the stream should be uniform with no rock outcrops, vegetal growth or any
other obstruction.
• The site should be accessible in all seasons.
• The site should be free from any disturbance.
9.3.2 CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF A STREAM

For the evaluation of discharge, the cross-sectional area of the stream is required to be calculated.
The cross-sectional area of a stream is calculated by the following two methods:
(1) accurate survey and (2) echo-sounder.
9.3.3 EVALUATION OF A CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA

After the site for the measurement of discharge is finalized, two cross sections of the stream are
selected at a distance of 50–100 m. Precise survey is carried out for both the cross-sections when
the stream is dry or the depth of flow is negligible.
If the depth of flow is substantial, then hydrographic survey is carried out. Based on this precise
survey done, two graphs as shown in Figs. 9.3 and 9.4 are plotted. From these two graphs, the
average values of area and wetted perimeter of the two cross sections for a known observed water
level can be read.
These two graphs are further used to evaluate the area of flow and wetted perimeter for any
known depth of flow. There is quite a possibility that the cross sections may change due to silting
or scouring. Hence, precise survey is repeated regularly and the two graphs modified, if required.
Fig. 9.3 Depth versus area flow
Fig. 9.4 Depth versus wetted perimeter

Example 9.1
After doing precise survey, the cross section of the stream at a gauging site is as shown in Fig. 9.5.
Prepare the two graphs: (1) depth vs area and (2) depth vs hydraulic mean depth.
Solution:
The cross section was divided into five segments each of 1-m height and the area of each segment
was measured accurately. So also the length of the cross section coming in contact with the water
on either side was measured and tabulated.
Serial no. Depth Segment Area (m2) ∑ Area PL (m) PR(m) ∑ (PL PR) (m) HMD(m)
(m) (m2)
1 1.0 A1 5.0 5.0 — 9.9 9.9 0.505
2 2.0 A2 9.0 14.0 2.2 2.0 14.1 0.992
3 3.0 A3 13.5 27.5 1.8 1.7 17.6 1.560
4 4.0 A4 20.5 48.0 1.9 1.7 21.2 2.264
5 5.0 A5 24.0 72.0 1.8 1.6 24.6 2.926
Fig. 9.5 Cross section of river
Area
_________
Here, HMD
(PLPR)
Two graphs are drawn as (1) Depth vs Hydraulic Mean Deapth (HMD) and (2) Depth vs area,
on simple graph papers as shown in Fig. 9.6.
9.3.4 ECHO SOUNDER

When the stream is large and the depth of flow is substantial, it may not be possible to carry out
precise survey nor hydrographic survey, then an Echo Sounder is used to evaluate the depth of flow
and in turn the entire cross section.
An echo sounder is an equipment normally fitted to a boat. Through this equipment, sonic
pulses of short duration are transmitted from the water surface by electrodes dipped in the water.
Fig. 9.6 Details of river cross section
These pulses are reflected back by the bed of the channel. The time of dispatch and receipt of pulses
is recorded. The depth of flow then can be worked out from this time interval and the speed of the
sonic pulse in water. Hence, the name of the equipment is ‘Echo sounder’.
Such observations are taken at different locations on the cross section preferably at equal dis-
tance and the cross section of the stream is plotted.
Alternately, the boat may be moved along the cross section at right angles to the flow at a
constant speed. For this, two theodolites on either bank may be installed to guide the boat properly,
or any other ranging equipment or procedure may be adopted. Observations of depth by the echo
sounder may be continuously taken and plotted on a graph paper. With a continuous plotter, the
cross section of the stream at a specific water level may be obtained directly on the graph paper.
Echo sounder can also be used for the study of silting of reservoirs.
g 9.4 AREA–SLOPE METHOD
The basic principle followed in this method is that the area of flow is measured and the velocity
of flow is evaluated by using the Manning’s formula. For this purpose, the water surface slope is
observed and the Manning’s ‘n’ is assumed. Then the continuity equation, Q A V is used.
A Area of cross section in m2 at right angles to the velocity of flow
V Velocity of flow in m/s
The procedure to be followed is as follows:
1. Select two cross sections of the stream at a distance of about 150 m. For the selection of this
reach, the criteria as explained in Section 9.3.1 are followed.
It is assumed that steady uniform flow exists between these two cross sections.
2. Observe the depths of flow at these two cross sections as well as the water surface level accu-
rately between these two cross sections.
3. Find the area of flow and also the wetted perimeter at these two cross sections from the pre-
determined stage vs area and stage vs wetted perimeter curves.
4. Find the mean area of flow Am and the mean wetted perimeter Wp.
5. From the water levels at the two cross sections, find accurately S, i.e. the slope of the water
surface. (This will be the slope of energy also, since ‘steady uniform flow’ is assumed between
these two cross sections.)
6. Calculate the mean hydraulic radius Rm as
Am
Rm ___
Wp
7. Assume a suitable value of the Manning’s n for the reach of the stream between these two cross
sections.
8. Calculate the average velocity of flow using the Manning’s formula as
(Rm S )
2/3
___________
1/2
Vm n
where, Vm Average velocity of flow in m/s
Rm Mean hydraulic radius thus calculated in m
S Energy slope
n Assumed value of Manning’s coefficient
9. Calculate the discharge as
Q Vm Am
The discharge is calculated by using the area and the slope of the water surface and hence it is
known as Area–slope Method. To achieve accuracy, the procedure may be repeated and the average
value of discharge of all the trials may be finalized.
9.4.1 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE AREA–SLOPE METHOD

The merits of the area–slope method are as follows:
(a) This method is based on only two or three observations at site.
(b) Time required to complete the procedure as compared to other methods is less.
(c) A team of two or three observers is adequate to conduct the test.
The demerits of the area–slope method are as follows:
(a) The assumed value of n may not be very correct and may lead to erroneous result.
(b) The method is based on the assumption that ‘steady uniform flow’ exists between the two
cross sections. This may not be correct, since during flood, the flow in a river is neither
steady nor uniform.
(c) It is very difficult to observe the water surface levels accurately, since there are oscillations
in the water surface.
Example 9.2
While taking discharge observations on a stream by area–slope method, the following observations
were taken:
1. Distance between two observation sections of the stream 250 m
2. Depth of flow at the u/s cross section A 3.50 m
3. Depth of flow at the d/s cross section B 3.50 m

4. Water level at the u/s cross section A 236.62 m
5. Water level at the d/s cross section B 236.37 m
6. Manning’s coefficient (assumed) 0.030
Find the discharge flowing in the stream.
Solution:
From the graphs of depth vs area of cross section and depth vs wetted perimeter, the area of cross
section and the wetted perimeter at both A and B were evaluated as follows:
Cross section Area (m2) Wetted perimeter

(m)
A 110 76.2
B 108 75.8
110 108
_________
Therefore, Mean area 2 109 m2
76.2 75.8
__________
Mean wetted perimeter 2 76.0 m
____
109
HMD Rm 76 1.434 m
Therefore, Rm2/3 1.4342/3 1.273
236.62 236.37 ____

______________ 0.25
Water surface slope 250 250 1 in 1000
Am Rm2/3 S1/2 _______________

_______________ 109 1.273 1
_____
Therefore, Q n 146.26 m3s.
0.030 √ 1000
g 9.5 AREA–VELOCITY METHOD
In this method also the basic continuity equation, Q A V, is used to estimate the discharge
flowing in a stream. The values of A and V are assessed separately and then the discharge is
calculated.
9.5.1 AREA OF FLOW

The area of flow is assessed in a similar way as that for area–slope method discussed earlier.
9.5.2 VELOCITY OF FLOW

The velocity of flow is not uniform over the depth. It is very low (theoretically zero) at the bottom.
It increases with the depth. However, it slightly reduces at the surface. The normal velocity profile
is shown in Fig. 9.7.
Fig. 9.7 Normal vertical velocity profile in a stream
From this velocity profile, the average velocity is correlated as under:

Va Average velocity 0.85 Vs (Vs Velocity at the surface)
V0 6D*
( V0 2D V0 8D )
____________
2
( V0 2D 2V0 6D V0 8D )
____________________
4
*
0.6D from the water surface, i.e. 0.4D from the bed of the channel.
Example 9.3
Observations for velocity of flow taken over a vertical of a stream at various depths are as follows.
Depth from water surface (m) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Velocity of flow (m/s) 1.47 1.49 1.52 1.48 1.41 1.34 1.24 1.14 1.00 0.82 0.00
Find the average velocity. Plot the velocity profile, and derive an equation for the velocity profile.
Solution:
The velocity profile will be as shown in Fig. 9.8.
Fig. 9.8 Velocity profile

V
__
1. Vm ∑ n
1.47 1.49 1.52 1.48 1.41 1.34 1.24 1.14 1.00 0.82 0.00
_______________________________________________________________
11
_____
12.91
11 1.17 m/s
(V0 2D V0 8D) _________

____________ 1.521.00 ____
2.52
Vm 2 2 2 1.26 m/s
V0 2D 2 V0 6D V0 8D )
(______________________ 1.52(21.24)1.00 ____
___________________ 5.00
V m
4 4 4 1.25 m/s
Vm V0 6D 1.24 m/s
2. Let the equation of the velocity profile be V d n.

Therefore, log V n log d
logV
____
or, n
log d
The value of n for three observations will be as follows.
Serial no. V (m/s) d (m) log V log d n

1 0.82 0.5 0.1984 0.6930 0.286
2 1.14 1.5 0.1310 0.4054 0.323
3 1.48 3.5 0.3920 1.2527 0.313
Total 0.922
Therefore, the average value of n 0.922/3 0.307.

The equation of the velocity profile will be V d 0 307
9.5.3 EVALUATION OF VELOCITY OF FLOW

The velocity of flow is evaluated by anyone of the following methods:
(1) float method (2) current meter method and (3) pitot tube method
9.5.3.1 Float method

The velocity of flow is evaluated by a float floating over the water surface, known as Surface Float.
When a float is dropped on a flowing water surface, it moves with the same velocity at the surface,
i.e. Vs (Fig. 9.9).
The procedure followed to assess the surface velocity by a float is as follows:
• Two cross sections P,P and Q,Q are selected at a distance L from each other (say about 150 m).
The criteria for selection of site given in Section 9.3.1 also applies here.
• Two vertical posts P,P and Q,Q are erected on either bank of the two cross sections at right
angles to the flow.
• The water surface along the cross section P-P on the u/s side is divided into different equal
segments depending upon:
(a) Width of the river
(b) Variation in depth
(c) Accuracy of discharge measurement required
• The cross sections are plotted on a paper and the segments thus decided are marked on each of
the cross section. The area of each of the segments from the two cross sections is measured. The
average area of the corresponding two segments from the two cross sections is calculated such
as A1, A2, A3, A4,….
• Two observers having stopwatches are assigned to one of the banks of the two cross sections.
The stopwatches with each of the observers are started simultaneously, and then the observers
move to their respective appointed cross sections.
• Floats are dropped from the bank sufficiently u/s of cross section P-P such that the float reaches
the centre of the desired segment as far as possible.
Fig. 9.9 Area–velocity method by float
• As the float crosses the cross sections P-P and Q-Q, the observers at these cross sections should
stop their respective stopwatches. Thus, the time of travel from the first cross section P-P to the
next Q-Q, i.e. to travel a distance L can be calculated.
Let the time taken by the float to travel each of the segment be T1, T2, T3,…. Then the surface
velocity in each of the segment will be
L
__ L
__ L
__
Vs1 T ; Vs2 T ; Vs3 T
1 2 3
It may be noted that T1, T2, T3,… will not be equal, since the surface velocity over a cross section
is maximum at the centre and goes on decreasing towards the banks.
Normally, the average velocity over a depth is less than the surface velocity, i.e.
Va 0.85 Vs.
• The average velocity in each segment, Va1, Va2, Va3,… is calculated and then the discharge in the
stream is calculated as:
Q Q1 Q2 Q3 …
0.85 (A1Vs1 A2Vs2 A3Vs3 …)
9.5.3.2 Types of floats

The floats normally used are:(a) surface float, (b) canister float and (c) rod float. These are shown
in Fig. 9.10.
Fig. 9.10 Types of floats
9.5.3.3 Characteristics of the surface float

The characteristics for the surface floats are as follows:
• It should be heavy or weighed properly so that most of its part should remain under water so that
its movement with flow is not affected by the wind velocity. The length under water should also
be minimum so that the float records only the surface velocity.
• It should be suitably painted or a flag may be fixed on the float so that it can be easily located.
• It should not be of such shape that it drifts laterally.
9.5.3.4 Rod float

It is expected that a float should not drift laterally. To avoid this lateral drifting, a rod float is used.
It is a wooden float or a lightweight metallic rod having a weight fixed at the lower end. A coloured
flag may be fixed to the other end. It should float vertically. Since some part of this rod float is
under water, it may not move with the surface velocity.
The average velocity of the segment in such a case may be calculated as follows:
__
Va V 1.02 0.0116 D
( √ )
__
d
where, Va Surface velocity of the segment in m/s
V Observed velocity of the rod float in m/s
D Clearance of the rod float from the bed of the stream in m
d Depth of flow at the location of float in m
9.5.3.5 Merits and demerits of the float method

The merits of the float method are as follows:
• The method is very simple to follow.
• No sophisticated equipment is required.
• When the velocity of flow is high and other methods cannot be used, this method is followed.
The demerits of the float method are as follows:
• A team of observers is required.
• Wind velocity may affect the velocity of float.
• Dropping the float exactly at the centre of the segment is a difficult job.
• The float may not travel along the centerline of the segment.
• Number of observations to be taken are too many and hence the method is time-taking.
Example 9.4
Observations for discharge measurement taken on a stream by float method are as follows:
1. Number of segments 5
2. Depth of flow observed at the centre of each segments (m) 0.75, 1.20, 1.75, 1.35, 0.60
3. Width of the stream at the water surface 19.70 m
4. Width of each segment (m) 3.1, 4.5, 5.0, 4.3, 2.8
5. Distance between the two cross sections 100 m
6. Time taken by the surface floats in each segment is as follows:
Segment Minutes Seconds

1 2 11
2 1 45
3 1 40
4 1 55
5 2 09
Find the discharge flowing in the stream.

Solution:
Assuming Va 0.85 Vs, the average velocity in each segment and the area of flow are calculated
as under.
Segment Surface velocity (m/s) Average velocity Area of flow (m2) Discharge
(m/s) (m3/s)
1 100/131 0.763 0.649 0.753.1 2.325 1.508
2 100/105 0.952 0.809 1.204.5 5.400 4.369
3 100/100 1.000 0.850 1.755.0 8.750 7.437
4 100/115 0.869 0.739 1.354.3 5.805 4.287
5 100/129 0.775 0.659 0.602.8 1.680 1.106
Total 18.707
9.5.4 CURRENT METER METHOD

A current meter is an instrument used to measure velocity of flow. Current meters are of two types:
(1) cup-type current meter and (2) propeller-type current meter.
9.5.4.1 Cup-type current meter

A cup-type current meter has a series of cone-shaped cups (normally six in number) fixed on a wheel
freely rotating about a vertical axis mounted on the periphery of a circle as shown in Fig. 9.11.
The current meter is lowered below the water surface at the desired depth and the velocity of
flow is assessed at that specific depth. The cup wheel rotates with a speed in proportion with the
velocity of water at that depth. More the velocity, more will be the rotations of the cups. These
rotations of the cup wheel are proportional to the velocity of water. The rotations of the cups are
recorded by an electric Make and Break circuit. For each rotation, there is a click and these clicks
are either recoded by a counter or are counted by using a stopwatch. The number of clicks, i.e.,
rotations, is measured over a period of 1 or 2 min and then the rotations per second are calculated.
The velocity of flow then can be calculated as follows:
V a bN
where, V Velocity of flow in m/s
N Number of rotations in one second
a, b Calibration constants
Normally, the current meter is calibrated by the manufacturer and the formula with these
numerical constants is supplied along with the instrument. A fish weight with a streamlined shape
is fixed at the bottom to hold the current meter at a specific location. Fins are provided at the tail
end so that the current meter will always align itself along the direction of flow.
This type of current meter is also known as Price Current Meter named after the designer. The
range of velocity that can be measured by this type of current meter is 0.15–4.0 m/s. Because of
the construction of this type of current meter, it cannot be used to measure the surface velocity nor
the bed velocity.
Fig. 9.11 Cup-type current meter

Fig. 9.12 Propeller-type current meter
9.5.4.2 Propeller-type current meter

In this type, a propeller facing the flow direction, rotating about a horizontal axis, is used as
shown in the Fig. 9.12. The current meter is lowered below the water surface at the desired
depth.
The rotations of the horizontal axis are proportional to the flow velocity at that depth. More the
velocity, more will be the rotations of the axis. The rotations made by this axis are recorded by the
electric make and break circuit. For each rotation, there is a click and these clicks are recorded by
a counter or counted by using a stopwatch. The flow velocity then can be calculated by using the
formula,
V a bN
Normally, the current meter is calibrated by the manufacturer and the formula along with the
numerical constants is supplied along with the instrument. A fish weight of streamlined shape is
mounted on the horizontal axis to keep the current meter in position. Fins are provided at the tail
end so that the current meter will always align itself in the direction of flow.
The range of velocity that can be measured by this type of current meter is 0.15–4.00 m/s.
The current meter cannot be used to measure surface velocity nor the bed velocity because of its
construction.
9.5.4.3 Observations by a current meter

The procedure followed to measure the flow velocity for both, cup-type current meter and
propeller-type current meter is the same and is as follows:
• One cross section of the stream on a straight reach is selected such that the flow is undisturbed
by any obstruction due to trees, rock outcrops, etc.
• This cross section is divided into segments depending upon
(a) Width of river
(b) Variation in depth
(c) Accuracy of discharge measurement required
Knowing the depth at the centre of each segment, the current meter may be lowered at the
desired depth, as mentioned below and observations taken.
(i) The current meter is lowered to 0.6D from the water surface (0.4D from the bed) and
velocity observations are taken.
This method is known as Single-point Method or Six-tenth Method.
(ii) The velocity observations may be taken at 0.2D and 0.8D also. The average velocity may
be worked out as
( V0 2D V0 8D )
____________
Va 2
This is known as Two-point Method.
(iii) The velocity observation may be taken at 0.2D, 0.6D and 0.8D from the water surface and
the average velocity can be worked out as
( V0 2D 2V0 6D V0 8D )
____________________
Va 4
This is known as Three-point Method and normally followed for deep flow streams.
(iv) Observations may be taken by lowering the current meter in each of the segment with
a uniform speed from the water surface till it reaches the bottom and lifted gradually
upwards with the same uniform speed up to the water surface.
The total time for the movement of the current meter as well as its speed is recorded. The
average velocity in each segment is calculated as follows:
N
__
Va ab T ( )
where, Va Average velocity in each segment in m/s
N Number of rotations in time T required for downward and upward movement of
the current meter
a, b Calibration constants
This method is known as Integrated Method of Velocity Observation.
9.5.4.4 Lowering the current meter

The current meter may be lowered up to the desired depth at the centre of each segment by using
the following methods.
• When the stream is shallow, the observer should wade through the stream with a current meter
mounted on a rod and take the observations. In such case, the observer himself may cause
obstruction to the flow. Normally, one observation is taken for each segment with minimum
obstructions.
• The current meter may be lowered from an existing bridge and velocity observations are taken on
the d/s side between two successive piers. The bridge piers cause obstruction to the flow.
• The current meter may be lowered from a trolley specifically erected for this purpose from a
cableway as shown in the Fig. 9.13.
• The current meter may be lowered from a boat. The boat will have to be directed from the banks
and kept steady at the centre of the segment. This can be done by two observers on either bank
directing the boat. Alternatively, the boatman may keep the boat steady by ranging with the help
of two fixed points on either bank.
9.5.4.5 Air-line and wet-line corrections

When a current meter is lowered by a chain from a bridge or a cableway, the current meter will be
drifted d/s due to the flow velocity. The chain may take the shape as shown in Fig. 9.14.
Fig. 9.13 Current meter lowered from a trolley
Fig. 9.14 Air-line and wet-line corrections

Because of the suspended inclined nature of the chain, the depth of water where the observa-
tions are taken may go wrong. The correct depth is calculated by applying two corrections as
(a) Air-line correction, Ka
(b) Wet-line correction, Kw
Air-line correction
• The air-line correction is the correction for the portion of the chain from the point of suspension
up to the water surface.
• This correction depends on the vertical angle of drift and the vertical length from the point of
suspension to the water surface.
The correction will be Ka ( sec 1) 100
Thus, after applying the air-line correction, the length of the chain from the suspension point up to the
water surface level will be
d1 Y1 (10.01 Ka)
where, Y1 Vertical height of chain in m

d1 Inclined length of chain in m
Ka Air-line correction. It is dimensionless
Wet-line correction
• The chain under the water surface will not be having a straight profile but a curved one, depending
upon the velocity of water, unit weight of water, unit weight of the chain material and also the
weight of current meter and fish weight.
• The vertical depth of water from the water surface up to the current meter will be as follows:
d2 Y2 (1 0.01 Kw)
where, Y2 Vertical depth of water from the water surface up to the current meter
d2 Inclined length of the cable from the water surface up to the current meter
Kw Wet-line correction. It is dimensionless.
The two correction factors, viz Ka and Kw will mainly depend on angle . The standard values in
percentages are given in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Standard values of K a and K w for different values of
Serial no. (degree) Ka (%) Kw (%) Remarks
1 4 0.24 0.06 —
2 8 0.98 0.32 —
3 12 2.23 0.72 —
4 16 4.03 1.28 —
5 20 6.42 2.04 —
6 24 9.46 2.96 —
7 28 13.26 4.08 —
The angle should not be more than 30

.
Example 9.5
Observations are to be taken for the velocity of flow by lowering a current meter from bridge with
the following details:
1. Depth of flow 5.00 m
2. Distance between the index point and the water surface 4.00 m
3. Angle made by the cable with the vertical 24
Find the length of the cable to reach the bed of the channel.
Solution:
9.46*
_____
Air-line correction 4 100 0.378 m
2.96*
_____
Wet-line correction 5 100 0.148 m
*
Taken from the Table 9.1 for an angle of 24
Therefore, length of the cable from the index point up to the bed of the channel
4 .378 5 .148
9.526 m.
9.5.4.6 Discharge computations

Normally two methods are followed to calculate the discharge after calculating the cross-sectional
area and the average velocity. These are as follows:
1. The area and the average velocity of each of the segments are evaluated and tabulated.
Then, Q Q1 Q2 Q3 …
A1 Va1 A2 Va2 A3 Va3 …
where, Q Total discharge in the stream in m3/s

A1, A2, A3 Area of each of the segment in m2
Va1, Va2, Va3 Average velocity in each of the segment in m/s
This method is known as Mid-section Method.
Example 9.6
Observations taken on a stream for the measurement of discharge by a current meter are as
follows:
1. Width of the stream at the water surface 19.70 m
2. Number of segments 5
3. Width of each segment (m) 3.1, 4.5, 5.0, 4.3, 2.8
4. Average depth of flow of each segment (m) 0.75, 1.20, 1.75, 1.35, 0.60
The observed velocity of flow at various depths from the water surface are as shown in Fig. 9.15.
Find the discharge.
Fig. 9.15 Velocity of flow observed at various depths

Solution:
The calculations done for the discharge are as under.
Serial Observed Discharge

no. Area of flow (m2) d (m) d0 (m) d0/d velocity (m/s) VA (m/s) (m3/s)
1 3.1 0.75 2.325 0.75 0.45 0.6 0.85 0.85 1.976

2 4.5 1.20 5.400 1.20 0.24 0.2 1.16 1.03 5.562
0.96 0.8 0.90
3 5.0 1.75 8.750 1.75 0.35 0.2 1.25 1.12 9.800
1.05 0.6 1.12
1.40 0.8 0.99
4 4.3 1.35 5.805 1.35 0.27 0.2 1.16 1.05 6.096
1.08 0.8 0.94
5 2.8 0.60 1.680 0.60 0.36 0.6 0.82 0.82 1.377
Total 24.811
d0 is the depth where the velocity was observed.
V0 2D V0 8D V__________________
___________ 2V0 6D V0 8D
Here, VA V0 6D
0 2D
2 4
2. Based on the velocity observed at various depths in each segment isovels at equal interval are
drawn on the cross section as shown in Fig. 9.16.
An Isovel May be Defined as a Contour of Equal Velocity, i.e., a Line Joining Locations with
Same Flow Velocity.
The area between two consecutive isovels is measured accurately and tabulated. The discharge in
the stream is calculated as
Q Q 1 Q2 Q 3 …
A V A V A V …
1 a1 2 a2 3 a3
Fig. 9.16 Isovels

where, Q Total discharge flowing in the stream in m3/s

A1, A2, A3 Area between two consecutive isovels in m2
Va1, Va2, Va3 Average velocity of flow between two isovels in m/s
This method is more time taking, but it gives better results.
Example 9.7
Velocity observations taken over a cross section of a stream at various locations are as shown in
Fig. 9.17. The width of the cross section at the surface and the maximum depth are 23.67 m and
5.5 m, respectively.
Draw the isovels and evaluate the discharge.
Solution:
The isovels were drawn taking into consideration the velocity and the location. The area between
the consecutive isovels was measured accurately. The results are tabulated below.
Serial no. Isovel range (m) Average of isovel (m) Area (m2) Discharge (m3/s)
1 1.2 and above 1.20 1.41 1.692
2 1.2 and 1.1 1.15 6.21 7.142
3 1.1 and 1.0 1.05 8.75 9.188
4 1.0 and 0.9 0.95 5.45 5.177
5 0.9 and below 0.90 1.85 1.665
Total 23.67 24.864
Fig. 9.17 Isovels over the cross section of the stream
9.5.5 PITOT TUBE

Pitot tube, as shown in Fig. 9.18, is a very delicate and sensitive instrument normally used to mea-
sure the velocity of flow in very small channels. It is lowered exactly at the desired depth facing the
flow and observations can be taken accurately.
Fig. 9.18 Pitot tube
It is normally connected to a differential U-tube mercury manometer and the velocity head is
measured in terms of the depth of the fluid. The velocity of flow at depth d can be equated as follows:
_____
v k 冪(2gh)
where, v Velocity of flow in m/s
h Rise of water column in the Pitot tube in m
k Coefficient of Pitot tube to account for the loss of head. (This is dimensionless and
always less than one.)
g 9.6 SALT TITRATION METHOD
In this method, a concentrated solution of a salt or a chemical in water is added to a stream at a

constant rate q and is allowed to mix with the flow of the stream. A sample of the mixed flow is
collected at a location such that thorough mixing is achieved. If necessary artificial means may
be followed for thorough mixing. The sample thus collected is tested in the laboratory and the
concentration is determined accurately.
The discharge Q in the stream can be calculated from the following equation:
n1 q n0 Q n2 (Q q)
where, Q Discharge in the stream in m3/s

q Discharge of the concentrated salt/chemical in m3/s
n1 Normality of the concentrated salt/chemical before mixing
n2 Normality of the sample collected after mixing
n0 Normality of water in the stream before mixing
(n1 n2)
________
Qq
(n2 n0)
(n1 n2)
_______
If n0 is negligible, Q q n2
The success of the method mainly depends on the thorough and complete mixing of the salt/
chemical with the flowing water. When a salt or a chemical is added in the stream at a constant rate,
it is called Plateau Method. When it is added all at once, it is called Gulp Method. In the case of
gulp method, chemical is mixed all at once. Then the observations of the normality of the stream
water after thorough mixing should be taken at a regular interval, say t, till no trace of chemical
is observed in the stream water.
In this case, the discharge in the stream Q can be calculated by the equation:
n1 V
Q
(∑n2 n0) t
where, V Volume of chemical added
The method can be used for small streams.
It is simple because it does not involve measurements of depth, velocity, etc.
9.6.1 PROPERTIES OF A SALT OR CHEMICAL

The salt/chemical to be used for this method should have the following properties:
• It should be easily soluble in water.
• It should not be harmful to plants and animals.
• It should not be present in the flowing water of the stream.
• It should be easily available and cheap.
• It can be easily detected after thorough mixing.
Example 9.8
20 mg/cc of salt at the rate of 10 cc/s was discharged in a stream having a concentration of the same
salt of 0.1 parts per billion (ppb). The concentration after thorough mixing was found to be 5 ppb.
Find discharge in the stream.
Solution:
q 10 cc/s 1105 m3/s
____
20 ___
1
Concentration of salt added in the stream n1 0.02
106 109
___
0.1
Concentration of salt in the flowing water n0 0.1109
109
___
5
Concentration after the thorough mixing n2 9 5 109
10
q(n1n2) ____________________
5 9
________ 110 (0.02510 )
(n2n0) 9
510 0.110 9
40.81 m3/s
(1 mg/1 m3 1 part 1 per billion)
Example 9.9
30 litres of water with a salt concentration of 20 mg/cc was added to a flowing stream in gulp.
Concentration of the stream water after thorough mixing was measured on the d/s every after 3 min
and was noticed to be 0, 5, 10, 20, 15, 5, 0 ppb.
Find the discharge in the stream.
Solution:
Since the normality of the stream water n0 before mixing is not given, it is assumed to be zero.
____
20 30 103
_________
6
109
_____________________________________________________
10
Q
3 60 [(5 0) (10 0) (20 0) (15 0) (5 0)]
____________________________________________________
109
600 103
600 106 ___________
____________ 3 60 55 60.60 m /s
3
3 60 55
___________
109
g 9.7 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT BY HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

The following hydraulic structures can be used for the discharge measurement:
(1) notches (2) throated flumes and (3) weirs
9.7.1 NOTCHES
Notches are used when the discharge is small. The different notches are as follows:
1. Triangular notch
2. Rectangular notch
3. Trapezoidal notch
4. Cippolette notch
Fig. 9.19 Triangular notch

Fig. 9.20 Rectangular notch
Fig. 9.21 Trapezoidal notch
Fig. 9.22 Cippolette notch

Example 9.10
In a laboratory, following 4 notches were installed in parallel with the crest of all the notches at the
same level:
The water level above the crest was 150 mm. Assume coefficient of discharge in all the cases
to be 0.6.
1. Triangular notch with semi-vertical angle of 45
Fig. 9.23 Water levels on various notches in laboratory

2. Rectangular notch of crest length of 200 mm

3. Trapezoidal notch of crest length of 150 mm and side angle of 30
4. Cippolette notch of crest length of 225 mm

The water level above the crest was 150 mm. Assume coefficient of discharge in all cases to be
0.6. Calculate the total discharge flowing over all the notches.
Solution:
The discharge over the notches will be as follows:
1. Triangular notch
___
Cd 冪 2g t an 2 H5/2 8 ___________________________
8______________________ 0.6 4.43 tan 45o 0.155/2
Q 15 15
0.0123 m3/s.
2. Rectangular notch
___
2 Cd(L0.1nH) 冪2g H3/2
Q ______________________
3
2 0.6(0.20.1 2 0.15) 4.43 0.153/2
_______________________________________
3
0.0175 m3/s
3. Trapezoidal notch
___ ___
Cd 冪2g LH3/2 ____________________
2________________ 8 Cd√ 2g tan H5/2
Q 3 15
2 0.6 4.43 0.15 0.15
___________________________ 3/2
8 0.6 4.43 tan 30o 0.155/2
_____________________________
3 15
0.0154 0.00712
0.02252 m3/s
4. Cippolette notch
___
Cd 冪2g LH3/2
2________________
Q 3
2 0.6 4.43 0.225 0.153/2
_____________________________
3
0.0230 m3/s
Therefore, total discharge 0.0123 0.0175 0.02252 0.0230
0.07532 m3/s 75.32 lit/s
9.7.2 THROTTLED FLUMES

Throttled flumes are normally used for canals. The cross section of the canal is reduced by reducing
the width as well as raising the bed so that critical flow occurs over the throat portion. Hence, these
flumes are also known as Critical Depth Metres.
The normal throttled flumes are (a) standing wave flume and (b) Parshall flume
9.7.2.1 Standing wave flume

Standing wave flume (SWF) is also known as Venturi-flume (Fig. 9.24).
Fig. 9.24 Standing wave flume
9.7.2.2 Parshall flume

Parshall flume was developed by R. L. Parshall in 1910 and is widely used in the USA (Fig. 9.25).
Fig. 9.25 Parshall flume

Example 9.11
A 0.5-m-wide SWF and a 0.25-m-wide Parshall flume are used to measure discharge in a
branch canal. The throat level of both the flumes is at the same level. Find the combined
discharge when the head is 0.4 m. Assume Cd equal to 1.706 and 1.72 for SWF and partial
flume, respectively.
Solution:
Q Cd L H3/2 Cd L H1 49 1.706 0.5 0.43/2 1.72 0.25 0.41 49
0.215 0.109
0.324 m3/s
9.7.3 WEIRS
The existing weirs constructed across a stream can be used for the discharge measurement. The
normal types of weirs generally constructed are the following:
(a) broad-crested weir and (b) ogee-shaped weir.
9.7.3.1 Broad-crested weir
Broad-crested weirs are normally of low heights, constructed over the entire length of the channel.
It will act as a broad-crested weir only if B > 2/3 H (Fig. 9.26).
Fig. 9.26 Broad-crested weir

The discharge Q over a broad-crested weir is given as
Q Cd L H 3/2
The value of Cd is normally 1.49.
Example 9.12
A broad-crested weir is constructed across a river (Fig. 9.27). The details are as under:
(1) Length of the weir 10 m
(2) Width of the weir 1.0 m
Find the discharge over the weir when the head over the weir is 0.5 m.
Fig. 9.27 Broad-crested weir in operation
Solution:
Q 1.49L H3/2 1.4910.00.53/2 5.26 m3/s.
9.7.3.2 Ogee-shaped weir

Normally, ogee-shaped weirs are provided for the spillway of a storage dam. The profile is designed
to suit the lower nappe of the jet flowing over the weir (Fig. 9.28).
The discharge Q over an ogee weir is given as:
Q Cd (L nkH ) H 3/2
where, Q, L and H carry the usual meaning. n is the number of end contractions caused due to the
piers and k is a coefficient depending upon the shape of the pier. The value of Cd is normally 2.05.
Fig. 9.28 Ogee weir
Example 9.13
A gated ogee spillway has been provided to a dam, the details are as under.
1. Spillway crest level 100.0 m
2. Number and size of gates 4, each 6 m 9 m
Fig. 9.29 Ogee weir in operation
3. Water level in the reservoir 105.0 m

4. Coefficient of discharge 2.05 (assumed)
Find the discharge over the spillway when the gates are fully open.
Solution:
Q Cd (Lnk*H ) H3/2
2.05 (4 9 0.1 8 5) (105 100)3/2
2.05 32 53/2
733.4 m3/s
(k is assumed equal to 0.1.)
g 9.8 HYDRAULIC MODEL METHOD
A three-dimensional composite model of the stream to a suitable scale may be constructed in the
laboratory. By running the model, a stage-discharge curve may be obtained for the cross section
where the discharge in the prototype is required. This stage-discharge curve may be used for the
prototype by using the discharge scale. This curve may be extrapolated if required.
Before using the stage-discharge curve observed on the model, it should be seen that the model
is proved to prototype conditions.
g 9.9 ULTRASONIC METHOD
In this method, a reach of the stream is reduced to a rectangular section. This length of the reach L
should be approximately equal to the bed width of the rectangular channel (Fig. 9.30).
Two transducers are located on each bank at a depth d. The line joining the transducers should
make an angle of 45
with the axis of the stream. These two transducers should emit and also
receive the ultrasonic signals. When an ultrasonic signal is emitted from A to B, it will travel with a
velocity equal to u Vp and the time of travel T1 to travel for this signal from A to B will be
L
T1 _______
(uVp)
Fig. 9.30 Ultrasonic method
where, T1 Time of travel for the signal from A to B in seconds

L Length between A and B in metres
u Velocity of sound in water in m/s
Vd Velocity of flow at a depth of d
Vp Component of velocity of water Vd at a depth d along AB
Vd cos 45
Similarly, T2 will be the time of travel for the signal from B to A and can be mentioned as
T2 L/(uVp ).
_____
L
(
___
1 ___
Thus Vd 2 cos T T
1
1
2
)
This method is known as single path gauging method.
Alternatively, a series of transducers may be installed at different depths and thus the vertical
profile of velocity can be obtained to work out the average velocity and consequently the discharge,
more accurately. This is known as Multiple Path Gauging Method.
The method can be used for river width up to 500 m and an accuracy up to 2% can be obtained.
With this method, immediate results are obtained. However, the observations may be affected
due to weed growth, salinity of water, air entrainment, temperature of water, etc.
g 9.10 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION METHOD
This method is based on the Faraday’s principle that An Electromagnetic Force is induced in the
conductor (water) when it passes through a normal magnetic field.
A long conductor is buried at the bottom of the stream at right angles to the flow throughout
the cross section. A current I is allowed to flow in this conductor. This will produce a controlled
vertical magnetic field (Fig. 9.31) and this magnetic field will produce an electromagnetic force
(e.m.f.) depending upon the following:
(a) Depth of flow (b) Discharge in the stream (c) Current I
Fig. 9.31 Electromagnetic method
Two sensitive electrodes installed on the banks will measure the small voltage produced due to
this e.m.f. The discharge in the stream can be calculated after the calibration as follows:
Ed n
Q K1 ( ______
I K ) 2
where, Q Discharge in the stream in m3/s

E Voltage produced due to the e.m.f. in millivolts
I Current in main conductor in amperes
d Depth of flow in metres
K1, K2, n System constants to be obtained by calibration
The method is suitable for rivers
• Having a tendency to change its cross section
• Having weed growth
• Tidal channels where there is rapid change in direction and discharge
The method can be used up to a width of 100 m and has an accuracy of 3%. The discharge
flowing can be found out immediately.
g 9.11 MOVING-BOAT TECHNIQUE
When a large river is in spate, it is very difficult to take discharge observations particularly because it is
very difficult to keep the boat steady at a location, to lower the current meter and take the velocity obser-
vations at the same time. A technique called Moving-boat Technique for discharge measurement was
developed by the US Geological Survey in 1969. In this method, the boat is kept moving and velocity
observations are continuously taken. Hence, the method is named moving-boat technique (Fig. 9.32).
The boat is moved at an angle with the cross section P-P to Q-Q, with a uniform velocity Vv.
However, the flow having a velocity Vf will also act on the boat. Thus, the boat will actually move
Fig. 9.32 Moving-boat technique
along the resultant of Vv and Vf , i.e. Vb. Vb must be along a well-defined cross section at right angles
to the flow. Since the velocity of flow Vf goes on increasing from the bank towards the centre of the
stream, the boatman has to change the so that Vb is along the fixed cross section.
Normally, a propeller-type current meter is used, as it is free to move about its vertical axis. The
current meter is maintained at a depth of 0.5 m below the water surface. There is a vertical vane
attached to the current meter so that it aligns itself in the direction of flow. An echo sounder is also
fixed to the boat for recording the depth of flow or the bed profile.
The boatman starts the boat from the bank at a velocity Vv and keeps the boat always along the pre-
determined cross section by changing the angle . To keep the boat along the cross section, he ranges
the boat with the help of the posts P,P and Q,Q located on the banks. During the movement of the boat,
observations of Vv, and the depths of flow at equal intervals of time for various segments are taken.
The discharge in each segment will be dQ
dQ dAVf
(d d )
[ ________
1
2
2
]WV f
where, W Width of segment Vb dt Vv cos dt

and, Vf Vv sin
(d d )
dQ [ ________
1
2
2
] V sin V cos dt
v v
(d d )
[ ________ ] V sin cos dt
1 2
v
2
2
Since all the values on the right hand side are observed during the ride of the boat, dQ can be
evaluated.
Total discharge, Q ∑dQ
The operation is repeated for the return journey of the boat. These operations are repeated and the
average value of discharge is calculated. The method is used for streams having more than 3-m depth
of flow. The method is strenuous as it is difficult to move the boat along a fixed cross section in a
high velocity flow. However, there is no alternative but to follow this method for very large rivers.
Example 9.14
Observations for discharge measurement were taken on a river by moving-boat technique. The boat
was moved with a constant speed of 1.2 m/s and observations of angle and the depth of flow were
taken every after 30 s. Find the discharge flowing through the river.
Solution:
The discharge calculations are tabulated below.
Serial Time (s) Angle Depth Average Average Sin Cos Discharge
no. (degree) (m) (degree) depth (m)
1 0 0 0 — — — — —
2 30 20 2.6 10 1.3 0.1736 0.9848 9.601
3 30 24 3.2 22 2.9 0.3746 0.9271 43.508
4 30 28 4.8 26 4.0 0.4383 0.8987 68.065
5 30 36 6.2 32 5.5 0.5299 0.8480 106.766
6 30 40 8.0 38 7.1 0.6156 0.7880 148.787
7 30 32 6.2 36 7.1 0.5877 0.8090 145.829
8 30 26 4.4 29 5.3 0.4848 0.8746 97.080
9 30 20 2.0 23 3.2 0.3907 0.9205 49.716
10 30 00 0.0 10 1.0 0.1736 0.9848 7.385
Total 676.837
Total discharge flowing in the river 677 m3/s

Q Average depth V 2 sin cos time
g 9.12 STAGE DISCHARGE RELATION
When a number of discharge observations along with the stage observations are taken at a gauging
site, these observations are plotted on a simple graph, with discharge on the x-axis and stage on
the y-axis. Once a relation of stage and discharge is established, it becomes easy to calculate the
discharge flowing in the channel.
Such a graph is known as Stage Dischar ge Relation or a Rating Curve . Normally, this is
parabolic in nature as shown in Fig. 9.33.
9.12.1 EXTRAPOLATION OF RATING CURVE

The rating curve will have to be extended for higher values of the stage. This can be done by the
following methods:
(a) Simple judgement: The rating curve may be extended by simple judgement as shown in
Fig. 9.33.
(b) Logarithmic method: Equation of the available curve may be assumed to be Q k d n
Fig. 9.33 Stage-discharge curve

d Stage in metres
k, n Some constants
Taking logarithms of both sides we get,
Log Q Log k n log d
If the available curve is plotted on a log–log paper, then it will be a straight line. This straight
line may be extended to determine the discharge corresponding to higher stage as shown in
Figs. 9.34 and 9.35.
Example 9.15
The rating curve coordinates obtained at a gauging site are as follows:
Stage (m) 4.0 4.9 6.5 7.2 7.7
3
Discharge (m /s) 40 60 100 120 140
Find (i) Equation of the rating curve

(ii) Discharge when the stage would be 8.6 m
(iii) Stage corresponding to the discharge of 200 m3/s
Solution:
(i) Let the equation of the rating curve be
Q k dn
Substituting the values of Q 40 m3/s and Q 100 m3/s in the assumed equation
We get, 40 k 4n and 100 k 6.5n
Fig. 9.34 A simple graph of stage discharge relation extended
Fig. 9.35 A log–log graph of stage discharge relation extended

Dividing the second equation by the first

____
100 6.5 n
___
( )
40 4.0 2.5
Taking logarithms of both sides with base as ‘e’
n log 1.625 log 2.5
n 0.4855 0.9162
______
0.9162
Therefore, n 0.4855 1.887
Substituting the value of n in one of the equations

We get, 40 k 4n k 41 887 k 13.68
_____
40
Therefore k 13.68 2.92
Thus, the equation of the rating curve will be Q 2.92 d1 887

The rating curve coordinates are plotted on a simple graph paper. The curve was extrapolated
beyond and the details as required were observed as follows:
(i) Discharge when the stage is 8.6 m 177 m3/s
(ii) Stage corresponding to a discharge of 200 m3/s 8.95 m
The rating curve coordinates were also plotted on a log–log paper. It was noticed that the graph
is a straight line. This straight line was extended beyond and the required details were observed as
follows:
(i) Discharge when the stage is 8.6 m 180 m3/s
(ii) Stage corresponding to a discharge of 200 m3/s 9.0 m
g 9.13 STREAM GAUGING NETWORK
The stream flow data is the basic data. All further designs are based on these data and hence
sufficient number of stream gauging stations should be established. The WMO has suggested the
following criteria.
(a) Arid zones
Minimum 1 station per 5,000–20,000 km2
(b) For temperate Mediterranean and tropical zones
Minimum 1 station per 1,000–2,500 km2
(c) Mountainous areas of temperate Mediterranean and tropical zones
Minimum 1 station per 300–1,000 km2
A stream gauging station should be established at the following locations:
(i) Downstream of a possible dam or a hydraulic structure
(ii) At the inlet or the outlet of a natural lake
(iii) Upstream of a city subject to flood damage
(iv) A point just above the tidal influence
(v) On a tributary just u/s of its confluence with the main river
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define discharge. Discuss the various units used for it.
2. What are the main objectives of the measurement of discharge?
3. Discuss the importance of the measurement of discharge in the study of hydrology.
4. What is water potential? Discuss its units.
5. What is a stage? Discuss the different methods followed to measure the stage of a channel.
6. Explain with a neat sketch a water-stage recorder.
7. State the different methods adopted to measure the discharge in a channel and explain
in details any one of them.
8. Discuss the criteria for the selection of a site for discharge measurement.
9. Discuss the procedure followed to evaluate the cross-sectional area and the hydraulic mean
depth at a cross section of a channel.
10. Explain how the Manning’s coefficient is used to find the discharge flowing in a channel.
11. Explain with a neat sketch the velocity profile along a cross section of a channel.
12. Explain why steady uniform flow is assumed in the case of area–slope method of discharge
measurement.
13. Discuss the criteria for the selection of a float for discharge measurement.
14. Describe the procedure followed to evaluate the surface velocity.
15. Discuss the precautions to be taken while taking observations of velocity by floats.
16. Explain the construction of a cup-type current meter. Also explain how it is used to evaluate
the velocity of flow.
17. Explain the construction of a propeller-type current meter. Also explain how it is used to
evaluate the velocity of flow.
18. Discuss the various methods of lowering the current meter to the desired depth for taking the
velocity observations.
19. Discuss the corrections due the flowing water to be applied, when a current meter is used to
observe velocity of flow.
20. What is an isovel? Sketch a pattern of isovels along a cross section of a channel.
21. Explain with a neat sketch the working of a Pitot tube.
22. Explain the salt-titration method of discharge measurement. Also discuss the properties of the
salt/chemical to be used in this method.
23. Explain with neat sketches the different notches that can be used for the measurement of
discharge.
24. Explain with neat sketches the different types of flumes that can be used for discharge
measurement.
25. Explain the hydraulic model method of discharge measurement.
26. Explain with a neat sketch the ultrasonic method of discharge measurement.
27. Explain with a neat sketch the electromagnetic induction method of discharge measurement.
28. Explain with a neat sketch the moving-boat technique for discharge measurement.
29. Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of ultrasonic method and electromagnetic
method relative to the method by current meter.
a. Basic equation of discharge measurement
b. Suspension weight gauge method of measuring the depth of flow in a channel
c. Float type water-stage recorder
d. Area–slope method of discharge measurement

e. Echo s ounder
f. Hydrographic s urvey
g. Merits and demerits of area–slope method of discharge measurement.
h. Types o f floats
i. Rod float
j. Integrate method of velocity observation by a current meter
k. Mid-section method of evaluating the discharge in a channel
l. Crest ga uge
m. Extension of the rating curve
31. Differentiatebe tween:
a. A channel and a canal
b. Vertical gauges and inclined gauges
c. Cup-type current meter and propeller-type current meter
d. Single-point method, two-point method and three-point method of velocity observation
by a current meter
e. Air-line correction and wet-line correction
f. Standing wave flume and Parshall flume
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1. A test was conducted for the measurement of discharge for a stream. The details are as follows:
(i) Distance between two sections 200 m
(ii) Depth of flow at u/s Section A 2.52 m
(iii) Depth of flow at the d/s section 2.61 m
(iv) Water level at Section A 256.45 m
(v) Water level at Section B 256.25 m
(vi) Manning’s coefficient (assumed) 0.035
Assume, Area of flow in m2 8 d2
and wetted perimeter in m 12 d
Here d is in metres.
Calculate the discharge flowing in the stream.
Ans: Q 68.13 m3/s
2. Observations were taken for the velocity of flow in a channel at various depths as follows:
Depth of flow (m) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Velocity of flow (m/s) 0 0.025 0.12 0.22 0.45 0.73 1.24 1.91 3.35
Find the average velocity.

Ans: Average velocity 0.69 m/s
3. Observations taken on a river by the float method for the measurement of discharge are as follows:
(i) Number of s egments 6
(ii) Width of stream at the water surface 23.9 m
(iii) Width of each segment in metres 3.0, 4.6, 5.0 4.7, 3.9 and 2.7
(iv) Depth of flow in metres at the centre of each segment 0.75, 1.20, 1.78, 1.40, 1.10 and
0.60
(v) Distance between two cross sections 150 m

(vi) Time taken by a surface float in each section is as follows:
Section Minute Second

1 2 16
2 1 46
3 1 23
4 1 20
5 1 40
6 2 15
Find the discharge flowing in the river.

Ans: Discharge 39.9 m3/s
4. A current meter was lowered from a bridge by means of a cable for the measurement of dis-
charge in a stream. The observations are as follows:
(i) Depth of flow in the stream 4.0 m
(ii) Vertical distance between the index point up to water surface 3.0 m
(iii) Angle made by the cable with the vertical 28
Find the length of the cable from the index point up to the bed.
Ans: Length of the cable 7.56 m
5. Isovels were drawn on the cross section of a channel covering an area of 25 m2. The percentage
of distribution of the area between the two consecutive isohyets is as follows:
Serial no. Isovels (m/s) % distribution

1 Less than 1.0 5
2 1.0–1.2 22
3 1.2–1.4 27
4 1.4–1.6 36
5 Above 1.6 10
Find the discharge.

Ans: 33.57 m3/s
6. In a stream, 15 mg/cc of salt at the rate of 15 cc/s was discharged. The concentration of the salt
after thorough mixing at a location of 100 m on the d/s was found to be 5 ppb. Find the dis-
charge.
Ans: 45 m3/s
7. For a gauging site, the rating curve coordinates are as under:
Stage (m) 1.0 1.8 2.0 3.1 4.3 5.3 6.6

3
Discharge (m /s) 18 24 28 33 39 41 44
Find: (i) Rating curve equation

(ii) The discharge when the stage is 3.51 m
(iii) The stage when the discharge is 42 m3/s
Ans: (i) Q 23.86 d0 31
(ii) Q 35 m3/s
(iii) d 6.3 m
8. The discharge measurement observations by the moving-boat technique were taken on a river.
The boat was kept moving at a constant speed of 1.0 m/s. Observations of angle and depth of
flow were taken every after 30 s.
Time (s) 0 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Angle (degree) 0 20 26 34 42 32 24 18 0
Depth (m) 0 2.0 3.0 4.2 5.8 6.6 5.0 3.2 0
Find the discharge.

Ans: Q 428.5 m3/s

1. A water-stage recorder records:
(a) Maximum water level reached (b) Minimum water level reached
(c) Water level at that moment (d) Average water level
2. Echo sounder is an equipment that records:
(a) Velocity of flow (b) Discharge
(c) Depth of flow (d) Direction of flow
3. The velocity of flow at the surface is
(a) Equal to the average velocity (b) Two times the average velocity
(c) 0.85 times the average velocity (d) 1.250 times the average velocity
4. The average velocity of flow is observed at
(a) 0.2D (b) 0.4D
(c) 0.6D (d) 0.8D
5. The single-point method of measurement of velocity is to observe velocity at
(a) 0.2D (b) 0.4D
(c) 0.6D (d) 0.8D
6. The unit of discharge is
(a) m3/s (b) Cumecs
(c) m/s per unit area of the catchment (d) Any of these three
7. The two-point method of measurement of velocity is the average velocity as
V0 2DV0 6D
__________ V0 4DV0 8D
__________
(a) 2 (b) 2
V0 2DV0 8D
__________ V0 2DV0 4D
__________
(c) 2 (d) 2
8. The three-point method of the measurement of velocity is the average velocity as
V0 2D2V0 6DV0 8D
________________ V0 2D2V0 4DV0 8D
________________
(a) 4 (b) 4
V0 2D2V0 4DV0 6D
________________ V0 4D2V0 6DV0 8D
________________
(c) 4 (d) 4
9. The unit of water potential is
(a) Million m3 (b) ha m
(c) m per unit area of catchment (d) Any of these three
10. 1 million m3 is equal to
(a) 1 101 ha m (b) 1 102 ha m
(c) 1 103 ha m (d) 1 104 ha m
11. Crest gauge is used to record:
(a) Maximum water level reached (b) Minimum water level reached
(c Average water level (d) Water level at the moment
12. A rating curve of a stream shows the variation of discharge w.r.t.
(a) Depth of flow (b) Velocity of flow
(c) Area of flow (d) All the above
13. The air-line and wet-line corrections depend on
(a) Velocity of flow (b) Unit weight of water
(c) Weight of chain and the current meter (d) All the above
14. The salt titration method is suitable for
(a) Small streams (b) Meandering rivers
(c) Very big streams (d) Rivers in flood
15. The science of discharge measurement is known as
(c) Hydrometeorology (d) None of the above
16. An observation well is necessary when the stage is to be measured by
(a) Vertical gauges (b) Inclined gauges
(c) Float gauges (d) None of the above
17. In the area–slope method, the flow is assumed to be
(a) Unsteady and non-uniform (b) Unsteady and uniform
(c) Steady and non-uniform (d) Steady and uniform
18. The method that is not a direct stream-flow measurement technique is
(a) Area–velocity method (b) Area–slope method
(c) Salt titration method (d) Ultrasonic method
19. In the moving-boat technique, the observations to be taken are

(a) Depth of flow, velocity of the boat and current meter observations
(b) Depth of flow, current meter observations and angle
(c) Velocity of boat, angle and depth of flow
(d) Angle , velocity of boat and depth of flow
20. The only information that is required to estimate the flood discharge from the rating curve is
(a) Velocity of flow (b) Depth of flow
(c) Maximum precipitation (d) Water surface slope
21. Isovel is a line joining locations having equal:
(a) Depth of flow (b) Velocity of flow
(c) Hydrostatic pressure (d) Velocity head

1. c 2. c 3. d 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. c 8. a 9. d
10. b 11. a 12. a 13. d 14. a 15. d 16. c 17. d 18. d
19. d 20. b 21. b
*** ***
Flood Routing
10
Chapter Outline
10.1 Definition 10.3 Flood routing through channels

10.2 Types of flood routing 10.4 Flood routing through reservoir
g 10.1 DEFINITION
Sometimes it becomes essential to know the depth of flow at a specific location of a channel. This
can be done by following the flood-routing procedure.
When a river is in floods, the depth of the flow and the hydrograph at different locations along
the river course are not the same, since the flow in the river is non-uniform and unsteady. In such a
case, the depth of the flow and the hydrograph at each section depend on: (a) the depth of the flow
and the hydrograph at a section u/s of it and (b) the hydraulic characteristics of the river in between
the two sections such as the slope of the river, the length of the reach, the Manning’s coefficient,
the cross-sectional area and so on.
Thus, the depth of the flow and the hydrograph at the lower section can be calculated having
the above information.
Similarly, the outflow from a reservoir will depend on the following factors:
1. The inflow hydrograph
2. The storage capacity of the reservoir
3. The discharging capacity of the spillway weir
FLOOD ROUTING 285
Thus, the outflow hydrograph from a reservoir, whether gated or ungated, can be determined
by knowing (1) the inflow hydrograph, (2) the hydraulic characteristics of the reservoir and (3) the
discharging capacity of the spillway weir.
Flood routing can, therefore, be defined as the procedure for calculating the depth of flow
and the hydrograph at a section knowing the flood hydrograph at the u/s section and the
hydraulic characteristics of the channel in between or the hydraulic characteristics of the
reservoir.
g 10.2 TYPES OF FLOOD ROUTING
Flood routing may be divided into two parts:

1. flood routing through a channel and
2. flood routing through a reservoir.
The flood-routing procedure may be in accordance with the following methods:
1. Hydraulic routing
2. Hydrologic routing
3. Routing machines
10.2.1 HYDRAULIC FLOOD ROUTING

Hydraulic flood routing through a river can be carried out by applying the following three basic
equations:
1. Continuity equation
2. Energy equation
3. Momentum equation
When the flow phenomenon in a channel is non-uniform and unsteady, it is very difficult to
obtain a true picture of the flow by this procedure since it is very complex. Also, the solution can
be obtained only by assuming a uniform flow.
Therefore, the results obtained by this method are not accurate.
10.2.2. HYDROLOGIC FLOOD ROUTING

In the hydrologic-routing procedure for a stretch of a river or for a reservoir, the following continu-
ity equation is followed:
Inflow Outflow Change of storage
Over a time interval t, symbolically, it may be stated as:
I Q s (10.1)
where, I Inflow
Q Outflow
s Change in storage
The inflow-hydrograph ordinates at a time interval of t will be I1, I2 and I3, and these will be
known since the inflow hydrograph is known. The outflow ordinates may be Q1, Q2, Q3 and so on.
However, these are not known and are to be calculated. (I I )
_______
Over a time interval t, the inflow volume will be t.
1 2
2
(Q1 Q2)
_________
And, over the same time interval t, the outflow volume will be 2 t.
The difference between the inflow volume and the outflow volume will be the change in the
storage S2 – S1. Here, neither the energy equation nor the momentum equation is applied, but a
relation between inflow–outflow and storage is used.
Thus,
(I1I2)
______ (Q1Q2)
t ________ t S2 S1 (10.2)
2 2
10.2.3 FLOOD-ROUTING MACHINES

Mechanical flood routers have mechanical gears to represent the reservoir system (Fig. 10.1).
These days, electrical voltage system and/or electronic systems are used to represent the fluc-
tuations in a reservoir or in a channel (Fig. 10.2). The results obtained by this method are not
accurate.
Upper Framework
dQ Scale
I Q K.dQ/dt
dt
Under carriage
Outflow
hydrograph Inflow hydrograph
Origin of
outflow
hydrograph Time
lag
Origin of Inflow Hydrograph
Fig. 10.1 Mechanical flow router

FLOOD ROUTING 287
Self-Balancing
Potentiometer P1
R4 R1
Phototube Bulb
dS1
dS1 I
dt
dt
R2
A.C. Line
C1
Transformer C2 R3
P0
dS2 dS1
dt Q
dt
R5
Fig. 10.2 Electric analogue routing machine
g 10.3 FLOOD ROUTING THROUGH CHANNELS
In a river during floods, the flow is non-uniform and unsteady. This type of flow is very difficult
to solve. The hydraulic characteristics vary from stage to stage and also from channel to channel.
There may be a lateral inflow or outflow, also.
All these conditions make the analysis of the problem increasingly difficult. However, neglect-
ing all the above conditions and assuming changes occurring gradually with time, the problem can
be simplified and solved. It is also known as the stream-flow routing.
10.3.1 MUSKINGUM METHOD

This method was first followed by G. I. McCarthy for the Muskingum River in the USA. Hence,
the method is known as the ‘Muskingum method’.
Consider two sections A and B of a river at a distance L and assume that there is neither inflow
nor outflow in this reach. During floods, the stages at the two cross sections will differ as shown
in Fig. 10.3.
The storage in this river reach can be divided into two parts—the prism storage and the wedge
storage. The prism storage is formed by a volume of constant cross section along the length of the
river. The wedge storage is the volume between the top of the prism and the water surface.
I
Wedge storage KX (I Q)
A
Q
Prism
storage KQ
Section A B
B O
Fig. 10.3 Section of a river in flood
Assuming that the cross-sectional area of the flow is directly proportional to the discharge, the
prism storage will be dependant only on the outflow and can be equated to K outflow, where K
is called the storage time constant. The dimension of K will be time unit and will depend on the
length and the hydraulic characteristics of the river reach. Normally, it is in hours. It represents the
time of travel wave through the channel reach.
The wedge storage will be a fraction of the volume of the prism (I – Q) x (I – Q), where
x 1. In the rising flood, this part will be positive, since I Q and in the falling flood, this
part will be negative, since I Q. Now, the prism storage K Q and the wedge storage
x K (I – Q). Here, x is called the weighing factor and will be dimensionless having a range of
0 x 0.3.
The total storage S K Q x K (I – Q)

or after simplifying K [x I (1 – x) Q] (10.3)
Equation (10.3) is known as the Muskingum storage equation.

Thus, at the beginning, S1 K [x I1 (1 – x) Q1].
And after a time interval t, S2 K [x I2 (1 – x) Q2].
Therefore, the change in storage S2 – S1 K [x (I2 – I1) (1 – x) (Q2 – Q1)] (10.4)
When x 0, there will not be any wedge storage. The inflow will be equal to the outflow and
the water surface will be parallel to the bed.
While considering Eqs. (10.2) and (10.4), we see that I1, I2 and I3 are the inflow-hydrograph
coordinates (these are known) and Q1, Q2 and Q3 the outflow-hydrograph coordinates (these are to
be calculated).
By rearranging and combining the two equations, the following equation is derived:
Q2 C0 I2 C1I1 C2Q1 (10.5)
Equation (10.5) is popularly known as Muskingum routing equation.
Such that
Δt K – 2x
_______________
C0
2(1 – x) (Δt K )
Δt K 2x
_______________
C1
2(1 – x) (Δt K )
2(1 – x)(∆t K )
_______________
C2
2(1 – x) (∆t K )
FLOOD ROUTING 289
C0, C1 and C2 are called the routing coefficients. It may be checked that C0 C1 C2 1.
C0, C1 and C2 can be evaluated, if t, K and x are known and then from Eq. (10.5), Q2 can be
calculated. S2 can be calculated from Eq. (10.4), once Q2 is known.
Then, knowing C0, C1, C2, Q2 and S2, we can calculate Q3 and S3.
Knowing C0, C1, C2, Q3 and S3, we can calculate Q4 and S4. Thus, this forward substitution
procedure can be followed to find the outflow-hydrograph ordinates, Q1, Q2, Q3, … .
This outflow hydrograph will be the inflow hydrograph for the next river reach. The inflow and
the outflow hydrographs observed in a specific case are shown in Fig. 10.4.
Inflow hydrograph
Attenuation
Outflow hydrograph
Discharge in m3/s
TI
TO
QI QO
TI < TO Time in hours

QI > QO
Fig. 10.4 Inflow and outflow hydrographs in a river
The following observations can be made:

1. The maximum outflow discharge is less than the maximum inflow discharge. This is known as
flood attenuation.
2. The time of the maximum-outflow discharge is more than that of the maximum-inflow dis-
charge. This difference is known as translation or lag.
3. The base period of the outflow hydrograph is more than that of the inflow hydrograph.
4. The inflow volume should equal the outflow volume.
10.3.2 SELECTION OF Δt
Over a span of time t, the average inflow volume is calculated by assuming a straight-line
variation between I1 and I2 and also the outflow volume, by assuming a straight-line relation
between Q1 and Q2. The accuracy will, therefore, depend on t. If t is small, it will give more
accurate results. t should also be less than the time of travel between the reach of the river, i.e
sections A and B.
Normally, t is taken to be 1/2 or 1/3 time of the travel between the reaches of the river
selected.
Care should be taken so that the peak of the inflow hydrograph is not missed while selecting t.
Example 10.1
In case of an open channel, the inflow hydrograph at a location is as follows:
Ti (h) m e 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge (m3/s) 10 16 28 45 37 30 24 19 15 12 10
The values of K and x are 4 h and 0.3, respectively. Route the hydrograph.
Solution:
Assume the time interval t 1 h
Therefore,
(Δt/K) 2x
______________ 1/4 2 0.3
______________ 0.35
______
C0 1.65 0.212
2(1x) (Δt/K) 2(1 0.3) 1/4
(Δt/K) 2x
______________ 1/4 2 0.3
______________ ____
0.85
C1 0.515
2(1x) (Δt/K ) 2(1 0.3) 1/4 1.65
2(1 x)(Δt/K )
________________ 2(1 0.3) (1 4) ____
________________ 1.15
C2 0.696
2(1 x) (Δt/K ) 2(1 0.3) (1/4) 1.65
Now,
Q2 C0 I2 C1 I1 C2 Q1 0.212 I2 0.515 I1 0.696 Q1
The step-by-step method for flood routing was followed and the results are tabulated below.
0.212 I2 0.515 I1 0.697 Q1

Time (h) Inflow (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) Q2 (m3/s)
0 10 – – – 10
1 16 3.392 5.150 6.970 8.728
2 28 5.936 8.240 6.083 8.387
3 45 9.540 14.420 5.846 10.726
4 37 7.844 23.175 7.476 22.806
5 30 6.360 19.055 15.896 28.591
6 24 5.088 15.450 19.928 30.290
7 19 4.028 12.360 21.112 29.444
8 15 3.180 9.785 20.522 27.127
9 12 2.544 7.725 18.907 24.088
10 10 2.120 6.180 16.789 20.840
11 10 2.210 5.150 14.530 17.560
12 10 2.120 5.150 12.240 15.270
13 10 2.120 5.150 10.640 13.660
14 10 2.120 5.150 9.523 12.550
15 10 2.120 5.150 8.750 11.780
16 10 2.120 5.150 8.210 11.240
17 10 2.120 5.150 7.830 10.860
FLOOD ROUTING 291
Fig. 10.5 Inflow and estimated outflow hydrographs
The inflow and outflow hydrographs are shown in Fig. 10.5.
Observations:
1. The maximum inflow and outflow discharges are 45 m3/s and 30.29 m3/s, respectively.
2. The inflow and the outflow base periods are 10.0 h and 17.0 h, respectively.
10.3.3. DETERMINATION OF K AND X
The values of K and x will have to be evaluated to find the outflow. These can be calculated from
an observed set of inflow and outflow hydrographs in the reach of the river.
The observed inflow and outflow hydrographs in a specific case are shown in Fig. 10.6.
The values of K and x can be calculated by three methods.
First method
___
dS
Now, IQ
dt
and S K [x I (1 x) Q] (10.3)
Therefore,
___
dS
dt [ __
dI
K x (1 x)
dt
dQ
___
dt ]
IQ K [ x (1 x)
dt ]
__
dI dQ
___
Therefore, (10.6)
dt
When the two hydrographs cross each other, then I Q.
Therefore, from Eq. (10.6) we get
dQ/dt
____________
x
(dQ dtdI dt)
INFLOW HYDROGRAPH
WATER ENTERING A1 A2
Discharge in m3/sec
THE STORAGE
A1 OUTFLOW
HYDROGRAPH
A2
WATER
LEAVING THE STORAGE
Time in hours
(a) Inflow and outflow hydrographs

Storage in m3
Time in hours
(b) Storage diagrams
x 0.1 x 0.2 x 0.25

[xI (1x)Q]
n
m
m K DAYS
n
Storage in m3
(c) Storage loops
Fig. 10.6 Determination of K and X
Here,
dQ
___
Slope of the outflow hydrograph at the crossing
dt
__
dI
Slope of the inflow hydrograph at the crossing
dt
Once x is evaluated, K can be evaluated from Equation (10.6) by selecting two points on the two
hydrographs for a specific value of T and substituting the values of I, Q, dI/dt, dQ/dt and x.
This method is not accurate since finding a slope to a curve is approximate.
FLOOD ROUTING 293
Second method
The values of K and x can be evaluated from Eq. (10.6), by solving the two simultaneous equations.
This can be done by selecting two points on each of the inflow and the outflow hydrographs for two
specific times T1 and T2, so that I, Q, dI/dt and dQ/dt can be evaluated at these two points. Then the
only two unknowns are K and x.
Third method
From the observed inflow and outflow hydrographs, it can be seen that initially the inflow will be
more than the outflow. At one point, the inflow will be equal to the outflow and then the outflow
will be more than the inflow.
When the inflow is more than the outflow, the difference in the volume will be temporarily
stored in the river reach and when the outflow will be more than the inflow, this storage will be
drained. The storage in the reach will be the shaded part, as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Then, some values of x are assumed and a graph of S versus [x I (1 x) Q] is plotted for each
value of x.
Normally, the graphs for the various values of x will represent loops. But for a certain value
of x, the graph will be a straight line. This value of x is finalized when the loop is straight or almost
straight. The slope of this line will be K. Thus, x and K can be evaluated.
Example 10.2
The observed values of the inflow and the outflow at two cross sections of a stream are as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
3 10 16 28 45 37 30 24 19 15 12 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Inflow (m /s)
3 10 9 8 11 23 29 30 29 27 24 21 18 15 14 13 12 11 10
Outflow (m /s)
Calculate the values of K and x, for the Muskingum method of flood routing through channel. The
inflow and the outflow hydrographs are as shown in Fig. 10.7.
Fig. 10.7 Inflow and outflow hydrographs

Solution:
It can be seen that the two hydrographs cross each other at 5.1 h, when the discharge is
29.3 m3/s. The values of K and x can be evaluated by the three different methods as follows:
First method
dQ/dt
_____________
x
(dQ/dt dI/dt)
The values of dQ/dt and dI/dt, where the two hydrographs cross each other, were calculated and
were 2.250 and 6.071, respectively.
______________
2.250 _____
2.250
Therefore, x 8.321 0.27
2.250(6.071)
Now, IQK x [ __
dI
dt
(1 x)
dQ
___
dt ]
0
Two points on the two hydrographs for the same value of time are selected as follows:
At t 3 h,
__
dI dQ
___
I 45 m3/s, Q 11 m3/s, 0, 8.62 and x 0.27
dt dt
Substituting these values in the equation, we get
45 11 K (0.27 0 0.73 8.62)
___
34
K 6.2 5.4 h
Second method
Two points are selected from each of the two hydrographs, and the slopes at these four points are
also calculated as follows:
__
dI dQ
___
T3h I 45 m3/s Q 11 m 3/s 0.0 8.82
dt dt
__
dI dQ
___
T2h I 28 m3/s Q 8 m3/s 13.38 –0.1
dt dt
Now we have,
__
dI
[
I Q K x (1 x)
dt
dQ
___
dt
0 ]
Substituting these values in this equation, we get the following two equations:
45 – 11 K [x 0 (1 – x) 8.82] (i)
and 28 – 8 K [x 13.38 (1 – x) (–1)] (ii)
FLOOD ROUTING 295
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get

___ (8.82x8.82)
34 _____________
20 (13.48x0.1)
______
179.8
Therefore, x 634.72 0.283
Substituting the value of x in (i), we get
45 – 11 K (0.283 0 0.717 8.62)
____
34
Therefore, K 6.18 5.5 h
Third method
From the plot of the two hydrographs, the additional storage in the channel is calculated for every hour.
A graph of S vs [x I (1 – x) Q], for some assumed values of x, is plotted. For this, x 0.10, 0.30
and 0.50 are assumed. The calculations are tabulated below.
(A) x 0.10
Serial no. S (m3/h) I (m3/s) Q (m3/s) xI (1 x) Q x I (1 x) Q

1 3.5 16 9 1.60 8.10 9.70
2 17 28 8 2.80 7.20 10.00
3 44 45 11 4.50 9.90 14.40
4 68 37 23 3.70 19.70 23.40
5 76 29.3 29.3 2.93 26.37 29.30
6 73 24 30 2.40 27.00 29.40
7 65 19 29 1.90 26.10 28.00
8 54 15 27 1.50 24.30 25.80
9 42 12 24 1.20 21.60 22.80
10 30.5 10 21 1.00 18.90 19.90
11 20 10 18 1.00 16.20 17.20
12 12.5 10 15 1.00 13.50 14.50
13 8 10 14 1.00 12.60 13.60
14 4.5 10 13 1.00 11.70 12.70
15 2 10 12 1.00 10.80 11.80
16 0.5 10 11 1.00 9.90 10.80
17 0 10 10 1.00 9.00 10.00
(B) x 0.30
1 3.5 16 9 4.80 6.30 11.10
2 17 28 8 8.40 5.60 14.00
3 44 45 11 13.50 7.70 21.20
4 68 37 23 11.50 16.10 27.20
5 76 29.3 29.3 8.79 20.51 29.30
6 73 24 30 7.20 21.00 28.20
7 65 19 29 5.70 20.30 26.00
8 54 15 27 4.50 18.90 23.40
9 42 12 24 3.60 16.80 20.40
10 30.5 10 21 3.00 14.70 17.70
11 20 10 18 3.00 12.60 15.60
12 12.5 10 15 3.00 10.50 13.50
13 8 10 14 3.00 9.80 12.80
14 4.5 10 13 3.00 9.10 12.10
15 2 10 12 3.00 8.40 11.40
16 0.5 10 11 3.00 7.70 10.70
17 0 10 10 3.00 7.00 10.00
(C) x 0.50
1 3.5 16 9 8.00 4.50 12.50
2 17 28 8 14.00 4.00 18.00
3 44 45 11 22.50 5.50 28.00
4 68 37 23 18.50 11.50 30.00
5 76 29.3 29.3 14.66 14.66 29.32
6 73 24 30 12.00 15.00 27.00
7 65 19 29 9.50 14.50 24.00
8 54 15 27 7.50 13.50 21.00
9 42 12 24 6.00 12.00 18.00
10 30.5 10 21 5.00 10.50 15.50
11 20 10 18 5.00 9.00 14.00
12 12.5 10 15 5.00 7.50 12.50
13 8 10 14 5.00 7.00 12.00
14 4.5 10 13 5.00 6.50 11.50
15 2 10 12 5.00 6.00 11.00
16 0.5 10 11 5.00 5.50 10.50
17 0 10 10 5.00 5.00 10.00
FLOOD ROUTING 297
Three graphs of S vs [x I (1 x) Q] were plotted for x 0.10, 0.30 and 0.50. These are shown
in Fig. 10.8.
Fig. 10.8 Estimation of K and X

It can be seen that for x 0.3, the graph is practically a line. Hence, this value of x is accepted.
The slope of the straight line K 53/13 4.07 h. The values of x and K, evaluated by the three
methods, are tabulated below:
x K (h)
First method 0.270 5.40
Second method 0.283 5.50

Third method 0.300 4.07
g 10.4. FLOOD ROUTING THROUGH RESERVOIR
Consider an ungated spillway of a reservoir, vide Fig. 10.9. It is full up to its spillway crest weir and
flood water enters into the reservoir.
As the inflow starts into the reservoir, it will be temporarily stored in the reservoir and, hence,
the water level in the reservoir will rise depending upon its storage capacity. When the water level
rises, a head over the spillway weir develops. As the head develops, outflow over the weir starts. All
these phenomena will occur simultaneously. This outflow, therefore, will not be equal to the inflow,
since some volume from the inflow is stored in the reservoir.
The reservoir water level will be assumed to be horizontal. The head developed over the weir
will depend on the water level in the reservoir. Thus, the water level in the reservoir, the storage in
the reservoir and the outflow discharge, all will be dependent on each other.
Since reservoir water level is assumed to be horizontal, the flood routing through reservoir is,
therefore, also called level pool routing.
The outflow from the reservoir will, therefore, depend on the following conditions:
1. Inflow hydrograph
2. The absorption capacity of reservoir
3. The discharging capacity of the spillway weir
The outflow hydrograph can be evaluated by the Puls method.
Crest of weir
Inflow
Fig. 10.9 An ungated spillway weir

FLOOD ROUTING 299
10.4.1. PULS METHOD

This method was first suggested by L. G. Puls of the US Army Corps of Engineers and hence is
known as the Puls method. It is also known as the inflow–storage–discharge method (ISD method).
It is a step-by-step procedure.
For a reservoir, the continuity equation can be written as:
Inflow Outflow Change in storage
i.e., I Q Δ s
This identity can be rearranged over a span of time Δt as:
(I1I2)
______ (Q1Q2)
________
2 Δt 2 Δt S2 S1 (10.2)
In this method, Δt has to be assumed suitably,

where, Δt Time interval in seconds as assumed
I1 Inflow in m3/s at the beginning of time
I2 Inflow in m3/s at the end of time interval
Q1 Outflow in m3/s at the beginning of time interval
Q2 Outflow in m3/s at the end of time interval
S1 Storage in reservoir in m3at the beginning of time interval
S2 Storage in reservoir in m3 at the end of time interval
∆t should be selected such that it will be approximately equal to tp/5, where tp is the time of
maximum inflow discharge.
Care should also be taken that the peak inflow discharge is not missed.
Thus,
(I1I2)
______
2 Δt Average inflow volume in m in time interval ∆t
3
(Q1Q2)
________
And 2 Δt Average outflow volume in m3 in time interval ∆t
S2 – S1 Change in storage in the reservoir in m3 in time interval Δt
Here I1 and I2 are known, since these are coordinates of the inflow hydrograph. Q1 and S1 are
also known at the beginning of the time.
Equation (10.2) can be rearranged as follows:
(I1 I2)
_______ Δt S Q __
Δt
2 Δt S1Q1 __ 2 2 2
(10.7)
2
In this equation, all the terms in the LHS are known. And in the RHS, S2 and Q2 are not
known. However, a relation between the storage and the outflow can be established and Q2 can be
calculated.
Elvation in R.L.
Spillway weir crest level
Volume in million m3
Fig. 10.10 Reservoir storage capacity
The storage in a reservoir and the outflow from a reservoir are related to the water level in the
reservoir. These are known as hydraulic characteristics of the reservoir.
These relations are as follows:
1. The storage capacity curve of the reservoir (Fig. 10.10).
2. The discharging capacity of the spillway weir (Fig. 10.11).
Elvation in R.L.
Spillway weir crest level
Discharge in m3/s
Fig. 10.11 Discharging capacity of a weir

FLOOD ROUTING 301
Ot
S
2
Outflow in m3/s
Ot
S
2
Reservior capacity in million m3
Fig. 10.12 Outflow vs storage capacity of weir
From these two curves, for a specific value of water level, S and Q can be calculated. This means
that S and Q are related to each other, and their values can be calculated for different water levels.
Thus, a relation of S vs Q can be derived as shown in Fig. 10.12.
On the same graph, in addition, a relation Q vs (S 2O ∆t) (Fig. 10.12) can also be established.
Here, 2O ∆t can be calculated, since ∆t is known and O can be read on the y-axis.
The LHS can be calculated from Eq. (10.7) and then the RHS, i.e. (S2 Q2/2 ∆t), can be known.
Q2 and S2 can be calculated from the graphs in Fig. 10.12. From the value of S2, in the graph in
Fig.10.10, the water level in the reservoir can also be calculated. Thus Q2, S2 and the water level in
the reservoir are known.
The next step will be,
(I2I3)
______ Δt
__ Δt
___
2 Δt Q2 2 S3 Q3 2
From this equation, S3, Q3 and the water level in the reservoir can be calculated.
Then the next step will be,
(I3I4)
______ Δt
__ Δt
___
2 Δt Q3 2 S4 Q4 2
From this equation, S4, Q4 and the water level in the reservoir can be calculated.
Thus, following this step-by-step procedure, Q1, Q2, Q3 and so on, can be evaluated, which is
the outflow hydrograph.
Care should be taken, so that the peak of the inflow hydrograph is not missed while selecting Δt.
The inflow and the outflow hydrographs observed in a specific case are shown in Fig. 10.13.
The following observations can be made:
• The maximum outflow discharge is less than the maximum inflow discharge. This is known as
flood attenuation.
Inflow hydrograph
Discharge in m3/s Outflow hydrograph
To
Qi Qo
Ti
Time in hours
To Ti
Qi Qo
Fig. 10.13 Inflow and outflow hydrographs in a reservoir
• The time of maximum outflow discharge is more than that of the maximum inflow discharge.
This difference is known as translation or lag.
• The base period of the outflow hydrograph is more than that of the inflow hydrograph.
• The outflow discharge is the maximum when the outflow hydrograph crosses the inflow
hydrograph.
• The inflow volume is equal to the outflow volume.
10.4.2. PRACTICAL CASES

The Puls method can be applied in the following five practical cases.
1. The spillway weir is constructed and the gates are not installed, or the spillway weir is without
gates. When the water level in the reservoir is up to the crest level and flood occurs as per the
inflow-flood hydrograph.
2. This case is the same as mentioned above, in the previous point, only that here the water
level in the reservoir is below the crest level and flood occurs as per the inflow-flood
hydrograph.
3. The spillway weir is a gated one, without any flood lift. The water level in the reservoir is upto
the full reservoir level (FRL), and flood occurs as per the inflow-flood hydrograph.
4. The spillway weir is a gated one having a flood lift. The water level in the reservoir is upto the
FRL and flood occurs as per the inflow-flood hydrograph.
5. The spillway weir is a gated one, having a flood lift .The water level in the reservoir is below the
FRL, and flood occurs as per the inflow-flood hydrograph.
FLOOD ROUTING 303
Case no. 1
In this case, as flood enters the reservoir, the water level in the reservoir will start rising. As
the water level rises, the water will simultaneously start overflowing the spillway weir. Ini-
tially, the outflow will be less than the inflow and the balance will be absorbed temporarily in
the reservoir, resulting in the rise of water level in the reservoir. This will cause an increase
in the outflow.
As the inflow discharge reduces and is less than the outflow, the water level in the reservoir
will start receding. This will reduce the outflow. Finally, first the inflow and then the outflow will
reduce to zero.
As there is no change in the water level in the reservoir, there will not be any change in the stor-
age. The inflow volume and the outflow volume will be equal.
It should be noted that the outflow will start to recede when it crosses the inflow hydrograph.
The inflow hydrograph, the outflow hydrograph and the water level in the reservoir are shown
in Fig. 10.14.
Initial and final water level
Definition sketch
Volume temporarily stored in the

reservoir
Discharge in m3/s
Reservoir level
Outflow hydrograph
Inflow hydrograph
Crest level of the weir
Time in hours
Fig. 10.14 Inflow and outflow hydrographs and the water level
Example 10.3
An ungated spillway has its crest at 550 m. The elevation, storage and discharging capacity of the
spillway are as follows:
Elevation
(m) 550 551 557 562 565 568 570 572 574 575 576 577
Storage
(ha m) 0 3 8 13.6 20.8 31.0 40.0 52.0 66.0 70.0 76.0 80.0
Discharge
0 4 12 20 32 45 62 92 115 140 160 200
(m3/s)
The inflow into the reservoir, when the water level in the reservoir is at 550 m, is as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Discharge
0 12 50 160 270 240 205 150 95 68 36 23 14 7 0
(m3/s)
Find the following:

1. The outflow hydrograph
2. The flood attenuation
3. The maximum water level reached
Solution:
For the calculations of the flood routing, Δt was assumed to be 1 h. The curves, reservoir level vs
(a) discharging capacity and (b) storage, were plotted as shown in Fig. 10.15.
Fig. 10.15 Reservoir level vs discharging capacity and storage of weir

FLOOD ROUTING 305
Fig. 10.16 Outflow discharge vs storage capacity of the reservoir
From Fig. 10.15, the two relations—discharge vs (a) storage and (b) storage O/2 ∆t—were
established and plotted in Fig. 10.16.
Storage Q/2
Serial no. Discharge (m3/s) Storage (ha m) Q/2 ∆t (ha m) ∆t (ha m)
1 5.0 2.0 0.90 2.90

2 7.5 5.0 1.35 6.35
3 12.0 8.0 2.16 10.16
4 15.0 10.0 2.50 12.50
5 32.0 20.0 5.76 25.76
6 46.0 30.0 8.28 38.28
7 64.0 40.0 11.52 51.52
8 84.0 50.0 15.12 65.12
9 108.0 60.0 19.44 79.44
10 137.0 70.0 24.66 94.66
11 200.0 80.0 36.00 116.00
The step-by-step procedure was followed for the flood routing and is tabulated below.
I I
Time I1 I2
( ______
1
2 )
2
∆t
Q1
1
Q
( S ___
2 )
1
2
Q
∆t ( S ___ ) ∆t
2
2ˆ
Q2 S2
Water
level
(h) (m3/s) (m3/s) ha m (m3/s) ha m ha m (m3/s) (ha m) (m)
1 0 12 2.16 0.0 0.0 2.16 – – –

2 12 50 11.16 2.6 1.64 12.80 2.6 2.1 551.0
3 50 160 37.80 15.0 5.32 43.12 15.0 10.0 559.0
4 160 270 77.40 53.0 22.46 99.86 53.0 32.0 568.8
5 270 240 91.80 151.0 45.82 137.62 151.0 73.0 575.6
6 240 205 80.10 237.0 52.14 132.24 237.0 94.8 577.5
7 205 150 63.90 230.0 50.60 114.50 230.0 92.0 577.4
8 150 95 44.10 190.0 43.80 87.90 190.0 78.0 576.8
9 95 68 29.34 123.0 45.86 75.20 123.0 68.0 574.3
10 68 36 18.72 99.0 40.18 58.90 99.0 58.0 573.0
11 36 23 10.62 75.0 31.50 42.12 75.0 45.0 571.2
12 23 14 6.66 52.0 24.64 31.24 52.0 34.0 568.7
13 14 7 3.78 38.0 16.16 19.94 38.0 23.0 566.6
14 7 0 1.26 24.0 10.68 11.94 24.0 15.0 563.5
15 0 0 0.00 14.0 6.48 6.48 14.0 9.0 558.9
16 0 0 0.00 7.5 3.65 3.65 7.5 5.0 558.0
17 0 0 0.00 3.0 1.30 1.30 3.0 1.8 552.0
The inflow and the outflow hydrographs are as shown in Fig. 10.17.
Flood attenuation 270 – 237 33 m3/s
Maximum water level reached 577.5 m
Fig. 10.17 Inflow and estimated outflow hydrographs

FLOOD ROUTING 307
Case no. 2
In this case, when the flood occurs, the reservoir level is lower than the crest level of the spillway.
The spillway is ungated or the gates are yet to be installed.
As the inflow discharge starts flowing into the reservoir, it will be absorbed in the reservoir. The
water level in the reservoir will go on rising and will continue to rise until it reaches the spillway crest
level. Upto this stage, there will not be any outflow and all the inflow will be absorbed in the reservoir.
Similar to Case no. 1, as the inflow increases further, the water level in the reservoir will increase
above the crest level and will develop a head over the spillway weir and the weir will start func-
tioning. The outflow will start flowing over the weir. The inflow and the outflow will not be equal.
Initially, the outflow will be less than the inflow and the difference will be temporarily absorbed in
the reservoir resulting in an increase in the reservoir water level. This will increase the outflow.
As the inflow reduces and is less than the outflow, the water level in the reservoir will also reduce.
A stage will be reached when the outflow and the inflow will reduce to zero and the water level in the
reservoir will be up to crest level.
In such a case, the inflow volume will be the summation of the outflow volume and the volume
of water absorbed into the reservoir initially from the original water level up to the crest of the
spillway weir.
In this case, also, the outflow will start receding when the inflow and the outflow hydrographs
cross each other.
The inflow hydrograph, the outflow hydrograph, the water absorbed in the reservoir and the water
level in the reservoir are shown in Fig. 10.18.
Case no. 3
In this case, the spillway gates are installed. There is no flood lift and the water level is up to the
FRL or the HFL. (Normally, the water level in the reservoir is kept as high as possible, so that the
storage in the reservoir is the maximum.)
As the inflow occurs, the spillway gates will be operated partially and the outflow will be kept
equal to the inflow, thus maintaining the water level constant at the FRL. As the inflow increases,
the gates will be operated and opened more and more, keeping the water level at FRL. Thus the
outflow will be equal to the inflow. For the maximum discharge, the gates will be fully opened and
there will be no change in the water level. It will be at FRL only.
As the inflow decreases, the gates will be lowered keeping the water level constant at FRL, and
the inflow will be equal to the outflow. When the inflow stops, the gates will be closed completely
and the outflow will also stop. In such a case, since there is no flood lift, the outflow will always be
equal to the inflow and the water level will be constant at FRL.
Thus, there is no flood routing in this case and the inflow and outflow hydrographs will be the
same as shown in Fig. 10.19.
Case no. 4
In this case, there is a flood lift provided in the design. HFL is higher than the FRL by an amount
equal to the flood lift. The water level is at the FRL, with gates completely closed.
As the inflow occurs, the gates will be operated partially to maintain the water level at FRL so
that the inflow is equal to the outflow. As inflow increases, the gates will be operated such that
the water level is maintained constant at the FRL. Thus the outflow will be equal to the inflow.
Intial water level
Final water level
Definition sketch
Volume temporarily stored in reservoir
Volume permanently stored in reservoir

Discharge in m3s
Reservoir level
Outflow hydrograph
Inflow hydrograph
Crest level of the weir
0
Time in hours
Fig. 10.18 Inflow and outflow hydrographs with the reservoir and crest levels
A stage will be reached when the gates will be completely opened with the water level is at the
FRL, and the outflow will be equal to the inflow. As inflow increases still further, the water level
in the reservoir will increase and the outflow will also increase, but will be less than the inflow.
The water level will rise above the FRL and will reach HFL. when the outflow will be the maxi-
mum. This point will be reached when the inflow and outflow hydrographs cross each other.
As the inflow reduces further, a stage will be reached such that the outflow is equal to the inflow.
From this point, the outflow and the water level will start receding, but the inflow will be less than
the outflow. When the water level reaches the FRL, the gates will have to be operated to maintain the
water level in the reservoir constant at FRL. In this case, the inflow will be equal to the outflow.
Finally, the gates will be closed completely; the inflow and the outflow will stop simultaneously,
with the water level in the reservoir at the FRL.
Since the water level remains unchanged, the inflow volume and the outflow volume will be
equal. The inflow and the outflow hydrographs and the water level in the reservoir are shown in
Fig. 10.20.
Case no. 5
In this case, the spillway is gated with a flood lift provision in the design. The HFL is above the
FRL, by a margin equal to the flood lift. The water level in the reservoir is below the FRL.
FLOOD ROUTING 309
HFL=FRL
Definition sketch
Discharge in m3/s
Inflow outflow
Reservoir level F R L H F L
0 Time in hours
Fig. 10.19 Inflow and outflow hydrographs when there is no flood routing
As the inflow starts into the reservoir, the water level will go on increasing, absorbing the flood in
the reservoir. The gates will remain in the closed position and there will be no outflow. When the water
level reaches the FRL, the spillway gates will be operated partially, maintaining the water level at the
FRL. Here the inflow will be equal to the outflow. A stage will be reached when the gates are fully open
and the water level is at the FRL. This is the limit when the inflow is equal to the outflow.
For the higher inflow, the water level will go on increasing absorbing water in the reser-
voir above the FRL, with a result that both the water level in the reservoir and the outflow will
increase. The inflow after reaching the maximum will start receding. A stage will be reached
when the outflow will be equal to the inflow. From this point, the water level and hence the
outflow will start receding. When the water level reaches the FRL, the gates will be operated
partially so that the water level will not drop below the FRL. In this case, the inflow and the
outflow will be equal.
Finally the inflow will stop. The gates will be closed the outflow will also stop. The inflow
volume will be equal to the summation of the outflow volume and the volume absorbed in the
reservoir from the initial water level up to the FRL.
Figure 10.21 shows the inflow and the outflow hydrographs, the volume absorbed by the
reservoir and the water level in the reservoir.
HFL
FRL
Definition sketch
Volume temporarily stored in reservoir
Inflow hydrograph
Discharge in m3s
Outflow hydrograph
Reservoir level
HFL
FRL
0
Time in hours
Fig. 10.20 Inflow and outflow hydrographs and water level in the reservoir
FLOOD ROUTING 311
HFL
FRL
Initial
reservoir level
Definition sketch
Volume temporarily stored

in reservoir
Inflow hydrograph
Outflow hydrograph Volume permanently stored

in reservoir
Discharge in m3/s
Reservoir level
HFL
FRL
Initial reservoir level
Time in hours
Fig. 10.21 Inflow and outflow hydrographs and the water level in the reservoir
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define flood routing. Explain its practical use.
2. Which are the different methods used for flood routing?
3. Explain the basic equation used in hydrologic flood routing.
4. Which are the basic equations used in hydraulic flood routing? Discuss them in brief.
5. Explain the Muskingum method of flood routing.
6. How is the value of ∆t in the Muskingum method selected?
7. How are the values of K and x in the Muskingum method determined?
8. Explain the Puls method of flood routing through the reservoir.
9. Discuss the basic data required for the Puls method.
10. Describe how the relation between the storage capacity of the reservoir and the discharging
capacity of the spillway weir established.
11. Point out the specific observations between the inflow hydrograph and the outflow hydrograph
in the case of flood routing through the reservoir.
12. Discuss the possible practical cases of flood routing for a dam having a spillway in the following
situations:
a. Without gates b. With gates without a flood lift
c. With gates with a flood lift
13. Comment on the following fact: In the case of flood routing through the reservoir, the outflow
hydrograph crosses the inflow hydrograph when the outflow discharge is the maximum.
14. Discuss how the gates provided for a spillway affect the outflow hydrograph.
15. Discuss how the flood lift provided for a spillway affects the outflow hydrograph.
16. What is the appropriate time interval to be adopted in reservoir routing?
17. In the Muskingum-storage equation, what do the parameters K and x represent?
18. Derive the expressions for the routing coefficients, C0, C1 and C2 in the Muskingum method.
a. Prism and wedge storage b. Flood routing through channel
c. Flood routing through reservoir d. Storage time constant
e. Flood attenuation f. Weighing factor
g. Level pool routing h. Reservoir lag
a. Hydraulic routing and hydrologic routing b. Channel routing and reservoir routing
c. Prism storage and wedge storage d. Inflow hydrograph and the outflow
hydrograph
NUMERICAL QUESTION
1. The flood hydrograph u/s of a proposed bridge location is as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Discharge
8.0 14.0 26.0 43.0 35.0 25.0 18.0 15.0 12.0 8.0
(m3/s)
The values of K and x for this specific channel section are 3 h and 0.3, respectively. Find the
hydrograph at the bridge location and the flood attenuation.
FLOOD ROUTING 313
Ans: The flood hydrograph at the bridge location is as follows:
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Discharge
8.0 7.06 7.83 12.10 25.13 30.44 29.44 25.53 21.96 18.77 14.65 12.11
(m3/s)
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
10.53 9.56 8.96 8.59 8.36 8.21 8.13
Flood attenuation 43.0 30.44 12.56 m3/s
1. The flow in a river during the flood is

(a) Steady uniform (b) Unsteady uniform
(c) Unsteady non-uniform (d) Steady non-uniform
2. The outflow from a reservoir will depend on
(a) The inflow hydrograph (b) The storage capacity of the reservoir
(c) The discharging capacity of the spillway weir (d) All the three above
3. The hydraulic flood routing through a river can be followed by applying
(a) Continuity equation (b) Energy equation
(c) Momentum equation (d) All the three above
4. The hydrologic flood routing through a reservoir can be followed by applying
(a) Continuity equation (b) Energy equation
(c) Momentum equation (d) All the three above
5. The storage time factor K has the dimensions of
(a) Dimensionless (b) m2
(c) m (d) h
6. The prism storage is a function of
(a) Inflow (b) Outflow
(c) Inflow outflow (d) Inflow outflow
7. The wedge storage is a function of
(a) Inflow (b) Outflow
(c) Inflow outflow (d) Inflow outflow
8. The weighing factor x has the dimensions of
(a) Dimensionless (b) m2
(c) m (d) h
9. The condition satisfied by the three routing coefficients in the Muskingum method is
(a) C0 C1 C2 0 (b) C0 C1 C2 1
(c) C0 C1 C2 10 (d) C0 C1 C2 100
10. Out of the following which is the Muskingum-storage equation?
(a) S [x Q (1 –x) I] (b) S [x Q – (1 –x) I]
(c) S [x I (1 –x ) Q] (d) S [x I – (1 –x) Q]
11 . The Muskingum-routing equation is
(a) Q2 C0 Q1 C1 I2 C2 I1 (b) Q2 C0 I2 C1 I1 C2 Q1
(c) Q2 C0 I1 C1 Q1 C2 I2 (d) Q2 C0 Q1 C1 I1 C2 I2

1. c 2. d 3. d 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. c 8. a
9. b 10. c 11. b
*** ***
Groundwater
11
Chapter Outline
11.1 Definition 11.7 Groundwater movement

11.2 Formation of groundwater 11.8 Groundwater exploration
11.3 Occurrence of groundwater 11.9 Yield from a basin
11.4 Parameters of an aquifer 11.10 Yield from a well
11.5 Steady one-dimensional 11.11 Well interference
groundwater flow 11.12 Sea water intrusion
11.6 Well hydraulics 11.13 Recharging of groundwater
g 11.1 DEFINITION
Groundwater may be defined as water that occurs below the surface of the earth. It is also known
as sub-surface water.
11.1.1 SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER

The main source of groundwater is precipitation. The water that infiltrates, after meeting the require-
ment of the soil, percolates and then becomes groundwater. It is also known as meteoric water.
Water present in the rock at the time of its formation is known as connate water. It is highly
saline. It is also known as fossil water or interstitial water.
Juvenile water is formed chemically within the earth. It is in a very small quantity and is also
known as primitive water.
11.1.2 PECULIARITIES OF GROUNDWATER

The peculiarities of groundwater are as follows:
• It is normally free from pollution but vulnerable to the pollution entering from the surface sources
with infiltration.
• It can be made available on the surface at a small capital cost and in a short duration, but involves
repetitive cost of energy for lifting it to the surface.
• It is very useful for domestic purposes, for small towns and isolated places since it requires mini-
mum treatment.
• It is available up to a depth of 3 km.
• It is not an unlimited source and hence has to be managed against excessive exploitation and
contamination.
• It exhibits less fluctuations in alternate wet and dry periods as compared to the surface water.
• It is free from weeds, plant organisms, turbidity and bacterial pollution.
• It is uniform in quality, temperature, chemical composition and soluble mineral contents,
compared to the surface water.
g 11.2 FORMATION OF GROUNDWATER
The level below which the soil is saturated with water is called groundwater table. The groundwater
is divided into two zones (1) unsaturated zone and (2) saturated zone.
These two zones are separated by water table where the pressure is atmospheric, as shown
in Fig. 11.1.
11.2.1 UNSATURATED ZONE

The zone above the water table is known as unsaturated zone. It is also known as vadose zone or
aeration zone. In this zone, the pores in the soil may contain water or air, and the pressure is atmo-
spheric. This zone may be divided into three subzones:
(1) soil–water zone, (2) intermediate zone and (3) capillary zone.
11.2.1.1 Soil–water zone

It lies close to the ground surface in the major root zone of vegetation. There may be loss of water
from this zone by evapotranspiration. It may extend from a few metres to 15 m, depending upon
the nature of soil and vegetation.
11.2.1.2 Intermediate zone

This subzone is between the soil–water zone and the capillary zone. Water from the soil zone may
flow downwards due to gravity. The thickness of this zone may vary from zero to several metres.
GROUNDWATER 317
Ground surface
Soil water zone
Zone of Suspended water

aeration or
vadose water
Intermediate zone
Capillary zone
Water table
Zone of
saturation
Ground water
Bed rock
Fig. 11.1 Occurrence of groundwater
11.2.1.3 Capillary zone

From the saturated zone, i.e. from the water table, water may rise above due to capillarity, hence
this zone is known as the capillary zone or the capillary fringe. The thickness may extend from a
few centimetres to a few metres, depending on the porosity and structure of the soil. Water from
this subzone may not move freely.
11.2.2 SATURATED ZONE

Below the water table, all the pores in the soil are filled with water. Hence, it is known as the saturated
zone. It is also known as the phreatic zone.
Water in this zone moves freely and may extend till the impermeable rock below. The pressure in
this zone is more than atmospheric and increases as the depth increases.
g 11.3 OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER
Groundwater occurs at various locations below the earth surface, depending on the formation of
ground. The various formations are shown in Fig. 11.2.
Natural recharge due to Precipitation
Non-flowing
artesian well
Piezometric Gro
surface und
surf
Flowing artesian we ace
Water ll
table Permeable unconfined aquifer
Water table
Water table Artesian well

well
Imperm
eable stratum
Permeable confined aquifer
Impermeable strata
Fig. 11.2 Formations of groundwater
11.3.1 AQUIFER
Formation of ground that contains water and may transmit water in usable quantity is known as
aquifer. The aquifer may be unconfined or confined.
Unconfined aquifer
An aquifer where the water table is the upper surface limit and extends below till the impermeable
rock strata is called the unconfined aquifer, as shown in Fig. 11.3. It is also known as free aquifer,
phreatic aquifer, water table aquifer and non-artesian aquifer.
The water level in a well is an unconfined aquifer will be upto the watertable.
Ground surface
Water table
Unconfined
aquifer Well
Permeable strata
Fig. 11.3 Unconfined aquifer

GROUNDWATER 319
Fig. 11.4 Confined aquifer
Confined aquifer
When an aquifer is sandwiched between two impermeable layers, it is known as a confined aquifer.
It will not have a free water table, and the aquifer will be under pressure as shown in Fig. 11.4.
If there is a well in this layer, the water in the well will rise up to the piezometric head. If the
piezometric head is above the ground, then the water from the well in this layer will flow over the
ground. Then the well is called as free-flowing well or flowing well.
If the water level in a well in this layer is above the upper-confining layer level, but below the
ground level, then such a well is called as artesian well.
Groundwater may move to the ground surface at a very small rate through faults, permeable
material in joints, discontinuities, and so on. It is then called a spring.
11.3.2 AQUICLUDE
A geological formation that may contain water because of high porosity but cannot transmit it is
called an aquiclude.
11.3.3 AQUITARD
A geological formation that has poor permeability, but through which seepage is possible, and is
insignificant as compared to an aquifer is known as an aquitard.
11.3.4 AQUIFUGE
A geological formation that neither contains nor transmits water is called an aquifuge. Solid rock
is an aquifuge.
11.3.5 LEAKY AQUIFER

An aquifer bound by two aquitards is known as a leaky aquifer. It is also known as semi-confined
aquifer.
Land Surface
Perched water table
Impervious stratum
General water table
Unconfined Aquifer
Fig. 11.5 Perched water table

11.3.6 PERCHED GROUNDWATER
An impermeable saucer-shaped stratum of a small aerial extent occurring in the zone of aeration
may retain and hold some amount of water. It is called perched groundwater, as shown in Fig. 11.5.
It yields a limited quantity of water.
g 11.4 PARAMETERS OF AN AQUIFER
The various parameters of an aquifer are as follows:

(1) porosity, (2) permeability, (3) specific yield, (4) specific retention, (5) storage coefficient,
(6) safe yield and (7) transmissibility.
11.4.1 POROSITY
Any soil sample contains some pores or voids. The porosity of the sample is the ratio of the volume
of voids and the volume of soil sample. It is a dimensionless number and is normally denoted by n
and is expressed as percentage.
Vv
___
Thus, porosity n V 100
where, Vv Volume of pores or voids
V Volume of sample
Porosity is classified as follows:
20% or more—large, 5–20%—medium and less than 5%—small.
The primary porosity of a material is one that existed when the material was formed. The
secondary porosity results from fractures, joints, solution channels and so on.
11.4.2 PERMEABILITY
Permeability is the property of an aquifer to transmit water through its pores.
The horizontal permeability and the vertical permeability may differ.
11.4.3 DARCY’S LAW
The velocity of the flow of water in an aquifer is very low and hence the flow is laminar. Darcy’s
law is applicable here. The law states, The rate of flow per unit area of an aquifer is proportional
to the gradient of potential flow in the direction of flow.
GROUNDWATER 321
___
dh
i.e., v K i K
dl
where, v Velocity of flow in m/s
K Coefficient of permeability
i Hydraulic gradient
___
dh

dl
The negative sign indicates that the flow is in the falling head.
Coefficient of permeability, K, is also known as hydraulic conductivity and has the dimensions
as those of the velocity of flow. It depends on the fluid property as well as the property of the
aquifer soil sample. K is given by the following identity:
cd 2g
_____
K
where, K Hydraulic conductivity

c A constant factor
d Average pore size of the material
Density of material
g Gravitational acceleration
μ Coefficient of dynamic viscosity of water
The velocity of flow through the soil sample V is also known as Darcy’s velocity, discharge
velocity and apparent velocity. Darcy’s law can be verified in a laboratory.
11.4.4 STORAGE COEFFICIENT

Storage coefficient of an aquifer is the volume of water received or discharged per unit head and
per unit surface area. It is also known as storativity. It is normally denoted as ‘S’.
The unit head in case of an unconfined aquifer will be the unit drop in water table, and the unit
head in case of a confined aquifer will be the unit drop in the piezometric head.
The storage coefficient of a confined aquifer is very small as compared to that of an unconfined one.
11.4.5 SPECIFIC YIELD AND SPECIFIC RETENTION

If water is allowed to drain from a saturated sample of an aquifer, some water will drain freely
under gravity.
The specific yield is the ratio of the volume of water drained divided by the volume of soil sample.
Vw
That is, Sf ___
V
where, Sf Specific yield
Vw Volume of water drained
V Volume of soil sample
Sf is dimensionless. It is also known as effective porosity or practical porosity.
Some quantity of water will be retained by the soil sample and will not be drained under gravity.
This is due to molecular attraction and surface tension. Specific retention is defined as the ratio of
the volume of water retained divided by the volume of sample. It is denoted by Sr.
W
Thus, Sr ___f
V
where, Sr Specific retention
Wf Volume of water retained by the soil sample
V Volume of soil sample
Sr is dimensionless. It is also known as field capacity.
Naturally, n Sf Sr
where, n Porosity
Sf Specific yield
Sr Specific retention
11.4.6 TRANSMISSIBILITY
It is the product of the coefficient of permeability and the thickness of the aquifer.
Thus, T K b
It has the dimensions of m2/s. It is also known as transmissivity.
For a unit width
Q area velocity b 1 K ( di
dh)
___
T (
___
di
dh )
K Hydraulic conductivity of the soil
T Transmissibility of the soil
g 11.5 STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL GROUNDWATER FLOW
Consider two rivers, A and B, flowing in parallel at a distance L from each other with a water level
difference of h, as shown in Fig. 11.6.
Water will flow from river A to river B in only one direction, i.e. ‘x’ direction, and hence it
is also known as unidirectional flow.
The velocity of flow will depend on the following factors:
1. h Difference in the water levels in the two rivers
2. K Hydraulic conductivity of soil
For the analysis of the flow, the following assumptions are made:
1. The flow is steady
2. The flow is horizontal and uniform in vertical direction
The characteristics of the flow will vary depending on the aquifers in between the two rivers
as mentioned below:
1. Unconfined aquifer
2. Confined aquifer
GROUNDWATER 323
Plan
Fig. 11.6 Unidirectional flow
11.5.1 UNCONFINED AQUIFER

Consider two rivers, A and B, with water depths of flow h1 and h2 at a distance L, separated by an
unconfined aquifer having a hydraulic conductivity K as shown in Fig. 11.6.
The horizontal velocity of flow v at a distance x will be as follows:
v K ( ) ___
dh
dx
where v Velocity of flow
K Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer
( )
___
dh
dx
Hydraulic gradient at a distance x
The negative sign indicates that the flow is in the falling direction.
The intensity of discharge q per unit width will be
q K h ( )___
dh
dx
Therefore, q dx K h dh
h2
__
integrating q x K 2 C
When, x 0, h h1,
Kh21
____
C 2
and when x L, h h2
__
K __
K __
K
q L 2 h21 2 h22 = 2 (h21 h22)
___
K
Therefore, q 2L (h1 h2) (h1 h2)
Example 11.1
Two rivers, A and B, are separated by an unconfined aquifer having a hydraulic conductivity of
10 m/day. The rivers flow at a uniform distance of 1000 m. If the depth of flow in both the rivers is
15 and 10 m, respectively, find the rate of flow from A to B.
5m
1000 m
15 m
K 10 m/day
10 m
Datum
A B
Fig. 11.7 Unidirectional flow in unconfined aquifer
Solution:
The flow between the two rivers is shown in Fig. 11.7.
___
K ________
10
Therefore, q 2L (h21 h22) 2 1000 ( 152 102) 0.625 m3/m /day
11.5.2 CONFINED AQUIFER

Consider two rivers, A and B, with water depths of flow h1 and h2 at a distance L, separated by a
confined aquifer having a hydraulic conductivity K, as shown in Fig. 11.8.
Impervious layer
h1
h h2
B
L
Datum
Fig. 11.8 Unidirectional flow in a confined aquifer

GROUNDWATER 325
(h1 h2)
_________
The velocity of flow v K L
(h1 h2)
________ (h1 h2)
________
Therefore, q B K L T L
since T Transmissibility B K
Example 11.2
Two rivers, P and Q, are separated by a confined aquifer of thickness 2 m. The hydraulic conduc-
tivity of the confined aquifer is 15 m/day. If the depth of flow in both the rivers is 15 and 10 m,
respectively, find the rate of flow from P to Q.
Solution:
The flow between the two rivers is shown in Fig. 11.9.
Impervious layer
15 m
10 m
2m
1000 m
Datum
Fig. 11.9 Unidirectional flow in a confined aquifer
BK
______ 2 15
________
Q L ( h1 h2) 1000 ( 15 10) 0.15 m /m /day
3
g 11.6 WELL HYDRAULICS
A well is a hole or a shaft, normally vertical, excavated in the ground for bringing water to the
surface. Wells are generally classified as: (a) open wells and (b) tube wells.
11.6.1 OPEN WELL

An open well is a well 2–13 m in diameter, dug into the ground to tap water from the top pervious
stratum. The depth is normally limited to 30 m. Large quantity of water is stored in the open wells.
Normally, these wells are either square or circular of uniform cross section. Open well is also
known as a dug well. Open wells are further classified as: (a) shallow well and (b) deep well.
Fig. 11.10 Shallow well
Shallow well
An open well that is constructed to tap water from the topmost water-bearing stratum, i.e. from the
unconfined aquifer, is called shallow well. The bottom of such a well will not rest on an impervious
layer as shown in Fig. 11.10. The water level in such a well will be equal to the level of the water
table. These wells are also known as water table wells, unconfined wells or gravity wells.
Deep well
A deep well is constructed to rest on an impervious layer, drawing water from the aquifer below it.
The impervious layer provides a support to the wall of the well, as shown in Fig. 11.11. The yield
from a deep well is comparatively more than a shallow well and is relatively pure. The water level
in such wells is equal to the piezometric head in the water-bearing strata.
This classification of wells is purely technical and has nothing to do with the actual depth of the
wells. A shallow well may be deeper than a deep well. Based on lining, open wells can also be classi-
fied as follows: (1) unlined wells, (2) wells with pervious lining and (3) wells with impervious lining.
Ground surface
Water table
Impervious layer
Aquifer
Fig. 11.11 Deep well

GROUNDWATER 327
11.6.2 TUBE WELL

A tube well is a long pipe sunk deep into the ground, intercepting more than one stratum. Its diam-
eter varies from 80 mm to 600 mm. The depth may vary from 50 to 150 m. Blind pipes are used
for the impervious strata, and strainers are used against the pervious strata. These strainers allow
passage of water through them, but prevent sand from coming in with the help of designed filters.
Tube wells are classified as: (1) strainer well, (2) cavity well and (3) slotted well.
Strainer well
This is the most common and widely used type. The term ‘tube well’ is generally referred to this
type of well. In this type, a special designed wire mesh with filter pack covering the water-bearing
strata is used to draw water free from silt and sand. The pipe in this portion is perforated. The pipe
is generally plugged at the bottom, to permit settlement of the sand passing through the strainers.
In such type of wells, the inflow is radial. Figure 11.12 shows a strainer well.
Ground surface
Water table
Blind pipe
Impervious layer
Confined aquifer Strainer
Impervious layer Blind pipe
Confined aquifer Strainer
Impervious layer Plug
Fig. 11.12 Strainer tube well
Cavity well
This is a special type of tube well in which water is not drawn through the sides but is drawn
through the bottom of the well where a cavity is formed as shown in Fig. 11.13. Normally this type
is used when a clay layer is met with. The zone of the flow in this case is spherical.
Slotted tube well

This type of well is used when a strainer type or a cavity type cannot be used. In this case, a slot-
ted tube is installed to penetrate into a water-bearing-confined stratum. A slotted tube is used at the
Fig. 11.13 Cavity tube well

bottom portion only as compared to a strainer type where strainers are used for several aquifers
sandwiched between impervious layers. Figure 11.14 shows a slotted type tube well.
Compressed air
Main pipe
Casing pipe
(removed later)
Top soil
Gravel shoulder
Slots
Water bearing strata
Fig. 11.14 Slotted tube well

GROUNDWATER 329
Water table
Water table
Stream
Effluent stream
Stream
Water table
Groundwater table hump
Influent stream
Fig. 11.15 Effluent and influent streams
g 11.7 GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
The theory of groundwater movement into a well is commonly known as well hydraulics. The move-
ment of groundwater is in accordance with the Darcy’s law, coupled with the hydraulic principles.
When the water table is higher than the bed of the stream, groundwater will flow to the stream.
Such a stream is known as effluent stream. On the other hand, when the water table is lower than
the bed of the stream, water will flow from the stream to the groundwater. Such a stream is called
influent stream. Both types are shown in Fig. 11.15.
In both the cases, the flow will depend on the soil characteristics. Similar is the case of a well.
When water flows into a well, the well is known as discharging well; when water flows from the
well to the adjacent ground, it is called recharging well.
The groundwater movement into a well is classified as under:
1. Steady radial flow in an unconfined aquifer.
2. Steady radial flow in a confined aquifer.
In both the cases, the following assumptions are made:
• The flow is horizontal and uniformly distributed in a vertical section.
• The velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of the hydraulic gradient.
• The well fully penetrates the aquifer.
• The discharge taken from the well is constant.
• The aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic.
11.7.1 STEADY RADIAL FLOW IN AN UNCONFINED AQUIFER

Consider a well in an unconfined aquifer as shown in Fig. 11.16.
When water is pumped out from this well at a constant rate, Q, the water level in the well will
naturally go on receding. As water level lowers, water starts flowing in radially from the adjoining
area. The inflow will depend on the difference between the water table and water level in the well.
Since this difference will be initially low, the inflow will be less than the outflow. Thus, the water
level in the well will go on receding as pumping continues. A stage will come when the water level in
the well will be steady, indicating that the inflow is equal to the outflow. This will be a steady state.
The decrease in the water level in the well is known as drawdown or depression head. The water
table in the adjoining area, due to radial flow, will fall and assume a conical shape. This is called
cone of depression. The area up to which the cone of depression extends is called the area of influ-
ence, and the radius at which the cone of depression starts is called the radius of influence.
If there are any other wells in the cone of depression, the water levels in these wells will also fall
depending on their distance from the pumping well. Such wells are known as observation wells.
In the steady state, the depth of the flow at a distance r from the well will be h. Being a radial
flow, the area of flow will be equal to 2rh.
According to Darcy’s law, the velocity of flow K i, i being the hydraulic gradient dh/dr, i.e.,
the slope of the drawdown curve at a distance of h.
___
dh
Therefore, the velocity of flow K i K
dr
___
dh
Now, Q area velocity 2rh K
dr
Q
____ __
dr
or hdh 2K r
The depths of the flow are h1 and h2 in the two observation wells at distances r1 and r2. Integration
of the above equation in these limits yields
r1

h1
Q
____ __
dr
h2
hdh 2K r2 r
Q
Original water table

s1
s2
sw Cone of depression
H h1
h2 h
hw
r
r1 rw
r2 R
Fig. 11.16 Steady radial flow in an unconfined aquifer

GROUNDWATER 331
h21 h22 ____

_______ Q r1
__
Therefore, 2 2K l og e r2
The constant discharge Q can be equated as
__________
K(h21 h22)
Q
loge (r1/r2)
where, Q Steady discharge in m3/s

K Hydraulic conductivity in m/s
h1 and h2 Depths of flow in the two observation wells in metres
r1 and r2 Radial distances of the two observation wells from the pumping well in metres
If the radius of influence is known, then the equation can be integrated in the limits of R and rw
as well as H and hw. This will yield
Q
____ __
dr
Now hdh 2K r
Integrating the above equation in these limits yields
hdh
H R
Q
____ __
dr
hw rw 2K r
Q
____ ___
R
Therefore, (H 2 h2w)/2 2K loge r
w
K(H 2 h2w)
____________
Q
loge (R/rw)
where, H Thickness of the aquifer in m
hw Depth of flow at the pumping well in m
R Radius of influence in m
rw Radius of the well in m
The numerator K (H 2 h2w), in this equation, can be written as K (H hw) (H hw).
Here, (H hw) sw , will be the drawdown in the well, and (H hw)/2 will be the average
thickness of the aquifer. Thus, (H hw)/2 K T.
Therefore, K (H 2 h2w) will be equal to 2T sw , where T is the transmissibility of the
aquifer.
The formula will reduce to
2Tsw
_________
Q
loge( R/rw )
These equations were first derived by Dupuit in 1863, and then modified by Thiem in 1906.
An empirical formula may be used to evaluate R as follows:
__
R 3000 sw √ K
where, R Radius of influence in m

sw Drawdown in the pumping well in m
K Coefficient of permeability in m/s
These equations have the following limitations:
1. The drawdown curve near the pumping well is assumed vertical, which may not be correct.
2. The steady state of the equilibrium occurs after long pumping periods, since the velocity of
the groundwater flow is very low.
Example 11.3
Water is pumped out at the rate of 2400 lit/min, from a well of 0.25 m diameter, penetrating fully
in an aquifer of 32 m thickness. The drawdown observed in two adjoining wells at 15 m and
110 m from the pumping well is 7.0 m and 0.5 m, respectively. Determine the average hydraulic
conductivity.
Solution:
K(h21 h22)
___________
Q
loge (r1/r2)
here, Q 2400 lit/min 2400/(1000 60 ) 0.04 m3/s

h2 32 7 25 m and h1 32 0.5 31.5 m
r1 110 m and r2 15 m
r1
( )
__ ____
110
( )
loge r loge 15 1.99
2
Substituting the above values, we get

3.14 K (31.52 252)
_________________
0.04 1.99
Therefore, K 6.89 105 m/s 5.952 m/day.
Example 11.4
Water was pumped out from a well of diameter 1.2 m, from an unconfined aquifer of 50 m thickness.
The well penetrates fully in the aquifer and the depth of water in the well is 40 m. The effect of
pumping was reaching up to a distance of 450 m. Find the discharge if K 10 m/day.
Solution:
K (H 2 hw)
__________
2
Q
loge (R/rw)
GROUNDWATER 333
Here, K 10 m/day 10/(24 3600) 1.157 104 m/s

H 50 m and hw 40 m
R 450 m and rw 1.2/2 0.6 m
loge (R/rw) loge (450/0.6) 6.62
1.157 104 (502 402)
_______________________
Q
6.62
0.0494 m3/s 49.4 lit/s
11.7.2. STEADY RADIAL FLOW IN A CONFINED AQUIFER

Consider a well in a confined aquifer as shown in the Fig. 11.17.
Initially, the water level in the well will be the same as that of the piezometric head. When
pumping is started from the pumping well at a constant discharge Q, the water in the well will start
receding and will reach a constant level after some time. This means that the inflow is equal to the
outflow. This is the steady state.
h1 and h2 are the piezometric heads in the two observation wells located at r1and r2 from the
observation well, s1 and s2 are the drawdowns in these two wells, and hw and sw are the piezometric
head and the drawdown in the pumping well.
The velocity of flow K i K dh/dr.
Being radial flow, the area of flow will be 2rb
Q area velocity 2rb K dh/dr
Q
_____
or dh __
dr
2bK r
Ground surface
Q
Original piezometric surface

s1 s2
sw
Draw-down
h1 curve
h2 H
hw
r
r1 rw
Aquifer b r2
R
Fig. 11.17 Steady radial flow in a confined aquifer

Integrating the limits yields

Q
_____ r1
__
h 1 h2 loge r
2bk 2
2bK (h1 h2)

____________
or Q
loge (r1/r2)
As Kb T (the transmissibility of the aquifer), the discharge can be expressed as follows:
2T (h1 h2)
___________
Q
loge (r1/r2)
Now, h1 s1 h2 s2
Therefore, h1 h2 s2 s1
2T (s2 s1)
___________
Q
loge (r1/r2)
where, Q Steady discharge in m3/s
If observation wells are not available, then the following relation may be used for applying the
boundary conditions to the pumping well.
Q
_____ __
dr
Now, dh r
2bK
Integrating the equation in the above limits yields
dh
H R
Q
_____ __
dr
r
hw rw 2bK
Q
____ __
R
H hw 2T l oge r
w
Now, H hw sw
2Tsw
_________
Therefore, Q
loge (r/rw)
Example 11.5
Water was pumped out from a well in a confined aquifer 10 m thick, having a hydraulic conductiv-
ity of 1.5 m/day. The drawdown observed in the two adjoining wells at 10 m and 60 m from the
pumping well was 3 m and 0.05 m, respectively. Find the constant rate of pumping.
Solution:
2T (s2 s1)
___________
Q
loge (r1/r2)
Here, T Kb 1.5 10 15 m2/day 15 86400 1.736 104 m2/s
s2 3 m and s1 0.05 m
r1 60 m and r2 10 m
loge (r1/r2) loge (60/10) 1.79
GROUNDWATER 335

2 1.736 104 (3.00.05)
__________________________
Q 1.79
0.001798 m3/s 107 lit/min
Example 11.6
A well 0.5 m in diameter penetrates fully a confined aquifer of thickness 25 m, having a conductivity
of 1.6/day. It is expected that the drawdown in the well be limited to 2.5 m. Assuming that the
radius of influence is 300 m, find the maximum discharge that can be pumped out of the well.
Solution:
2Tsw
_________
Q
loge (R/rw)
Here, T K b 1.6 25 m2/day 1.6 25 86400 0.00462 m2/s.
R 300 m and rw 0.5 2 0.25 m and sw 2.5 m
loge (R/rw) loge (300/0.25) 7.090
0.00462 2.5
_________________
2
Q 7.09
0.01026 m3/s 613.8 lit/min
g 11.8 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION
Assessment of groundwater, qualitatively as well as quantitatively, is necessary for the proper

planning of groundwater development. It is done to determine whether water occurs under the
conditions prevailing at the site for economical utilization in quality and in quantity.
Occurrence and availability of groundwater is very much dependent on the geology of the
area and hence its thorough knowledge is necessary. Groundwater exploration is done by various
methods. The methods are discussed in the following sections.
11.8.1 ELECTRIC-RESISTIVITY METHOD

In this method, a current is applied to the ground and the measurement of resistivity is done from
the ground surface by inserting electrodes at different locations and observing drop in potential.
After scanning the data of electrical potential applied, and its drop measured at different locations,
the possibility of groundwater occurrence can be assessed.
11.8.2 SEISMIC-REFRACTION METHOD

A very heavy hammer, when dropped from a distance, produces a seismic shock on striking the
ground and the velocity of shock wave is recorded. The velocity of travel of the shock wave in
different media, with or without water, is different. By analysing and properly interpreting the col-
lected data of velocities of the shock waves, the possibility of groundwater can be assessed.
11.8.3 REMOTE-SENSING METHOD

This is the modern method followed. Photographs of the earth taken by an aircraft or from a satellite,
with electromagnetic waves, indicate with a sufficient accuracy the possibility of groundwater.
11.8.4 RADIO-ISOTOPE METHOD

Use of radio-isotopes helps in determining various parameters of groundwater. Normally Tritium
isotopes are used. The radioactive material is injected and the activity of the isotopes is studied.
After analysing the data thus collected, the possibility of groundwater can be assessed.
11.8.5 TEST-DRILLING METHOD

This is the surest way of studying the possibility of the availability of groundwater. However, it is
costly and time-taking. Drilling is done up to a depth of about 100 m and samples are collected to
record the log of the hole. The test drill reveals the character, depth, and thickness of the various
strata, water table and water quality. This method is normally used in a flat country. The test holes
also serve as observation wells during pumping tests.
11.8.6 WATER DIVINING

In ancient Sanskrit literature, a number of clues have been suggested by Varah Mihir, which indi-
cate the possibility of the occurrence of groundwater at a station.
Some people claim that they have a God-given gift by which they can confidently say where the
groundwater is available at a station.
According to this method, some use a stick of a specific tree and go round the area with that
stick in their hands held in a specific way. There are so many similar procedure/approaches
followed. Then they advise the possibility of groundwater at a station. There are cases where these
people have successfully indicated the presence of groundwater. However, they do not have any
scientific basis. Such water diviners are found in almost all countries.
g 11.9 YIELD FROM A BASIN
Safe yield from a groundwater basin is the amount of water, which can be annually withdrawn from
a basin without producing any undesirable effect. This safe yield is the amount of water that enters
into the basin annually. Any withdrawal more than the safe yield is called overdraft.
When water more than the safe yield is withdrawn from a basin, the excess comes from the stor-
age within the aquifer. Such permanent depletion of storage within the aquifer is known as mining
of groundwater.
g 11.10 YIELD FROM A WELL
When pumping is started from a well, the water level in the well goes on receding. This drop in
water level in the well is known as drawdown or depression head.
GROUNDWATER 337
When the depression is more than a critical limit, dislodging of soil particles from the adjoining
strata is noticed due to high velocity of water entering into the well. The depression head, when
such dislodging is noticed, is known as critical depression head and corresponding to this head, the
yield is known as maximum yield or critical yield.
Safe depression head, also known as working head, is the head when there is no possibility of
any dislodging of soil particles. Normally, it is taken as one-third of the critical depression head,
and the yield corresponding to this working head is known as maximum safe yield.
The rate of inflow in a well Q is proportional to the depression head H.
__
k
i.e., Q H or Q k H or Q A A H or Q = C A H
where, k is the constant of proportionality having dimensions of m2/s and A is the area of
cross section of the well. Normally, A is taken as 4/3 of the cross-sectional area of the well, since
additional cavity is formed at the bottom of the well.
Here, C k/A, is known as specific yield or specific capacity. Its dimensions are T 1.
11.10.1 SAFE YIELD FROM A WELL

The safe yield from an open well can be estimated provided its size and the working head is known.
The safe yield can be evaluated by conducting a pumping test.
The specific yield or specific capacity, i.e. C of a well, is estimated by a recuperation test, so that
the discharge for any depression head can be evaluated.
11.10.2 PUMPING TEST

In this test, a constant discharge is pumped out from the test well. The inflow into the well will
depend upon the drawdown. Initially, the drawdown will be less and hence inflow will be less. The
drawdown will go on increasing with the inflow into the well. At a certain stage, the drawdown will
reach the working head. This stage will be maintained steady by regulating the pump discharge.
The constant discharge for the drawdown equal to working head is the safe yield from the well, and
normally it is expressed as m3/h.
Example 11.7
A pumping test was conducted for an open well of diameter 3.5 m. The water was pumped out at a
constant rate of 300 lit/min. Find the specific yield.
Solution:
QCAH
Here, Q 300 lit/min 300 10 60 0.005 m3/s
–3
D 3.5 m
D2 ________
____ 3.52
A 4 4 9.6211 m2
0.005 C 9.6211 3.5
∴ C 1.48 10–4/s 0.5345/h.
Fig. 11.18 Recuperation test
11.10.3 RECUPERATION TEST

From the test well, a constant discharge is pumped out of the well. Naturally, the water level in the
well starts receding. When the water level in the well goes below the normal water level, pumping
is stopped. The water level in the well will go on rising. The time required for the water level to
reach some specific higher level is noted (vide Fig. 11.18).
Where, A Cross-sectional area of the well in m2
aa Static water level in the well before pumping has been started
bb Water level in the well when the pumping is stopped
h1 Depression head in the well in metres, when the pumping is stopped
T Time in hours for the rise in water level to reach a specific level, after the pump is
stopped (from bb to cc)
cc Water level in the well at time T, after the pumping is stopped
h2 Depression head in the well in metres, at time T after the pumping is stopped
h Depression head in the well in metres, at time t after the pumping is stopped (a general
term)
Now, in time dt the volume incoming into the well Qdt A dh (ve sign indicates that
when T increases h decreases), so also Q K h.
∴ K h dt A dh and hence
K dt A dh/h
Integrating between the limits: when t 0, h h1 and t T, h h2
T h2
We get
__
K
A ___
dh
h
0 h1
GROUNDWATER 339
___
K T h2 h1
Or A [t]0= loge [h]h1 = loge [h]h2
___
K h
Therefore, A T loge ___1
h2
__
K
Since A C
__
1 h1
__ _____
2.303 h1
__
C T loge = T log10
h2 h2
where, C Specific yield of the well per hour

h1 Depression head in metres, when pumping is stopped
h2 Depression head in metres, after time T
T Time required in hours for depression head to rise from h1 to h2.
Knowing the values of h1, h2 and T, from the recuperation test, the value of C can be calculated.
As C is known, the safe yield can be found out for any depression head as Q C A H
where, Q Safe yield in m3/h
C Specific yield per hour
A Area of cross section of the well in m2
H Depression head in metres
In absence of the recuperation test results, the approximate values of C as given in Table 11.1
may be used.
Table 11.1 Approximate values of C

Serial no. Type of soil C (h1)
1 Clay 0.25
2 Fine sand 0.50
3 Coarse sand 1.00
Example 11.8
A recuperation test was conducted on an open well 5.0 m in diameter. The water levels observed
during the test were as follows:
1. Groundwater table level 250.0 m
2. Water level when the pumping was stopped 243.0 m
3. Water level in the well 2 h after pumping was stopped 245.0 m
Find the safe yield of the well if the working head is 3.0 m.
Solution:
QCAH
Here, h1 250 243 7.0 m and h2 250 245 5.0 m
T 2.0 h
H 3.0 m
D 5.0 m
52
D2 ______
_______
A 4 4 19.64 m
2
_____
2.303 h1 _____
__ 2.303 __
7
C T log10 2 log10 5
h2
1.152 0.1461 0.1683/h
Q 0.1683 19.64 3.0
9.918 m3/h 2.755 lit/s
g 11.11 WELL INTERFERENCE
When two wells are located close to each other, and when pumping is started in both the wells, a
cone of depression will be developed for each well. If these cones of depression overlap each other,
the yield from each of the wells will naturally be reduced. When two or more cones of depression
of the pumping wells overlap, affecting their yield, the phenomenon is known as well interference
and is shown in Fig. 11.19.
Q1 Q2
Draw-down curve
Draw-down curve Composite for Q2 only
for Q1 only draw-down
curve
h B
b
Confined aquifer
Fig. 11.19 Well interference
g 11.12 SEA WATER INTRUSION
If pumping of fresh groundwater is done near the sea, the sea water being heavier tries to occupy
the lower level space vacated by the fresh water and causes serious water quality problems. This is
known as sea water intrusion. There is a plane that separates the fresh water from the sea water, and
it is known as interface. Normally, it is parabolic in shape as shown in Fig. 11.20.
Sea water is slightly heavier than the fresh water due to the dissolved salts. Specific gravity of
sea water is 1.025 and that of fresh water is 1.000. As the fresh groundwater table increases and
GROUNDWATER 341
Ground surface
Water table
Sea level
Y
Fresh ground water Ocean
Approx. 40Y
Salt ground water
Interface
Natural equilibrium
Pumped well
Cone of depression
Fresh ground
water Ocean
Salt ground water
Interface
Effect of pumping
Fig. 11.20 Sea water intrusion
approaches the earth surface by 1.00 m, the sea water interface is pushed back by 40.00 m and
vice versa. When the sea water intrusion is noticed, it can be pushed back by recharging the dug
wells near the seashore by fresh water.
g 11.13 RECHARGING OF GROUNDWATER
Water may be withdrawn from an aquifer by (1) pumps, (2) discharge to surface water systems or
by (3) evaporation and transpiration (to a minor extent). If this water is not replenished, the aquifer
storage will reduce resulting in depletion of groundwater table.
Normally, this replenishment occurs naturally by the following ways:
• Infiltration from precipitation
• Surface bodies like reservoirs, streams, and so on
Artificial recharge is adhered to meet the deficit of withdrawal and replenishment or even
to increase the aquifer yield. It is also followed to control the saltwater intrusion along the sea
coast.
The following recharge methods are employed, taking into consideration the geological situa-
tion and economic consideration.
• Storing flood water in reservoirs constructed over permeable areas

• Diverting stream flow to spreading areas in permeable formations, i.e. surface spreading
• Excavating recharge basins to reach permeable foundations
• Pumping water through recharge wells into the aquifer
When conditions are favourable, artificial recharge is practised, so that the aquifer can be used
as a reservoir. It eliminates evaporation losses, protects against pollution and provides low-cost
distribution system.
Raising of groundwater table beyond a certain limit may cause water logging and consequent
soil efflorescence, which may be avoided.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the different sources of groundwater.
2. What are the different parameters of an aquifer?
3. Explain the Darcy’s law.
4. Explain with the help of neat sketches the following:
a. Aquifer b. Aquiclude
c. Aquitard d. Aquifuse
5. Derive an expression for the constant discharge pumped from a well in an unconfined aquifer
in terms of the following:
a. Drawdown in two adjacent wells
b. Drawdown of the pumping well
6. Derive an expression for the constant discharge pumped from a well in a confined aquifer in
terms of the following:
a. Drawdown in two adjacent wells
b. Drawdown of the pumping well
7. What is salt water intrusion? How can it be controlled?
8. Discuss the different methods of groundwater exploration.
9. Why is recharging of wells necessary? Discuss the different methods.
10. Explain the pumping test to estimate the safe yield from an open well.
11. Explain the recuperation test to estimate the safe yield of an open well.
12. What are the peculiarities of groundwater?
13. Discuss the assumptions made in the analysis of steady radial flow into a well.
a. Perched water table b. Cone of depression
c. Well interference d. Salt water intrusion
e. Safe yield from a well f. Hydraulic conductivity
g. Storage coefficient h. Porosity of an aquifer
i. Overdraft from a basin j. Mining of groundwater
k. Capillary zone in an aquifer l. Area of influence
m. Critical de pression he ad n. Specific capacity
a. Confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer b. Zone of saturation and zone of aeration
c. Specific yield and specific retention d. Open well and tube well
e. Shallow well and deep well f. Strainer well, cavity well and slotted well
GROUNDWATER 343
g. Pumping test and recuperation test h. Discharging well and charging well
i. Pervious layer and impervious layer j. Groundwater table and piezometric level
k. Primary porosity and secondary porosity l. Artesian well and flowing well
m. Safe depression head and critical n. Cone of depression and depression
depression head head
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1. Water was pumped at a constant discharge from a well of diameter 0.5 m located in an 35-m
thick unconfined aquifer having a hydraulic conductivity of 6 m/day. The drawdown observed
in two observation wells located at 16 m and 115 m from the pumping well were 5.0 and 0.5 m
respectively. Find the constant discharge.
Ans: Q 0.032 m3/s
2. Water at the rate of 100 lit/min from a well of diameter 1.0 m, located in a confined aquifer 8.0-m
thick, was pumped. The drawdown observed in two observation wells at 10.0 m and 60.0 m from the
pumping well were 3.5 m and 0.1 m respectively. Find the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.
Ans: K 1.5 m/day
3. A recuperation test was conducted on a well of 4.0-m diameter. The water levels observed were
as follows:
(i) Ground w ater t able l evel 300 m
(ii) Water l evel w hen t he pum ping w as s topped 292 m
(iii) Water levelling the well 2 h after the pumping was stopped 295 m
Find the safe yield of the well if the working head is 3.5 m.
Ans: Q 10.23 m3/h

1. Which of the following formations contains water and also transmits it?
(a) Aquifuse (b) Aquifer
(c) Aquitard (d) Aquiclude
2. Which of the following formations neither contains water nor transmits it?
(a) Aquiclude (b) Aquifer
(c) Aquifuse (d) Aquitard
3. Which of the following formations may contain water but cannot transmit it?
(a) Aquifuse (b) Aquifer
(c) Aquiclude (d) Aquitard
4. In case of a gravity well, the piezometric surface is
(a) Above the groundwater table
(b) Below the groundwater table
(c) Coincides with the groundwater table

(d) Between the groundwater table and ground level
5. An unconfined aquifer is also known as
(a) A leaky aquifer (b) A water table aquifer
(c) An artesian aquifer (d) A perched aquifer
6. An aquifer that is underlain by an impermeable layer and not confined at the top is called as
(a) A confined aquifer (b) An unconfined aquifer
(c) A perched aquifer (d) A leaky aquifer
7. Porosity is considered large if it is more than
(a) 50% (b) 40%
(c) 20% (d) 15%
8. Porosity has the dimensions as
(a) m/s (b) m/s2
(c) m2/s (d) Dimensionless
9. Transmissibility has the dimensions as
(a) m/s (b) m2/s
(c) m/s2 (d) Dimensionless
10. A flowing well has the piezometric surface
(a) Above the ground level
(b) Below the ground level
(c) Below the water surface level in the well
(d) Between the water surface in the well and the ground level
11. Water available in the capillary fringe is a part of
(a) Groundwater zone (b) Zone of aeration
(c) Soil–water zone (d) Intermediate zone
12. The surface joining the water levels in different wells in a confined aquifer represents
(a) Groundwater table surface (b) Piezometric surface of the aquifer
(c) Capillary fringe (d) None of the above
13. The ratio of volume of water drained divided by volume of soil sample is
(a) Porosity (b) Specific yield
(c) Storage coefficient (d) Specific retention
14. The dimensions of specific yield are
(a) m3/s (b) m2/s
(c) m/s (d) Dimensionless
15. The ratio of volume of water retained divided by the volume of soil sample is
(a) Porosity (b) Specific retention
(c) Storage coefficient (d) Specific yield
GROUNDWATER 345
16. The dimensions of specific retention are

(a) m3/s (b) m2/s
(c) Dimensionless (d) m/s
17. The drawdown at which stage dislodging of soil particles starts is known as
(a) Critical depression head (b) Safe depression head
(c) Working head (d) All the above
18. Normally, the ratio of safe depression head and critical depression head is taken to be
__
2 __
1
(a) 3 (b) 3
__
1 __
1
(c) 2 (d) 4
19. The dimensions of specific capacity are
(a) m3/s (b) m/s
(c) T–1 (d) m
20. Which of the following formations has poor permeability, but seepage is possible?
(a) Aquiclude (b) Aquifer
(c) Aquifuse (d) Aquitard

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (c)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
*** ***
Appendix I
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS [SI]
The 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (1960) adopted the name Système Interna-
tional d’Unités (International System of Units, international abbreviation SI), for the recommended
practical system of units of measurement. The SI is not static but evolves to match the world’s
increasingly demanding requirements for measurement.
There are seven well-defined units called the base units, which by convention are regarded as
dimensionally independent. These are:
‘The metre, The kilogram, The second, The ampere, The kelvin, The mole, and the Candela.’
The SI list presented here contains only those units that are used in engineering hydrology.
As per the 11th Conference Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM), the dimensions of the base
units related to engineering hydrology are as follows:
Metre Kilogram Second
The metre is the length of The kilogram is the unit of The second is the duration of
the path travelled by light in mass; it is equal to the mass of 9 192 631 770 periods of the
vacuum during a time interval the international prototype of radiation corresponding to the
of 1/299 792 458 of a second. the kilogram. transition between the two
hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the caesium 133 atom.
The units formed by combining base units according to the algebraic relations linking the cor-
responding quantities are called the derived units.
The details of the basic and the derived units related to engineering hydrology are as follows:
BASE UNITS AND DERIVED UNITS

Sr. Sym- Dimen- Important
No. Item bol Definition sion Units Relations Value for Water
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
1 Mass M Matter contained in M1 L T ton; kg; 1 ton l03 kg
a body gram 106 gram
2 Length L Separation between M L1 T km; m; cm 1 km 103 m 105 cm
two defined points
3 Time T An expression of M L T1 hour; 1 hour 60 minutes
separation among minute; 3600 seconds
events occurring in the second
same physical location
APPENDIX I 347
Sr. Sym- Dimen- Important

No. Item bol Definition sion Units Relations Value for Water
DERIVED UNITS
4 Area A Extent of a closed M L2 T km2; hect; 1 km2 106 m2,
perimeter figure on a are; m2; 1 hect 104 m2,
plane cm2 1 are 102 m2
5 Volume ∀ Space occupied by a M L3 T km3; m3; 1 km3109 m3,
body litre; c.c. 1 m3 106 c.c
1 litre 103 c.c.
6 Discharge Q Volume flowing per M L3 T –1 m3/s; 1 m3/s 106 c.c./s
unit time litre/s; 1 litre/s 103 c.c./s
c.c./s.
7 Discharge q Discharge per unit M L2 T –1 m3/s/m
intensity width
8 Velocity V Distance travelled per M L1 T –1 km/hour;
unit time m/s; cm/s
9 Acceleration a Change in velocity per M L1 T 2 m/s2; cm/s2 Acceleration due to

unit time gravity ‘g’
9.81 m/s2
10 Angle Arc divided by the M L T Radian; radian 180
radius of the circle degree
11 Mass density ␳ Mass per unit volume M1 L–3 T kg/m3; 1000 kg/m3,
[Specific gram/c.c. 1 gram/c.c.
mass]
12 Force F Produces or tends to M1 L1 T –2 Newton; 1 N 1 kg 1 m/s2
produce or destroys dyne 1 dyne 1 gram
or tends to destroy 1 c m/s2
motion 1 N 105 dyne
13 Weight W Force due to gravity M1 L1 T – 2 Newton;
dyne
14 Weight Weight per unit M1 L–2 T – 2
Newton/m3; g 9.81 l03 N/m3
density volume dyne/c.c.
[Specific
weight]
15 Pressure P Normal compressive M1 L1 T –2 Pascal: bar, 1 Pa 1 N/m2, P atm
force per unit area N/m2, 1 bar 105 N/m2, 1.02 105 N/m2
m of fluid ‘m’ of fluid P/ 10.33 m of water
16 Momentum M Mass velocity M1 L1 T –1 kg m/s
17 Specific S Ratio of specific M L T s f/w 1.00
gravity weight of fluid and f/w
water
18 Specific ∀s Volume per unit weight M–1 L2 T2 m3/N 1.02 10–4 m3/N
volume
*** ***
Appendix II
Conversion Table for SI Units

Earlier, the British or the Imperial System of units were in use in India. Now, however, the SI units
are used.
A conversion between these two systems is given below
Length
1)1 in 2.54 cmi)1 cm 0.394 in
2)1 ft 0.305 mii)1 m 3.281 ft 1.093 yd
3)1 yd 0.914 miii)1 km 0.621 mile
4)1 mile 1.609 km
Area
1)l in 2
6.452 cm2 i)1 cm 2
0.155 in2
2)1 ft 2
0.093 m2 ii)1 m 2
10.764 ft2 1.195 yd2
3)1 mile 2
2.588 km2 iii)1 km 2
0.386 mile2
4)1 acre 0.405 haiv)1 ha 2.469 acre
Volume
1)1 in 3 16.393 cci)1 cc 0.061 in3
2)1 c ft 0.0283 m3 ii)1 m 3
35.330 ft3 1.306 yd3
3)1 mile 3
4.165 km3 iii)1 km 3
0.240 mile3
4)1 acre-ft 0.123 ha-miv)1 ha-m 8.130 acre-ft
Temperature
1) (F 32) 5
____________ ( C 9)
_______
C i) 32 F
9 5
Logarithms
1)log 10
e 0.4343i)ln e
10 2.303
2)log 10
x 0.4342 ln e xii)ln e
x 2.303 log 10 x
Acceleration due to gravity

g 32.2 ft/s 2 9.81 m/s 2
*** ***
Appendix III
ROMAN NUMERALS
The Romans who were active in trade and commerce right from the time they learnt to write
devised a system of symbols to indicate numbers. The difference between the Roman and the
Arabic numericals [The one which is used today] is that the Romans did not have a symbol of zero.
The following chart gives the several basic Roman numerals and explains how to determine the
value of other numbers.
I The easiest way to note down a number is to make marks. Thus, I means 1, II means 2, III means 3.
V However, since four strokes seemed too many, the Romans moved on to the symbol V for 5. To obtain 4, they
decided to place I before V—IV.
Thus, placing any small number before a basic Roman number indicates subtraction and placing a number
after the basic Roman number indicates addition. Following this pattern, VI, VII and VIII indicate 6, 7 and
8 respectively.
X The symbol X indicated the number 10. Placing I before X—IX—gives 9 and placing I after X—XI— gives
11. Numbers in the teens, twenties and thirties follow the same pattern. In these sets, the number of X indicates
the number of tens. So, XXVI is 26 and XXXIV is 34.
L L stands for 50. To obtain 40, which is 10 subtracted from 50, it will be written as XL. And thus 60, 70, and
80 are LX, LXX and LXXX.
C C stands for centum, the Latin word for 100. This is used in words like “century” and “cent”. As per the rule,
90 will be written as XC. Like the X’s and L’s, the C’s are tacked on to the beginning of numbers to indicate
how many hundreds are there. CCCLXIX is 369.
D D stands for 500. As can be guessed, CD means 400. So CDXLVIII is 448.
M M is 1,000. This symbol finds a lot of use when Roman numerals are used to indicate dates. For instance, 2007
will be written as MMVII.
— Large numbers were indicated by putting a horizontal line over them. It means to multiply the number by
1000. Thus V means 5000.
*** ***
Appendix IV
GREEK ALPHABET
The Greek alphabet is used as mathematical symbols in most of the scientific studies. The following
table gives the upper- as well as the lower-case letters.
Upper-case Lower-case Greek Name English

〈 ␣ Alpha a
B ␤ Beta b
⌫ ␥ Gamma g
⌬ ␦ Delta d
⌭ ⑀ Epsilon e
⌮ ␨ Zeta z
⌯ ␩ Eta h
⌰ ␪ Theta th
⌱ ␫ Iota i
⌲ ␬ Kappa k
⌳ ␭ Lambda l
⌴ ␮ Mu m
⌵ ␯ Nu n
⌶ ␰ Xi X
⌷ ␱ Omicron o
⌸ ␲ Pi p
⌹ ␳ Rho r
⌺ ␴ Sigma s
⌻ ␶ Tau t
⌼ ␽ Upsilon u
⌽ ␾ Phi ph
⌾ ␹ Chi ch
⌿ ␺ Psi ps
⍀ ␻ Omega o
*** ***
Appendix V
METRIC PREFIXES
In practice, several parameters which are very large or very small are required to be referred to.
These are mentioned as multiples of 10. In SI, a number of metric prefixes are used to mention
their largeness or smallness. These are as follows.
Prefix Symbol
million million [Trillion]10 12
tera-T
thousand million [Billion]10 9
giga-G
million10 6
mega-M
thousand10 3
kilo-k
hundred10 2
hecto-h
ten10deca-da
tenth10 –1
deci-d
hundredth10 –2
centi-c
thousandth10 –3
milli-m
millionth10 –6
micro- ␮
thousand millionth10 –9
nano-n
million millionth10 –12
pico-p
thousand million millionth10 –15
femto-f
million million millionth10 –18
atto-a
Since hecto-, deca-, deci-, and centi- are not multiples of powers of three (10 3), these prefixes are
not approved and should be avoided in formal texts.
*** ***
Appendix VI
KEY TO SURVEY MAPS
The Survey of India was set up as the National Survey and Mapping Organization in 1767 under the
Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, with headquarters at Dehradun. This
organization publishes various types of maps.
The maps published by the Survey of India are of two series.
A) India and Adjacent Countries (I A C) series
B) International Map of the World (I M W) series
A) The I. A. C. series
In this series, the maps are numbered. Each numbered sheet covers 4 in latitude and 4 in longi-
tude. The numbering starts from NW corner 40 Latitude North and 44 Longitude and increases
from north to south. Sheets covering sea are not numbered.
The Indian Union is located between 8-4' to 37-6' north latitude and 68-7' to 97-25' east
longitude. Sheets covering India are numbered from 39 to 88.
These sheets are known as ‘I/M or million sheets’. The representative scale of these sheets is
1:1,000,000. The map of India showing this division is as shown in Fig. AVI.1.
Fig. AVI.1 The map of India showing the I/M sheets

Courtesy: Survey of India
APPENDIX VI 353
Each I/M sheet is divided into 16 equal parts and are designated from A to P. Each part there-
fore covers 1 in latitude and 1 in longitude and hence is called ‘Degree Sheet’. For example, the
I/M sheet 47 is divided into 16 degree sheets as shown in Fig. AVI.2.
A E I M
B F J N
47
47D C G K O 47P
D H L P
Fig. AVI.2
An accurate survey is done and each degree sheet is plotted to a scale of 1 : 250 000. All the
details such as rivers, roads, railways, buildings; and administrative boundaries such as taluka, dis-
trict, state; and also forest area, tanks, reservoirs and other important landmarks located in that area
are shown in different colours. Contours at an interval of 100 m are normally shown.
Each degree sheet is further divided into 16 equal parts numbered from 1 to 16. For instance, the
degree sheet 47 I is divided as shown in Fig. AVI.3.
I 1 5 9 13 I
47 47
2 14
2 6 10 14
47 I
3 7 11 15
4 8 12 16
Fig. AVI.3
Here each part covers 0-15' in latitude and 0-15' in longitude and is known as Topo-Sheet and
is plotted to a scale of 1:50,000. All the details shown on a degree sheet are also shown on a topo-
sheet. The contours are at an interval of 20 m.
A topo-sheet to a scale of 1:50000 is further divided into 4 equal parts each 0-7.5' in latitude
and 0-7.5' in longitude and are plotted to a scale of 1:25000. All possible details as shown on the
degree sheet as well as on the topo-sheet are also shown in this map. Contours at an interval of
10 m are shown. If the ground is relatively plain, then the contour interval is maintained as 5 m.
The topo-sheet ‘47A/4’, for instance, is divided as shown in Fig. AVI.4.
A A
47 NW 47 NE
4 4
NW NE
A
47
4
SW SE
Fig. AVI.4
354 APPENDIX VI
District heading Central heading Sheet No.

Season of survey Magnetic legend
Latitude line
Longitude line
Body of map
Left-hand Right-hand
symbol table symbol table
Restricted note
Ref. to
sheet Scale and footnotes
Index of sheets Adm. index
Fig. AVI.5
All maps are provided with the marginal information as shown in Fig. AVI.5 as follows:
1) Title/central heading.
2) District heading.
3) Edition: Year of publication.
4) Sheet number.
5) Legend. [This table explains the various symbols used.]
6) Footnotes: Any information which cannot be shown on the map is given here.
7) Index to sheets: Sometimes, the adjoining sheet has to be referred to. In such case, the adjoining
sheet can be easily located from the ‘Index to sheets’ shown on each of the sheet as shown in
Fig. AVI.6. The central shaded sheet is the one under reference and the adjoining ones are indi-
cated in the index.
8) Administrative index.
46D 46H 46L
47A 47E 47I
47B 47F 47J
Fig. AVI.6
APPENDIX VI 355
Some of the I/M maps, degree sheets and toposheets are classed as RESTRICTED for security
purposes, and cannot be obtained directly. These can be obtained only after permission from the
‘Ministry of Defense, Government of India’.
This I A C series is normally used in India.
B) The I. M. W series
The system is applicable globally (to whole of the world).
The entire area of the world is divided into sheets each covering an area of 4 latitude and 6
longitude.
The geographical positions are defined by two letters ‘N’ for the northen hemisphere and ‘S’ for
the south hemisphere.
The 90 latitudes in each of the hemisphere are divided into horizontal bands, each of 4 Lati-
tudes and are identified by alphabetical letters from ‘A’ onwards. Thus the first band from 0 to 4
as ‘A’; 4 to 8 as ‘B’; 8 to 12 as ‘C’ and so on.
There are two sets of brands ‘A. B. C. -----’ , on either side of 0 Latitude i.e. the equator.
Similarly, the 360 Longitudes are divided into 60 vertical bands each of 6 Longitudes and are num-
bered from 1 to 60. However the numbering starts from 180 Longitude and goes from west to east.
Thus there will be two vertical bands ‘30 and 31’ on either side of 0 Longitude i.e. Greenwich.
The Mercator projection of the Earth is shown in Fig. AVI.7.
Latitude
Mercator projection of the Earth [28° N – 28° S Latitude]
180° 174° 168° 162° 24° 18° 12° 6° 0° 6° 12° 18° 24° 162° 168° 174° 188° Longitude
28°
24° G
20° F
16° E
N
12° D
NC33
8° C
4° B
0° A Equator
4° A
8° B
12° C
SD28
16° D
S
20° E
24° F
28° G
Greenwich
1 2 3 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 58 59 60
Fig. AVI.7
356 APPENDIX VI
Thus, each sheet will cover an area of 4 Latitude and 6 Longtitude.

The Indian Union is located between 8-4' to 37-6' N Latitude and 68-7' to 97-25' Longitude.
Further, each sheet (4 Lat. and 6 Long.) is divided into 24 parts as shown in Fig. AVI.8.
A B C D E F
G H I J K L
M N O P Q R
S T U V W X
Fig. AVI.8
Each part will cover an area of 1 Latitude and 1 Longitude and hence it is also termed as
______
ND43
‘Degree Sheet’. The degree sheet in this International System will be identified as H . This
means that the degree sheet is in the north hemisphere, in the ‘D’ band of Latitudes i.e. in the vertical
band ‘43’ i.e. between 12 to 16 of Longitudes, and ‘H’ sub-part.
These are plotted to a scale of 1:250 000 and are identical to the degree sheet stated in the I A C
system except the identification number.
Thus, the degree sheet ‘47 I’ in the IAC system will have the identification as shown in Fig. AVI.9.
20° N
A E I M A B C D E F
B F J N G H I J K L
47 E
C G K O M N O P Q R
D H L P S T U V W X
16° N
72°E 47 76°E 72°E 43 78°E
47 I NE 43
C
Fig. AVI.9
NE43
The index to sheets will be similar to the I A C system. For the degree sheet _____
A , the Index to
sheets will be as in Fig. AVI.10.
NF42 NF43 NF43

X S T
NE42 NE43 NE43

F A B
NE42 NE43 NE43

L G H
Fig. AVI.10
APPENDIX VI 357
In all the maps, the north direction will be upwards.

All the maps are available on payment with the
Survey of India
P. O. box No:–18
Hathibarkala estate
Dehradun [Uttaranchal]
PIN 248001, INDIA
These are also available with the regional offices of the Survey of India or with authorized maps
sales agents.
*** ***
Appendix VII
MULTIFACETED WATER
Ballast water: Huge tanks from oil-rich countries are used to transport oil. These tanks
are emptied in different countries. After emptying the oil, during their
return journey, the tanks are filled with the available seawater to maintain
the balance of the tanks. These tanks are emptied in the sea at the loading
oil-rich country to refill them again with oil. This sea water which is
used for balancing purpose and emptied in the sea at the oil-rich country
is called ballast water. It is noticed that this ballast water causes some
environmental problems.
Black water: Waste water from toilets is called black water.
Blue water: Water in rivers, flowing ground water, etc. is called blue water.
Gray water: Waste water from bathrooms, bathtubs, showers, wash basins, laundry,
kitchen sinks, etc. is called gray water.
Green water: Water from soil/land utilized for bio mass generation by way of evapo-
transpiration, etc. is called green water.
Hard water: Water from rivers, springs, wells, etc. contain a certain amount of
dissolved salts such as calcium, magnesium salts. Such water that will not
produce good amount of lather with soap is called hard water.
Heavy water: The oxide of heavy hydrogen (Deuterium) ‘D2O’ is called Heavy water. It
is like normal water in appearance. This was discovered by ‘Uray’ in 1932.
It is used in Atomic energy studies.
Magnetized water: It is noticed that after magnetization, some of the physical and chemical
properties of water change. The extent of magnetization depends on the
magnetic poles used, intensity of magnetic field, duration, amount of water
used, etc.
Some believe that this magnetic water is useful for healing some diseases.
Soft water: Water with a very low content of dissolved salts is called soft water. Some
people claim that their thirst is not satisfied by drinking this type of water.
Virtual water: When any item/commodity is imported by a nation, the water required
for growing or producing that item is not accounted for in water balance
e.g., when one kg of wheat is imported by a nation, then 1.2 m3 of water
required for growing that one kg of wheat is indirectly imported. This 1.2
m3 of water is called virtual water.
*** ***
Appendix VIII
A number of journals/periodicals on hydrology and water resources are published. A list of

some Indian and foreign periodicals is given below.
A – INDIAN PERIODICALS
Sr. No Title Publisher

1. ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering The Indian Society for Hydraulics, Central Water Power Research
Station, Khadakwasla, Pune – 411024
2. Journal of Applied Hydrology Association of Hydrologists of India & Andhra Pradesh,
Visakhapatnam – 530003
3. Journal of Indian Water Resources Society Indian Water Resources Society; Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee – 247667
4. Indian Journal of Power and River Valley Books & Journals Pvt. Ltd., 6/2 Madan Street,
Development Kolkatta – 700072
5. Journal of Indian Water Works Association Indian Water Works Association, Pipeline Road, Vakola, Santakruz
(East), Mumbai – 400055
6. Hydrology Journal Indian Water Resources Society, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee – 247667
7. Water and Energy Research Digest CBIP, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi – 110021
8. Journal of Institution of Engineers – Institution of Engineers, 8, Gokhale Road, Kolkatta – 700020
Civil Engineering
9. Dams, Rivers and People Editor, 86 D, AD Block, Shalimar Bagh, Delhi – 110088
10. Jal Vikas National Water Development Agency, 18-20 Saket Community
Centre, New Delhi
360 APPENDIX VIII
B – FOREIGN PERIODICALS
Sr. No. Title Publisher

1. Journal of the European Water Association (EWA) European Water Association, Theodor-Heuss-Allee, 17,
D-53773 Hennef
2. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering American Society of Civil Engineers (A.S.C.E.),
Subcription Orders, P.O.Box 79342, Baltimore, MD,
21279-0342, USA
3. Journal of Water Resources Planning & Management American Society of Civil Engineers (A.S.C.E.),
21279-0342, USA
4. Journal of Spatial Hydrology Department of Environmental Studies, Florida,
International University, 11200 SW, 8th Street, Miami
FL 33199
5. Ground Water Ground Water, 601 Dempsey Road, Westerville,
OH 43081
6. Hydrology & Earth System Sciences European Geophysical Society, Max/Planck- Str., 13, 371,
Katlenburg, Lindau, Germany
7. Journal of Hydrology R. Krzysztafoweiz, University of Verginia, Thorntok Hall,
SE, Charlottsville, VA 22903, USA (Elsevier, 3 Killiney
Road, # 08-01 Winsland House I, Singapore 239519)
8. Nordic Hydrology ISVA Technical University of Denmark, Building 115 Dk
2800, Lyngby, Denmark
9. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology Elsevier, 3 Killiney Road, # 08-01 Winsland House I,
Singapore 239519
10. Journal of Environmental Hydrology International Association of Environmental Hydrology,
2607 Hopeton, Dr. San
11. Hydrological Processes Journals Administration Dept., John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,
1 Oldlands Way, Bognar Regis, West Sussex, Po. 229SA,
England
12. Hydrological Sciences Journal Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Welingford,
Oxfordshire, OX 10 8BB, U.K.
13. Advances in Water Resources Elsevier, 3 Killiney Road, # 08-01 Winsland House I,
Singapore 239519
14. International Journal of Water Resources Development Taylor & Francis, Customer Services
T&F Informa UK. Ltd. Sheepen Place, Colchester, CO3
3LP, UK
15. Water Resources Research American Geophysical Union (AGU), 2000 Florida
Avenue N. W. Washington DC, 20009-12-77, USA
16. Journal of American Water Resources Association American Water Resources Association, 4 West Federal
Street, P.O. Box. 1626, Middleburg, VA 200118-16126
17. Journal of Water Resources Planning & Management American Society of Civil Engineers (A.S.C.E.),
21279-0342, USA
18. Florida Water Resources Journal Buena Vista Publishing, 1402 Emerald Lakes
Dr. Clermont, FL 34711, U.S.A.
19. Stochastic Hydrology & Hydraulics Springer-Verlag Wien, Journals Department,
Sachsenplatz, 4-6, 1200 Vienna, Austria
20. Water Resources Springer-Verlag Wien, Journals Department,
Sachsenplatz, 4-6, 1200 Vienna, Austria
APPENDIX VIII 361
Sr. No. Title Publisher

21. Canadian Water Resources Journal Canadian Water Resource Association, P.O. Box. 1329,
400 Clyde Road, Cambridge, Ontario N1 R7 GB, Canada
22. Journal of American Water Resources Association American Water Resources Association, 4 West Federal
Street, P.O. Box. 1626, Middleburg, VA 20158-16126,
USA
23. Journal of Hydrologic Processes Wiley Publications, Corporate Quarters, 111, River Street,
Hobaken, NJ 07030-5774 USA
24. Water Resources Journal The Economic & Social Commision for Asia & the
Pacific, United Nations Building, Rajadamnern Avenue,
Bankok 10200, Thailand
25. Water Resources Management European Water Resources Association (EWRA),
Springer, The Netherlands
*** ***
Appendix IX
WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA
The Indian Union lies between 8°-4' to 37°-6' North latitude and 68°-7' to 97°-25' East longitude.
India is also known as ‘Bharat, Hindustan, Bharat-varsh, Arya-varta’.
The Indian Union consists of 28 states, six centrally governed union territories and one national
capital territory.
States: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhatisgarh, Goa, Gujrat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura,
Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal.
Centrally governed union territories: Andaman and Nicobar, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar
Haveli, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep, Pondicherry.
National capital territory: Delhi.
Physiographically India is divided into seven divisions 1) The Northern mountains,
2) The Great plains, 3) The Central highlands, 4) The Peninsular plateau, 5) The East coast belt,
6) The West coast belt, 7) The islands.
Total land area : 328 million hectares
3.28 million km2
[2.11% of total world area]
Land frontier : 15,200 km
Coastline : 6,100 km
Average annual precipitation : 1140 mm
Maximum average annual precipitation : 10860 mm [At Mawsyram in Assam
near Cherrapunji]
Minimum average annual precipitation : 30 mm [At Churu dist. Bikaner
Rajasthan]
Annual volume of water received over the country : 3700 km3
370 106 hectare m
Evaporation losses [33%] : 1230 km3
123 106 hectare m
Seepage in subsoil [22%] : 800 km3
80 106 hectare m
Run-off in the rivers [45%] : 1670 km3
167 106 hectare m
APPENDIX IX 363
Surface water resources basin wise in km3:

Available Utilizable
1) Indus basin 72.24 46
2) Ganga basin 478.48 250
3) Brahamaputra basin 506.63 24
4) East flowing rivers 326.49 151
5) West flowing rivers 286.16 219
Total: 1670.00 690
Per capita availability of water:

Year : 1955 1990 2025
Amount in m3 : 5277 2464 1496
Ultimate irrigation potential : 140 l04 km2

140 106 hectare
Cumulative irrigation potential achieved : 99 104 km2
99 106 hectare
Annual utilizable ground water resource : 422.86 km3
42.28 106 hectare m
Annual utilized ground water resource : 100 km3
10 106 hectare m
Economical hydroelectric potential of the country : 84044 MW at 60% load factor
[From 845 schemes] 150000 MW at Average load factor
Share of run-off of river plants [256 schemes] : 40%
Reservoir type projects : 60%
Hydroelectric power developed so far : 16032 MW at 60% load factor
Flood prone area in the country : 40 104 km2
40 106 hectare
Flood affected area on an average every year : 7.5 104 km2
7.5 106 hectare
*** ***
Appendix X
INDIA’S NATIONAL WATER POLICY
India adopted a national water policy (NWP) in September 1987 and revised it in 2002, under the
aegis of National Water Resources Council, established in 2000. It recognized water as one of the
crucial elements in the developmental planning. The policy document, inter alia, lays down that
planning and development of this natural resource, i.e., water, needs to be governed by a national
perspective. Resource planning, in case of water, has to be done for hydrological unit such as drain-
age basin as a whole or for a sub-basin. All individual developmental projects and proposals should
be formulated by states and considered within the framework of such an overall plan for a basin or
a sub-basin so that the best possible combinations of options can be made.
The policy document lays down that water should be made available to water-short areas by
transfer from other areas including from one river basin to another, based on a national perspec-
tive, after taking into account the requirements of areas/basins. Transfer of water from one river
to another, especially if it involved inter-state transfer, has always been a sensitive issue amongst
people and the states.
On the issue of equity and social justice, the policy lays down that water allocation in an irriga-
tion system should be done so that disparities in the availability between the head-reach and tail-
end farms and between large and small farms should be obviated by adoption of a rotational water
distributional system and supply of water on a volumetric basis, subject to certain ceilings.
For implementing the above programme, the policy document lays down that appropriate orga-
nizations should be established for planned development and management of a river basin as a
whole.
The policy recognizes water as a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious
national asset. The policy has laid down that, in planning and operation of systems, water allocation
priorities should be as follows.
Drinking water
Irrigation
Hydro-power
Navigation
Industrial and other uses
However, these priorities might be modified, if necessary, in particular regions with reference to
area-specific considerations.
The policy stipulates that adequate drinking water facilities should be provided to the entire
population, both in urban and rural areas. Irrigation and multi-purpose projects should invariably
include a drinking water component, wherever there is no alternative source of drinking water.
Drinking water needs of human beings and animals should be provided for all irrigation projects.
APPENDIX X 365
The policy further provides that economic development and activities including agricultural,
industrial and urban development should be planned with due regard to the constraints imposed
by the configuration of water availability. There should be a water zoning of the country and the
economic activities should be guided and regulated in accordance with such zoning.
The implementation of the policy guidelines is overseen by the National Water Resources
Council in which all chief ministers are members and the prime minister is the chairman. The
National Water Board headed by the Secretary, Union Ministry of Water Resources, and the
representatives from all the states assist the Council. The National Water Board has so far final-
ized a number of policy papers on water-related issues for the consideration of the National Water
Resources Council.
*** ***
Appendix XI
The Bureau of Indian Standards

The ‘Indian Standards Institution’ was established in the year 1947 for (i) formulation of standards
and (ii) promotion and implementation of standards.
It was reconstituted as ‘Bureau of Indian Standards’ in 1986 by an Act of the Parliament. The
standards are formulated on various topics by a committee taking into consideration the conscious-
ness of all interested through a wide circulation of the draft. About 18000 standards on various
groups have been finalized.
The B.I.S. has its headquarters in Delhi (Manak Bhawan 9, Bahadur Shah Jafar Marg, New
Delhi, 110002, India) and regional and branch offices all over the country.
The B.I.S. publications are priced publications and are available at all these offices.
The B.I.S. has recommended criteria for various parameters related to hydrology. Some of them
are listed below:
IS Number/DOC
Number Title
IS 1191:2003 Hydrometric determination—Vocubulary
| ISO 772:1988
IS 1192:1981 Velocity area Methods for measurement of flow of water in open channels (first
| ISO 748:1979 revision)
IS 1194:1960 Forms for recording measurement of flow of water in open channels

IS 2912:1998 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Slope-area method
/ ISO 1070:1992
IS 3910:1992 Requirements for rotating element current meters (cup type) for water flow
| ISO 2537:1988 measurement (first revision)
IS 3911:1994 Surface floats—Functional requirements (first revision)
IS 3912:1993 Sounding rods—Functional requirements (first revision)
| ISO 3454:1983
IS 3918:1966 Code of practice for use of current meter (cup type) for water flow measurement
IS 4073:1967 Specification for fish weights
IS 4080:1994 Vertical staff gauges—Functional requirements (first revision)
IS 4858:1968 Specification for velocity rods
IS 4986:2002 Code of practice for installation of rain-gauge (non-recording type) and
measurement of rain (second revision)
IS 4987:1994 Recommendations for establishing network of raingauge stations
IS 5542:2003 Guide for storm analysis (first revision)
(continued)
APPENDIX XI 367
IS Number/DOC
Number Title
IS 6062:1971 Method of measurement of flow of water in open channels using standing wave flume-fall
IS 6063:1971 Method of measurement of flow of water in open channels using standing wave flume
IS 6064:1971 Specification for sounding and suspension
IS 6330:1971 Recommendation for liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes-
| ISO 3847 end depth method for estimation of flow in rectangular channels with a free overfall
(approximate method)
IS 8389:2003 Code of practice for installation and use of raingauges, recording (second revision)
IS 9108:1979 Liquid flow measurement in open channels using thin plate weirs
| ISO 1438-1
IS 9116:2002 Specification for water stage recorder (float type) (first revision)
IS 9119:1979 Method for flow estimation by jet characteristics (approximate method)
IS 9163(Part 1):1979 Dilution methods of measurement of steady flow Part 1 constant rate injection method
| ISO 9555-1:1973
IS 9922:1981 Guide for selection of method for measuring flow in open channels
| ISO 8363:1980
IS 12752:1989 Guidelines for the selection of flow gauging
| ISO 8368:1980
IS 13083:1991 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Flat-V
/ ISO 4377:1990
IS 13084:1991 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Round nose horizontal crest weirs
/ ISO 4374:1990
IS 13371:1992 Code of Practice for calibration (rating) of rotating element current meters instraight
| ISO 3455:1976 open tank
IS 14359:1996 Echo sounders for water depth measurements
| ISO 4366:1979
IS 14371:1996 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels—Parshall and SANIIRI flumes
/ ISO 9826:1982
IS 14573:1998 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Velocity area methods—
/ ISO 1088:1985 Collection and processing of data for determination of errors in measurement
IS 14574:1998 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels by weirs and flumes- end depth method for
/ ISO 4371:1984 estimation of flow in non rectangular channels with a free overfall (approximate method)
IS 14615 (Part 1):1999 Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices Part 1: Orifice plates,
/ ISO 5167-1:1991 nozzles and venturi tubes inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full
IS 14673:1999 Liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes—Triangular profile weirs
| ISO 4360:1984
IS 14869:2000 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Rectangular, trapezoidal and U-shape
/ ISO 4359:1983 flumes
IS 14973:2001 Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits—Velocity area method using Pilot Static
/ ISO 3966:1997 Tubes
IS 14974:2001 Liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes—Rectangular broad-
/ ISO 3846:1989 crested weirs
IS 14975:2001 Measurement of fluid flow in open channels—Stream lind triangular profile weirs
/ ISO 9827:1994
IS 15117:2002 Hydrometric determination—Cable way system for stream gauging
/ ISO 4375:2000
368 APPENDIX XI
IS Number/DOC
Number Title
IS 15118:2002 Measurement of liquid flow in open channel—Water level measuring devices
/ ISO 4373:1995
IS 15119 (Part 1):2002 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels—Part 1 Establishment and operation of a
/ ISO 1100-1:1996 gauging station (superseding IS 2914:1964)
IS 15119 (Part 2):2002 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels—Part 2 Determination of the stage-discharge
/ ISO 1100-2:1998 relation (superseding IS 2914:1964)
IS 15123:2002 Hydrometric determination—Flow measurement in open channels using structures-
/ ISO 4362:1999 Trapezoidal broad-crested weirs (superseding IS/ISO 4362:1992)
IS 15352:2003 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Position fixing equipment for hydrometric
/ ISO 6420:1984 boats
IS 15353:2003 Liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes—V-shaped broad-
/ ISO 8333:1985 crested weirs
IS 15362:2002 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Flow measurements in open channels using
| 114139:2000 structures-compound gauging structure (Adoption of ISO 14139:2000)
IS 15454:2004 Liquid flow measurement in open channels—Velocity-area method using a restricted
number of verticals (based on ISO/TR 9823:1990)
IS 15527:2004 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels—Measurement in meandering rivers and in
streams with unstable boundaries (based on ISO/TR 9210:1992)
DOC.WRD 1(338) Measurement of liquid flow in open channels—Field measurement of discharge in large
rivers and floods (based on ISO 9825:1994)
DOC.WRD 1(358) Measurement of total discharge in open channels—Stage-fall-discharge relationship
(adoption of ISO 9123:2001)
DOC.WRD 1(389) Measurement of liquid flow in open channels—Method of specifying performance of
hydrometric equipment’ (adoption of ISO
DOC.WRD 1(333) Liquid flow measurement in open channels velocity-area methods—
investigation of total error (based on ISO/TR 7178:1983)
DOC.WRD 1(335) Measurement of liquid flow in open channel—Determination of the wet-line correction
(based on ISO/TR 9209:1989)
DOC.WRD 1(390) Measurement of liquid flow in open channels—Electromagnetic current meters (adoption
of ISO/TR 11974:1987)
DOC.WRD 1(337) Draft Indian Standard Measurement of fluid flow—Evaluation of uncertainties (based on
ISO/TR 5168:1998)
DOC.WRD 1(361) Hydrometric determinations—Unstable channels and ephemeral streams (based on
ISO/TR
IS 4410 (Part 1):1991 Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects: Part 1 Irrigation practice (first revision)
IS 4410 (Part 11/ Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects Part 11 Hydrology Section 1 General
Sec 1):1972 terms
IS 4410 (Part 11/ Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects: Part 11 Hydrology Section 2
Sec 2):1972 Precipitation and run-
IS 4410 (Part 11/ Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects: Part 11 Hydrology: Section 3:
Sec 3):1973 Infiltration and water
IS 4410 (Part 11/ Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects: Part 11 Hydrology Section 4
Sec 4):1973 Hydrographs
IS 4410 (Part 11/ Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects: Part 11 Hydrology Section 5 Floods
Sec 5): 1977
(continued)
APPENDIX XI 369
IS Number/DOC
Number Title
IS 4410 (Part 11/ Glossary of terms relating to river valley projects: Part 11 Hydrology Section 6 Ground
Sec 6):1994 water
IS 14476 (Part 1):1998 Test pumping of water wells—Code of practice Part 1 General
IS 14476 (Part 2):1998 Test pumping of water wells—Code of practice Part 2 Hydrogeological considerations
IS 14476 (Part 3/ Test pumping of water wells—Code of practice Part 3 Pre-test planning Sec 1 General
Sec 1):1998 aspects
IS 14476 (Part 5):1998 Test pumping of water wells—Code of practice Part 5 Pumping test
IS 14476 (Part 8):1998 Test pumping of water wells—Code of practice Part 8 Water level and discharge
measuring devices
DOC.WRD 3(370) Guidelines for artificial recharge to ground water
DOC.WRD 3(456) Manual method for measurement of a ground water level in a well
IS 6939:1992 Methods for determination of evaporation from reservoirs (first revision)
DOC.WRD 10(354) Determination of volume of water & water level in lakes & reservoirs
DOC.WRD 13(378) Guidelines for adopting coefficient of friction (Rugosity coefficient) for design of canals
Reproduced with permission from the Bureau of Indian Standards
*** ***
Appendix XII
Water in Indian languages

India is a multi-linguistic country. Equivalent words for water in these languages are given here.
1. Assamese: i) (pani)
ii) (jal)
iii) (neer)
2. Bengali: i) (bari)
ii) (neer)
iii) (pani)
3. Dogri: i) ikuh (pani)

ii) uhj (neer)
4. Gujrati: i) (pani)
ii) (jal)
5. Hindi: i) ikuh (pani)

ii) ty (jal)
6. Kannada: i) (niiru)
ii) (udak)
iii) (teertha)
7. Kashmiri: i) (poni)
ii) (aab)
8. Konkani: i) mnd (udak)

ii) mnhd (udeek)
iii) mnksd (udok)
APPENDIX XII 371
9. Maithili: i) (pani)
10. Malayalam: i) (vallam)

ii) (niira)
iii) (jelam)
11. Manipuri: i) (isin)
12. Marathi: i) ty (jal)

ii) ik.kh (paanee)
iii) mnd (udak)
13. Nepali: i) ikuh (paani)

ii) ty (jal)
iii) uhj (neer)
14. Oriya: i) (paani)

ii) (jal)
iii) (neer)
iv) (baari)
v) (paya)
15. Punjabi: i) (paani)

ii) (jal)
16. Rajasthani: i) ikuh (pani)

ii) ty (jal)
17. Sindhi: i) (aab)

ii) (jalu)
iii) (paani)
18. Tamil: i) (neer)

ii) (jalam)
iii) (thanneer)
19. Telugu: i) (neeru)

ii) (jalam)
iii) (neellu)
372 APPENDIX XII
20. Urdu: i) (pani)

ii) (aab)
21. Sanskrit: There are as many as 70 words for water. Each one being originally Sanskrit and
not derived from any other language. These are as follows.
ok% Vãha lye~ Salam
okfj Vãri ÅtZe~ Urjam
lfyye~ Salilam ?k‘re~ Ghrutam
deye~ Kamalam okte~ Vãjam
i;% Payaha vki% Aapaha
dhykye~ Keelãlam lfjye~ Sarilam
ve‘re~ Amrutam lkEc% Sambaha
Hkqoue~ Bhuvanam vU/ke~ Andham
oue~ Vanam dq’ke~ Kusham
dcU/ke~ Kabandham dcqZje~ Karburam
mnde~ Udakam {khje~ Ksheeram
ikFk% Pãthaha rkeje~ Tãmaram
iq"dje~ Pushkaram gªhosje~ Hriveram
loje~ Savaram l´~pye~ Sanchalam
vEHk% Ambhaha lEoje~ Sambaram
v.kZ% Arnaha tMe~ Jadam
rks;e~ Toyam thoue~ Jeevanam
nde~ Dakam dkseye~ Komalam
dEcye~ Kambalam rkeje~ Tãmaram
L;Unue~ Syandanam ?kuhlkle~ Ghanisãsam
vki% Aapaha d‘Iisje~ Krupperarn
lnue~ Sadanam jsikye~ Repãlam
bjk Irã ’kEcje~ Shambaram
vEcq Ambu ?kujl% Ghanarasaha
de~ Kam tyihFke~ Jalapeetham
tM% Jadaha diU/ke~ Kapandham
lksee~ Somam pUnzksjle~ Chandrorasam
APPENDIX XII 373
O;kse Vyoma xksdyue~ Gokolanam

ukje~ Nãram loZrkseq[ke~ Sarvatomukham
{kje~ Ksharam es?kiq"ie~ Meghapushpam
lj% Saraha vHkziq"ei~ Abbhrapushpam
uhje~ Neeram ihIiye~ Peeppalam
mne~ Udam dk.Me~ Kãndam
lje~ Saram d‘ihVe~ Krupeetam
_re~ Rutam lEcye~ Sambalam
*** ***
Appendix XIII
JAL SUBHASHITANI
In Sanskrit, there is an unlimited treasure of short elegant compositions [Subhashitani lqHkkf"krkuh ],

wherein qualities of good or bad are quoted, discussed and compared. In some cases the qualities of
water are referred to.
A collection of some of such subhashitani is given below
1½ *fuEueuqljfr tya*
Water flows towards the lowland.
2½ vkiw;Zek.kepyizfr"Ba leqnzeki% izfo’kfUr ;}r~A

¼Hkxon~xhrk 2-70½
As the waters (of different rivers) enter the ocean, which though full on all sides, remains undis-
turbed.
3½ ¬ vkiks fg"Bk e;ksHkqo%

¼vFkoZosn dk.M - 1 lwä - 5½
Oh! water deity you give pleasure to us.
4½ rMkxksnjlaLFkkuka ijhokg bokEHklke~A

¼dkfynkl }kf=k"aRiqÙkfydk½
Spill way is the guaranty of safety for a reservoir of waters which is a pool having plenty of
water.
5½ vkLok|rks;k% izHkofUr u|% leqnzeklk| HkoUR;is;k%
The rivers having delicious water at the source became unpotable when they merge into the
ocean.
6½ egkes?k% {kkja ficfr dq:rs okfj eèkqje~
A huge cloud consumes salty water and turns the same into sweet water.
APPENDIX XIII 375
7½ xrksnds lsrqcU/kks
Building a bridge after the bed becomes dry (is of no use).
8½ tylsdsu o/kZUrs r[k%
The trees grow by watering.
9½ {kkjHkkoeiuh; x‘g.krs okfj/ks% lfyyeso okfjnk%
Clouds collect the water of the ocean keeping away its salinity.
10½ r:ewykfn"kq fufgra tyekfoHkZofr iYyokxzs"kq
Water given at the roots of trees manifests itself high up at the tips of the leaves.
11½ unh osxsu ’kq/;fr

¼o‘)pk.kD; 6 - 3½
A river purifies due to the speed of its flow.
12½ ufyuhnyxrtyefrrjya r}r~ thforefr’k;piye~
Drops of water on the leaves of lotus are very transient. Same is the case of human life.
13½ ijksidkjk; ogfUr u|%
Rivers flow for benevolence.
14½ dq.Ms dq.Ms uoa Ik;%A
Novel is the water in every reservoir.
15½ i‘fFkO;ka =khf.k jRukfu tyeUua lqHkkf"kre~
On this earth there are three precious things; Water, food and a witty word.
16½ laHkw;kEHkksf/keH;sfr egku|% uxkixk%AA
Great rivers go away from the mountains and collectively flow into the sea.
17½ ewyfläL; o‘{kL; Qya ’kk[kklq n‘’;rsA
A tree which is watered at the roots shows the fruits up in the branches.
376 APPENDIX XIII
18½ e‘nquk lfyysu gU;ekukfu vo/k‘";fUr fxjs% vfi LFkykfu
Continuously striken, even by soft water, regions of rugged mountains give away, hard hills are
eroded.
19½ ;Fkk Hkwfe% rFkk rks;a
Water has the quality of soil from which it flows.
20½ rL; foLrkfjrk cqf)% rSyfcUnq% ;Fkk tysAA
His mental orbit grows like a drop of oil in the water.
21½ oztfUr u fuorZUrs L=kksrkafl lfjrka ;FkkA
Currents of rivers flow away. They do not return.
22½ vth.ksZ Hks"kta okfj th.ksZ okfj cyizne~
Water works like a medicine, when the food is not digested, but it is invigorating after the food is
digested.
23½ rLekUujks og~fufoo/kZukFk± eqgqeqZgqokZfj ficsn~ vHkwfj
Hence, for the strengthening of appetite, man should drink a small quantity of water, a number of
times.
24½ vk;q";a tyfcUnqyksypiya Qsuksiea thfore~A
Life is fickle like a drop of water which is ever unsteady.
25½ ioZrkuka tya tjk
For the mountains water works like an old age. (As it decreases human energy.)
26½ ÑRok Kkue~ Lo;a uL;sTtya dsrdjs.kqor~

¼fp- fo- 156 ’kadjkpk;Z vkRecks/k½
The clearing nut, when dropped into turbid water, removes the turbidity of water and also vanishes
itself.
27½ vYirks;ÜoyRdqEHk%
A pitcher with scanty water is ever unsteady.

APPENDIX XIII 377
28½ vk;q:nŒpu;U=kksiefefr
Life is like a revolving water wheel.
29½ ,dnss’ksu pkorZ% laorZ% loZrks tye~A

iq"djs nq"dja okfj nzks.ks cgqtyk eghAA
¼Ñf"kikjk’kj½
Avarta (cloud) is confined to a particular locality. Under Samvarta cloud water is everywhere,
under Puskara cloud water is scarce and under Drona cloud the water is abundant on earth.
30½ xq:Roa tyHkwE;ks% irudeZdkj.ke~

vizR;{ka irudekZuqes;e~
(U;k; danfy Sci. S Tech. in Ancient India. - Page no. 98)
Gravity is the cause for falling liquids and solids. It is invisible and is inferred by the falling
motion.
31½ tyfcUnqfuikrsu Øe’k% iw;Zrs ?kV%
A pitcher gets gradually filled due to the falling water drops.
32½ fdekojho% dqg dL; ’keZu~ vaHk% fdeklhn~xgua xHkhje~AA

¼uklnh;lwä pje [kaM½
Was there plenty of water so deep?
33½ ukfLr es?klea rks;a

¼o‘)pk.kD; - laf=kdk½
No water is comparable to the water from the cloud.
34½ ;a=ks.kkourkfnukp fuiq.ka ;}kacqlaiwj.ks

uksohZ pk:lehdjksR;Fk n‘<aL;kRiknlaiwj.kaAA
Foundation should either be levelled by the instrument, or the foundation should be filled with
water (and the level should be checked according to water level).
35½ laLFkkI; e‘.e;s ik=ks rkezi=ka lqlaLÑre~

Nkn;sfPNf[kxzhosu pknzkZfHk% dk"BikalqfHk%
nLrkyks"Vksfu/kkrO;% ikjnkPNkfnnLrr%
la;ksxkTtk;rs rstks eS=kko:.klafKre~
vusu tyHkaxks•fLr izk.kksnkus"kq ok;q"kqA
Place copper plates in an earthen pot; cover it with powdered coal and moistened saw dust spread
zinc powder and cover it with mercury. Due to chemical interaction positive and negative electric-
ity is produced. Due to this, water is decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen.
378 APPENDIX XIII
36½ va/ka tya cya izkgq%A
Stored water is potential energy.
37½ ’ka uks o#.k%
Let God Varun protect us.
38½ ^vxzso /kwezks tk;rs /kwezkn Hkze Hkzkn~ o‘f"V%^
Fire produces smoke, smoke clouds and clouds rain.
*** ***
Appendix XIV
WISDOM OF WATER
Scientists, philosophers and statesmen, have realized the importance of ‘water’ and have quoted it exten-
sively in their speeches and writings.
A few of them have been quoted here.
If we could ever competitively, at a cheap rate, get fresh water from saltwater, ... (this) would be in
the long-range interests of humanity which could really dwarf any other scientific accomplishments.
—John F. Kennedy
Water and air, the two essential fluids on which all life depends, have become global garbage cans.
—Jacques Cousteau (1910–1997)
There is nothing softer and weaker than water, and yet there is nothing better for attacking hard and
strong things.
For this reason there is no substitute for it.
—Lao-Tzu (C.B.C. 550)
Water that has been begged for does not quench the thirst.
—Geographical Origin Uganda
All earth’s full rivers cannot fill

The sea that drinking thirsteth still
—Christina Georgina Rossetti (1830–1894), By the Sea
Water is H2O, hydrogen two parts, oxygen one, but there is also a third thing that makes water and
nobody knows what that is.
—D. H. Lawrence (1885–1930), Pansies, 1929
Water is life’s matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.
—Albert Szent-Gyorgyi quotes (Hungarian Biologist,
1937 Nobel Prize for Medicine 1893–1986)
Filthy water cannot be washed.

—West African proverb
380 APPENDIX XIV
All streams flow into the sea, yet the sea is never full. To the place the streams come from, there they
return again.
—Ecclesiastes 1:7 from New International Version of The Bible
Muddy water, let stand–becomes clear

—Lao Tzu quotes [Chinese Taoist philosopher, Founder of Taoism,
wrote “Tao Te Ching” (also “The Book of the Way”) 600 BC–531 BC]
Nothing is softer or more flexible than water, yet nothing can resist it
—Lao Tzu quotes [Chinese Taoist philosopher. Founder of Taoism,
wrote “Tao Te Ching” (also “The Book of the Way”) 600 BC–531 BC]
Water, like religion and ideology, has the power to move millions of people. Since the very birth of
human civilization, people have moved to settle close to it. People move when there is too little of it.
People move when there is too much of it. People journey down it. People write, sing and dance about
it. People fight over it. And all people, everywhere and every day, need it.
—Mikhail Gorbachev, President of Green Cross International
quoted in Peter Swanson’s Water; The Drop of Life, 2001.
Water has no taste, no color, no odor; it cannot be defined, art relished while ever mysterious. Not nec-
essary to life, but rather life itself. It fills us with a gratification that exceeds the delight of the senses.
—Antoine De Saint-Exupery (1900–1944), Wind, Sand, and Stars, 1939
Water is the one substance from which the earth can conceal nothing; it sucks out its innermost secrets
and brings them to our very lips.
—Jean Giraudoux (1882–1944), The Madwomen of Chaillot, 1946
If there is magic on this planet, it is contained in water.

—Loran Eisley (Anthropologist), The Immense Journey, 1957
Throughout the history of literature, the guy who poisons the well has been the worst of all
villains.
—Author unknown
Thousands have lived without love, not one without water.

—W.H. Auden
Fire, water and government know nothing of mercy.
Wetlands have a poor public image…. Yet they are among the earth’s greatest natural assets…
mankind’s waterlogged wealth.
—Edward Maltby, Waterlogged Wealth, 1986
Life originated in the sea, and about eighty percent of it is still there.
—Isaac Asimov, Isaac Asimov’s Book of Science and Nature Quotations, 1988
APPENDIX XIV 381
The estuary is the point where man, the sea—his immemorial ally and adversary—and the land meet
and challenge each other.
—U.S. Department of the Interior, National
Estuarine Pollution Study, November 1969
In every glass of water we drink, some of the water has already passed through fishes, trees, bacteria,
worms in the soil, and many other organisms, including people…. Living systems cleanse water and
make it fit, among other things, for human consumption.
—Elliot A. Norse, in R.J. Hoage, ed., Animal Extinctions, 1985
Between earth and earth’s atmosphere, the amount of water remains constant; there is never a drop
more, never a drop less. This is a story of circular infinity, of a planet birthing itself.
—Linda Hogan, Northern Lights, Autumn 1990
The stone in the water knows nothing of the hill which lies parched in the sun.
—African Proverb
The highest good is like water. Water gives life to the ten thousand things and does not strive. It flows in
places men reject and so is like the Tao.
—Excerpt from the Tao Te Ching, chapter 8
By means of water, we give life to everything.

—Koran, 21:30
It is a fascinating and provocative thought that a body of water deserves to be considered as an organ-
ism in its own right.
—Lyall Watson, Supernature
Water links us to our neighbor in a way more profound and complex than any other.
—John Thorson
Water flows uphill towards money.

—Famous saying by Anonymous, saying in the American West,
quoted by Ivan Doig in Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert, 1986
Still waters run no mills.

—quoted by Aglionby, Life of Bickerstaff (p. 5)
A river is the report card for its watershed.

—Alan Levere
Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep.

—William Shakespeare (1564–1616), Henry VI, Part II
We must begin thinking like a river if we are to leave a legacy of beauty and life for future generations.
—David Brower quoted by E-Wire, 7 Apr 2000
382 APPENDIX XIV
Rain is grace; rain is the sky condescending to the earth; without rain, there would be no life.
—John Updike, Self-Consciousness: Memoirs, 1989
Water helped ancient man learn those first lessons about the rights of others and responsibility to a
larger society… . It became part of the moral and mental legacy parents passed on to their children.
—M. Meyer, Water in the Hispanic Southwest
A river is more than an amenity, it is a treasure.

—Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes (quoted by the Supreme
Court in its decision in U.S. v. Republic Steel, 1960)
Truths are first clouds; then rain, then harvest and food.
—Henry Ward Beecher
Any river is really the summation of the whole valley. To think of it as nothing but water is to ignore the
greater part.
—Hal Borland, This Hill, This Valley
Water is the basis of life and the blue arteries of the earth! Everything in the non-marine environment
depends on freshwater to survive.
—Sandra Postel, Sandra Postel, Global Water Policy Project,
Grist Magazine 26 Apr 04
Clean water is not an expenditure of Federal funds; clean water is an investment in the future of our
country.
—Bud Shuster, U.S. Representative,
quoted in The Washington, Post, 1 Sep 1987
No one can see their reflection in running water. It is only in still water that we can see.
—Taoist proverb
As water runs towards the sword, money towards the rich man’s hand.
—Proverb
We used to think that energy and water would be the critical issues for the next century. Now we think
water will be the critical issue.
—Mostafa Tolba of Egypt,
former heard of the United Nations Environment Program
Like swift water, an active mind never stagnates.
Water flows humbly to the lowest level.

Nothing is weaker than water,
Yet for overcoming what is hard and strong,
Nothing surpasses it.
—Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching
APPENDIX XIV 383
To trace the history of a river… is to trace the history of the soul, the history of the mind descending and
arising in the body.
—Gretel Ehrlich
A good word extinguishes more than a pailful of water.

—Author: Proverb
Water is the only drink for a wise man.

—Henry David Thoreau
The noblest of the elements is water

—Pindar, 476 B.C.
Next to blood relationships come water relationships.

—Stanley Crawford, Mayordomo
Water, fire, and soldiers, quickly make room.

—Author: George Herbert
Water is a very good servant, but it is a cruel master.

—C.G.D. Roberts, Adrift in America, 1891
The wars of the twenty-first century will be fought over water.

—Ismail Serageldin, World Bank Vice President for
Environmental Affairs, quoted in Marq de Villiers’ Water, 2000
Water is fundamental for life and health. The human right to water is indispensable for leading a healthy
life in human dignity. It is a pre-requisite to the realization of all other human rights.
—The United Nations Committee on Economic, Cultural and
Social Rights, Environment News Service, 27 Nov 02
Rivers are roads which move, and which carry us whither we desire to go
—By Blaise Pascal–famous water sayings
Water is sometimes sharp and sometimes strong, sometimes acid and sometimes bitter, sometimes sweet
and sometimes thick or thin, sometimes it is seen bringing hurt or pestilence, sometime health-giving,
sometimes poisonous. It suffers change into as many natures as are the different places through which it
passes. And as the mirror changes with the colour of its subject, so it alters with the nature of the place,
becoming noisome, laxative, astringent, sulfurous, salty, incarnadined, mournful, raging, angry, red,
yellow, green, black, blue, greasy, fat or slim. Sometimes it starts a conflagration, sometimes it extinguishes
one; is warm and is cold, carries away or sets down, hollows out or builds up, tears or establishes, fills or
empties, raises itself or burrows down, speeds or is still; is the cause at times of life or death, or increase or
privation, nourishes at times and at others does the contrary; at times has a tang, at times is without savor,
sometimes submerging the valleys with great floods. In time and with water, everything changes
—Leonardo da Vinci
384 APPENDIX XIV
When you drink the water, remember of spring

—Chinese Proverb
When the well is dry, we learn the worth of water

—Benjamin Franklin
It is the surplus water that causes danger than the stored.
Too much or too little of water and its quality has always been responsible for the largest number
of diseases and deaths.
Civilization is the dialogue between man and nature.
The movement of heavenly bodies despite their distances from earth have presented fewer difficul-
ties to me than the movement of water which is within my reach
—Galileo
Rain is a blessing when it falls gently on parched fields, turning the earth green, causing the birds to
sing.
—Donald Worster, Meeting the Expectation of Land, 1984
The cure for anything is salt water—sweat, tears, or the sea.

—Tagore–a Bengali poet and novelist
Water should not be judged by its history, but by its quality

—Dr Lucas Van Vuuren, National Institute of Water Research, South Africa
A waster of water is a waster of better.

—Old Irish Adage
The heart of the wise man lies quiet like limpid water .
—Geographical Origin Cameroon
It is really important to solve the problem of rational utilization and distribution of water supplies.
I dare say, the shortage of fresh water is the major ecological problem of this moment.
—Mikhail Gorbachev, President of Green Cross International
quoted in Peter Swanson’s Water: The Drop of Life, 2001
Water is the driver of Nature.

—Leonardo da Vinci
The good rain, like the bad preacher, does not know when to leave off.
—Ralph Waldo Emerson
Water, taken in moderation, cannot hurt anybody.
—Mark Twain
APPENDIX XIV 385
Any water in the desert will do.

—Geographical Origin Saudi Arabia
For the benefit of the flowers, we water the thorns, too.

—Geographical Origin Egypt
Water links us to our neighbor in a way more profound and complex than any other.
—John Thorson
Aquifer: a mysterious, magical and poorly defined area beneath the surface of the earth that either
yields or withhold vast or lesser quantities of standing/flowing water, the quantity and/or quality of
which is dependent on who is describing it or how much money may be at stake.
—R. Radden, “Watershed Resources”, Jan. 2002
Irrigation of the land with seawater desalinated by fusion power is ancient It’s called rain
—Michael McClary
Don’t empty the water jar until the falls.

—Philippine proverb
We forget that the water cycle and the life cycle are one.
—Jacques Cousteau
A used plough shines, standing water stinks.

—Author: Proverb
You should respect each other and refrain from disputes; you should not, like Water and oil, repel each
other, but should, like milk and water, mingle together.
—Buddha quotes, (Hindu Prince Gautams ***
the founder of Buddhism, 563–483 B.C.)
Muddy water, let stand - becomes clear

—Lao Tzu quotes (Chinese Taoist Philosopher).
The wise adapt themselves to circumstances, as water moulds itself to the pitcher
—Anonymous (Chinese Proverb) quotes
Like swift water, an active mind never stagnates.
By means of water, we give life to everything.

—Koran, 21:30
Beware of still water, a still dog, and a still enemy.

—Proverb
The wise man of Miletus thus declared the first of things is water
—J.S. Blackie, 1877
386 APPENDIX XIV
Nothing on earth is so weak and yielding as water, but for breaking down the firm and strong it has no
equal.
—Lao-Tsze
In sweet water there is a pleasure ungrudged by anyone.

—Ovid, 13 AD
*** ***
Bibliography
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Kulandaiswamy, V. C. 1971. Lecture Notes on Hydrology, Guindy: ISTE Summer School.
Linsley, R. K., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus, 1988. Hydrology for Engineers, New York:
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Varshney, R. S. 1986. Engineering Hydrology, Roorkee: Nem Chand & Bros.
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Index
A Artificial neural network, 11
T h2 Artificial precipitation, 57
K dh , 338
A∫ ∫
= − Atmosphere, 7, 16, 17
0 h1
h density and pressure of, 17
∆t, 289 existence of, 17
selection of, 289 its constituents, 16
⌽ index, 116 carbon dioxide, 17
Abstractions, 98 humidity, 17
depression storage, 99 inert gases, 16
evaporation, 99 nitrogen, 16
infiltration, 99 oxygen, 16
interception, 99 ozone, 17
Actual observations, 33 vertical structure of, 17
Aeration zone, 316 Automatic rain gauges, 60
Air, 19, 21, 53 Automatic water level recorder, 240
mechanism to cool, 53 Average daily temperature, 21
current, 19
front, 21 B
mass, 21 Bank storage, 185
Air-line corrections, 255 Barlow’s method, 196
Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur formula, 216 Barometric pressure, 28
Altitude, 28 Base flow graph, 133
Anemometer, 19 extension of, 133
Annual flood series, 219 Base flow, 128
Antecedent precipitation index, 186, 211 Base period, 129
Anticyclone, 22 Basic flow, See Base flow
Apparent velocity, 321 Basin, 210
Aquiclude, 319 shape of, 210
Aquifer, 318, 320 size of, 210
parameters of, 320 Binnie’s table, 192
Aquifuge, 319 Blizzard, 56
Aquitard, 329 Broad-crested weir, 268
Area of influence, 330
Area–slope method, 244, 245 C
demerits of, 245 California formula, 219
merits of, 245 Capillary fringe, See Capillary zone
Area–velocity method, 246 Capillary zone, 317
area of flow, 246 Catchment, 188
velocity of flow, 246 geographical characteristics of, 188
Arithmetic average method, 66 meteorological characteristics of, 188
Arithmetic mean method, 72 shape of, 188
Artesian well, 319 size of, 188
390 INDEX
Catchment area, 178, 181 Dependable flow, 202

relief of, 181 Depression head, 330, 336
slope of, 181 Depression storage, 9
Cavity well, 327 Depth–area–duration analysis, 88
Central Water Commission method, 165 Deterministic process, 10, 11
for Indian catchments, 165 Dew-point temperature, 18
Chemical, See Salt Dickens formula, 216
Chemicals normally used, 43 Dimensionless unit hydrograph, 165
cetyl alcohol, 43 Discharge, 236, 237
hexadecanol alcohol, 43 definition, 236
stearyl alcohol, 43 units of, 237
Chemosphere See Mesosphere Discharge computations, 258
Circularity ratio, 181 Discharge frequency curve, 203
Climatic conditions, 100 Discharge measurement, 236
Coefficient of permeability, 321 basic principle, 237
Cold front, 21 importance of, 236
Collin’s method, 159 objectives of, 237
Colloidal instability, 53 Discharge velocity, 321
Colloidal stability, 53 Discharging well, 329
Compactness coefficient, 181 Distribution graph, 166
Complex storm, 127 Dominant abstraction, 99
Composite recession curve, 129 Double mass curve method, 69
Concentration limb, 128 Double-ring infiltrometer, 102
Concentration time, 128 Double-tube flooding infiltrometer, 102
Condensation, 26, 53 Drainage area, 178
mechanism to produce, 53 Drainage basin, 178
Cone of depression, 330 Drainage density, 180
Confined aquifer, 319, 324, 333 Drainage net, 188
steady radial flow in, 333 effect of, 188
Connate water, 316 Drawdown head, 330, 336
Convective precipitation, 56 Droplet growth, 53
Crest gauge, 241 mechanism of, 53
Crest segment, 128 Dug well, 325
Critical depression head, 337
Critical yield, 337 E
Cross-sectional area, 242 Earth, 3
evaluation of, 242 quantity of water available on, 3
Cup-type current meter, 253 Echo sounder, 243
Current meter, 254, 255 Effective porosity, 321
lowering, 255 Effective rainfall, 99
observations by, 254 Effluent stream, 187, 329
Cyclone, 21 Electric resistance-type water level recorder, 240
causes of, 22 Electric-resistivity method, 335
Cyclonic precipitation, 55 Electromagnetic induction method, 271
Elongation ratio, 181
D Embodying sciences, 3
Darcy’s law, 320 cryology, 3
Darcy’s velocity, 321 glaciology, 3
Deep well, 325, 326 hydrography, 3
Delayed interflow, 192 hydrometry, 3
INDEX 391
limnology, 3 definition, 209

oceanolog, 3 estimation of, 213
potamology, 3 factors affecting, 210
Empirical formulae, 192, 197, 216 features of, 210
Energy budget method, 31 Flood attenuation, 289
Entrapped air, 101 Flood routing, 287, 298
Envelope curve, 214 through channels, 287
Ephemeral stream, 188 through reservoir, 298
Evaporation, 8, 9, 25, 26, 29, 42 Flooding-type infiltrometers, 101
control of, 42 Flood-routing machines, 286
Dalton’s law of, 26 Flood-routing procedure, 284, 285
definition, 25 definition, 284
estimation of, 29 types of, 285
factors affecting, 27 Flow duration curve, 203
necessity of estimation of, 27 Flowing well, 319
process of, 25 Forestation, 55
Evaporation opportunity, 46 Form factor, 180
Evapotranspiration, 45 Fossil water, 316
measurement of, 45 Free aquifer, 318
Excess rainfall, 99, 135 Free-flowing well, 319
Exosphere, 18 Frequency, 83, 219
Extratropical cyclone, 22 Freshwater, 4
Extreme conditions, 224 Fuzzy logic, 13
probability of, 224
Eye of the storm, 22 G
Genetic algorithm, 12
F Geographical information system, 12
Fair weather runoff, See Sustained flow Global water budget, 3
Falling curve, 128 Gravity wells, 326
fAV, 117 Ground surface condition, 100
Field capacity, 322 Groundwater, 315, 316, 336, 341
Fitzgerald formula, 40 definition, 315
Fixing gauges, 239 mining of, 336
Float method, 249, 251, 252 peculiarities of, 316
demerits of, 252 recharging of, 341
merits of, 252 sources of, 315
types of, 251 Groundwater basin, 336
Floating covers, 43 safe yield from, 336
Floating pan, 37 Groundwater divide, 178
Float-type automatic water level recorder, 240 Groundwater exploration, 335
Flood, 209, 210, 212, 213 Groundwater flow, 10, 192
causes of, 210 Groundwater movement, 329
classification of, 212 Gumbell probability paper, 227
annual flood, 212 Gumbell’s distribution, 225
design flood, 212 Gumbell’s formula, 219
flash flood, 213
maximum observed flood, 212 H
maximum-probable flood, 212 Hazen’s formula, 219
mean annual maximum floodm 212 Horton equation, 114
N-year flood, 213 Human activities, 100
392 INDEX
Humidity, 19 practical use of, 3

measurement of, 19 drainage, 3
Hurricane, 56 erosion and sediment transport, 3
Hydraulic conductivity, 321 flood control, 3
Hydraulic flood routing, 285 hydroponics, 3
Hydraulic model method, 270 hydropower, 3
Hydraulic structures, 263 irrigation, 3
discharge measurement by, 263 navigation, 3
Hydrograph, 125, 126, 128 waste-water disposal, 3
analysis of, 128 water supply, 3
area of, 126 sub-branches of, 2
definition, 125 applied hydrology, 2
Hydrologic flood routing, 285 engineering hydrology, 2
Hydrological cycle, 7 scientific hydrology, 2
liquid-transport phases of, 10 synthetic hydrology, 2
processes in, 9 Hydrometeorology, 16
quantitative analysis of, 8 Hydrosphere, 7
vapour-transport phases of, 10 Hyetograph, 58
water-holding elements of, 10 Hyetometer, 57
Hydrological equation, 11 Hygrograph, 19
Hydrological process, 10 Hygroscopic nucleus, 53
Hydrology, 1–3, 5, 6
definition, 1 I
history of, 3 Ice crystal theory, 54
importance of, 2 Inclined gauges, 239
in ancient India, 6 Infiltration, 9, 99, 101
influence of, 3 factors affecting, 99
agriculture, 3 measurement of, 101
ecology, 3 process of, 99
forestry, 3 Infiltration indices, 116
geography, 3 Infiltration rate, 99
hydro-economics, 3 Inflow–outflow measurements, 46
political sciences, 3 Influent stream, 187, 329
sociology, 3 Instantaneous unit hydrograph, 170
watershed management, 3 derivation of, 170
overlapping areas of, 3 Intensity duration analysis, 84
biohydrology, 3 Intensity–duration curve, 84
geohydrology, 3 Intensity–frequency–duration analysis, 86
hydrobiology, 3 Interception, 9
hydrogeology, 3 Interface, 340
hydrometeorology, 3 Interflow, 10, 191
phases of development of, 5 secondary base flow, 10
period of empiricism, 6 storm seepage, 10
period of experimentation, 5 sub-surface runoff, 10
period of measurement, 5 sub-surface storm flow, 10
period of modernization, 6 Intermediate zone, 316
period of observations, 5 Intermittent stream, 187
period of rationalization, 6 Interstitial water, 316
period of speculation, 5 Ionosphere, 18
period of theorization, 6 Isohyet, 74
INDEX 393
Isohyetal method, 74 Normal ratio method, 67

Isolated storm, 127 Notches, 263
Isopluvial map, 87 cippolette notch, 263
rectangular notch, 263
K trapezoidal notch, 263
K and X, 291 triangular notch, 263
determination of, 291
Karst topography, 184 O
Karstic regions, 184 Observation wells, 330
Khosla’s formula, 199 Observed flood, 213
estimation of, 213
increase of, 213
L
Oceans and seas, 54
Lag, See Translation
nearness of, 54
Lake mead formula, 40
Ogee-shaped weir, 269
Land pan, 37
Ombrometer, 57
Lapse rate, 21
Open well, 325
Leaky aquifer, 319
Ordinate graph, 58
Length of the stream, See Watershed length
Orographic precipitation, 56
Lithosphere, 7
Overdraft, 336
Livingstone atmometer, 33
Overland flow, 185
Log-Pearson type III distribution, 228
Lysimeter method, 45
P
Pan, 34
M Pan coefficient, 33
Mass transfer method, 33 factors affecting, 37
Master depletion curve, 129, 131 colour of pan, 37
Master recession curve, 129 depth of water in the pan, 37
Maximum safe yield, 337 diameter of pan, 37
Maximum yield, 337 height of rim of pan above the water level, 37
Mechanical covers, 42 location of pan, 37
Mesopause, See Mesosphere material used for pan, 37
Mesosphere, 18 Pan observations, 33
Meyer’s formula, 40 Parshall flume, 267
Moisture, 54 Partial duration flood series, 219
mechanism to produce accumulation of, 54 Peak discharge, 128
Mountains, 54 Perched groundwater, 320
presence of, 54 Perennial stream, 188
relative position, 54 Permeability, 320
Moving average curve, 81 Phreatic aquifer, 318
Moving-boat technique, 272 Phreatic divide, 178
Muskingum method, 287 Phreatic zone, 317
Muskingum routing equation, 288 Piche atmometer, 33
Muskingum storage equation, 288 Pluviometer, 57
Point of contraflexure, 128
N Point of inflection, See Point of contraflexure
Network of channel, 188 Point rainfall, 60
Non-artesian aquifer, 318 Porosity, 320
Non-recording rain gauge, 60 primary, 320
Normal average temperature, 21 secondary, 320
394 INDEX
Potential evapotranspiration, 45 types of, 59

Powell’s probability paper, 227 consistency verification of, 69
Practical cases, 302 Rain gauge density, 79
Practical porosity, 321 Raindrop, 52
Precipitation, 8, 9, 51–55, 57, 59, 71, 188, 201, 210 terminal velocity of, 52
average depth of, 71 Rainfall, 65
deducting abstractions from, 201 radar measurement of, 65
definition, 51 characteristics, 99
different forms of, 52 Rainfall–runoff correlation, 192, 193, 201
cloudburst, 52 Rainy days, 65
dew, 52 Ranking, 202
drizzle, 52 Rating curve, 274
fog, 52 extrapolation of, 274
glaze, 52 Rational formula, 199, 216
hail, 52 Recession curve, 129, 130
rain, 52 equation of, 130
sleet, 52 Recession discharge analysis, 132
smog, 52 Recharging well, 329
snow, 52 Recuperation test, 338
factors affecting, 54 Recurrence interval, 219
mass curve of, 59 Regeneration, 192
measurement of, 57 Relative humidity, 18
process of, 53 Remote sensing, 11
types of, 55 Remote-sensing method, 336
Precipitation cycle, 55 Ridge line, 178
Precipitation measurement, 57 Rising curve AC, 128
history of, 57 Risk, 231
Precipitation over India, 89 River, 238
Prevalent wind direction, 55 stage of, 238
Primitive water, 316 Rod float, 251
Prism storage, 287 Rohwer’s formula, 40
Probabilistic, See Stochastic Runoff, 8, 177, 186, 188, 191
Probability, 83, 219 components of, 191
Probability plotting, 219 definition, 177
Probable maximum precipitation, 83 factors affecting other factors, 188
Prompt interflow, 192 factors affecting, 188
Propeller-type current meter, 254 process of, 186
Psychometric tables, 19 sources of, 191
Psychrometer, 19 units of, 178
Puls method, 299 Runoff coefficient, 204
Pumping test, 337 Runoff cycle, 204
Q
Quick return flow, 192 S
S hydrograph, 143
R Safe depression head, 337
Radio-isotope method, 336 Salt, 262
Radius of influence, 330 properties of, 261
Rain gauge, 57–59, 69 Salt titration method, 261
selecting site for, 58 Salt water, 4
INDEX 395
Saturated vapour pressure, 18 Storm seepage, 192

Saturated zone, 317 Strainer well, 327
Saturation deficit, 18 Strange’s coefficient, 194
Sea water intrusion, 340 Stratopause See Stratosphere
Secondary base flow, 192 Stratosphere, 17
Seismic-refraction method, 335 Stream, 238, 241
Semi-confined aquifer, 319 cross-sectional area of, 241
Semi-log analysis, 131 wading, 238
Separate base flow, 130 Stream channel, 191
Shallow well, 325, 326 direct precipitation on, 191
Shape factor, 181 Stream density, 180
Simple judgement, 130 Stream frequency, See Stream density
Simply basin, 178 Stream gauging network, 277
Simply divide, See Watershed divide, 178 Stream order, 179
Single-ring infiltrometer, 102 Stream patterns, 188
Single-tube flooding infiltrometer, 102 anastomising pattern, 188
Siphon bucket-type rain gauge, 61 dendrite type, 188
Sir Inglis formula, 198, 216 parallel pattern, 188
Site, 241 pinnate type
selection of, 241 radial pattern, 188
Size, 28 rectangular pattern, 188
Slotted tube well, 327 tree like, 188
Snyder method, 161 trellis pattern, 188
Soil characteristics, 100 Stream-flow routing, 287
Soil evaporation, 46 Sublimation, 25
Soil moisture, 100 Subsurface runoff, 192
Soil–water zone, 316 Subsurface storm flow, 192
Solar radiation, 27 Sunken pan, 38
Specific capacity, 337 Sunspots, 55
Specific yield, 321, 337 Supplementing rainfall data, 66
Spring, 319 Supporting sciences, 2
Sprinkling-type infiltrometer, 104 biology, 2
Stage, 238 chemistry, 2
measurement of, 238 fluid mechanics, 2
Stage discharge relation, 274 geology, 2
Standard tables, 192 mathematics, 2
Standing wave flume, 267 operation research, 2
Station, 54 physics, 2
height of, 54 statistics, 2
Station rainfall, See Point rainfall Surface area reduction, 42
Station year method, 83 Surface detention, 9
Statistical methods, 219 Surface films, 43
Steady one-dimensional groundwater flow, 322 Surface float, 251
Stochastic process, 10, 11 characteristics of, 251
Storage time constant, 288 Surface front, 21
Storativity, 321 Surface runoff, 10, 191
Storm, 52, 83, 88, 211 Surface waves, 29
movement of, 211 Suspension weight method, 239
recurrence interval of, 83 Sustained flow, 128
transposition of, 88 Synthetic unit hydrograph, 161
396 INDEX
T changing of time of, 146

Temperature, 20, 27 increase in the time of, 146
factors affecting, 20 reduction in the time of, 152
measurement of, 20 Units, 125
Test-drilling method, 336 Unlined wells, 326
Thermohygrograph, 19 Unsaturated zone, 316
Thiessen polygon method, 72 Urbanization, 55
Thiessen’s weights, 73
Throttled flumes, 266 V
Through fall, 9 Vadose zone, 316
Through flow, 192 Valley storage, 185
Time of concentration, See Concentration time Vapour diffusion, 9
Tipping bucket-type rain gauge, 62 Vapour pressure, 18
Topographic divide, 178 Ven Te Chow’s backward substitution method, 158
Topographic water divide, 178 Ven Te Chow’s forward substitution method, 157
Tornado, 56
Translation, 289 W
Transmissibility, 322 W index, 117
Transpiration, 9, 44 Warm front, 21
factors affecting moisture available, 44 Water, 6, 28
factors affecting stage of plant development, 44 depth of, 28
factors affecting sunlight, 44 flow velocity of, 29
factors affecting, 44 properties of, 6
measurement of, 44 quality of, 28
reduction, 44 Water budget method, 29
Triangular unit hydrograph, 169 Water cycle, See Hydrological cycle
Tropical cyclone, 21 Water divining, 336
Tropopause, See Troposphere Water potential, 237, 238
Troposphere, 17 units of, 238
Tube infiltrometers, 103 Water surface, 28
drawbacks in, 103 colour of, 29
Type curve, 129 shape of, 28
Typhoon, 56 Water table aquifer, 318
Water table wells, 326
U Water year, 210
Ultrasonic method, 270 Watershed area, 178
Unconfined aquifer, 318, 323, 329 Watershed divide, 178
steady radial flow in, 329 Watershed leakage, 184
Unconfined wells, 326 Watershed length, 180
Unidirectional flow, 322 Water-stage recorder, 239
Unit hydrograph procedure, 136, 139, 155, 159, 217 Wedge storage, 287
use of, 139 Weibull’s formula, 219
averaging of, 159 Weighing bucket-type rain gauge, 63
definition of, 137 Weighing factor, 288
derivation of, 155 Weighted average method, 68
specifications of, 137 Weirs, 268
Unit hydrograph theory, 138, 145 Well, 326, 337
assumptions made in, 138 safe yield from, 337
limitations of, 145 with impervious lining, 326
Unit precipitation, 146, 152 with pervious lining, 326
INDEX 397
Well hydraulics, 325 Wind shields, 43

Well interference, 340 Wind vanes, 19
Wet-bulb temperature, 19 Wmin index, 117
Wet-line corrections, 255 Working head, 337
Wetness, 66
index of, 66 Y
Wind, 20, 27 Yield of catchment, 177
effect of, 20

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ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING

Delhi • Chennai • Chandigarh

Head Office: 482, F.I.E., Patparganj, Delhi 110 092, India.

Typeset by Astral Premedia Pvt. Ltd.

Printed in India by Tara Art Printers.

Preface ix 4.4 Factors Affecting Pr ecipitation 54

3. Evaporation and Transpiration 25 6. Hydrograph 125

7. Runoff 177 9.8 Hydraulic Model Method 270

11. Groundwater 315

1, Amraphal Apartments, M. J. Deodhar

1.1 Definition 1.4 Properties of water

1.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGY

1.1.2 SUB-BRANCHES OF HYDROLOGY

1.1.3 SUPPORTING SCIENCES

1.1.4 OVERLAPPING AREAS OF HYDROLOGY

1.1.5 INFLUENCE OF HYDROLOGY

1.1.6 PRACTICAL USE OF HYDROLOGY

1.1.7 EMBODYING SCIENCES

g 1.2 QUANTITY OF WATER AVAILABLE ON THE EARTH

1.2.1 GLOBAL WATER BUDGET

g 1.3 HISTORY OF HYDROLOGY

Table 1.1 Various forms of water available on the earth

Qualitative measurements of the hydrological processes were started by Pierr Perrault

1.3.1 PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY

1.3.2 HYDROLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA

g 1.4 PROPERTIES OF WATER

Sea water intrusion

Fig. 1.1 Engineering representation of the hydrological cycle

g 1.5 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Rain clouds Cloud

Fig. 1.2 Descriptive representation of the hydrological cycle

1.5.1 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Area Total quantity Annual average

Fig. 1.3 Disposition of global annual average precipitation

1.5.2 PROCESSES IN HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

1.5.3 WATER-HOLDING ELEMENTS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

1.5.4 LIQUID-TRANSPORT PHASES OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

1.5.5 VAPOUR-TRANSPORT PHASES OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

g 1.6 HYDROLOGICAL PROCESS

1.6.1 DETERMINISTIC PROCESS

1.6.2 STOCHASTIC PROCESS

1.6.3 THE HYDROLOGICAL EQUATION

g 1.7 MODERN TECHNIQUES

1.7.1 REMOTE SENSING

1.7.2 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK

A neural network is an interconnected assembly of simple processing elements, units, nodes or

1.7.3 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

1.7.4 GENETIC ALGORITHM

1.7.5 FUZZY LOGIC

18. Write short notes on

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

2. The science of measurement of water is

5. The per cent of salt water on the earth is

6. The total area covered by oceans on the earth is

7. The total area covered by land on the earth is

8. The average annual precipitation on the earth is

ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

2.1 Definition 2.4 Wind

2.1.1 ATMOSPHERE AND ITS CONSTITUENTS

(D) Energy utilized by water for evaporation ( 3.42 2.0) 1012c al

2. Amount of water received due to precipitation 0.785 103 20 103 15.706l it

Quantity of water received by the pan 1.767 103 10 103