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MODULE TITLE: Applying Object-Oriented Programming Language Skills

MODULE DESCRIPTION:
This module aims to provide the trainees with the knowledge, skills and right attitude required to
undertake programming tasks using an object oriented programming language. Competence includes
tool usage, documentation, debugging and testing techniques in support of the programming activity.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the module the trainees will be able to:
LO1 Apply basic language syntax and layout
LO2 Apply basic OOP principles in the target language
LO3 Debug code
LO4 Document activities
LO5 Test code
MODULE CONTENTS:
LO1. Apply basic language syntax and layout

1.1. Understanding Basic language syntax rules and best practices

What are the Basic programming languages?
Some of the basic programming languages are:

 C, C++, JAVA, Visual Studio (Visual basic.Net, C-Sharp(C#), and Visual C++), and so on.

Syntax is a rule that specify how valid instructions (constructs) are written.

Example: C++ Basic Syntax contains:

 Headers (Package)  Variable
 Return type  Data type
 Main function

o Header: The C++ language defines several headers, which contain information that is necessary
to your program.

o Function: function is a portion of code within a larger program, which performs a specific task and
is relatively independent of the remaining code.

o Return type: Return type is used to terminate main( ) function and causes it to return the value to
its type.

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If a function is defined as having a return type of void, it should not return a value.
If a function is defined as having a return type other than void, it should return a value.

o Main function: The main function ( Main() ) is a function where program execution begins.

o Variable: A variable is the name for a memory location where you store some data. A variable in
C++ must be declared (the type of variable) and defined (values assigned to a variable) before it can
be used in a program.

1.2. Understanding Data-Types, Operators and Expressions

Data type: A data type defines which kind of data will store in variables and also defines memory
storage of data.
There are two kinds of data types User defined data types and Standard data types.

The C++ language allows you to create and use data types other than the fundamental data types.
These types are called user-defined data types.
In C++ language, there are four main data types
• int
• float
• double
• char
1. Character data type
 A keyword char is used for character data type. This data type is used to represents letters or
symbols.
 A character variable occupies 1 byte on memory.

2. Integer data types

Integers are those values which have no decimal part and they can be positive or negative. Like 12
or -12.
There are 3 data types for integers
a. int
b. short int
c. long int

int
 int keyword is used for integers. It takes two bytes in memory.

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There are two more types of int data type.

i. Signed int    or short int (2nd type of integer data type)       
ii. Unsigned int or unsigned short int

Signed int: The range of storing value of signed int variable is -32768 to 32767.It can interact
with both positive and negative value.

Unsigned int: This type of integers cannot handle negative values. Its range is 0 to 65535.

Long int 
 As its name implies, it is used to represent larger integers.
 It takes 4byte in memory and its range is -2147483648 to 2147483648.

Float: This type of data type is defined for fractional numbers.

There are two further type of data type for fractional numbers.
Below table is Displaying: 
 Number of bytes or memory taken by numbers. Decimal places up to which they can represent
value.

Data type                Bytes        Decimal places    Range of values

float                          4                        6                3.4E -38 to3.4E+38

double                      8                        15               1.7E - 308 to1.7E +308

long double              10                      19               3.4E -4932 to 304E +4932

Constant
Constant is a data type whose value is never changes and remains the same through the
programme execution.
Example: - Area of the circle A=πr2 ; const float π=3.14

- Total number of days in a week=7 ;

- Total hours in a day=24

- Body temperature of human=23C0;

Here the value of above listed can be treated as a constant through the program execution.

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The four basic data types in C++, their meaning, and their size are:

Size
Size
(b
Type Meaning (by
it
tes)
s)

a single byte, capable of

char holding one 1 byte 8 bits
character

int an integer 2 bytes 16 bits

single-precision floating
float 4 bytes 32 bits
point number

double-precision
double floating point 8 bytes 64 bits
number

Byte is the smallest addressable memory unit.  Bit, which comes from BInary digiT, is a memory
unit that can store either a 0 or a 1.   A byte has 8 bits.  

Operators in C++
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical
manipulations.
C++ is rich in built-in operators and provides following type of operators:
 Arithmetic Operators  Scope resolution operator
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Increment Operator
 Assignment Operators
 Decrement Operator

Arithmetic Operators:
The following arithmetic operators are supported by C++ language:

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Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then:

Operato
Description Example
r

+ Adds two operands

Subtracts second operand

-
from the first

* Multiply both operands

Divide numerator by de-

/
numerator
Modulus Operator and remainder of after
%
an integer division
Increment operator, increases integer value A++ will give
++
by one 11
Decrement operator, decreases integer
-- A-- will give 9
value by one

Relational Operators:
The following relational operators are supported by C++ language:
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then:
Operato
Description Example
r
Checks if the value of two operands (A == B) is not
==
is equal or not, true.
Checks if the value of two operands
!= (A != B) is true.
is equal or not,
Checks if the value of left operand is
(A > B) is not
> greater than the value of right
true.
operand,
Checks if the value of left operand is
< (A < B) is true.
less than the value of right operand,

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Checks if the value of left operand is

(A >= B) is not
>= greater than or equal to the value of
true.
right operand,
Checks if the value of left operand is
<= less than or equal to the value of (A <= B) is true.
right operand,

Logical/Boolean operator:
The following logical operators are supported by C++ language:
Assume variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0 then:
Operato
Description Example
r
If both the operands are non-zero
&& (A && B) is false.
then condition becomes true.
If any of the two operands is non-
|| (A || B) is true.
zero then condition becomes true.
Use to reverses the logical state of its
operand. If a condition is true then
! !(A && B) is true.
Logical NOT operator will make
false.

Assignment Operators:
Assignment operator is used for assign/initialize a value to the variable during the program execution.
The following assignment operators are supported by C++ language:
Opera
Description Example
tor
Simple assignment operator, Assigns
C = A + B will assign value of
= values from right side operands to left
A + B into C
side operand
Add AND assignment operator, It
C += A is equivalent to C = C
+= adds right operand to the left operand
+A
and assign the result to left operand
-= Subtract AND assignment operator, C -= A is equivalent to C = C

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It subtracts right operand from the left

operand and assign the result to left –A
operand
Multiply AND assignment operator,
It multiplies right operand with the left C *= A is equivalent to C =
*=
operand and assign the result to left C*A
operand
Divide AND assignment operator, It
divides left operand with the right C /= A is equivalent to C =
/=
operand and assign the result to left C/A
operand
Modulus AND assignment operator,
C %= A is equivalent to C =
%= It takes modulus using two operands
C%A
and assign the result to left operand

Increment Operator (++): This operator is used for increment the value of an operand.
Example: assume that A=20 and B=12, then ++A=21, ++B=12 and A++=20, B++=12

Decrement Operators (--):This operator is used for decrement the value of an operand.
Example: assume that B=14 and C=10, then –B=13, --C=9 and B-- =14, C--=10
Scope resolution operator (::)
This operator is used to differentiate a local variable from the global variable. The variable having the same
name can have different meaning at different block.
Expression:
Expressions are formed by combining operators and operands together following the programming language.
Compile & Execute C++ Program:
Lets look at how to save the file, compile and run the program. Please follow the steps given below:
 Open a text editor and write the code  Debug the code.
 Save the file as : hello.cpp
 You will be able to see ' Hello World ' printed
 Compile it to check if it has error on the window.

Semicolons & Blocks in C++:

In C++, the semicolon is a statement terminator. Each individual statement must be ended with a semicolon.

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For example, following are three different statements: x = y;

y = y+1;
add(x, y);
A block is a set of logically connected statements that are surrounded by opening and closing braces. For
example:
{
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World
return 0;
}

1.3. Using the Appropriate Language Syntax for Sequence, Selection and Iteration Constructs
Control Structures in C++ is a Statement that used to control the flow of execution in a program.
There are three types of Control Structures:
1. Sequence structure
2. Selection structure
3. Loops/ Repetition/ Iteration
Sequence Structure in C++
The sequence structure is built into C++ statements that execute one after the other in the order in
which they are written—that is, in sequence. Break and continue statements are example of sequence
control structure.

The ‘break’ statement causes an immediate exit from the inner most ‘while’, ‘do…while’, ‘for loop’
or from a ‘switch- case’ statement.
If you are using nested loops (ie. one loop inside another loop), the break statement will stop the
execution of the innermost loop and start executing the next line of code after the block.

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Flow Diagram:

Example:
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int a = 10; // Local variable declaration:
do{ // do loop execution
cout << "value of a: " << a << endl;
a = a + 1;
if( a > 15)
{
break;
}
}while( a < 20 );
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15

The goto statement provides an unconditional jump from the goto to a labeled statement in the same
function.

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Syntax of a goto statement in C++:

goto label;
..
.
label: statement;

Where label is an identifier that identifies a labeled statement. A labeled statement is any statement
that is preceded by an identifier followed by a colon (:).
Flow Diagram:

Example:
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int a = 10; // Local variable declaration:

LOOP:do // do loop execution

{
if( a == 15)
{
a = a + 1; // skip the iteration.
goto LOOP;
}
cout << "value of a: " << a << endl;
a = a + 1;
}while( a < 20 );

return 0;

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}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19
The continue statement is similar to ‘break’ statement but instead of terminating the loop, the continue
statement returns the loop execution if the test condition is satisfied.
Flow Diagram:

Example:
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int a = 10; // Local variable declaration:

do{ // do loop execution

if( a == 15)
{
a = a + 1; // skip the iteration.
continue;

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}
cout << "value of a: " << a << endl;
a = a + 1;
}while( a < 20 );

return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

Selection statements in C++

There are basically two types of control statements in c++ that allows the programmer to modify the
regular sequential execution of statements. They are selection and iteration statements.
The selection statements allow to choose a set of statements for execution depending on a condition.
If statement and switch statement are the two selection statements.
If ... else statement:
Syntax: if (expression or condition)
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
}
Else
{
Statement 3;
Statement 4;
}
If the condition is true, statement1 and statement2 is executed; otherwise statement 3 and statement 4 is
executed.
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The expression or condition is any expression built using relational operators which either yields true or
false condition.
Flow Diagram:

If the condition evaluates to true, then the if block of code will be executed otherwise else block of
code will be executed. Following program implements the if statement.
# include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
int num;
cout<<"Please enter a number"<<endl;
cin>>num;
if ((num%2) == 0)
cout<<num <<" is a even number";
else
cout<<num <<" is a odd number";
}
The above program accepts a number from the user and divides it by 2 and if the remainder (remainder
is obtained by modulus operator) is zero, it displays the number is even, otherwise it is odd.
you must use the relational operator ‘ ==’ to compare whether remainder is equal to zero or not.

Switch statement
One alternative to nested if statement is the switch statement which allows a variable to be tested for
equality against a list of values. Each value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is
checked for each case.
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Syntax:
Switch (variablename)
{
case value1: statement1; break;
case value2: statement2; break;
case value3: statement3; break;
default: statement4;
}
Flow Diagram:

Example: #include<iostream.h>
void main() {
int choice;
cout<< “Enter a value for choice \n”;
cin >> choice;
switch (choice)
{
case 1: cout << "First item selected!" << endl;
break;
case 2: cout << "Second item selected!" << endl;
break;

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case 3: cout << "Third item selected!" << endl;

break;
default: cout << "Invalid selection!" << endl;
}
}
Iteration statements in C++
Iteration or loops statements are important statements in c++, which helps to accomplish repeatitive
execution of programming statements.
There are three loop statements in C++. They are - while loop, do while loop and for loop.

While Loop
The while loop construct is a way of repeating loop body over and over again while a certain condition
remains true. Once the condition becomes false, the control comes out of the loop. Loop body
will execute only if condition is true.
Syntax: While (condition or expression)
{
Statement1;
Statement 2;
}
Flow Diagram:

The flow diagram indicates that a condition is first evaluated. If the condition is true, the loop
body is executed and the condition is re-evaluated. Hence, the loop body is executed repeatedly
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as long as the condition remains true. As soon as the condition becomes false, it comes out of the
loop and goes to display the output.
Example: #include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int n, i=1, sum=0;
cout<< "Enter a value for n \n";
cin>>n;
while(i<=n)
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}
cout<< "sum of the series is "<<sum;
}
Do …While loop
The do... while statement is the same as while loop except that the condition is checked after the
execution of statements in the do..while loop.
Syntax: do{
Statement;
While (test condition);
Statement;
}

Flow Diagram:

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Its functionality is exactly the same as the while loop, except that condition in the do-while loop is
evaluated after the execution of statement. Hence in do..while loop, Loop body execute once even if the
condition is false.

Example: #include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int n, i=1, sum=0;
cout<< "Enter a value for n \n";
cin>>n;
do{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
} while(i<=n);
cout<< "sum of the series is "<<sum;
}
For loop:
The for loop statements (loops or iteration statement) in C++ allow a program to execute a single
statement multiple times (repeatedly) , given the initial value, the condition, and increment/decrement
value.
syntax:
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for ( initial value ; test condition ; increment/decrement)

{
Statement;
}
Flow Diagram:

A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs to
execute a specific number of times.
Example: #include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int i, n, sum=0;
cout<< "Enter the value for n";
cin>>n;
for(i=1;i<=n; i++)
{
sum=sum+i;

}
cout<< "the sum is" <<sum;
}

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1.4. Using modular programming approach

Many programs are too long or complex to write as a single unit. Programming becomes
much simpler when the code is divided into small functional units (modules).
Modular programming is a programming style that breaks down program functions into modules,
each of which accomplishes one function and contains all the source code and
variables needed to accomplish that function.
Modular programs are usually easier to code, compile, debug, and change than large and complex
programs.

The benefits of modular programming are:

 Efficient Program Development
 Programs can be developed more quickly with the modular approach since small
subprograms are easier to understand, design, and test than large and complex
programs.
 Multiple Use of Subprograms
 Code written for one program is often useful in others.
 Ease of Debugging and Modifying

 Modular programs are generally easier to compile and debug than monolithic (large and
complex) programs.

1.5. Using arrays and arrays of objects

An Array is a collection of similar data items which shares a common name within the consecutive
memory.
An Array can be any data type, but it should be the collection of similar items.

Each item in an array is termed as ‘element’, but each element in an array can be accessed individually.
The number of element in an array must be declared clearly in the definition.

The size or number of elements in the array can be varied according to the user needs.

Syntax for array declaration:

DataType ArrayName [number of element in the array]

Example: int a[5]; - ‘int’ is the data type.

- ‘a’ is the array name.

- 5 is number of elements or size.

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int a[5] means a[0], a[1], a[2], a[3], a[4] or

int int int int int

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

- 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are called subscript which is used to define an array element position and is
called Dimension.

- Array index in C++ starts from 0 to n-1 if the size of array is n.

An individual element of an array is identified by its own unique index (or subscript).

NOTE: The elements field within brackets [], which represents the number of elements the array is
going to hold, must be a constant value.

Arrays of variables of type “class” are known as "Array of objects". The "identifier" used to refer the
array of objects is a user defined data type.

1.6. Methods and Namespace

A method (member function) is a function that is a member of a class. Function is a portion of code
within a larger program which performs a specific task and it is relatively independent
of the remaining code.
i.e.:- A function is a group of statements that can be executed when it is called from
some point of the program.
Syntax: Type functionName (parameter1, parameter2, ...)
{
statements
}
 Type is the data type specified for the data returned by the function.
 FunctionName is the identifier by which it will be possible to call the function.
 parameters (as many as needed): Each parameter consists of a data type specified for an
identifier (for example: int x) and which acts within the function as a regular local

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variable. They allow to pass arguments to the function when it is called. The different
parameters are separated by commas.
 Statements are the function's body. It is a block of statements surrounded by braces { }.

Example: #include <iostream.h>

int addition (int a, int b)
{
int sum;
sum=a+b;
return (sum);
}
int main ()
{
int z;
z = addition (5,3);
cout << "The result is " << z;
return 0;
} //The result is 8

Namespace
Namespaces are used in the visual C++ programming language to create a separate region for a group of
variables, functions and classes etc. Namespaces are needed because there can be many functions,
variables for classes in one program and they can conflict with the existing names of variables,
functions and classes.
Therefore, you may use namespace to avoid the conflicts.

A namespace definition begins with the keyword namespace followed by the namespace name as shown
bellow.

namespace namespace_name
{
// code declarations
}
Let us see how namespace scope the entities including variable and functions:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// first name space

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namespace first_space{
void func(){
cout << "Inside first_space" << endl;
}
}

// second name space

namespace second_space{
void func(){
cout << "Inside second_space" << endl;
}
}
int main ()
{
first_space::func(); // Calls function from first name space.
second_space::func(); // Calls function from second name space.
return 0;
}
If we compile and run above code, the code will produce following result:
Inside first_space
Inside second_space

A namespace declaration identifies and assigns a unique name to a user-declared namespace.

Such namespaces are used to solve the problem of name collision in large programs and libraries.
Programmers can use namespaces to develop new software components and libraries without causing
naming conflicts with existing components.

LO2. Apply basic OOP principles in the target language

2.1 Introduction to class
A class in C++ is an encapsulation of data members and functions that manipulate the data.
In terms of variables, a class would be the type, and an object would be the variable.

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Classes and Objects

A class is a type, and an object of this class is just a variable. Before we can use an object, it must be
created.

Classes are generally declared using the keyword class.

Syntax: class class_name {
access_specifier_1:
member1;
access_specifier_2:
member2;
...
} object_names;

Where class_name is a valid identifier for the class, object_names is an optional list of names for
objects of this class. The body of the declaration can contain members, that can be either data or
function declarations, or optionally access specifiers
.
These specifiers modify the access:
 Public: Access to all code in the program. public members are accessible from anywhere where the
object is visible.
 Private: Access to only members of the same class
 Protected: Access to members of same class and its derived classes

Example: #include <iostream.h>

class Rectangle {
int x, y;
public:
void set_values (int, int);
int area () {
return (x*y);
}
};
void Rectangle::set_values (int a, int b)
{
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x = a;
y = b;
}
int main () {
Rectangle rect;
rect.set_values (3,4);
cout << "area: " << rect.area();
return 0;
}

2.2. Class inheritance

Modern object-oriented (OO) languages provide 3 capabilities:
 Encapsulation
 Inheritance which can improve the design, structure and reusability of the code.
 Polymorphism

Encapsulation is the method of combining the data and functions inside a class. This hides the data
from being accessed from outside a class directly, only through the functions inside the class is able to
access the information.

This is also known as "Data Abstraction", as it gives a clear separation between properties of data type
and the associated implementation details. There are two types, they are "function abstraction" and
"data abstraction". Functions that can be used without knowing how its implemented is function
abstraction. Data abstraction is using data without knowing how the data is stored.

Features and Advantages of the concept of Encapsulation:

- Makes Maintenance of Application Easier:
- Improves the Understandability of the Application
- Enhanced Security
Example: #include <iostream.h>
class Add
{
private:
int x,y,r;
public:

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int Addition(int x, int y)

{
r= x+y;
return r;
}
void show( )
{
cout << "The sum is::" << r << "\n";}
}s;
void main()
{
Add s;
s.Addition(10, 4);
s.show();
}
Result: The sum is:: 14

Inheritance is the process of creating new classes from the existing class or classes with inheriting some
properties of the base class. Using Inheritance, some qualities of the base classes are added to the newly
derived class.
The advantage of using "Inheritance" is due to the reusability (inheriting) of a class in multiple derived
classes.
The ":" operator is used for inheriting a class.
The old class is referred to as the base class and the new classes, which are inherited from the base class,
are called
derived classes.
Example: #include <iostream.h>
class Value
{
protected:
int val;
public:
void set_values (int a)
{
val=a;
}
};

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class Square: public Value

{
public:
int square()
{
return (val*val);
}
};
int main ()
{
Square sq;
sq.set_values (5);
cout << "The square of “<<5<<” is::" << sq.square() << endl;
return 0;
}

Forms/types of Inheritance:
- Single Inheritance - Hierarchical Inheritance
- Multiple Inheritance - Hybrid Inheritance
- Multilevel Inheritance

1. Single inheritance: - If a class is derived from a single base class, it is called as single inheritance.
In Single Inheritance, there is only one Super Class and Only one Sub Class Means they have one to one
Communication between them.

Example: #include <iostream.h>

class Value
{
protected:
int val;
public:
void set_values (int a)
{
val=a;
}

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};
class Cube: public Value
{

public:
int cube()
{
return (val*val*val);
}
};
int main ()
{
Cube cub;
cub.set_values (5);
cout << "The Cube of 5 is::" << cub.cube() << endl;
return 0;
}

2. Multiple Inheritances: - If a class is derived from more than one base class, it is known as multiple
inheritances.

Example: #include<iostream.h>
class student
{
    protected:
       int rno,m1,m2;
    public:
                void get()
               {
                    cout<<"Enter the Roll no :";
                    cin>>rno;
                    cout<<"Enter the two marks:";
                    cin>>m1>>m2;

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              }
};
class sports
{
    protected:
       int sm;                   // sm = Sports mark
    public:
                void getsm()
               {
                 cout<<"\nEnter the sports mark :";
                 cin>>sm;
             }
};
class statement: public student,public sports
{
     int tot,avg;
   public:
   void display()
               {
                 tot=(m1+m2+sm);
                 avg=tot/3;
                 cout<<"\n\n\tRoll No :"<<rno<<"\n\tTotal : "<<tot;
               cout<<"\n\tAverage    : "<<avg;
               }
};
void main()
{
   statement obj;
   obj.get();
   obj.getsm();
   obj.display();
}

3. Multilevel Inheritance:
When a derived class is created from another derived class, then that inheritance is called as multi
level inheritance.

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Example: #include <iostream.h>

class A
{
protected:
int rollno;
public:
void get_num(int a)
{
rollno = a;
}
void put_num()
{
cout << "Roll Number Is:\n"<< rollno << "\n";
}
};
class marks : public B
{
protected:
int sub1;
int sub2;
public:
void get_marks(int x,int y)
{
sub1 = x;
sub2 = y;
}
void put_marks(void)
{
cout << "Subject 1:" << sub1 << "\n";
cout << "Subject 2:" << sub2 << "\n";
}
};
class C : public marks

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{
protected:
float tot;

public:
void disp(void)
{
tot = sub1+sub2;
put_num();
put_marks();
cout << "Total:"<< tot;
}
};
int main()
{
C std1;
std1.get_num(5);
std1.get_marks(10,20);
std1.disp();
return 0;
}

Result:
Roll Number Is:5
Subject 1: 10
Subject 2: 20
Total: 30

4. Hierarchical Inheritance:
If a number of classes are derived from a single base class, it is called as hierarchical inheritance.
This means a Base Class will have Many Sub Classes or a Base Class will be inherited by many Sub
Classes.

Example:

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Example: #include<iostream.h>
Class A
{
int a,b;
public :
void getdata()
{
cout<<"\n Enter the value of a and b";
cin>>a>>b;
}
void putdata()
{
cout<<"\n The value of a is :"<<a "and b is "<<b;
}
};
class B : public A
{
int c,d;
public :
void intdata()
{
cout<<"\n Enter the value of c and d ";
cin>>c>>d;
}
void outdata()
{
cout<<"\n The value of c"<<c"and d is"<<d;
}
};
class C: public A
{
int e,f;

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public :
void input()
{
cout<<"\n Enter the value of e and f";
cin>>e;>>f
}
void output()
{
cout<<"\nthe value of e is"<<e"and f is" <<f;
}
void main()
{
B obj1
C obj2;
obj1.getdata(); //member function of class A
obj1.indata(); //member function of class B
obj2.getdata(); //member function of class A
obj2.input(); //member function of class C
obj1.putdata(); //member function of class A
obj1.outdata(); //member function of class B
obj2.output(); //member function of class A
obj2.outdata(); //member function of class C
}

5. Hybrid Inheritance: This is a Mixture of two or More Inheritance types.

I.e.: Any combination of single, hierarchical and multi level inheritances is called as hybrid
inheritance.

Example: #include <iostream.h>

class A
{
protected:

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int rollno;
public:
void get_num(int a)
{
rollno = a;
}
void put_num()
{
cout << "Roll Number Is:"<< rollno << "\n"; }
};
class B : public A
{
protected:
int sub1;
int sub2;
public:
void get_marks(int x,int y)
{
sub1 = x;
sub2 = y;
}
void put_marks(void)
{
cout << "Subject 1:" << sub1 << "\n";
cout << "Subject 2:" << sub2 << "\n";
}
};
class C
{
protected:
float e;
public:
void get_extra(float s)
{
e=s;
}
void put_extra(void)
{
cout << "Extra Score::" << e << "\n";}

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};

class D : public B, public C

{
protected:
float tot;
public:
void disp(void)
{
tot = sub1+sub2+e;
put_num();
put_marks();
put_extra();
cout << "Total:"<< tot;
}
};
int main()
{
D std1;
std1.get_num(10);
std1.get_marks(10,20);
std1.get_extra(33.12);
std1.disp();
return 0;
}
Result:
Roll Number Is: 10
Subject 1: 10
Subject 2: 20
Extra score:33.12
Total: 63.12

2.3. Implementing polymorphism

Polymorphism is a generic term that means 'many shapes/forms '.
Polymorphism is a mechanism that allows you to implement a function in different ways.
In C++ the simplest form of Polymorphism is overloading of functions or operators.
Typically, polymorphism occurs when there is a hierarchy of classes and they are related by
inheritance.

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C++ provides three different types of polymorphism.

 Virtual functions: A virtual function is a member function that is declared
within a base class and redefined
by a derived class.
 Function name overloading: It is simply defined as the ability of one
function to perform different tasks.
 Operator overloading: Operator overloading is the ability to tell the compiler
how to perform a certain
operation when its corresponding operator is used on one or more variables.

2.4. Introduction to Delegates and Events

Delegates
A delegate is similar to a function pointer that allows the programmer to encapsulate a reference to a
method inside a delegate object. The delegate object can then be passed to
code which can call the referenced method, without having to know at
compile time which method will be invoked.
Events
Events are the actions that are performed by the user during the applications usage.
If a user clicks a mouse button on any object, then the Click event occurs.
If a user moves the mouse, then the mouse move event occurs.
By the same way an application can generate Key down event, Key up event, mouse double click
event.

Delegate and Event concepts are completely tied together. Delegates are just function pointers, That
is, they hold references to functions.
2.5. Introduction to Exception Handling
An exception is a special condition that changes the normal flow of program execution.
Exceptional conditions are things that occur in a system that are not expected or are not a part of
normal system operation. When the system handles these exceptional conditions improperly, it can
lead to failures and system crashes.
Exception handling is the method of building a system to detect and recover from exceptional
conditions. Exceptional conditions are any unexpected occurrences that are not accounted for in a
system's normal operation. Some examples of exceptional conditions:
- incorrect inputs from the user
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- bit level memory or data corruption

If these exceptional conditions are not properly caught and handled, they can cause an error or failure
in the system.

An exception is a problem that arises during the execution of a program. A C++ exception is a
response to an exceptional circumstance that arises while a program is running, such as an attempt to
divide by zero.

Exceptions provide a way to transfer control from one part of a program to another. C++ exception
handling is built upon three keywords: try, catch, and throw.

throw: A program throws an exception when a problem shows up. This is done using a throw keyword.

 catch: A program catches an exception with an exception handler at the place

in a program where you want to handle the problem. The catch keyword
indicates the catching of an exception.
 try: A try block identifies a block of code for which particular exceptions will
be activated. It's followed by one or more catch blocks

Example: #include <iostream.h>

double division(int a, int b)
{
if( b == 0 )
{
throw "Division by zero condition!";
}
return (a/b);
}
int main ()
{
int x = 50;
int y = 0;
double z = 0;
try {
z = division(x, y);
cout << z << endl;
}catch (const char* msg)
{
cerr << msg << endl;

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return 0;
}

2.6. Using Attributes and Overloading Operators

Attributes are a means of decorating your code with various properties at compile time.
Operator overloading is the ability to tell the compiler how to perform a certain operation when its
corresponding operator is used on one or more variables. Example
 Overloading  Overloading
Unary Operators Function Calls
 Overloading  Overloading
Increment and Subscripting
Decrement  Overloading
 Overloading Class Member
Binary Operators Access
 Overloading
Assignments

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 2.7. Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the method of combining the data and functions inside a class. This hides
the data from being accessed from outside a class directly, only
through the functions inside the class is able to access the
information.

Encapsulation is the term given to the process of hiding all the details of an object that do not necessary to
its user.
Encapsulation enables a group of properties, methods and other members to be considered a
single unit or object.

Features and Advantages of the concept of Encapsulation:

- Makes Maintenance of Application Easier
- Improves the Understandability of the Application
- Enhanced Security
- Protection of data from accidental corruption
- Flexibility and extensibility of the code and reduction in complexity
LO3. Debug code
3.1. Using an Integrated Development Environment
An integrated development environment (IDE) is a software application that provides
comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE
normally consists of a source code editor, build automation tools,compiler or interpreter
and a debugger.
Ie: An integrated development environment (IDE) is a programming environment that
consisting of a code editor, a compiler, a debugger, and a graphical user interface (GUI)
builder.

3.2. The Language Debugging Facilities

This topic describes methods of debugging routines in Language Environment. Debug
tools are designed to help you to detect errors early in your routine.
Debug Tool also provides facilities for setting breakpoints and altering the contents and
values of variables.

3.2.1. Visual C++, C#, ASP.Net

Visual C++ program is an application development tool developed by Microsoft for C++
programmers that supports object-oriented programming with an integrated development
environment (IDE).

3.2.2. Visual Studio suite

What Is Visual Studio?
The Microsoft Visual Studio development system is a suite of development tools
designed to aid software developers.
It is used to develop graphical user interface applications along with Windows Forms
applications, web sites, web applications, and web services.
 System Requirement to install Visual Studio.net 2008:

System
Recommended Configuration

Minimum 1.6 GHz CPU, recommended 2.2 GHz

Processor
or higher CPU

Minimum 384 MB RAM, recommended 1024 MB or more

RAM
RAM

Minimum 5400 RPM hard disk, recommended 7200 RPM or

Hardisk Space
higher hard disk

Supporting Operating Microsoft Windows XP , Microsoft Windows Server 2003 ,

Windows Vista, or Latest version

CD ROM or DVD Drive Required

VGA Minimum 1024x768 display, recommended 1280x1024 display

How to Install Visual Studio.net 2008

     Visual Studio can be installed from a CD or by downloading from Microsoft Website at
http://www.microsoft.com/express/downloads/.
The downloaded file would be a .exe file, when double clicked on, it will open up an wizard.
By choosing the location, the type of installation like custom or standard user can install only the
required applications like Visual Basic.net 2008 from the available choices.
The setup wizard will start copying needed files into a temporary folder. Just wait.

In the welcome setup wizard page you can enable the tick box to send your setup experience to Microsoft
if you want .in this case we just leave it unchecked. Just wait for the wizard to load the installation
components.
Click the next button to go to the next step

The setup wizard will list down all the required components need to be installed. Notice that visual studio
2008 needs .Net Framework version 3.5. Then click the next button.
In the installation type, there are three choices: default, full or custom. In our case, select the full and
click the install button. Full installation required around 4.3GB of space
The installation starts. Just wait and see the step by step, visual studio 2008 components being installed.

Any component that failed to be installed will be marked with the Red Cross mark instead of the green
tick for the successful. In this case we just exit the setup wizard by clicking the Finish button.
Click Restart Now to restart you machine.

The Windows Start menu for Visual Studio 2008 is shown below.
Depending on your programming needs, you will select one of the visual studio component Settings.

The Visual Studio 2008 is configuring the development environments to the chosen one for the first time
use.
Create a Project in VB.NET

  A Visual Basic Project is container for the forms, methods, classes, controls that are used for a Visual
Basic Application.

Steps to Create a VB.net Project:

1. Click on the Programs->Microsoft Visual Studio.net 2008.
2. Choose File -->New Project from the Menu Bar to get the New Project window.
3. Select the type of Project as per the requirement from following choices Windows Application, Class
Library, Console Application, Windows Control Library, Web Control Library, Windows Service,
Empty Project, and Crystal Reports.
To develop a Windows Based Application, Choose Windows Application, and fill in a Name for the
application

By default, a project named My Project and a form Form1 will be created. Project name and form name
can be renamed later.
4. Saving Project in VB.Net

 There are many ways for saving a project created using VB.Net 2008. But the recommended option
is to browse to File->Save All. This option saves all the files associated with a project.

5. Provide a Name that will be populated as the Solution Name, also specify the location to save the
project.

5. Run a Visual Basic .Net 2008 Project

      Run a Visual Basic .Net 2008 Project by pressing the F5 key or by choosing Debug -> Start
Debugging.

7. Open Existing Project in VB.NET

 In Visual Studio.net 2008, an existing project can be opened using the Recent Projects option in the
Start Page or can be opened using the File -> Open Project from the Menu Bar. Both these displays a
window with project folder, once the project is selected and opened using the file with the extension .sln
for windows application, the Solution Browser displays all the components of that project.

Visual Basic.net 2008 IDE

VB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) consists of inbuilt compiler, debugger, editors, and
automation tools for easy development of code.
I.e. it consists of Solution Explorer, Toolbox, Form, Properties Window, and Menu Bar.
The following is the screen shot of the IDE of Visual Studio.net 2008.
Menu Bar

 Menu bar in Visual Basic.net 2008 consist of the commands that are used for constructing a software
code. These commands are listed as menus and sub menus.

Menu bar also includes a simple Toolbar, which lists the commonly used commands as buttons. This
Toolbar can be customized, so that the buttons can be added as required.

Following table lists the Toolbars Buttons and their actions.

Button Description Uncomment the selected lines.
Adds a new Project. Undo.
Open a New Window. Redo.
Open a File. Continue Debugging.
Saves the Current Form. Break Debugging.
Saves all files related to a Stop Debugging.
project. Displays Solution Explorer.
Cut the selection. Displays Properties Window.
Copy the selection. Displays Object Browser.
Paste the selection. Displays ToolBox Window.
Find the searched text. Displays Error List Window.
Comment out selected lines. Displays Command Window.
Tool BoxToolbox in Visual Basic.net 2008, consist of Controls, Containers, Menu Options, Data
Controls, Dialogs, Components, Printing controls, that are used in a form to design the interfaces of an
application.

The following table lists the Common Controls listed in the Toolbox.

Images Control Name Description

Pointer Used to move and resize controls and forms.

Button This Control triggers an action when accessed.

Check Box Control that has values either true or false

CheckedList Box Lists check box next to each item

A combination of list and text box controls that enables to

Combo Box
select as well as edit text.

Label Displays a label text.

LinkLabel Displays a label with a link text.

List Box Control that lists number of items.

Extension of ListBox control with options to add

List View
icons,headings.

Picture Box Display image files

Progress Bar Display the progress of a task.

Radio Button Allows to choose a choice from a group of choices.

Text Box Control used to input or display text.

ToolTip Displays tooltip text.

Solution Explorer

Solution Explorer in Visual Basic.net 2008 lists of all the files associated with a project. It is docked on
the right under the Toolbar in the VB IDE. In VB 6 this was known as 'Project Explorer'

Solution Explorer has options to view the code, form design, and refresh listed files. Projects files are
displayed in a drop down tree like structure, widely used in Windows based GUI applications.
Properties Window

 Windows form properties in Visual Basic.net 2008 lists the properties of a selected object. Every object
in VB has it own properties that can be used to change the look and even the functionality of the object.

Properties Window lists the properties of the forms and controls in an alphabetical order by default.

Following is the screen shot of Properties Window.

Visual Basic Forms
 Forms in Visual Basic.net 2008 are the basic object used to develop an application; it also contains the
coding as well as the controls embedded in it.

Following is the screenshot of a Form in Visual Basic.net 2008.

A form is created by default when a Project is created with a default name Form1. Every form has its
own Properties, Methods and Events. Usually the form properties name, caption are changed as
required, since multiple forms will be used in a Project.

Form Properties
The developers may need to alter the properties of the forms in VB.net.

Following table lists some important Properties of Forms in Visual Basic.net 2008.

Properties Description

BackColor Set's the background color for the form

BackgroundImage Set's the background image for the form

Specifies whether to accept the data dragged and

AllowDrop
dropped onto the form.

Font Get or sets the font used in the form

Locked Specifies whether the form is locked.

Text Provide the title for a Form Window

 Determines whether the ControlBox is available by
Control Box clicking the icon on the upper left corner of the
window.

Specifies whether to display the maximize option in

MaximizaBox
the caption bar of the form.

Specifies whether to display the minimize option in

MinimizeBox
the caption bar of the form.

Show / Hide Forms

 Form in Visual Basic.net 2008 are displayed and hidden using two different methods.
To display a form the, Show() method is used and to hide a form, Hide() method is used.

Show Method: This method is used to display the form on top of all other windows.
Syntax: FormName.Show()

Hide Method: This method hides a form object from the screen, still with the object being loaded in the
memory.
Syntax: FormName.Hide()
Example:
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs)Handles Button1.Click
FormName.Show()
End Sub
Private Sub Button2_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button2.Click
Me.Hide()
End Sub
End Class

Visual Basic.net 2008 Data types

  Data Type in Visual Basic.net 2008 defines the type of data a programming element should be
assigned, how it should be stored and the number of bytes occupied by it.
Following are the common data types used in Visual Basic.Net 2008.
Boolean Integer

Char Long

Date String

Double Single
Constants in VB.NET

Constants in VB.NET 2008 are declared using the keyword Const. Once declared, the value of these
constants cannot be altered at run time.

Syntax:
[Private | Public | Protected ]
Const constName As datatype = value

In the above syntax, the Public or Private can be used according to the scope of usage. The Value
specifies the unchangable value for the constant specifed using the name constName.
Example:
Public Class Form1
Public Const PI As Double = 3.14
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
Dim r As Single
r = Val(TextBox1.Text)
TextBox2.Text = PI * r * r
End Sub
End Class

Visual Basic.net 2008 Variables

     Variables in VB.net 2008 are used to store values and also they have a data type and a name.
Naming Convention:
i. Variables in Visual Basic should start with an alphabet or a letter and should not contain any
special characters like %,&,!,#,@ or $.
ii. The variable should not exceed 255 characters.

Scope of Variables:

 A variable declared in the general declaration of a form can be used in all the procedures.
 Variables declared inside a procedure will have a scope only inside the procedure, so they are
declared using the Dim keyword.
Example
Public Class Form1
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
 Dim c As Integer
c = Val(TextBox1.Text) + Val(TextBox2.Text)
TextBox3.Text = c
End Sub
End Class

User Defined Data Types

User defined data type in VB.net 2008 is a collection of variables of different primitive data types
available in Visual Basic.net 2008 combined under a single user defined data type. This gives the
flexibility to inlcude real time objects into an application.
User defined data types are defined using a Structure Statement and are declared using the Dim
Statement.

Structure Statement:
The Structure statement is declared in the general declaration part of form or a Module.
Syntax:
[ Public | Protected | Private]
Structure varname elementname [([subscripts])] As type
[elementname [([subscripts])] As type]
...
End Structure

In the above syntax varname is the name of the user defined data type, that follows the naming
convention of a variable. Public option makes these data types available in all projects, modules,
classes. Type is the primitive data type available in visual basic.
Dim Statement:
This is used to declare and allocate a storage space for a variable or an user defined variable.

Syntax: Dim variable [As Type]

Example:
Structure EmpDetails
Dim EmpNo As Integer
Dim EmpName As String
Dim EmpSalary As Integer
Dim EmpExp As Integer
End Structure

Public Class Form1

 Private Sub Button1_Click ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs)
Handles Button1.Click
Dim TotalSal As New EmpDetails()
TotalSal.EmpNo = TextBox1.Text
TotalSal.EmpName = TextBox2.Text
TotalSal.EmpSalary = TextBox3.Text
TotalSal.EmpExp = TextBox4.Text
TextBox5.Text = Val(TotalSal.EmpSalary) * Val(TotalSal.EmpExp)
End Sub
End Class

If Then Statement

   If Then statement is a control structure which executes a set of code only when the given condition
is true.
Syntax:
If [Condition] Then
[Statements]
In the above syntax, when the Condition is true then the Statements after Then are executed.
Example:
Private Sub Button1_Click_1(ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
If Val(TextBox1.Text) > 25 Then
TextBox2.Text = "Eligible"
End If

If Then Else Statement

 If Then Else statement is a control structure which executes different set of code statements when the
given condition is true or false.

Syntax: If [Condition] Then

[Statements]
Else
[Statements]
In the above syntax when the Condition is true, the Statements after Then are executed.
If the condition is false then the statements after the Else part is executed.
Example:
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
If Val(TextBox1.Text) >= 40 Then
MsgBox("GRADUATED")
Else
MsgBox("NOT GRADUATED")
End If
End Sub

Nested If Then Else Statement

 Nested If..Then..Else statement is used to check multiple conditions using if then else statements
nested inside one another.
Syntax: If [Condition] Then
If [Condition] Then
[Statements]
Else
[Statements]
Else
[Statements]
In the above syntax when the Condition of the first if then else is true, the second if then else is
executed to check another two conditions. If false the statements under the Else part of the first
statement is executed.
Example:
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
If Val(TextBox1.Text) >= 40 Then
If Val(TextBox1.Text) >= 60 Then
MsgBox("You have FIRST Class")
Else
MsgBox("You have SECOND Class")
End If
Else
MsgBox("Check your Average marks entered")
End If
End Sub

Select Case Statement

  Select case statement is used when the expected results for a condition can be known previously so
that different set of operations can be done based on each condition.
Syntax: Select Case Expression
Case Expression1
Statement1
Case Expression2
Statement2
Case Expressionn
Statementn
...
Case Else
Statement
End Select

In the above syntax, the value of the Expression is checked with Expression1..n to check if the
condition is true. If none of the conditions are matched the statements under the Case Else is executed.
Example:
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
Dim c As String
c = TextBox1.Text
Select c
Case "Red"
MsgBox("Color code of Red is::#FF0000")
Case "Green"
MsgBox("Color code of Green is::#808000")
Case "Blue"
MsgBox("Color code of Blue is:: #0000FF")
Case Else
MsgBox("Enter correct choice")
End Select
End Sub
In the above example based on the color input in TextBox1, the color code for RGB colors are
displayed, if the color is different then the statement under Case Else is executed.
While Statement

 While Statement is a looping statement where a condition is checked first, if it is true a set of
statements are executed.

Syntax:
 While condition
[statements]
End

In the above syntax the Statements are executed when the Condition is true.
Example:
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Dim n As Integer
n=1
While n <= 1
n=n+1
MsgBox("First incremented value is:" & n)
End While
End Sub

Do Loop While Statement

 Do Loop While Statement executes a set of statements and checks the condition; this is repeated until
the condition is true.
Syntax:
Do
[Statements]
Loop While [Condition]

In the above syntax the Statements are executed first then the Condition is checked to find if it is
true.
Example 1:
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Dim cnt As Integer
Do
cnt = 10
MsgBox("Value of cnt is::" & cnt)
Loop While cnt <= 9
End Sub

Example 2:
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Dim X As String
Do
X$ = InputBox$("Correct Password Please")
 Loop Until X$ = "Ranger"
End Sub

In the above Do Until Loop example, a input box is displayed until the correct password is typed.
For Next Loop Statement

 For Next Loop Statement executes a set of statements repeatedly in a loop for the given initial, final
value range with the specified step by step increment or decrement value.
Syntax:
For counter = start To end [Step]
[Statement]
Next [counter]
In the above syntax the Counter is range of values specified using the Start ,End parameters. The
Step specifies step increment or decrement value of the counter for which the statements are executed.
Example:
Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load
Dim i As Integer
Dim j As Integer
j=0
For i = 1 To 10 Step 1
j=j+1
MsgBox("Value of j is::" & j)
Next i
End Sub
Description:
In the above For Next Loop example the counter value of i is set to be in the range of 1 to 10 and is
incremented by 1. The value of j is increased by 1 for 10 times as the loop is repeated.
Exercise: For loop code
Syntax:
Dim variables As datatype

For initializedValue To endValue

Loop body
MsgBox answer
Example: Find the factorial of a number n inputted from the keyboard using for loop.
Dim fact, i As Integer
 fact = 1
For i = 1 To Val(TextBox1.Text)
fact = fact * i
Next i
TextBox2.Text = fact

While loop code

Syntax: While condition
[statements]

End while
Example: Find the factorial of a number n inputted from the keyboard using while loop.
Dim fact, i As Integer
fact = 1
i=1
While (i <= Val(TextBox1.Text))
fact = fact * i
i=i+1
End While
TextBox2.Text = fact

Do … while code
Do
statement-block
Loop While condition
Do
statement-block
Loop Until condition
Example: find the factorial of a number n inputted from the keyboard using do…while or do …until
loop.
Dim fact, i As Integer
fact = 1
i=1
Do
fact = fact * i
i=i+1
Loop While (i <= Val(TextBox1.Text))
TextBox2.Text = fact
Or
Dim fact, i As Integer
 fact = 1
i=1
Do
fact = fact * i
i=i+1
Loop until(i > Val(TextBox1.Text))
TextBox2.Text = fact

Steps to create a connection to SQL Database VB.Net

1. Using wizard:
Once you have your VB software open, do the following:
 Click File > New Project from the menu bar
 Select Windows Application, and then give it the Name. Click OK
 Locate the Solution Explorer on the right hand side.

We need to select Show Data Source from data on the menu bar. Then, click on Add New Data
Source.

When you click on the link Add a New Data Source, you will see a screen shown bellow. Then select
Database and click next.
Select DataSet and click Next.

Click the New Connection button.

Write the server name and your Database name. Then click on Test Connection to check the
connection.

Click Test Connection to see if everything is OK.

Click on Next.
Here, you can select which tables and fields you want. Tick the Tables box to include them all. You
can give your DataSet a name, if you prefer. Click Finish and you're done.

When you are returned to your form, you should notice your new Data Source has been added:

The Data Sources area of the Solution Explorer (or Data Sources tab on the left) now displays
information about your database. Click the plus symbol next to tblContacts:

All the Fields in the Address Book database are now showing.
To add a Field to your Form, click on one in the list. Hold down your left mouse button, and drag it
over to your form:
In the image above, the FName field is being dragged on the Form.

When your Field is over the Form, let go of your left mouse button. A textbox and a label will be
added.

Click the Navigation arrows to scroll through the database.

Click the Navigation icons to move backwards and forwards through your database.
 3.2. Using Program Debugging Techniques to Detect and Resolve Errors.
3.2.1. Errors handling
Error handling refers to the anticipation, detection, and resolution of programming, application, and
communications errors. Specialized programs, called error handlers, are available for some
applications.

Errors in general come in three situations:

- Compiler errors such as undeclared variables that prevent your code from compiling.
- User data entry error such as a user entering a negative value where only a positive number is
acceptable
- Run time errors such as the lack of sufficient memory to run an application or a memory
conflict with another program. 
A run-time error takes place during the execution of a program, and usually happens because of
adverse/undesirable system parameters or invalid input data.
The above types of errors can be resolved or minimized by the use of error handler programs.

Example: The On Error statement is an example of error handler program.

On Error Goto 0 or
On Error Goto <label>: or
On Error Resume Next
3.2.2. Debugging options
In computers, debugging means running (executing) the programming code to perform an action and
display the result. Debugging is a necessary process in almost any new software development process.
Debugging tools (called debuggers) help identify coding errors at various development stages. Some
programming language packages include a facility for checking the code for errors as it is being
written.
To debug a programming code, start with a problem, isolate the source of the problem (compile), and
then fix it.
3.2.3. Compiling the program
A compiler is a computer program that transforms source code written in a programming
language(the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a
binary form known as object code). The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is
to create an executable program.
The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level
programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language or machine code).

A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a decompiler.

3.2.4. Run the application or program

When running an application, Select Run/Debug Configuration drop-down list on the main toolbar or press F5
from function keys on the keyboard.

LO4. Document activities

4.1. Guidelines for Developing Maintainable Code
Guidelines for developing maintainable code adhering to a set of coding standard is followed
4.2. The Use of Internal Documentation Standards and Tools
4.2.1. Documentation techniques
At the completion of the design process, a comprehensive package of documentation is assembled.
Detail documentation of the system should be created during each phase of the design process. The
package should contain a clear description of every facet of the new system in sufficient detail to
support its development, including these aspects:
. Examples of output.
. Descriptions and record layouts of each file.
. Data-flow diagrams.
. A data dictionary.
. Identification of individual programs.

High-level documentation provides a picture of the overall structure of the system, including input,
processing, storage, and output. The general flow of information throughout the major processes of the
system can be depicted in either a data-flow diagram or a systems flowchart

The purpose of detail documentation is to provide a programmer with sufficient information to write
the program. The documentation should include report layouts for input and output, record layouts that
define the files, and the relationship among the components of the programs.
4.2.2. Program and documentation standards
Documentation standard is the structure and presentation of documents on a software development.
4.2.3. Internal documentation techniques
There are two kinds of documentations 1) System documentation 2) User documentation
System documentation is detailed information about a system’s design specifications, its internal
workings, and its functionality.
System documentation is further divided into internal and external documentation.
- Internal documentation is part of the program source code or is generated at compile time.
- External documentation includes the outcome of all of the structured diagramming
techniques such as DFD and ERD.
User documentation is written or visual information about an application system, how it works and
how to use it.
 The kinds of user documents are reference guide, user’s guide, release description, system
administrator’s guide and acceptance sign-off.

LO5. Test code

5.1. Conducting Simple Tests to Confirm the Coding Process Meets Design Specifications
Simple tests are developed and conducted to confirm the coding process meets design specification
5.1.1. Testing techniques
The tests performed are documented.
 The detailed specifications produced during the design phase are translated into hardware,
communications, and executable software.
 The design must be translated into a machine-readable form. The code generation step
performs this task. If the design is performed in a detailed manner, code generation can be
accomplished without much complication. Different high level programming languages are
used for coding. With respect to the type of application, the right programming language is
chosen.
 Depending on the size and complexity of the system, coding can be an involved, intensive
activity. Once coding is begun, the testing process can begin and proceed in parallel. As each
program module is produced, it can be tested individually, then as a part of a larger program,
and then as part of larger system.
 The deliverables and outcome from the coding are the code and program documentation.
5.1.2. User manual
A user manual is, also known as a user guide, is a technical communication document intended to give
assistance to people using a particular system.
It is a step-by-step describes how the users can use the system. Generally the description is in detail
keeping in view the fact that the target users using the system have limited knowledge about it.
5.1.3. Printing documents of the program
You may print document of the program code.
5.2. Implementation of Required Corrections
Corrections are made to the code and the documentation as needed